UNIT

1.1: STEAM AND ITS PROPERTIES

Introduction
Steam formation at a constant pressure
Types or conditions of steam
Dryness fraction
Simple numerical to understand use of steam tables
INTRODUCTION
A perfect gas does not change its phase during a thermodynamic process
Pure substance is homogeneous, retains its chemical composition even in
phase change during a thermodynamic process
Water is one of the pure substance existing in three phases
o ICE in solid phase
o WATER in liquid phase
o STEAM in gaseous phase
Ice transforms to form water
Water heated beyond boiling point forms steam (vapor of water)
During vaporization two phase mixture (water + steam) exists
After vaporization pure gaseous phase (steam) exists
Different states/types/conditions of existence and associated properties of
steam viz., pressure, temperature, specific volume, enthalpy, internal energy
and entropy are to be discussed
STEAM GENERATION EQUIPMENT
In steam generation, water at atmospheric pressure and temperature is
converted into steam by the application of heat
Water is heated from 00C at a given constant pressure
Hence amount of heat energy supplied to convert water into steam will be
equal to its enthalpy
Consider 1kg of water at 00C in a cylinder with freely moving frictionless
piston

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Total weight (piston & weight) exert required pressure P on water (point A)
As heating at constant pressure rises the temperature of water to its boiling
point, a slight increase in water volume results
Temperature at which water boils is saturation temperature Ts (point B)
Line AB indicates heating of water from 00C to Ts0C at constant pressure
Amount of heat required to raise temperature of 1kg of water from 0 0C to Ts0C
is sensible heat/heat of liquid/enthalpy of liquid hf
Further heat initiates water evaporation at Ts as water will be saturated with
heat
Phase change from liquid to gaseous (point C)
Line BC indicates constant pressure & constant temperature addition
Amount of heat to evaporate 1kg of water at Ts to 1kg of dry steam at Ts and
constant pressure is called latent heat of evaporation/enthalpy of evaporation
hfg
Further addition of heat at constant pressure increases Ts to Tsup
This process is called superheating giving out superheated steam
Inclined line CD indicates this
Amount of superheat/enthalpy of superheat is the heat required to increase dry
steam temperature from Ts to any desired higher temperature at constant
pressure
Tsup - Ts is degree of superheat
ADVANTAGES OF SUPERHEATED STEAM
Possess more heat energy hence capacity to do work will be higher
Superheating by exhaust gases saves energy and improves thermal efficiency
of boiler
Reduces and prevents condensation thus giving better economy
DISADVANTAGES OF SUPERHEATED STEAM
Lubrication problems due to high superheated temperature
Higher depreciation and initial cost
TYPES OR CONDITIONS OF STEAM
Steam can exist in wet, dry saturated and superheated states
Water hated beyond saturation state at constant pressure gives a two phase
mixture (water + steam) called wet steam in thermal equilibrium
Wet steam has different proportions of water molecules and dry steam
To state quality of wet steam dryness fraction x is specified
x = mg/(mf + mg) = mass of dry steam in wet steam/total mass of wet steam <1
Steam saturated with no water molecules is dry saturated or dry steam
Dryness fraction x = 1
Steam heated beyond its dry saturated state to temperature higher than
saturated temperature at given pressure is superheated steam
Enthalpy h is sum of internal energy (u) and product of pressure (p) and
volume (v)
h = u + pv;
From first law of thermodynamics
dQ = du + pdv [but d(pv) = vdp + pdv which implies pdv = d(pv) vdp]
= du + d(pv) vdp
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= d(u+v) vdp
= dh vdp (as h = u+v)
For constant pressure process dp = 0
Therefore dQ = dh i.e., amount of heat supplied in converting water to steam
is equal to change in enthalpy
Enthalpy of dry saturated steam: total heat supplied at constant pressure to
convert 1kg of water into 1kg of dry saturated steam at Ts
hg = hf + hfg in KJ/kg
Enthalpy of wet steam: total heat supplied at constant pressure to convert 1kg
of water at 0oC to 1kg of wet steam at specified x
h = hf + xhfg in KJ/kg
Enthalpy of superheated steam: total heat at given constant pressure to convert
1kg of water at 0oC into 1kg of superheated steam at Tsup
hsup = enthalpy of dry saturated steam + amount of superheat
= hg + Cps (Tsup Ts)
= hf + hfg + Cps (Tsup Ts) in KJ/kg
Specific volume: volume occupied by unit mass of substance in m3/kg

Specific volume of saturated water vf is volume occupied by 1k of water at Ts

at a given pressure
Specific volume of dry saturated steam vg is volume occupied by 1kg of dry
saturated steam at given pressure
Specific volume of wet steam v is equal to the sum of volume occupied by
dried up portion of steam in 1kg of wet steam and volume occupied by water
molecules in the same 1kg of wet steam
If x is dryness fraction of steam, (1-x) is mass of water molecules
Therefore v = xvg + (1-x)vf = xvg in m3/kg
Volume of 1kg of superheated steam at a given pressure and superheated
temperature vsup. Since superheated steam is a perfect gas from Charles law
we have vg/Ts = vsup/Tsup
which implies vsup = vg (Tsup/Ts)
External work of evaporation(EWE): fraction of latent heat of evaporation
which does an external work (vf to vg) = p (vg vf). at low pressure vf is very
small and hence neglected
EWE/kg of dry saturated steam = pvg in KJ
EWE/kg of wet steam = pxvg in KJ
EWE/kg of superheated steam = pvsup in KJ
Internal latent heat: energy required to change phase is true latent heat or
internal latent heat = hfg-pvg in KJ/kg
Internal energy (IE) of steam is the difference between enthalpy and external
work of evaporation
IE of dry steam ug = hg - pvg in KJ/kg
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 IE of wet steam u = hf + hfg - pxvg in KJ/kg

IE of superheated steam usup = hsup pvsup in KJ/kg
Exercise problems in ME24: Elements of Mechanical Engineering by K R
Gopalakrishna
1. The enthalpy of 1kg of steam at 8bar pressure is 2373.5kJ/kg. find the
condition of steam
DATA:
m=1Kg
p=8bar
h=2373.5kJ/Kg
SOLUTION:
From steam tables at 8bar
Ts=170.40C,
hf = 720.9kJ.kg,
hfg =2046.5kJ/kg,
hg = 2767.5kJ/kg (since enthalpy is less steam is wet)
we know that enthalpy of wet steam
h= hf + x hfg kJ/kg
2373.5 = 720.9 + x2046.5
2373.5 - 720.9 = x2046.5
Dryness fraction x = (2373.5 - 720.9) / 2046.5
= 80.75%
2. What is the enthalpy of heat in 5kg of steam at 0.8bar and 90% quality
and 20bar and superheated to 3000C
DATA:
m=5Kg
Condition 1 (wet steam)
h=?
p=0.8bar
x=90%
Condition 2 (superheated steam)
h=?
p=20bar
Tsup=300oC = 300+273 = 573K
SOLUTION:
For condition 1:
From steam tables at 0.8bar
Ts=93.510C,
hf = 391.7kJ.kg,
hfg =2274.1kJ/kg,
Enthalpy of wet steam h= hf + x hfg kJ/kg
= 391.7 + 0.9*2274.1
= 2438.39kJ.Kg
But for 5Kgs it will be =5*2438.39kJ/kg = 12191.95kJ
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For condition 2:
From steam tables at 20bar
Ts=212.40C = 212.4+273 = 485.4K
hf = 908.5kJ.kg,
hfg =1888.7kJ/kg,
hg = 2797.2kJ/kg for 5 Kg = 5*2797.2 = 13986kJ/kg
Enthalpy of superheated steam hsup = hg + Cp (Tsup-Ts) kJ/kg (assume specific
heat of superheated steam as 2.25kJ/Kg-K)
=2797.2+2.25(573-485.4)
=2994.3 kJ/kg
But for 5Kgs it will be = 5*2994.3kJ/kg = 14971.5kJ
3. The specific volume of steam at 10bar is 0.2428m 3/kg. what is the
condition of the steam
DATA:
p=10bar
vsup=0.2428m3/kg
hsup=?
Assume specific heat of superheated steam Cps = 2.25kJ/Kg-K
SOLUTION:
From steam tables at 10bar
Ts=179.90C = 179.9 +273 = 452.9K
hf = 762.6kJ/kg,
hfg =2013.6kJ/kg,
hg = 2776.2kJ/kg,
vf = 0.001127m3/kg,
vg = 0.19430m3/kg (hence given specific volume pertains to superheated
steam)
Specific volume vsup = vg * (Tsup/Ts)
0.2428 = 0.19430 * (Tsup/179.9)
Tsup = (0.2428 * 452.9) / 0.19430
= 565.95K
= 292.95oC
we know that enthalpy of superheated steam
hsup
= hg + Cp (Tsup - Ts ) kJ/kg
= 2776.2+ 2.25 (565.95 - 452.9)
= 3030.56 kJ/kg

4. Find the enthalpy required to produce 5kg of dry saturated steam at 6bar
from water at 300C. the specific heat of water Cpw=4.18kJ/kg-K
DATA:
h=?
m=5Kg
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p=6bar
Tw=30oC = 30+273 = 303K
Cpw=4.18kJ/Kg-K
SOLUTION:
From steam tables at 6bar pressure
Ts=158.80C = 158.8+273 = 431.8K
hfg =2085.1kJ/kg,
Enthalpy required hg = (sensible heat between Tw and Ts) + Enthalpy of
evaporation hfg
= Cpw (Ts - Tw) + hfg in kJ/kg
= 4.18 (431.8 303) + 2085.1
= 538.38 + 2085.1
= 2623.48kJ/Kg
But for 5Kgs it will be =5*2623.48 = 13117.42kJ
5. 0.2kg of steam with an initial dryness fraction of 0.7 is heated at constant
pressure of 7bar till its temperature rises to 250 0C. Calculate the enthalpy
required. Assume Cpw = 2.25kJ/kg-K
DATA:
m=0.2Kg
x=0.7
p=7bar
Tsup=250oC = 250+273 = 523K
hsup=?
Cps=2.25kJ/Kg-K
SOLUTION:
At 7bar properties of steam from steam tables;
Ts=1650C = 165+273 = 438K
hf =697.1kJ/kg
hfg =2064.9kJ/kg
hg =2762kJ/kg,
Enthalpy of wet steam h = hf + x hfg in kJ/kg
= 697.1 + 0.7 * 2064.9
= 697.1 + 1445.4
= 2142.53kJ/Kg
But for 0.2Kg it will be =0.2*2142.53 =428.51kJ
Enthalpy of superheated steam hsup = hg + Cps (Tsup Ts) in kJ/Kg
= 2762 + 2.25 (523-438)
= 2762 +2.25*85
= 2762 + 191.25
=2953.25 kJ/Kg
But for 0.2Kg it will be =0.2*2953.25 =590.65kJ
Therefore enthalpy required to raise 0.2Kg of steam to 250oC = hsup - h
= 590.65 428.51
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= 162.15kJ
6. Steam initially will be at 9bar and 98% dryness. Find the final quality and
temperature of the steam a) When the steam loses 50kJ/kg at constant
pressure, b) When the steam receives 100kJ/kg at constant pressure
DATA:
p=9bar
x=0.98
a) h=?
T=?
hloss = 50kJ/Kg
b) h=?
T=?
hgain = 100kJ/Kg
SOLUTION:
At 9bar properties of steam from steam tables;
Ts=175.40C = 175.4+273 = 448.4K
hf =742.6kJ/kg
hfg =2029.5kJ/kg
hg =2772.1kJ/kg
we know that, Enthalpy of wet steam h = hf + x hfg in kJ/kg
= 742.6 + 0.98 * 2029.5
= 742.6 + 1988.91
= 2731.51kJ/Kg
a) hloss = 50kJ/Kg
h- hloss = 2731.51 50
= 2681.51kJ/Kg implies steam is still wet hence
Enthalpy of wet steam h = hf + x hfg in kJ/kg
2681.51= 742.6 + x * 2029.5
2681.51- 742.6 = x * 2029.5
1938.91= 2029.5x
Therefore x = 1938.91/2029.5
= 0.955
b) hgain = 100kJ/Kg
h- hgain = 2731.51 + 100
= 2831.51kJ/Kg implies steam is superheated hence
Enthalpy of superheated steam hsup = hg + Cps (Tsup Ts) in kJ/Kg
2831.51= 2772.1 + 2.25 (Tsup - 448.4)
2831.51- 2772.1 = 2.25 (Tsup - 448.4)
59.41/2.25 = (Tsup - 448.4)
Therefore Tsup = (59.41/2.25) + 448.4
= 26.4 + 448.4
= 474.8K
=201.8oC
7. By actual measurement the enthalpy of a saturated steam at 190 0C is
2300kJ/kg. What is the quality of steam
DATA:
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Ts = 190oC
h = 2500kJ/Kg
x=?
SOLUTION:
At 190o C properties of steam from steam tables;
p=12.55bar
hf =807.5kJ/kg
hfg =1976.8kJ/kg
hg =2784.3kJ/kg
Enthalpy of wet steam h = hf + x hfg in kJ/kg
2500 = 807.5 + x * 1976.8
2500 807.5 = x * 1976.8
1692.5 = 1976.8x
Therefore x = 1692.5 /1976.8
= 0.856
8. Find the enthalpy of 5kg of superheated steam at a pressure of 2MPa and
a temperature of 3000C. The specific heat of superheated steam is
2.25kJ/kg-K
DATA:
hsup =?
M=5Kgs
p=2MPa = 2*10 =20bar
Tsup = 300oC = 573K
Cps = 2.25kJ/Kg-K
SOLUTION:
At 20bar properties of steam from steam tables;
Ts=212.4oC = 485.4K
hf =908.5kJ/kg
hfg =1888.7kJ/kg
hg =2797.2kJ/kg
Enthalpy of superheated steam hsup = hg + Cps (Tsup Ts) in kJ/Kg
= 2797.2 + 2.25 (573-485.4)
= 2797.2 + 2.25 * 87.6
= 2797.2 + 197.1
= 2994.3kJ/Kg
For 5Kgs of steam enthalpy will be 14971.5kJ
9. Determine Dryness fraction, Specific volume & Internal energy of steam
at 8bar absolute pressure if its enthalpy is 2400kJ/kg
DATA:
x=?
v=?
u=?
p=8bar
h=2400kJ/Kg
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SOLUTION:
From steam tables at 8bar
Ts=170.40C,
hf = 720.9kJ.kg,
hfg =2046.5kJ/kg,
hg = 2767.5kJ/kg,
vf = 0.001115 m3/kg,
vg = 0.240m3/kg,
we know that enthalpy of wet steam
h= hf + x hfg kJ/kg
2400 = 720.9 + x2046.5
2400 - 720.9 = x2046.5
Dryness fraction x = (2400 - 720.9) / 2046.5
= 82.05%
Specific volume v
Internal energy u

= xvg
= 0.8205 * 0.2403
= 0.19692 m3/kg
= hf+ x hfg - p xvg
= [720.9 + 0.8205*2046.5] [8*0.8205 * 0.2403]
= 2400.1 - 1.3
= 2398.7 kJ/kg
UNIT

2.1: TURBINES
Introduction
PRIME MOVERS - Device which converts available natural source of energy into
mechanical energy to drive other machines
2.2: WATER TURBINES
Classification
Working principle and operation of Pelton wheel turbine (with neat sketch)
Working principle and operation of Francis turbine (with neat sketch)
Working principle and operation of Kaplan turbine (with neat sketch)
WATER TURBINES
Also called hydraulic turbines
Convert kinetic and potential energy of water into mechanical energy
Prime mover coupled to electric generator producing electric power whenever
continuously flowing water is available
Dams are constructed across rivers creating artificial reservoirs
Water through large pipes called penstocks enter turbines to convert hydraulic
energy into mechanical and in turn electric energy
CLASSIFICATION
Based on type of hydraulic action
o impulse e.g., pelton wheel
o Reaction e.g., Francis, Kaplan
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IMPULSE WATER TURBINE

Whole of pressure energy of water is converted into kinetic energy in one or
more nozzles before passing onto turbine wheel
Jet at very high velocity is developed by nozzles
Series of curved vanes are keyed onto turbine wheel periphery
Impulsive force sets up wheel in rotation in jet impinging direction
Requires high head and low discharge at inlet
PELTON WHEEL TURBINE

Most common impulse water turbine

Works under high head requiring small quantities of water
Nozzle with needle controls water flowing out
Pressure energy into velocity through nozzle
High velocity jet impinges on curved vane (pelton cups)
Impulsive forces set up pelton wheel to rotate in jet direction
Velocity energy into mechanical energy
Pressure inside turbine casing is at atmosphere
REACTION WATER TURBINE
Low head with high rate of flow
Pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy as in impulse turbine
Guide vanes deflect water to moving vanes without shock
Part of pressure energy converted into kinetic energy is absorbed by turbine
wheel
Water leaves moving vane at low pressure
Reaction pressure is difference between entry and exit of moving vane
This sets up turbine wheel rotation in opposite direction
FRANCIS TURBINE

41

Medium head reaction water turbine

Water flows radially inwards
Spiral casing encloses stationary vanes around inner ring of moving vanes
(runner0 keyed to turbine shaft
High pressure water enters radially inwards through stationary vanes and
discharges at runner center at low pressure
Flow over moving vanes imparts kinetic energy to runner
Discharge at low pressure is enabled by use of draft tube in tail race
KAPLAN TURBINE
Low head reaction water turbine
Water flows axially
Similar to Francis turbine except runner and draft tube
Runner resembles a ship[p propeller hence called propeller turbine
High pressure water enters casing onto guide vanes
Strikes runner vanes axially imparting kinetic energy
Water discharges axially with draft tube (L shaped) into tail race

IMPULSE AND REACTION WATER TURBINES DIFFERENCES

Parameter
Impulse water turbine
Reaction water turbine
Pressure energy conversion into Wholly
Partly
kinetic energy before entry to
turbine
Water pressure as it flows over Atmospheric
Continuously decreasing
moving vanes
Setting up turbine wheel Impulsive force of jet
Reaction pressure
rotation
Water admission over turbine May be over a portion
Must be over the whole
wheel
Water discharge into tail race
Directly from turbine Into a draft tube first then
wheel
into tail race
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2.3: STEAM TURBINES

Classification
Working principle and operation of De-Laval turbine (with neat sketch)
Working principle and operation of Parsons turbine (with neat sketch)
STEAM TURBINES
A prime mover where heat energy of steam is converted to kinetic energy then
transformed into mechanical energy (rotary motion)
It drives electric generators in thermal power plants, propel ships, centrifugal
compressors, textile & sugar industry machineries etc.,
PROPELLING FORCE IN STEAM TURBINE

Depends mainly on dynamic action of steam

Steam pressure falls due to expansion in nozzle resulting in conversion of heat
energy into kinetic energy thus increasing velocity
Enters rotating part of turbine undergoing change in direction of motion giving
rise to change of momentum therefore force to drive turbine
EXPANSION OF STEAM IN NOZZLE

At entry high pressure and low velocity steam enters

Entry to throat converging zone
Steam expands to, low pressure reducing enthalpy
Loss of enthalpy = increase in kinetic energy
At throat high velocity steam jet
Throat to exit diverging zone
Remaining expansion happens
CLASSIFICATION
Fundamental principle is same
Steam expand with pressure drop
If it happens before turbine wheel impulse
43

 If it happens on turbine wheel reaction

IMPULSE (DE LAVAL) TURBINE

Steam initially expands in nozzle

High velocity steam glides over a curved vane and gets deflected
Steam particles suffer changes in direction of motion change in momentum
force (centrifugal)
Resultant of all centrifugal forces causes vane to move
Number of vanes is fitted on circumference of rotor
Successive exposure of vanes to steam jet rotates rotor
Velocity of steam decreases continuously as it glides over vanes converting
kinetic energy to mechanical energy E.g., de laval, Curtis,
PRESSURE-VELOCITY DIAGRAM
Diagrammatic representation of impulse turbine
Lower portion nozzles and vanes
Upper portion pressure and velocity variation
Since steam expansion takes place in nozzles curve AM shows pressure drop
No change in pressure of steam passing over vanes BC represents this
Velocity of steam increases in nozzle curve PQ
Vanes absorb steams kinetic energy with velocity decrease curve QR
REACTION (PARSONS) TURBINE
High pressure steam directly passes onto moving vanes
Space between moving and fixed vanes have nozzle effect on steam
During steam flow over vanes pressure drops - increasing velocity
Force within results in backward reaction partly propelling turbine rotor
Steams centrifugal force due to momentum change reduces velocity
Net force on moving vanes is sum of centrifugal & reaction forces
PRESSURE VELOCITY DIAGRAM

44

Reaction turbine consists of number of rows of moving vanes on rotors keyed

to turbine shaft with alternate fixed vanes n turbine casing
Vanes shaped as nozzles hence expansion takes place on both vanes
Steam moves from one row of moving vanes to nest row
1st row of Fixed vane
o small drop in pressure
o increase in steam velocity
st
1 row of moving vane
o further drop in pressure
o velocity (kinetic energy) into rotation of rotor (mechanical energy)
o velocity decreases
Continuous still pressure is completely reduced
COMPARISON
Parameter
Impulse turbine
Reaction turbine
Steam expansion
Complete
Continuous
Profile of vanes
Symmetrical
asymmetrical
Expansion of steam on vane
No
Yes
Pressure at van ends
Constant
Different
Drop in pressure in nozzle
Large
Small
Steam and rotor speed
High
Low
Turbine size/ power output
Small
Large
Space per unit power
Less
More
Suitability
Small power
Medium and high power
Compounding
Required
Not required
2.4: GAS TURBINES
Classification
Working principle and operation of Open cycle gas turbine (with neat sketch)
Working principle and operation of Closed cycle gas turbine (with neat sketch)
GAS TURBINES
Similar to steam turbines but hot gases of combustion are used directly to
produce mechanical power.
45

Fuel is combusted in combustion chamber,

air compressor supplies compressed air,
hot gases expand rapidly and pass over moving vanes on turbine shaft,
kinetic energy is absorbed by vanes and imparts rotary motion to shaft
Same shaft mounts turbine and compressor thereby part power by turbine runs
compressor
CLOSED CYCLE

Working substance flow is confined to the cycle path

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Consists of compressor, heater, cooler and turbine
Compressor and turbine are coupled
Highly compressed gas from compressor is heated thereby increasing the gas
temperature
High pressure and temperature gas expands to low pressure in turbine by
driving the turbine shaft producing mechanical energy of rotation
Exhausted gas from turbine is cooled in cooler to lower temperature and enters
compressor
Cycle repeats
OPEN CYCLE
Entire flow of working substance comes from atmosphere and is returned to
atmosphere
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Consists of a compressor, combustion chamber and turbine
Turbine and compressor are coupled
Atmospheric air is compressed to a higher pressure in compressor
High pressure air adds up temperature in combustion chamber
High pressure and high temperature gas expands to low pressure in turbine
producing mechanical energy of rotation
Exhaust gases are let into atmosphere
Fresh working fluid is let through next cycle
2.5: INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
Introduction
46

Classification
Parts of an IC engine
Definitions of terminology used in IC engines stroke, bore, TDC, BDC,
Piston speed, clearance volume, stroke volume, swept volume, compression
ratio
Working principle of 2-stroke and 4-stroke petrol and diesel engines (with neat
sketch and P-V diagram)
Comparison of 2-stroke and 4-stroke petrol and diesel engines
Simple numerical on IP, BP, ME, ITE and BTE
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
Converts heat energy by fuel combustion into mechanical energy
High efficiency, light weight, Compactness, easy starting, adaptability,
suitability for mobile application, low initial cost makes it a UNIVERSAL
CLASSIFICATION
Thermodynamic cycle nature Otto, diesel, dual combustion
Type of fuel
- petrol, diesel, gas, bi-fuel
Number of strokes
- four, two
Method of ignition
- spark, compression
Number of cylinders
- single, multi
Position of cylinders
- horizontal, vertical, Vee, opposed, radial
Method of cooling
- air, water
PARTS OF AN IC ENGINE

Cylinder
Heart of the engine
47

 Inside diameter is called bore

Tight fitting sleeve inside prevents wearing
Piston reciprocates inside
Piston
Close fitting hollow plunger
Moves to and fro in cylinder
Transmits power to crankshaft and connecting rod
Connecting rod
Link between piston and crankshaft
Converts rectilinear motion into rotary
Crank and crankshaft
Crank is a lever connected to end of connecting rod
Other end to a shaft called crankshaft
Rotates about crankshaft axis
Causes oscillation of connecting rod
Valves
Controls flow of intake and exhaust to and from cylinder
Also called poppet valves
Operated by means of cams driven by crankshaft
Flywheel
Heavy wheel mounted on crankshaft
Maintains uniform rotation fo crankshaft
Crankcase
Lower part of engine
Enclosure for crankshaft
Sump for lubricating oil
IC ENGINE TERMINOLOGY
Bore
inner diameter of cylinder
Stroke
linear distance travelled by piston,
end to end of the cylinder,
Equal to twice the radius of crank
Cover end /TDC
extreme position of piston near to cover,
vertical engines it is top dead center (TDC)
Crank end/BDC
extreme position of piston near to crank,
vertical engines it is bottom dead center (BDC)
FOUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE (4SPE)
Has cylinder with one end having cover with apertures
Inlet (inlet valve) and exhaust (exhaust valve) apertures are operated
mechanically by valves
Spark plug at top of cover ignites petrol
Freely moving piston reciprocates in cylinder
Connecting rod and crank convert reciprocating into rotary motion
48

Works on theoretical Otto cycle principle / constant volume cycle

Performs four strokes viz., suction, compression, power and exhaust

Suction stroke
Inlet open (pressure inside is at atmosphere), exhaust closed
Piston moves from cover end to crank end volume in cylinder increases,
pressure decreases
Pressure difference draws petrol & air through carburetor at atmospheric
pressure
Line AB in PV diagram indicates this
Crankshaft makes half rotation
Energy for this is cranking only at starting
While moving flywheel supplies mechanical energy absorbed during power
stroke of previous cycle
At the end of this stroke inlet is closed
Compression stroke
Both inlet and exhaust are closed
Piston moves from crank end to cover end
Crankshaft makes another half rotation
Petrol & air get compressed
Compression ratios range from 7:1 to 11:1
Process is reversible adiabatic/isentropic indicated by curve BC in PV diagram
49

At the end of stroke ignition takes place

Combustion releases hot gases increasing pressure at constant volume
indicated by line CD in PV diagram
Power/working/expansion stroke
Both inlet and exhaust are closed
Piston moves from cover end to crank end
Crankshaft revolves another half rotation
High pressure hot gases perform this stroke
Piston produces mechanical energy transmitted to crankshaft, connecting rod
and crank
Pressure gradually reduces
Reversible adiabatic process indicated by curve DE on PV diagram
At the end of this stroke exhaust opens releasing burnt gases to atmosphere
prompting pressure drop at constant volume indicated by line EB on PV
diagram
Exhaust stroke
Exhaust opens and inlet is closed
Piston moves from crank end to cover end
Crankshaft revolves half rotation
Energy is supplied by flywheel
Burnt gases expelled at atmospheric pressure indicated by line BA in PV
diagram
Summary
Requires four strokes for one working cycle hence called 4S
Crankshaft makes two revolutions to complete one cycle
Power is developed every alternate revolution of crankshaft
High load carrying capacity than 2S hence passenger cars and high power high
speed motorcycles use this
FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE (4SDE)
Similar to petrol engine except injector in place of spark plug
Fuel pump supplies fuel at high pressure
Works on theoretical diesel cycle/constant pressure heat addition cycle
Performs four strokes viz., suction, compression, power and exhaust

50

Suction stroke
Inlet open (pressure inside is at atmosphere), exhaust closed
Piston moves from cover end to crank end volume in cylinder increases,
pressure decreases
atmospheric air is drawn through filter and inlet
Line AB in PV diagram indicates this
Crankshaft makes half rotation
Energy for this is cranking only at starting
While moving flywheel supplies mechanical energy absorbed during power
stroke of previous cycle
At the end of this stroke cylinder is full with air inlet is closed
Compression stroke
Both inlet and exhaust are closed
Piston moves from crank end to cover end
Crankshaft makes another half rotation
Air in the cylinder gets compressed
Compression ratios range from 20:1 to 22:1
Process is reversible adiabatic/isentropic indicated by curve BC in PV diagram
51

Compression ratio is higher than petrol engines

Air gets heated up as it compresses (temperature higher than diesel ignition
temperature)
At the end of stroke diesel is sprayed by injector
Auto ignition/self ignition takes place
Power/working/expansion stroke
Constant pressure expansion indicated by line CD in PV diagram
Both inlet and exhaust are closed
Piston moves from cover end to crank end
Crankshaft revolves another half rotation
High pressure hot gases perform this stroke
Piston produces mechanical energy transmitted to crankshaft, connecting rod
and crank
Pressure gradually reduces
Reversible adiabatic process indicated by curve DE on PV diagram
At the end of this stroke exhaust opens releasing burnt gases to atmosphere
prompting pressure drop at constant volume indicated by line EB on PV
diagram
Exhaust stroke
Exhaust opens and inlet is closed
Piston moves from crank end to cover end
Crankshaft revolves half rotation
Energy is supplied by flywheel
Burnt gases expelled at atmospheric pressure indicated by line BA in PV
diagram
Summary
Requires four strokes for one working cycle hence called 4S
Crankshaft makes two revolutions to complete one cycle
Power is developed every alternate revolution of crankshaft
Produces higher power than 4SPE
Used in trucks, jeeps, tractors etc.,
TWO STROKE PETROL ENGINE (2SPE)
Two strokes to complete one working cycle
Suction and exhaust are eliminated from 4S
They take place while compression and power strokes are in progress
Works on theoretical Otto cycle
CONSTRUCTION
Cylinder - one end with cover and the other with hermetically sealed
crankcase (acts as pump)
Ports - two openings on circumference of cylinder, lower one is called inlet
port and the upper one exhaust port
Transfer port - diametrically opposite to exhaust port, serves as passage for
petrol & air transfer from crankcase to cylinder
Piston - covers/uncovers ports as it reciprocates
Spark plug - on the cover, initiates ignition
Connecting rod and crank - convert reciprocating motion to rotary
52

WORKING
First stroke
Piston at cover end
Moves down to crank end
Spark plug ignites fuel mix
Combustion releases hot gases
Pressure increase forces piston down
Performs power stroke till exhaust port opens
Combustion gases at higher pressure than atmospheric pressure exhausted
As soon as piston uncovers transfer port fresh fuel mix from crankcase enters
cylinder driving out the spent exhaust gases (scavenging)
Continues still piston covers both exhaust and transfer ports
Crankshaft rotates half revolution

Second stroke
Piston ascends from crank end t cover end
Covers transfer port, supply of fuel is off
Moving further it covers exhaust port, completely stopping scavenging
Compression ratios of 7:1 To 11:1
As it reaches cover end first stroke repeats
Crankshaft rotates half revolution
Summary
Requires only two strokes to complete one cycle hence 2S
Crankshaft makes one revolution to complete one cycle
Power is developed every crankshaft revolution
TWO STROKE DIESEL ENGINE (2SDE)
Similar to two stroke petrol engine
Works on theoretical diesel cycle
Transfer port diametrically opposite to exhaust port, serves as passage for air
transfer from crankcase to cylinder
Injector on the cover injects diesel into the cylinder
First stroke
53

Piston at cover end

Moves down to crank end
Injector injects a fine spray of diesel and it auto ignites
Combustion releases hot gases
Pressure increase forces piston down
Performs power stroke till exhaust port opens
Combustion gases at higher pressure than atmospheric pressure exhausted
As soon as piston uncovers transfer port fresh air mix from crankcase enters
cylinder driving out the spent exhaust gases (scavenging)
Continues still piston covers both exhaust and transfer ports
Crankshaft rotates half revolution

Second stroke
Piston ascends from crank end t cover end
Covers transfer port, supply of air is off
Moving further it covers exhaust port, completely stopping scavenging
Compression ratios of 20:1 to 22:1
As it reaches cover end first stroke repeats
Crankshaft rotates half revolution
SUMMARY
Requires only two strokes to complete one cycle hence 2S
Crankshaft makes one revolution to complete one cycle
Power is developed every crankshaft revolution
COMPARISON OF PETROL AND DIESEL ENGINES
Principle
Petrol engine
Diesel engine
Operation cycle
Otto/Constant volume
Diesel/
Constant
pressure
Fuel
petrol
Diesel
Fuel admission
Air & fuel through carburetor Air
separate,
fuel
through injector
Charge drawn during suction
Air and petrol
Only air
54

Compression ratio
7:1 to 11:1
16:1 to 20:1
Ignition
Spark plug
Auto/compression
Engine speed
High
Low
Power output
Low
High
Thermal efficiency
Low
High
Noise
Nil
High
Vibration
Less
High
Engine weight
Less
More
Initial cost
Less
More
Operating fuel cost
High
Low
Maintenance
Less
High
Starting
Easy
Difficult
Exhaust
More
Less
Uses
Domestic
Transportation
COMPARISON OF 2 STROKE AND 4 STROKE ENGINES
Principle
2 stroke engine
4 stroke engine
Number of strokes per cycle
Two
Four
Number of cycles per minute
Equal to speed
Equal to half the speed
Power
Every revolution
Alternate revolution
Flywheel weight
light
heavy
Admission of charge
indirect
direct
Exhaust gases
Scavenging
By piston
Valves
Piston opens and closes
Mechanical valves
Crankcase
Hermetically sealed
Not sealed
Engine cooling rate
high
Low
Rotation direction of crankshaft either
Only one
Lubricating oil consumption
more
Less
Fuel consumption
More
Less
Mechanical efficiency
high
Low
Noise
more
Less
Uses
High speed and low power Slow speed and high power
applications
applications
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION (SFC)
Amount of fuel consumed for one unit of energy produced
SFC expresses fuel efficiency
Expressed in kg/MJ or kg/kWH
Diesel engines have better SFC since Compression Ratio is higher
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES NUMERICALS
INDICATED POWER (IP)
It is the power produced inside the cylinder and calculated by finding the actual mean
effective pressure.
The actual mean effective pressure Pm=sa/l in N/m2
Where a=area of the actual indicator diagram in cm2
l = base width of the indicator diagram in cm
s = indicator spring value in N/m2/cm

55

IP OF A FOUR STROKE ENGINE:

Let Pm be mean effective pressure in N/m2
L=length of stroke in m
A=area of cross section of cylinder in m2
N= speed of the crankshaft in revolutions per minute
n=number of cycles per minute
Work produced by the piston/stroke/cycle
= mean force acting on piston * piston displacement in one stroke
= PmA * L in Nm
Work produced by the piston/minute
= work produced by the piston/cycle * number of cycles/minute
= PmAL*n in Nm/minute
In four stroke engine 1 cycle is completed in 2 revolutions of crankshaft.
Therefore the work is produced every alternate crankshaft revolution.
Thus number of cycles per minute = half the number of revolutions per minute
i.e., n = N/2
Work produced by piston/minute = PmAL*N/2 in Nm/minute
i.e., Indicated Power = Pm ALN/60*2 in Nm/second or J/s or W
IPfour stroke = Pm ALN/60*2*1000 in kW
IP OF A TWO STROKE ENGINE:
In two stroke engine 1 cycle is completed in 1 revolutions of crankshaft.
Therefore the work is produced every crankshaft revolution.
Thus number of cycles per minute = the number of revolutions per minute
i.e., n=N
Work produced by piston/minute = PmAL*N in Nm/minute
i.e., Indicated Power = Pm ALN/60 in Nm/second or J/s or W
IPtwo stroke = Pm ALN/60*1000 in kW
A two stroke internal combustion engine has a piston diameter 110mm and stroke
length of 140mm. the mean effective pressure on the head of the piston is 6bar. If it
runs at a speed of 1000rpm, find the indicated power?
Data:

2S

n=N

d = 110mm = 0.11m
L = 140mm = 0.14m
Pm = 6 bar
N = 1000rpm
IP =?
Derived Data:
n = N = 1000
A = d2/4
= (3.14 * 0.112)/4
= 0.0095m2

56

Solution:
Since Pm is expressed in bar
IP = 100*Pm ALn/60
= 100*6*0.0095*0.14*1000/60
= 798/60
= 13.3kW
A four stroke IC engine has a piston diameter of 150mm and the average piston
speed is 3.5m/s. if the m.e.p is 0.786MPa, find the indicated power of the engine
Data:

4S

n = N/2 implies N=2n

d = 150mm = 0.15m
2LN = 3.5m/s = 3.5*60 = 210m/min
Pm = 0.786MPa = 0.786*106 N/m2
IP =?
Derived Data:
2LN = 210m/min
2L*2n=210m/min
4Ln = 210m/min
Ln = 210/4 = 52.5m/min
Pm = 786000N/m2
A = d2/4
= (3.14 * 0.152)/4
= 0.0177m2
Solution:
IP = PmLAN/60*2*1000
= PmLnA/60*1000
= 786000*52.5*0.0177/60*1000
= 730390.5/60000
= 12.17kW
Calculate the indicated power of a four stroke diesel engine, given the following
data;
Mean effective pressure = 8bar
stroke = 300mm
Diameter of the cylinder = 200mm
speed = 250rpm
Data:

4S

n = N/2

Pm = 8bar
L = 300mm = 0.3m
d = 200mm = 0.2m
N = 250rpm
IP =?
Derived Data:
n = N/2 = 250/2 = 125
57

A = d2/4
= (3.14 * 0.22)/4
= 0.0314m2
Solution:
IP = 100*Pm ALn/60
= 100*8*0.0314*0.3*125/60
= 942/60
= 15.7kW
Determine the brake power output of an engine given the following;
Speed of the engine = 200rpm
weight suspended = 100kg
Diameter of the brake wheel = 1500mm
spring balance reading = 10kg
Data:
BP =?
N = 200rpm
WS = 100kg
D = 1500mm = 1.5m
SBR = 10kg
Derived Data:
Effective radius of brake drum
R = D/2
= 1.5/2
= 0.75m
Net load on brake drum
W=WS-SBR
= 100-10
= 90kg
Solution:
Torque T=9.81*W*R/1000
= 9.81*90*0.75/1000
= 662.175/1000
= 0.662kN-m
Brake Power BP = 2NT/60
= 2*3.14*200*0.662/60
= 831.472/60
= 13.86kW
The brake wheel of an engine runs at 300rpm and is 500mm in radius. The spring
balance pull is 0.2times the dead load. Find the dead load if the brake power input
is 16.5kW.
Data:
N = 300rpm
R = 500mm = 0.5m
SBR = 0.2DL
58

DL =?
BP =16.5kW
Derived Data:
Net load on brake drum
W = DL-SBR
= DL-0.2DL
= 0.8DL kg
Solution:
Torque T= 9.81*W*R/1000
= 9.81*0.8DL*0.5/1000
= 3.924DL/1000
= 3.924 * 10-3DL kN-m
Brake Power BP = 2NT/60
16.5 = 2*3.14*300*3.924 * 10-3DL/60
16.5 = 7.393DL/60
Dead Load DL = 16.5 * 60/7.393
=133.9kg
In a single cylinder two stroke petrol engine, the mean effective pressure is
0.55MPa. Its cylinder diameter is 200mm and stroke is 300mm. if the engine runs
at 350rpm, find its indicated power. If its mechanical efficiency is 80%, what will be
the brake power output?
Data:
1C

2S

n=N

Pm = 0.55MPa
d = 200mm = 0.2m
L = 300mm = 0.3m
N = 350rpm
IP =?
m = 0.80
BP =?
Derived Data:
Pm = 0.55MPa = 0.55*106 N/m2
A = d2/4
= (3.14 * 0.22)/4
= 0.0314m2
Solution:
Indicated Power IP = PmLAN/60*1000
= 0.55*106*0.3*0.0314*350/60*1000
= 1813350/60000
= 30.22kW

59

Mechanical Efficiency m = BP/IP

0.80 = BP/30.22
Therefore Brake Power BP = 0.80*30.22
= 24.118kW
Calculate the brake power output of a single cylinder four stroke petrol engine
given; diameter of brake wheel 600mm, brake rope diameter 30mm, dead weight
24Kg, spring balance reading 4Kg and RPM 450?
Data:
BP =?
1C
4S

n = N/2

DBW = 600mm = 0.6m

DBR = 30mm = 0.03m
DW = 24kg
SBR = 4kg
N = 450rpm
Derived Data:
DBW = 0.6m implies RBD = 0.3m
DR = 30mm = 0.03m implies RR = 0.015m
Effective Radius of Brake Wheel R = RBD+ RR
= 0.3 + 0.015
= 0.315m
Effective Load on Brake Wheel W = DW-SBR
= 24 4
= 20kg
Solution:
Torque T= 9.81*W*R/1000
= 9.81*20*0.315/1000
= 61.803/1000
= 61.803* 10-3 kN-m
Brake Power BP = 2NT/60
= 2*3.14*450*61.803 * 10-3/60
= 174.655/60
= 2.91kW
The following details refers to a four stroke engine; cylinder diameter 200mm,
stroke 300mm, speed 300rpm, effective brake load 50Kg, mean circumference of
the brake drum 400cm and mean effective pressure 6bar. Calculate indicated
power, brake power and mechanical efficiency?
Data:

4S

n = N/2 = 300/2 = 150

d = 200mm = 0.2m
L = 300mm = 0.3m
60

N = 300rpm
W = 50kg
2R = 400cm = 4m
Pm = 6bar
IP = ?
BP = ?

=?

Derived Data:
Cross Sectional Area A = d2/4
= (3.14 * 0.22)/4
= 0.0314m2
Mean Circumference of Brake Drum 2R = 4
Effective Radius of Brake Drum R = 4/2
= 4/(2*3.14)
= 4/6.28
= 0.64m
Torque on Brake Drum T = 9.81WR/1000
= 9.81*50*0.64/1000
= 313.92/1000
= 0.3139kNm
Solution:
Indicated Power IP = (100PmLAn)/60
= (100*6*0.3*0.0314*150)/60
= 847.8/60
= 14.13kW
Brake Power BP = (2NT)/60
= (2*3.14*300*0.3139)/60
= 591.39/60
= 9.86kW
Mechanical Efficiency m = (BP/IP)*100
= (9.86/14.13)*100
= 69.78%
A four stroke petrol engine is running at 2500rpm. The stroke of the piston is 1.5
times the bore. If the mean effective pressure is 0.915MPa and the diameter of the
piston is 140mm, find the indicated power of the engine. If the friction power is
13KW, find the brake power output and the mechanical efficiency?
Data:

4S

n = N/2 = 2500/2 = 1250

N = 2500rpm
61

L = 1.5d = 1.5*0.14 = 0.21m

Pm = 0.915MPa = 915000 N/m2
d = 140mm = 0.14m
IP = ?
FP = 13kW
BP = ?

=?

Derived Data:
A = d2/4
= (3.14 * 0.142)/4
= 0.0154m2
Solution:
Indicated Power IP = PmLAn/60*1000
= 915000*0.21*0.00154*1250/60*1000
= 3698887.5/60000
= 61.65kW
We know that IP = BP+FP
Which implies BP = IP-FP
= 61.65 13
= 48.65kW
Mechanical Efficiency m = (BP/IP) *100
= (48.65/61.65)*100
= 78.9%
A four stroke diesel engine has a piston diameter 200mm and stroke 300mm. it has
a mean effective pressure of 2.75bar and a speed of 400rpm. The diameter of the
brake drum is 1000mm and the effective brake load is 32Kg. find the indicated
power, brake power and the frictional power of the engine?
Data:

4S

n = N/2 = 400/2 = 200

d = 200mm = 0.2m
L = 300mm = 0.3m
Pm = 2.75bar
N = 400rpm
D = 1000mm = 1m therefore R=0.5m
W = 32kg
IP = ?
BP = ?
FP = ?
Derived Data:
A = d2/4
= (3.14 * 0.22)/4
= 0.0314m2
62

T = 9.81WR/1000
= 9.81*32*0.5/1000
= 156.96/1000
= 0.157kNm
Solution:
IP = (100PmLAn)/60
= (100*2.75*0.3*0.0314*200)/60
= 51.81/60
= 0.8635kW
BP = (2NT)/60
= (2*3.14*300*0.3119)/60
= 9.8kW
FP = IP-BP
=
=

A four stroke diesel engine with a cylinder diameter 200mm and stroke length
250mm runs at300rpm. Find the indicated power of the engine. Also find brake
power and friction power if the mechanical efficiency is 80% and mean effective
pressure is 787KPa?
Data:

4S

n = N/2 = 300/2 = 150

d = 200mm = 0.2m
L = 250mm = 0.25m
N = 300rpm
IP = ?
BP = ?

= 0.80
Pm = 787KPa
m

Derived Data: A = d2/4

= (3.14 * 0.22)/4
= 0.0314m2
Solution:

IP = (100PmLAn)/60
= (100*6*0.3*0.0314*150)/60
= 14.13kW
BP = (2NT)/60
= (2*3.14*300*0.3119)/60
= 9.8kW

An engine develops 50kW of power while running at full load with a mechanical
efficiency of 80%. Calculate the friction power. What will be the mechanical
63

efficiency of the engine at half load, if the friction remain the same and note down
your inference on friction and efficiency
Data:
Derived Data:
Solution

UNIT 2.2 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

Introduction
It is the art of artificial cooling
Refrigeration and air conditioning are the methods
Uses of refrigeration are ice making, preservation of perishables, cryogenics
etc.,
Uses of air conditioning in indoor air cooling
REFRIGERATION
Definition
Method of reducing and maintaining temperature of a system below that of the
surroundings
Principle
Continuous heat removal from a system at a low temperature and transfer it to
surroundings at a higher temperature
As per second law of thermodynamics it is only possible by aid of external
work, therefore power is needed
Refrigerant
It is a medium which extracts heat from space within refrigerator continuously
and rejects it to the atmosphere
e.g., Ammonia, Freon, Methyl Chloride, CO2
Concepts
heat flow from higher temperature system to another art lower temperature
fluids absorb heat by changing its phase and subsequently condense by giving
off heat
boiling and freezing temperatures of fluid depends on its pressure
64

heat can flow from low temperature system to high temperature only by aid of
external work as per second law of thermodynamics

Parts
Evaporator, condenser, circulating system and expansion device

Evaporator/cooling coil/freezing coil

o Heart of a refrigerator
o Liquid refrigerant absorbs heat from cabinet of refrigerator
Circulating system
o Compressor/pump circulates refrigerant to undergo refrigeration cycle
o They increase pressure and temperature of refrigerant
o Electric energy runs them
Condenser
o Rejects heat to the atmosphere thus changing phase so as to be recirculated
o Latent heat comprises of heat absorbed in cabinet and that developed
due to compression
Expansion device
o Reduces pressure and temperature of liquid refrigerant before it enters
evaporator
Refrigeration effect
It is the rate at which heat is absorbed in a cycle from the interior space to be
cooled
Units of refrigeration
Expressed in tons of refrigeration
Quantity of heat absorbed in order to from one tno of ice in 24 hours when
initial water temperature is 00C
1 ton = 2000lbs = 210kJ/minute = 3.5kW
Ice making capacity
Capacity of refrigerating system to make water at room temperature to solid
ice
It is specified by kg/h
Coefficient of performance (COP)
Ration of heat absorbed in a system to the work supplied = Q/W
Relative COP
Ratio of actual to theoretical COP
Refrigerator
65

 Machine by means of which cold can be produced

Refrigeration
Process of removal of heat from a substance at lower temperature
surroundings with the aid of external work
Types of refrigerating system
Air
Vapor compression
Vapor absorption
Vapor compression refrigeration (VCR)
Vapor is used as refrigerant
Circulated through the system
Alternately evaporates and condenses
Mechanical energy to compressor runs the refrigerator
Evaporator is made of coiled tubes installed in freezing compartment and
connected top compressor suction
Compressor delivery in connected to condenser in turn to throttle valve

Vapor absorption refrigerator (VAR)

Absorbent (water) absorbs large volume of vapor of a refrigerant even when
cold and reduce it to a liquid and subsequently give ofg the vapor when heated
Ammonia (refrigerant) readily dissolves in water and vaporizes

66

BTP
ohi
iea
l
ri
i
mr
n
oag
d
py
on
ia
a
n
m
t
i

r
e

n
d

e
f

e
n

a
r

l
i

c
Low boiling temperature
Very low freezing point
Evaporative pressure must be slightly over atmospheric pressure
Condenser pressure must be slightly over atmospheric pressure
Latent heat of evaporation must be very high
Specific volume must be very low
Low specific heat when in liquid state
High specific heat when in vapor state
Viscosity must be very low
Non-toxic
Non-corrosive
Must not decompose
High COP
Odorless
Leakage must be detectable by simple tests
Must not react with lubricating oil
Commonly used refrigerants
Ammonia
(VAR)
Carbon-di-oxide
(marine)
Sulphur-di-oxide
(household)
Methyl chloride
(domestic)
Freon-12
(VCR)
Freon-22
(A/c)

67

Comparison of VCR and VAR

#
Principle
1
Working method
2
3
4

Type of energy supplied

Mechanical energy supplied
COP

Capacity

Noise

7
8
9

Refrigerant
Leakage
Maintenance

10

Operating cost

VCR
Refrigerant vapor
is compressed
Mechanical
Needs more
Relatively higher
but reduces at part
loads
Design limited to
1000 tons
More
due
to
compressor
Freon-12
Chances are high
High because of
compressor
High
since
electrical energy

VAR
Refrigerant
vapor
is
absorbed and heated
Heat
Needs less
Relatively less but same
at full or part loads
Designed for above 1000
tons
Quiet as no compressor
Ammonia
Not at all
Less
Less as heat energy can be
either with electrical or
68

alternate sources
2.6: LUBRICATION
Introduction
Definition of lubrication
Necessity of lubrication
Classification of lubricants
Properties of a lubricant
Types of lubricants
Commonly used lubricators
Sketch and working of drop feed oil lubricator
Sketch and working of Splash lubrication
Sketch and working of Full pressure lubrication
LUBRICATION
DEFINITION OF LUBRICATION:
distribution of a layer of unguent over the rubbing surface to reduce the
friction and thus heating is called lubrication
NECESSITY OF LUBRICATION:
All machines have metallic moving parts
Due to surface irregularities friction is developed at the contact of the two
rubbing surfaces
Due to this friction, heat will be produced which results in loss of power
transmitted between them.
This unguent layer of lubrication reduces friction, minimizes power losses,
reduces wear, increases life and reduces corrosion and heat transmission
CLASSIFICATION OF LUBRICANTS:
Solid:
o Where oil film cannot be maintained due to high temperature or
pressure.
o Used in powder from or as colloidal suspension in liquid carriers.
o Will be softer than the materials of the parts to be lubricated
o E.g., graphite, mica, soap stone, talc, French chalk, molybdenum disulphate etc.,
Liquid
o Good adhering and higher fluidity characteristics
o Used in high speed machineries and transmission
o Good circulation is an essential requirement
o Compounded with an additive to impart viscosity, surface tension, heat
carrying capacity
o Mineral oil, animal and vegetable oil, synthetic oil etc.,
Semi-liquid
o Compounding of petroleum products with soap mixture gives grease
o Grease is the most common one
o Used when
Large clearance exists between surfaces
High pressure between surfaces
69

 Very high operating temperature

High humid atmosphere
High corrosion tendencies
PROPERTIES OF A LUBRICANT
To know or decide a particular lubricants suitability;
Viscosity
o It is the property of a fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to
shear
Flash point
o Lowest temperature to which oil is heated until sufficient inflammable
vapor is driven off producing a flash when brought into contact with a
flame
o Good lubricant must have a flash point higher than the operating
temperature
Fire point
o Lowest temperature at which the oil vapors continuously emanating
from its surface and will continue to burn when brought into contact
with a flame
Oiliness and wettability
o Ability of oil top adhere to the surface which depends on wettability
and surface tension
o Good lubricant must have enough of oiliness to adhere to surfaces even
at very high pressures
Cloud point
o When oil is cooled the temperature at which it crystallizes
o It decides suitability for use in cold conditions
o Must be low for service conditions at low temperature
Pour point
o Lowest temperature at which the oil ceases to flow when cooled
o It decides suitability for use in cold conditions
o Must be low for service conditions at low temperature
Volatility
o During high working temperature some oils vaporize increasing
viscosity
o Good one must have low volatility
Caron residue
o Contain higher percentages of carbon in combined form
o Decompose at high temperature and deposit on bearing surface
o This is highly objectionable
TYPES OF LUBRICATION
Machinery needs an effective method of applying proper lubricant
Common method is oil can which is simple but not precise for all cases
Type depends on lubricant type and operating conditions
Oil lubrication types are;
o Gravity feed lubricant flows due to gravity
o Forced feed pressure created by means of a pump
70

o Splash - moving parts are partly immersed in an oil bath and they
themselves splash over their surfaces
COMMONLY USED LUBRICATORS
They are mechanical devices supplying a regulated amount of lubricant
Simple ones are oil can, grease plug, grease gun etc.,
Commonly used ones are;
o Screw cap, Tell tale, Drop feed, Glass bottle needle type, Siphon wick,
Ring oil, Splash etc.,
Metal films are used in bearings where organic lubricants are undesirable as in
X-ray tubes
Modern car engines have full pressure lubricators which covers all bearings
(main, connecting rod, crankshaft, cam shaft) also pistons and valve
mechanisms
SKETCH AND WORKING OF DROP FEED OIL LUBRICATOR

It consists of a glass cylinder mounted on a lower cover screwed on a plug

containing oil
Screwed plug has a conical hole closed by a needle held in position by a
spring
When snap lever is raised vertically oil flows via oil entry holes to conical
hole and then to nozzle
Oil flow is seen through sight glass and is replenished through a filler hole
with sliding cover
Lubricator is mounted on the part to be lubricated with its threaded end
screwed in place
Correct working and flow of oil is checked easily since it is transparent
SKETCH AND WORKING OF SPLASH LUBRICATION

71

Generally employed in IC engines to lubricate cylinder, piston etc.,

Can also be used for gears, chains, bearings and moving parts which can be
partly submerged in oil reservoir
Crank partly dips in crankcase filled with oil
As crankshaft rotates it flashes oil to the surfaces
Can be employed in gear box to lubricate gear wheels
SKETCH AND WORKING OF FULL PRESSURE LUBRICATION

Car engines have this system to lubricate main, connecting rod, crankshaft,
camshaft bearings
Also piston and valve mechanism is lubricated under pressure
System has a gear pump to draw oil from sump through a strainer (filter)
Relief valve relieves extra oil back to the sump
Oil flows through drilled passages to the main bearings then to crank pins then
to piston pins and lastly to connecting rod
Oil after lubrication falls back to the sump and cycle repeats ensuring uniform
distribution to all parts
2.7: BEARINGS
Introduction
72

 Classification
Sketch and working principle of ball bearing
Sketch and working principle of cylindrical roller bearing
Merits and demerits of anti-friction bearings
BEARINGS
INTRODUCTION
Machines often need support for rotating shafts either separately or inbuilt
Such a support is called a bearing which facilitates smooth running as well
E.g., crankshafts, axles, spindles of lathe, drilling, milling and grinding
machines etc.,
SIMPLE BEARING
Contact surfaces of bearing and shaft while in motion generates heat resulting
in loss of power
Lubrication of these surfaces minimizes frictional losses
Bearing block is made of a softer material than the shaft to facilitate
replacement after wear out
Improving performance of bearings is done by;
o Having a proper between the shaft and bearing
o Removing undue slackness
o Provision for replacement of worn out parts
o Provision for good lubrication

CLASSIFICATION
Based on nature of contact surfaces it is as below;

Sliding contact bearings have pure sliding because of surface contact

Creates high friction and requires more lubrication
Classified according to the direction of load acting on the bearing surface

73

Rolling contact bearings have smooth rounded surfaces which roll easily over
a similar surface
Have extremely low frictional resistance hence called anti-friction bearings
Hard chrome steel balls or rollers in cages is the solution
Low starting friction and is practically same while running also
Suitable for machinery which have to be frequently started, stopped and
restarted
SKETCH AND WORKING PRINCIPLE OF BALL BEARING

Simplest type of ball bearing consisting of hardened steel balls

It is positioned between two (outer and inner) suitably grooved hardened steel
rings called races
Balls are retained in position by a separator/cage made from pressed brass
Inner race is tight fit with shaft to rotate with it
Outer race fits tightly in the bearing and does not rotate
Balls are free to rotate in between the races hence only rolling friction exists
They need light lubrication to facilitate free rotation
Radial ball bearing when load is radial i.e., perpendicular to axis of the shaft
Radial ball bearings are used on wheels
Thrust ball bearing when load is axial or thrust
Thrust ball bearings are used in spindles of lathe, drilling, milling machines
etc.,
Special ball bearings are used when both loads exist
Point loading exists between the ball and races hence used for light loads
SKETCH AND WORKING PRINCIPLE OF CYLINDRICAL ROLLER
BEARING

74

Heavy weights can be easily moved if cylindrical objects are used between
weight and ground
These bearings are better suited for heavy loads since contact is along the line
of the roller and races

A series of small hardened steel cylinders called rollers are fitted between
inner and outer races
Rollers are retained in equally spaced positions with the aid of gun metal cage
(two rings secured by steel pins)
Inner race is tight drive fit on the shaft and rotates with it
Outer race is firmly secured in the bearing housing and does not rotate
Radial roller bearing is used when load is radial
Tapered roller bearing is used when load is radial and thrust
Needle bearing has very small (2 to 10mm) diameter rollers and length is 5 to
10 times the diameter (no cage)
Needle bearings are used to support light loads in confined spaces
MERITS AND DEMERITS OF ANTI-FRICTION BEARINGS
Merits
Starting and running friction is negligible
Can be used for radial and thrust loads
Requires minimum lubrication
Demerits
High initial cost
More liable to shock loads
Requires very high precision machining for bearing housing
UNIT 3.0: CONVENTIONAL MACHINE TOOLS
Introduction
To produce a mechanical part of required shape and size metal cutting
operations manually with hand tools or using metal cutting machines
When machines perform these cutting operations with tools mounted on them
they are called machine tools
A power driven machine which accomplishes the cutting or machining
operations on it is a machine tool
For most of the machining processes machine tools viz., lathe, drilling,
milling, grinding etc., are used
75

Screw gauge is a very important measuring instrument used for checking the
work quality on almost every machine tool. It is also called micrometer screw
gauge.

Figure 1: SCREW GAUGE

UNIT 3.1: TURNING MACHINE / LATHE
Introduction
Machine tool employed generally to produce circular objects.
It is the mother of all machine tools as it is versatile and almost all operations
can be performed
Drilling, milling, grinding, shaping etc., can be performed
Various types are engine, speed, turret, capstan, automatic and CNC
Engine lathe
Most common used general purpose used lathe
Also called centre lathe or simply lathe
It is driven by a prime mover for producing circular objects by manual
operations

76

Figure 2: LATHE
Working principle
Lathe is a turning machine wherein cutting tool removes material from a
rotating work piece
Figure shows a work piece rigidly held by chuck and is rotated at high speed
V shaped cutting tool held against the work piece opposite to the direction of
rotation and moved parallel to it
Tool material is harder than work piece material
Round surfaces are produced

77

Sketch and description

Major parts are;
Bed
o It is the foundation and supports all other parts
o Top of it has two set of guide ways (outer and inner)
o Head stock and tail stock are on inner ways for perfect alignment with
each other
o Outer way guides the longitudinal movement of the carriage assembly
and aligns it with the center line of the lathe

Main drive
o Left leg has the electric motor with transmission system
Cone pulley and back gear
o Cone pulley which drives the main spindle through belting is driven by
motor
o Spindle speeds are varied by back gear
Headstock
o Comprises of feed gear box and is rigidly mounted on the left end of
the lathe
o Main spindle projects out of the head stock (cone pulley + feed gear
box)
o Feed gear ratios are transmitted from the spindle to lead screw or feed
rod
Tailstock
o Movable part of the lathe and carries dead center
o Supports free end of long work pieces, clamps tools like twist drill,
reamers, taps and dies etc.,
o Can be moved and locked in any desired position
78

Lead screw
o Screw rod which runs longitudinally in front of the lathe bed
o Rotation of which moves carriage to and fro during thread cutting
Feed rod
o Stationary rod mounted in front of the lathe bed
o Facilitates longitudinal movement of carriage during turning, boring
and facing operations
Carriage assembly
o Supports the tool ad rides longitudinally between head stock and tail
stock. It comprises of;
o Saddle
H shaped casting slides over the outer set of the guide ways
Is the base for the cross slide
o Cross slide
Enables lateral movement of cutting tool by means of cross
feed hand wheel
Supports compound rest
o Compound rest
Supports tool post and can be swiveled to any angle in
horizontal plane
Facilitates taper turning and threading operations
Is moved manually by compound rest feed handle
independently
o Apron
Mounted at the front of the saddle (beneath it)
Houses the carriage and cross slide
Apron hand wheel moves the carriage assembly manually
o Tool post
Mounted on T slot of the compound rest
Clamps the tool holder in position
Operations performed-turning, facing, knurling, thread cutting, drilling, taper
turning and boring
Almost all the machining operations can be performed. Some of the very important
ones are;
Turning

79

o Work piece is supported between two centers to permit rotation

o Single point cutting tool is fed perpendicular to the work piece axis to
a known depth
o Then moved parallel to the work piece axis and removes material
o Turning is an operation which reduces cylindrical section of work
piece
Taper turning
o Operations produces conical surface on the work piece
o This can be accomplished either by inclining cutting tool or work piece
o Cutting tool inclination for work pieces and steeper taper is by
swiveling compound rest

o Compound rest is swiveled to required taper angle and locked in

angular position
o Carriage is also locked at that position
o Compound rest is moved linearly at an angle so that cutting tool
produces taper
o Taper turning attachment cuts both internal and external tapers

o Bracket with a guide bar is connected to the rear side of lathe bed.
o Guide bar can be swiveled in horizontal plane and locked to position is
mounted over the bracket
o Guide block pivoted to a draw link is firmly connected to cross slide
o Tool is mounted on the tool post slide and cross slide is allowed to
move freely
o Combined transverse motion of cross slide and longitudinal motion of
carriage produces required taper
80

o Offsetting tail stock is also known as set over method

o Most common method and tail stock center is set out of alignment
o Work piece gets taper turned as its axis will be inclined with
longitudinal movement of cutting tool
Thread cutting
o Thread is a helical ridge formed on the cylindrical portion of the work
piece
o Work piece rotating with uniform speed and cutting tools
longitudinally uniform linear motion enables this

o V or square grooves on cutting tool gives the required shape for the
thread
o Appropriate gear ratio between spindle and lead screw gives the
required pitch of the screw thread
Boring - Enlarging an existing hole is done by a boring tool
Facing - This operation generates flat surface or shoulders at the end of the
work piece

o Feed direction is perpendicular to lathe axis

81

o Work piece is held in chuck and facing tool is fed either from outer
edge to center (rough cuts) or vice-versa (finishing)
o Cutting tool is held in a tool post and axial movement of tool is
avoided by locking the carriage
o Length of work piece extended from chuck must not be more than 1.5
times diameter for this operation
Drilling - A twist drill placed in tail stock can do this operation
Reaming - Finishing operation of a bored hole is this one
Knurling

Generates serrated surfaces on a work piece

Knurling tool does this job by impressing its pattern on the work piece
Patterns can be straight or diamond shaped which impart a grip
Upper and lower rollers of the tool must touch the surface of work
piece to be knurled
o Low speed with slow feed is prescribed for this operation
Milling - With a special attachment this operation can be done
Grinding - With a special attachment this operation can be done
Specification of center lathe
o
o
o
o

Maximum diameter of the work piece that can be revolved over the lathe bed
i.e., height of the centers over the lathe bed which is also called swing of the
lathe
Maximum diameter and the width of the work piece
82

 Maximum length of the work piece

Overall length of the bed
UNIT 3.2: DRILLING MACHINE
Introduction
Metal cutting process of making circular holes by a rotating cutting tool in a
rigidly held work piece
Tool is called drill / twist drill since its edges are sharp and twisted on the
cylindrical surface
It has helical groves along its length to allow cut material to escape
The twist drill peels circularly layer by layer when forced against the work
piece
A liquid coolant generally removes frictional heat and a better finish of the
hole is obtained
Drilling Machine
Power operated machine tool holding drill in a spindle rotating at high speeds
When actuated manually to move linearly against the work piece produces
hole
Holes as small as thousandth of a cm to 7.5 cm diameter can be drilled
Reaming, counter boring, counter sinking, spot facing, thread tapping etc., are
the other operations done
Classification
For different sizes and different classes of work are classified as;
Portable
o Employed for light classes of work and when high accuracy is not
required
o Available in different sizes to drill holes up to 12mm
o Usually driven by electric motor at very high speeds
o Required to produce small holes for short depths

83

Figure 3: PORTABLE DRILLING MACHINE

Bench
o Light duty used in small workshops usually placed on work benches
o Also called sensitive drilling machines as accurate and well balanced
spindle allows the operator to feel the operation

o Hole sizes up to 15mm are drilled

o It consists of a vertical main column mounted on a base

84

o Column carries moving head, speed gear box, spindle feed mechanism,
movable work table, electric motor, cone pulley system, drill chuck
etc.,
o Work table for heavy jobs is on the base
Pillar
o Medium and heavy duty jobs with holes up to 50mm diameter
o Robust pillar with adjustable table and drill mechanism on a sturdy
base
Radial - Working principle, sketch and description of radial drilling
machine

o For very heavy work pieces too large to be mounted on work table
o Consists of a heavy base and a vertical column with a horizontal arm
o This arm can be rapidly raised, lowered and swung to any location in
the horizontal plane
o Drill head can be moved to and fro along the arm and swiveled to drill
holes at an angle
o Flexibility in drilling without moving the work piece is the highlight
Gang
o Multiple side by side drill heads holding different tools can perform
operations without changing tools and spindle speeds
o Work pieces are mounted on a long common work table
Multiple
o Drilling of several holes of different diameters simultaneously is
permitted
o Applications is in mass production only
Terminology of a twist drill

85

It is the cutting tool employed in drilling machines

Two long diametrically opposite helical flutes are formed are formed
throughout its effective length
It is composed of three major parts point, body and shank
Point
o It is the cone shaped end of the drill
o It cuts the material to produce a hole
o End of the drill is grilled so that chisel edge, flank and lips are formed
o Chisel edge
It is the dead center at the extreme tip of the drill
It is aligned with the center punch mark made in the work piece
o Flank
It is the conical surface of the pointed portion
It extends from lip to flute and are two in number
o Lip
It is the cutting edge and are two in number
When drill rotates lips cut to produce a hole
Body
o It extends from tip of the drill to the lower edge of the neck
o It consists of flutes, margin, heel, body clearance and web
o Flutes
Helical grooves cut on the cylindrical surface of the drill
Its functions are
Enable to form lips
Curl the chips for easy removal
Passages for flow of curled chips
Allow lubricant to flow down the drill body
o Margin/land
It the narrow strip alongside of the flute
Guides the drill and prevents heel rubbing
o Heel
Edge formed due to the flute intersection
It is the undercut surface of the body
o Body clearance
86

o Web

Shank
o
o
o
o

Ap between margin and undercut portion of drill body

Prevents rubbing of the entire body with internal surface of the
hole
Reduces friction due to rubbing
It is drill thickness between two flutes
It is the backbone of the drill
Thickness increases from point to shank and makes drill
stronger at the shank

Portion of the drill above neck

Is either tapered (bigger size) or straight (small size)
Provided with small tapered tenon called tang
Tang fits into a slot and prevents from slipping

Operations performed (with neat line diagram)

Boring
o Increases the size of an already drilled hole when suitable drill size is
not available
o Hole is drilled to the nearest size and then enlarged with boring tool

Tapping
o Process of cutting internal threads
o Tap is a fluted threaded cutting tool
o Hole slightly smaller than the size of the tap is drilled
o Tap is fitted in an attachment
o Spindle has to rotate at very low speeds

Counter sinking
87

o
o
o
o

Making end of the hole into a conical shape

Also de-burring of holes can be done
Speeds must be half of that used for a similar sized drill
Screw top faces can flush with top surface of the workpiece

Counter boring
o Increasing hole size at one end only to a small depth
o Forms a large recess/shoulder to the existing hole
o Diameter of the pilot will be equal to the previously drilled hole
o Speed must be two thirds of drilling speed
o Socket head screws, grooved nuts or round head bolts can be
accommodated

Drilling
o Simple operation to produce specific holes based on the twist drill
diameter
Reaming
o Process of smoothening surface of a drilled hole
o Reamer is similar to a twist drill but has straight flutes
o Speed is reduced to half of that of drilling
Spot facing
o It is a finishing operation producing a good bearing surface for seating
a bolt head or nut
o May be done with counter boring tool or special spot facing tool

88

Specification of a radial drilling machine

Important ones are;
Drilling in steel/cast iron in mm
Maximum/Minimum drilling radius in mm
Vertical power ,movement of arm in mm
Horizontal power movement of head in mm
Drilling motor power in kW
Spindle speed range in rpm
Swing of arm in degrees
Stroke of spindle in mm
Power feed range in mm/revolution
Drilling machine specifications

Drilling capacity in steel (up to 20mm)

Spindle traverse in mm (extent downwards)
Spindle speed range (500-2000rpm)
Work table overall size (280x280mm)
Table working surface (200x200mm)
Power and speed of motor (kW/HP & rpm)

UNIT 3.3: MILLING MACHINE

Introduction
Milling is a metal cutting operation in which work piece mounted ion a
movable work table is fed against a slow revolving multi point cutting tool

89

Milling machine is a power operated machine tool in which work piece is

machined to various shapes when moved under a slow revolving serrated
cutter
Classification
Palin or horizontal type
Vertical
Universal
Planer type
Profile cutting
Working principle
Milling cutter is mounted on rotating shaft known as arbor
Work piece mounted on the table when fed in the opposite direction of the
rotating cutter it is called conventional or UP milling
Work piece mounted on the table when fed in the same direction of the
rotating cutter it is called climb or DOWN milling

Comparison of up-milling and down-milling processes

Principle
UP milling
Chip form during
Gets progressively thicker
machining
Shock load on cutting
Minimized as each cutter teeth
teeth
enters a clean metal gradually
Making deep cuts
Difficult as cutter tends to pull
the work piece out of the vice
Cutting force
Directed upwards at an angle
Work piece surface
Nothing specific
condition
Sketch and operation of a horizontal milling machine

DOWN milling
Gets progressively thinner
Maximized as each teeth is in
contact with the metal
It is very easy as cutter tends to keep
the work piece in position
Directed downwards hence safe
Must be free of scale, surface
imperfections etc.,

90

Different parts are;

Column:
It is combined with base into a single casting
Houses spindle and transmission system
Enables to mount table control and lifting mechanisms
Front vertical face has a square ort dovetail shaped vertical slide
Knee moves up and down on this vertical slide
At the top an internal dovetail slide accommodates a cast over arm
Over arm supports the arbor
Arbor
It is a horizontal shaft provided with a straight body and tapered shank
Rotary cutters are mounted on the straight body
Tapered ends fits into the tapered hole of spindle
Other end of arbor is mounted in a bearing in the projected over arm
Knee
It is a casting mounted in the front vertical slide of column
It is moved up and down by an elevating screw
Upper face is provided with guide ways to mount saddle
Saddle
Is a casting with top and bottom slides exactly at 900 to each other
Lower slide fits within the guide ways on the top of knee
91

 Upper slide receives dovetail guides provided on table bottom

Table
Mounted on top of the saddle
Top has several full length T slots for mounting vices or other holding fixtures
Operation:
Cutter axis is horizontal and the work piece is held in a voce mounted on the
machine table fitted over a saddle
Feed is given by moving the table against the axis of revolving cutter
Cross feed handle enables entire table to move across the knee
Knee can be raised or lowered by an elevating handle
Commonly used for feeding work piece in a straight line, either vertically and
horizontally like keyways, grooves, gear teeth, spline shafts etc.,
Sketch and operation of a vertical milling machine

Spindle is mounted with its axis vertical or perpendicular to the work table
Column and base are formed into an integral casting
Spindle head is fitted vertically in the guide ways at the projected end of
column
Spindle can move up and down over the guide ways
Saddle is mounted over the guide ways at the top of base
Saddle can move in transverse direction
Work table will be mounted over the saddle and can move longitudinally
Work piece cannot move vertically
Rotating cutter can be either raised or lowered to give depth of cut
Suitable for cutting long grooves and slots and also flat surfaces
Face and end mill cutters are used
Differences between horizontal and vertical milling machines
Parameter
Horizontal
Vertical
Spindle position
Horizontal
Vertical
Plane related to work table Same
Perpendicular
Cutter axis
Rotate on its own axis
Move up and down along
vertical axis
Cutter mounting
On arbor supported by over arm
Directly on spindle
92

Spindle variation
Main operations

Other operations

Rotate only
no tilting possible
Gear teeth, plain, straddle, gang,
form etc.,

Can be tilted to left or

right
Slot, T-slot, angular,
keyway, end etc.,

None

drilling, boring and

reaming can be done

UNIT 3.4: GRINDING MACHINE

Introduction
It is also called abrasive machining
Process in which material is removed in the form of dust particles
Thickness of material removal ranges from 0.25 to 0.50 mm
Generally a finishing operation after a machining process
Natural and artificial abrasives
Abrasive is a mineral material used for sharpening, grinding and polishing
operations
Two types are natural and artificial
Examples of natural abrasives are emery, corundum, quartz, sandstone,
diamond etc.,
Two classes of artificial abrasives are silicon carbide and aluminous
Silicon carbide abrasives are made from pure glass or silica and carbon e.g.,
carborundum etc.,
Aluminous abrasives are made from bauxite e.g., alundum, aloxite etc.,
Important properties are hardness, toughness, uniformity in grain size and
sharpness
Bonding materials
They hold the abrasive grains together
Three important processes are vitrified, silicate and elastic
Other processes are rubber or vulcanite, celluloid and oil
Vitrified
o Abrasive is mixed with feldspar and clay
o Heated in kilns to a high temperature
o Clay fuses and bonds the ingredients
o 80% of the grinding wheels are made by this process
Silicate
o Abrasive is mixed with silicate of soda
o Subjected to a low bulking temperature for 20-80hours
o Wheels for smooth grinding are produced
Elastic
o Abrasive is bonded with shellac
o Baked at a low temperature for few hours
o Extremely high finish is obtained
o Very thin wheels for cutting metal tubes, wires etc., are made
Rubber or vulcanite
o Abrasive is mixed with pure rubber
o Sulphur is vulcanizing agent
93

o Heated under pressure to a temperature till it vulcanizes

o Very thin wheels for cutting narrow slots and grooves are produced
Coated abrasive wheel

Abrasive is applied to the surface of a wheel uniformly and held together by a

suitable bond material
Available in various sizes and shapes
Mounted abrasive wheels

Small bonded abrasive wheels mounted on pins or mandrels of various shapes

They are hand guided and driven by a flexible shaft
Used in internal grinding and demurring processes
Grinding wheel terminology

Classification of grinding machines

Based on the type of surface to be grinded machines are classified as;

94

o Surface

o Cylindrical

o Centerless

95

Sketch, working principle and operations of horizontal type surface grinding

machine (with neat line diagrams)

Grinding wheel revolves on a spindle and work piece is mounted on

reciprocating table
Table moves longitudinally and transverse direction below the grinding wheel
Work piece is brought into contact with the grinding wheel producing flat,
angular and irregular surfaces
Work piece can be clamped manually or by magnetic means
Coolant is automatically applied and circulated
Protective safety guard at the end of table is provided
Sketch, working principle and operations of cylindrical grinding machine (with
neat line diagrams)

Cylindrical surfaces straight, tapered or contoured are grinded

Work piece is mounted on two centers (tail stock and head stock)
For high accuracy both centers are dead when work piece revolves

96

Sketch, working principle and operations of Centerless grinding machine (with

neat line diagrams)

Curved surfaces of long slender rods are grinded

Cylindrical grinding is not possible because of lateral thrust of wheel on work
piece
Work piece rests on the work rest blade and backed by regulating wheel made
of rubber bonded abrasive
Grinding wheel rotation pushes the work piece onto the work rest blade and
against the regulating wheel
Regulating wheel rotates in the same direction as grinding wheel and controls
longitudinal feed of the work piece
Lapping
It is a precision grinding technique for finishing
Valve seating require high sealing characteristics
Cutting edges of dies require longer life
Rubbing surface have to have high wear resistance
May be done either manually or using a machine
Honing
Also a precision grinding technique
Reshaping and polishing the internal surfaces of engine parts, gun metal
barrels etc.,
Abrasive bonded sticks known as hones are given combined rotary and
reciprocating motions

1. Name the different methods of power transmission

Transmission systems are classified depending on
Distance between them
Speed
Power
as
belt drives,
rope drives,
97

 chain drives and

gear drives
2. State the differences between the application of belt and gear drives
Parameter
Belt drives
Gear drives
Center distance Suitable for large ones
Suitable for very small ones only
Velocity ratio
Cannot maintain exact value As high as 60:1 Can be obtained
Slip
Causes loss of power
Positive non-slip drives
Lubrication
Does not need
Always requires
Economy
Only for power transmission Not as increased cost of gear production
3. Explain how open and cross belt drives function
Open belt drive

Employed when two parallel shafts have to rotate in the same direction
To increase arc of contact upper side of belt drive must be slack and
lower side must be tight
Shaft axes may be either horizontal or inclined and must be never
vertical
Crossed belt drive

Employed when two parallel shafts have to rotate in opposite direction

At the junction where belt crosses it rubs against itself and wears off
To avoid this problem shafts must be placed at a maximum distance
and operate at very low speeds

4. What is the difference between open and crossed systems of belt drives?
Parameter
Open belt drive
Crossed belt drive
Direction of shaft rotation
Same
Opposite
Belt wear
Not at all
Always
Speed of rotation
Can be increased
Only low always
Arc of contact
Less
More always
Power transmission
Less
More
5. What is meant by speed cone? Where is it used?
When speed of the driven shaft is to be changed very frequently a
stepped cone pulley/speed cone is used
98

It is a integral casting having three or more adjacent pulleys of

different sizes
One set of stepped cone pulleys is mounted in reverse on the driven
shaft
An endless belt is mounted around one pair of pulleys and shifted to
vary speed
Diameter of driven and driving pulley are such that the same belt will
operate
It is used in machine tools such as lathe, drilling machine etc.,
6. What is the function of a steeped cone pulley? Explain with a simple
sketch
When speed of the driven shaft is to be changed very frequently a
stepped cone pulley is used
It is a integral casting having three or more adjacent pulleys of
different sizes
One set of stepped cone pulleys is mounted in reverse on the driven
shaft
An endless belt is mounted around one pair of pulleys and shifted to
vary speed
Diameter of driven and driving pulley are such that the same belt will
operate
7. Sketch neatly a speed cone pulley. Explain its working. How is it useful in
practice?

When speed of the driven shaft is to be changed very frequently a

stepped cone pulley/speed cone is used
It is a integral casting having three or more adjacent pulleys of
different sizes
One set of stepped cone pulleys is mounted in reverse on the driven
shaft
An endless belt is mounted around one pair of pulleys and shifted to
vary speed
99

Diameter of driven and driving pulley are such that the same belt will
operate
It is used in machine tools such as lathe, drilling machine etc.,
8. Why jockey pulley is used

In an open belt drive if the center distance is small or driven pulley is

very small it reduces the arc of contact
To obtain the required tensions in the belt an idler pulley called jockey
pulley is placed on the slack side of the belt
This increases the arc of contact and thus tensions increasing power
transmission
9. How is the direction of rotation of the driven pulley in belt drives
reversed?
Crossed belt drive
Employed when two parallel shafts have to rotate in opposite direction
At the junction where belt crosses it rubs against itself and wears off
To avoid this problem shafts must be placed at a maximum distance
and operate at very low speeds
10. When are the fast and loose pulleys used? Explain

100

Main driving shaft drives a number of machines

When required to run some of the machines intermittently without stop
and start of the main driving shaft every time
Mounting of two pulleys known as fast and loose accomplishes this
Fast pulley is securely keyed to machine shaft and loose pulley is
freely mounted with a tight fitting brass bushing
Driving pulley is also keyed to the main shaft and rotates along with it
When the belt is on the fast pulley power is transmitted to the driven
shaft
Belt is shifted to loose pulley to bring the machine shaft to rest by belt
shifter
A collar and boss abutting prevents axial movement away and towards
fast pulley
11. Define slip. Why it occurs? Explain
Difference between the tensions in tight and slack sides of the belt is
equal to the force of friction
This ensures frictional grip to prevent belt sliding over the pulley
If tensions difference is greater than force of friction belt begins to
slide over the surface of the pulley
This sliding of belt causes relative motion between the pulley and belt
and is called slip
Occurs when difference between tensions in tight and slack side is very
large, coefficient of friction between belt and pulley decreases due to
belt stretching ot when pulley surface smoothness is more
12. What is creep in belt drives? Explain
Straight portions of the belt are subjected to alternately high and low
tensions
Slack side of the belt has lower tension and as it enters the driven
pulley it increases resulting in stress and stretches
Belt entering driving pulley is subjected to decrease in tension and
hence stress si reduced resulting in contraction of the belt
101

This alternate stretching and contraction increases the length of the belt
thus relative motion between belt and pulley surface called creep
This phenomenon results in loss of power and decrease in velocity
ration
13. What are the advantages and disadvantages of flat belt drives?
Advantages
Disadvantages
Small bending cross section causes little
Not suitable for small center distances
bending loss hence high belt efficiency
Can be installed in a very simple and secure
Exact velocity ration cannot be maintained
manner
Contact area is more hence less slippage
Slip and creep cause loss of power
Durability of belt is more
High power cannot be transmitted effectively
Suitable for large center distances
Economical system of power transmission

14. With a neat sketch explain tight and slack sides, arc of contact and
velocity ratio in flat belt drives

Tight side and slack side

When the shafts are placed far apart the lower side of the belt should
be the tight side and the upper side must be the slack side.
This helps the belt sag in slack side and increase of arc of contact
which in turn increases the drive capacity
Arc of contact
It is the circumferential contact of the belt with the driving pulley
Velocity ratio
It is the ratio of the speed of the driving pulley (N1) to the speed of
driven pulley (N2)
If d1 is the diameter of the driving pulley and d2 is the diameter of the
driven pulley
Linear speed of the belt = circumferential speed of the driving pulley =
circumferential speed of the driven pulley
d1N1 = d2N2

d1N1 = d2N2

N d
velocity ratio= 1 = 2
N 2 d1
15. Derive an expression for the ratios of tensions in the belt in terms of
regular notations
102

Driven pulley rotating in the clockwise direction has higher tension T1

in tight side than slack side T2
Consider a small element of the belt AB subtending an angle
If T is tension on slack side then T+T is tension on tight side
Let be coefficient of friction between belt surface and pulley rim
If R is the normal reaction exerted by pulley on belt element then R
acts perpendicular to R in the opposite direction of motion
Element AB is in equilibrium under the action of following forces
o Slack side tension T acting at A
o Tight side tension T+T acting at B
o The normal reaction R
o Force of friction R acting perpendicular to R
Polygon of forces acting on element are represented by a quadrilateral
Resolving all forces in direction of R

R= T sin
+ ( T +T ) sin
o
2
2
o

( )]
[ ( )] [
[ ( )] [ ( )]

For small angles sin 2 = 2

( )

( 2 ) can be neglected

+ T sin
2
2

R= 2T sin

R=2 T

( 2 )

= T

After resolving all the forces perpendicular to R

R= ( T +T ) cos
T cos
o
2
2

( )]

[ ( )]

103

R=T cos

( 2 )

For small angles cos 2 =1

( )

R=T

T=T

T
=
T

integrating between 0 T between T 2T 1

T2

(
T1

T
=
T
0

T1
=
T2
log e

( )

T 1
=e
where is angle of contact in radians and is
T2

coefficient of friction
16. Why gear drive is called positive type of power transmission
The prevalent problems incurring loss of power during transmission is
invariably slip and creep of the connecting element for the pulleys in
other drives.
Even the pulleys mounted on the shafts lack grip with the connecting
element in other drives.
These are eliminated as directly teethed gears are mounted on the shaft
and they mesh with each other to transmit power positively
17. When are spur, helical, worm/worm wheel, rack/pinion, bevel, spiral and
elliptical gears used?
Name of
Shaft
Sketch of gear
gear
condition
Spur
Parallel axes

104

Helical

Parallel, nonparallel and

nonintersecting

Spiral

non-parallel
and nonintersecting

Bevel

Intersecting

Elliptical

Parallel axes
to obtain
variable
motion for
driven shaft

105

Worm

Non-parallel
and noncoplanar

Rack and
pinion

Converting
rotary into
linear motion

18. Mention the types of gears used to obtain rotary motion from linear
motion, transmit power between perpendicular shafts in the same plane
and obtain varying rate of speed in every revolution of the driven gear
Rack and
Converting
pinion
rotary into linear
motion

Bevel

Intersecting

106

Elliptical

Parallel axes to
obtain variable
motion for
driven shaft

19. Name the different types of gears used in power transmission

Name of gear
Shaft condition
Spur
Parallel axes
Helical
Parallel, non-parallel and non-intersecting
Spiral
non-parallel and non-intersecting
Bevel
Intersecting
Elliptical
Parallel axes to obtain variable motion for driven shaft
Worm
Non-parallel and non-coplanar
Rack and pinion Converting rotary into linear motion
20. Define velocity ratio of toothed wheels
Ration of speed of the driven gear to the speed of the driving gear
Let d1, d2, N1, N2, T1, T2 be diameter, speed and teeth of driving and
driven gears respectively
Since no slip between pitch cylinders of the two gear wheels the linear
speed must be equal
d1 N1 = d2 N2
N 1 d2
=
N 2 d1
t h e circular pitc h for bot h mes h ing gears remainsame

Pc =

d 1 d2
=
T1
T2

T 2 d2
=
T 1 d1
velocity ratio=

N 1 d2
=
N 2 d1

T2
T1

21. Which type of gearing offers self locking state the reason?
Worm and worm wheel:
They transmit power between driving and driven shafts with axes at
right angles and non-coplanar.
Worm drive consists of a worm and a worm wheel
Worm essentially a screw has one or more number of helical threads of
trapezoidal shape cut on it

107

Worm wheel is a gear wheel with tooth profile consisting of a small

segment of helix which engages with the worm
Suitable for high velocity ratio of 60:1 as in machine tools to get large
speed reduction
When the direction of the drive is reversed it offers self locking facility
between driven and the driving units
22. What are the advantages and disadvantages of gear drives?
Advantages
Disadvantages
Positive non-slip drives
Not suitable for shafts of very large center
distances
Most convenient for small center distances Always require some kind of lubrication
Possible to transmit power irrespective of
At very high speeds noise and vibrations
the axes of the shafts
are more
Velocity ratio will remain constant
Not economical since cost of producing
throughout
precision gears is more
Employed conveniently for low, medium
Use of large number of gear wheels in gear
and high power transmission
trains increases machine weight
Any velocity ration as high as 60:1 is obtained
Very high transmission efficiency
Gears can be cast in a wide range of metallic and non-metallic materials
Gears can be cast integral with the shafts
Employed for wide range of applications
23. Differentiate between simple and compound gear trains
Simple gear train
Compound gear train

Each shaft carries only one gear

wheel
Intermediate gears establish the drive
between driving and driven gears and
do not contribute to the velocity ratio

Useful when velocity ratio is very high

Intermediate shaft carries two gears which are
keyed to it

108

Intermediate gears are also called

idler gears
Even number of idlers rotate driven
gear in opposite direction of the
driving gear
Odd number of idlers rotate driven
gear in same direction of the driving
gear

Intermediate gears are called compound gears

and they rotate at the same speed
For compaction this type is most opted

24. Draw a neat sketch of a simple gear train where both gears rotate in the
same direction

Numerical
1. A shaft running at 100rpm is to drive a parallel shaft at 150rpm. The pulley on
the driving shaft is 35cm in diameter. Find the diameter of the driven pulley.
Calculate the linear velocity of the belt and also the velocity ratio
2. In an open belt drive running in the clockwise direction, the tension in the
tight side is 3000N and the arc of contact is 1500. If the coefficient of friction
id 0.3, find the tension on the slack side of the belt
3. In a crossed belt drive the difference in tensions between tight and slack side
of the belt is 1000N. find the tensions on the slack and tight sides, if the angle
of contact is 1600 and the coefficient of friction id 0.3
4. In a belt drive the angle of lap on the driven pulley is 1600 and the coefficient
of friction between the pulley and the belt material is 0.28. if the width of the
belt is 200mm and the maximum tension in the belt is not to exceed 50N per
mm width, find the initial tension in the belt drive
5. A simple gear train is made up of four gears A, B <C and D having 20, 40, 60
and 70 teeth respectively. If gear A uis the main driver rotating at 500rpm
clockwise, calculate speeds of intermediate gears, speed and direction of the
last follower and train value
6. Two spur gears A and B connect two parallel shafts that are 500mm apart.
Gear A runs at 400rpm and gear B at 200rpm. If the circular pitch is given to
be 30mm, calculate the number of teeth on gears A and B
7. It is required to drive a shaft A at 600rpm by a belt using a pulley of 150mm
diameter on another parallel shaft B running at 240rpm. What would be the
diameter of the pulley on the shaft A? Find velocity ration also
109

8. In a cross belt drive the difference in tension between the tight side and slack
side is 1200N. if the angle of contact is 1600 and coefficient of friction is 0.28,
find the tensions in the tight and slack sides
9. Two pulleys are connected by a crossed belt. The velocity ratio of the drive is
3. The driving pulley runs at 1000rpm and is of 120cm diameter. Find the
speed and the diameter of the driven pulley. Draw a line diagram of the drive
10. A pulley of 50cm diameter is driven by another pullet of 75cm diameter and
the two are connected by a leather belt. If the smaller pulley runs at 150rpm,
find the speed of the larger pulley and also find the velocity of the belt in
m/min
11. In a belt drive the velocity ratio is 3. The driving pulley runs at 400rpm. The
diameter of the driven pulley is 30cm. find the speed of the driven pulley and
the diameter of the driving pulley
12. In a belt drive the ratio of tensions may be assumed as 2 and the slack side
tension is 50kg. if the speed and the diameter of the driven pulley are 200rom
and 120cm respectively, find the power transmitted
13. An engine shaft running at 200rpm is required to drive a generator at 300rpm
by means of a flat belt drive. Pulley on the driving shaft has 500cm diameter.
Determine the diameter of the pulley on the generator shaft if the belt
thickness is 8mm and slip is 4%
14. Two parallel shafts 6m apart are provided with 300mm and 400mm diameter
pulleys and are connected b a cross belt. The direction of rotation of the
follower pulley is to be reversed by changing over to an open belt drive. How
much length of the belt should be changed?
15. Two parallel shafts are driven by a spur gear drive. The driving wheel runs at
120rpm and the driven wheel runs at 180rpm. If the number of teeth on the
driving wheel is 100, find the number of teeth on the driven wheel and the
velocity ratio
16. A simple train of wheel consists of successively engaging three wheels having
number of teeth 40, 50 and 70 respectively. Find the velocity ratio. If the
driving wheel having 40teeth is rotating at 210rpm, find the speed of the
driven wheel
17. In a compound train f wheels, the wheels A, B L C and D have 15, 30, 20 and
40 teeth respectively. The wheels B and C are keyed to the same spindle. If the
wheel A runs at 400rpm, find the speed of the wheel D. sketch the
arrangements
18. Two spur gears P and Q connect two parallel shafts that are 450mm apart.
Gear P runs at double the speed of gear Q. gear Q runs at 150rom in the
counter-clockwise direction. If the circular pitch is given to be 20mm,
calculate the number of teeth on gears P and Q
1. Explain soldering. What solders are commonly used in soldering? Why
the flux is necessary?
Soldering is a method of uniting two thin metal pieces using a
dissimilar metal or an alloy by the application of heat
Alloy of lead and tin called soft solder is used for sheet metal work,
plumbing and electrical junctions (melting temperature is between 150
to 3500C)
110

Zinc chloride is the common flux used in soft soldering

An alloy of copper, tin and silver known as hard solder is used for
stronger joints (melting temperature is between 600 to 9000C)
To clean the joint surfaces and to prevent the oxidation flux is used
while soldering
2. Explain method of soldering

Cleaning of joining surfaces:

o Mechanical cleaning to make them free from dust, oil,
scales etc.,
o Ensure molten filler metal wets the surface
Application of flux:
o Joining surface is coated with a flux usually borax or
rosin
o Flux cleans the surfaces chemically and helps the
solder to make a bond
Tinning of the surface to be soldered:
o Soldering iron must be tinned i.e., removing a thin film
of oxide formed on the copper bit to facilitate better
heating
o Copper bit is heated and rubbed with a file to clean
properly
o Rotating with solder suing resin forms a thin film of
solder over the copper bit
Heating:
o Soldering iron is heated and the flowing molten filler
metal fills the joint interface
o Let te soldered area to cool and thus solidify to make a
joint
Final clean-up:
o Cleaning joints with steel wool or solvent to remove
left-over flux
o Cleaning the soldering iron using a damp sponge
3. What are the advantages of soldering?
Low cost and easy to use
Joints are easy to repair or rework
Joints can last for many years
Low energy is required
111

 Experience lets exercise high degree of control over the process

4. What are the differences between soldering and brazing?
Parameter
Soldering
Brazing
0
filler metal melting point below 450 C
450 to 10000C
Joints condition
Weaker
Stronger
Typical filler metals
Tin alloys
Aluminum, silver, copper,
nickel and gold
Flux
Usually rosin
Usually borax
Economy
Yes
Not so
Suitability
Small thickness of metals
Even large thicknesses can
only
be joined
5. Explain brazing. What fillers are commonly used in brazing? Why the
flux is necessary?
Method of joining two similar or dissimilar metals using a specific
fusible alloy producing stronger joints than soldering
Base metals are not melted but filler metal must have the ability to wet
the joining surfaces
Some diffusion or alloying of filler with base metal takes place
Fillers are copper and silver based alloys and are classified as spelters
After cleaning the surface flux is applied in the place of joint to
remove oxides
Common borax and boric acid is used as flux
6. Explain methods of brazing
Surfaces to be joined are cleaned removing oxides and grease
Flux is applied at the place of the joint
Joint and filler material are heated by an oxy-acetylene welding torch
Heating is done to a stage above the melting temperature of the filler
material
Due to capillary action filler material flows into the joint and on
cooling produces a strong joint
7. What are the advantages of brazing?
It is possible to join virtually any dissimilar metals
Bond line is aesthetically very neat
Joint strength is strong enough for no-heavy-duty type applications
8. What are the differences between brazing and welding?
Parameter
Brazing
welding
Surfaces to be joined
Are not melted
Are melted
Penetration into the base
Not at all
There is
metal
Filler alloy
Spreads along the joint
Solidifies where it melts
After cooling operation
Not required
Chipping necessary
Joint strength
Relatively weaker
Relatively stronger
Operator skill required
Average
High
Economy
Not at all
Really
9. Explain the principle of welding
112

Parts to be welded are wired as one pole and the electrode forms the
other and these two when separated slightly an electric arc is formed
Concentrated heat is produced throughout the length of the arc at a
temperature of about 5000 to 60000C
On arc production intense heat melts the work piece to form a metal
pool
Also the electrode melts and agitates the metal pool thoroughly mixing
base and filler material
Flux coating on the electrode produces an inert gaseous shield
surrounding the arc and also it protects the molten metal from
oxidizing in atmosphere contact
10. What are the differences between pressure and fusion welding?
Parameter
Pressure Welding
Fusion Welding
Basic principle employed
Pressure
Fusion
Heating of parts to be joined To plastic state
To molten state
Fusing together
By external pressure No pressure only solidification
Types
Forge and resistance Arc and gas
Temperature needed
Less
More
11. Differentiate arc and gas welding
Parameter
Arc welding
Gas welding
Poles for creating an arc
Necessary
Not necessary
Concentrated heat produced
5000 to 60000C
Below 40000C
Welding unit
Electrode holder Welding torch
Adaptability for different parts to be welded Electrode has to
Flame can be
be changed and
adjusted and is
is difficult
easy
Flux material
With the filler
Optional (for
material
non-ferrous)
12. Differentiate consumable and non-consumable electrodes
Parameter
Consumable electrode
Non-consumable electrode
Filler material
It melts and fills the joint
Additional filler material is
required as it does not melt
Coating
Usually with flux
No coating
Flux material
Part of electrode normally
Separate item
113

13. State the advantages of coated electrodes

14. What is electric arc cutting? Explain
15. Name the three types of oxy-acetylene flame. Explain the application of
each one of them

16. With sketch indicate different flame formations in gas welding

17. What are the common defects found in welding?
18. Explain the sequential procedure of welding
19. What are the merits and demerits of welding?
20. Describe some of the common applications of welding
21. With the help of a neat sketch explain gas welding
22. What is oxy-acetylene welding
23. Explain advantages and disadvantages of oxy-acetylene welding
24. What are the types of fasteners? Briefly explain
25. Sketch and describe Single start thread
26. Sketch and describe Multi start thread
27. Sketch and describe Stud
28. What are the types of nuts and bolts? Briefly elicit

114