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MODULE 7
Sub Module 7.17
ISO9001:2008Certified
PTC/CM/B2 Basic/M7/03
7.17
ForTrainingPurposeOnly
Rev. 00
Mar 2014
Contents
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE .................................. 1
MOVING METHODS ................................................................. 2
AIRCRAFT TOWING ................................................................. 2
AIRCRAFT TAXIING .................................................................. 2
PRECAUTIONS WHEN TOWING / TAXING AIRCRAFT .......... 3
AIRCRAFT JACKING ................................................................ 4
JACKING PRECAUTIONS ........................................................ 7
PARKING AND MOORING AIRCRAFT ................................... 11
CHOCKING OF AIRCRAFT ..................................................... 15
AIRCRAFT STORAGE ............................................................ 16
AIRCRAFT FUELLING PROCEDURES .................................. 20
DEFUELLING .......................................................................... 22
DE-ICING/ANTI-ICING OF AIRCRAFT ................................... 23
GROUND ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES ....................................... 31
GROUND HYDRAULIC SUPPLIES ......................................... 33
GROUND PNEUMATIC SUPPLIES ........................................ 34
EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS ON
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND OPERATION ............................. 36
ISO9001:2008Certified
PTC/CM/B2 Basic/M7/03
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ForTrainingPurposeOnly
Rev. 00
Mar 2014
ISO9001:2008Certified
PTC/CM/B2 Basic/M7/03
7.17 - 1
ForTrainingPurposeOnly
Rev. 00
Mar 2014
MOVING METHODS
AIRCRAFT TAXIING
AIRCRAFT TOWING
This is the normal method used on large aircraft. The aircraft is
normally towed with a suitable tractor (or tug) and using the
correct, purpose-made towing arm for the specific aircraft. A
person familiar with, and authorised to operate, the aircraft
brake system should be seated in the cockpit (or on the flight
deck) to apply the brakes in an emergency. The brakes should
not normally be applied unless the aircraft is stationary.
The relevant maintenance manual will normally specify details
of the towing arm and any limitations on the towing procedure.
On many aircraft with nose-wheel steering, it is normal practice
to disconnect or depressurise the aircraft steering system
before towing.
ISO9001:2008Certified
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Mar 2014
Large, multi-engined aircraft will usually be towed with specialpurpose tug and a suitable towing arm that includes a shear pin,
designed to shear if a pre-determined towing load is exceeded.
In an emergency it may be necessary to move an aircraft from
the runway if it has one or more deflated tyres. Provided there is
one sound tyre on the axle the aircraft may be towed to the
maintenance area, but sharp turns must be avoided and towing
speed kept to a minimum.
If there are no sound tyres on an axle, the aircraft should only
be moved the shortest distance in order to clear an active
runway and serviceable wheels should be provided before
towing. After any tyre failure, the associated wheel and other
wheels on the same axle should be inspected for signs of
damage.
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AIRCRAFT JACKING
Aircraft may need to be jacked for a variety of purposes. These
may include component changes, retraction tests, weighing of
the aircraft and aircraft rigging checks. Care needs to be taken
when jacking, to avoid damage to aircraft or equipment.
Jacking points are provided in the wings and fuselage, at strong
points, to enable the whole aircraft to be lifted, and there are,
usually, other points, at the nose and main undercarriages, to
enable individual wheels to be changed (refer to Fig. 1).
Some aircraft require a jacking pad to be fitted to each jacking
point, while in some, the jacking pads are built into the structure.
Special jacking adapters and beams may be available to lift
individual axles.
Nose Jacking
Point (Offset)
Main Jacking
Points
Special Considerations
Because of the position of the jacking points, the C.G. of some
aircraft may be well behind, or in front of, the main jacking
points. It may be necessary to add ballast forward or rear of the
jacking points or to check the fuel load of the aircraft, to bring
the centre of gravity within safe limits as specified in the
Maintenance Manual.
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Nose Jacking
Point (Offset)
Typical Jacking Points
Fi 1
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Aircraft jacks
Aircraft jacks are intended for raising and lowering loads and
should not be used for supporting the loads for long periods.
Where a load must remain raised for a long period, it should be
supported on blocks or trestles after it has been jacked to the
required height. The most common types of aircraft jacks are
the pillar, trolley, bipod, tripod and the quadruped hydraulic
jacks. There are several sizes of jacks, with capacities ranging
from 4000 kg and greater.
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JACKING PRECAUTIONS
As a safety precaution, small aircraft should normally be jacked
inside a hangar.
Larger aircraft may be jacked outside, provided they are
positioned nose into wind; the jacking surface is level and
strong enough to support the weight, and that any special
instructions, stated in the Maintenance Manual, are observed.
A maximum wind speed, stated for jacking outside, can also be
found within the Maintenance Manual. The aircraft to be jacked
should be chocked fore and aft and the brakes positioned to
OFF (brakes released). If the brakes are inadvertently left in the
ON position (brakes applied) stress could be introduced to the
landing gear or to the aircraft structure, due to weight redistribution as the aircraft is raised.
Checks should be made on the aircraft weight, its fuel state, and
centre of gravity, to ensure they are within the specified limits as
detailed in the Maintenance Manual. The aircraft should be
headed into wind (if it is in the open), the main wheels chocked
fore and aft, the brakes released and the undercarriage ground
locks installed.
It is vital that the earth cable be connect to the earth point on
the aircraft and it must be ensured that there is adequate
clearance above every part of the aircraft and that there is
clearance for lifting cranes or other equipment, which may be
required.
Jacking pads should be attached to the jacking points and
adapters provided for the jacks as required. Load cells may also
be included if needed.
Jacking Procedures
While the following procedures will, generally, ensure safe and
satisfactory jacking of most aircraft, precedence must always be
given to the procedures and precautions specified in the
relevant Maintenance Manual.
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Slinging
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The use of the correct equipment for lifting aircraft parts will
minimise the risk of damage to the aircraft and personnel. A list
of special equipment is usually in the front of the Maintenance
Manual. This list will usually include special slings to be used on
the aircraft and any other special equipment or tools required.
Slings may be of the three-point type, as used for lifting-main
planes, while other types, used for lifting engines, fuselages or
other large items may be provided with spreader bars or struts.
Before removing a main plane, the opposite main plane must be
supported with trestles. To attach a sling, some aircraft have
special slinging points with threaded holes in the airframe,
which are used to accommodate the eye or fork-end bolts of the
sling. These holes are normally sealed, with removable plugs,
when not in use. As an alternative to screw-in devices, some
slings are used in conjunction with strong straps that pass under
the component to be lifted.
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Lifting Tackle
The following is a list of safety precautions that must be used
when using lifting tackle:
Wire rope, chain or fibre rope may be used for lifting purposes.
Before use, the tackle should be inspected to ensure that it is
serviceable, is of the correct type and, when used, that the Safe
Working Load (SWL) is not exceeded. The SWL should be
stated on an identification plate, attached to the lifting sling, and
should never be removed from the sling.
Wire Rope is used with cranes, hoists, gantries and various
slings. Before use, the wire rope, splices and attachments
should be inspected for damage such as wear, corrosion and
broken wires.
In use, care should be taken that the rope does not kink under
load. Before multiple leg wire rope slings are used, they should
be laid out on the floor to ensure shackles are correctly attached
and the fittings are not twisted. Knotting of ropes, to shorten
them, is prohibited.
Wire rope slings may be treated against corrosion by immersion
in oil and the surplus oil wiped off, but this treatment must not
be applied to slings used for oxygen cylinders. They must
always be free from oil or grease.
Chains are used with cranes and various types of sling. Before
use, all chains must be inspected for damage such as cracks,
distortion, excessive wear and socketing.
Socketing is the name given to the grooves, produced in the
ends of links, when the links wear against each other. Any
reduction in diameter will render the chain unserviceable.
Fibre rope slings may be used for lifting lighter components, and
are made from natural fibres such as sisal, hemp or nylon
fibres. They must be inspected for frayed strands, pulled
splices, excessive wear and deterioration.
When not in use, fibre rope slings should be hung on pegs, in a
sheltered position, and free from dampness. Immediately before
use, the rope should be opened up, by slightly untwisting the
strands, to ensure they are not damaged or mildewed internally.
A damaged or mildewed fibre rope sling should not be used,
and it must be destroyed, by cutting into small, unusable
sections, before final disposal.
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Parking
Between flights it is usually sufficient to apply the parking
brakes, lock the control surfaces and chock the wheels but, in a
strong wind, light aircraft should be headed into the wind. Light
aircraft without wheel brakes should be headed into wind and
their wheels chocked front and rear.
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Mooring (Picketing)
In certain weather conditions, particular in high winds, it would
be recommended that the aircraft be parked in a hangar. If they
must be left outside, then smaller aircraft may need to be tied
down. The aircraft may be provided with picketing rings or
attachment points at the wings and tail or adjacent to the
undercarriage legs (refer to Fig. 2).
C
View A
View B
View C
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Intake Blank
Pitot-Static Blanks
Exhaust Blank
Nose Wheel Covers
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CHOCKING OF AIRCRAFT
When aircraft are parked, it is normal to place a chock ahead
and behind at least one wheel set. The parking brakes are
usually left in the off position once chocks are in position, to
allow the heat, generated by the brakes, to dissipate evenly.
At high wind speeds, it is normal to chock all the wheels and
apply the brakes (if they have cooled). Some aircraft chocks can
be chained together, to give a more secure hold. During ground
runs (and especially those involving high power), it is common
sense to place chocks at the front of all main wheel sets, to
reinforce the parking brake.
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AIRCRAFT STORAGE
If an aircraft is de-activated for an extended time it will need to
be protected against corrosion, deterioration and environmental
conditions during its period of storage.
The following notes are based on the storage procedures
applicable to BAe 146 aircraft that have been de-activated for
periods in excess of 30 days and up to a maximum of 2 years. It
is not intended for the information given here to be complete,
but merely to give the student examples of some of the activities
performed. Specific details of an aircrafts storage procedures
can be found in Chapter 10 of the relevant Maintenance
Manual.
corrosion-
ISO9001:2008Certified
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To allow the circulation of air around the inside of the aircraft, all
the doors and curtains are fixed open, whilst all the external
doors and panels are shut. The battery will be removed from the
aircraft and kept in the battery bay.
More active checks might be done on the two-weekly checks.
These checks will probably involve re-installing the battery,
running the engines for a period and functionally testing a
number of the aircrafts systems that require the engines
operating. The flight controls might require cycling throughout
their ranges and, if dummy tyres are not fitted, the aircraft must
be moved slightly to prevent flat spots forming on the tyres.
All the tanks must be replenished to their correct levels and all
pressure vessels will require their gases charging to their
normal operating pressures. If the cabin furnishings, such as
seats, carpets and galleys have been removed, they are to be
inspected and, when serviceable, re-installed in the cabin.
As already stated, the foregoing summaries are only examples
of the form that a basic aircraft storage procedure might take. If
the aircraft is smaller or larger and more complex it will require a
different form of inspection and routine checking.
The correct storage procedures will be found in Chapter 10 of
the relevant aircrafts Maintenance Manual.
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It is vital that the correct type and grade of fuel is used for the
fuelling operation. Use of a turbine fuel in a piston aircraft will
certainly cause an engine malfunction, or failure, that could lead
to loss of an aircraft. The correct type and grade of fuel is
always detailed in the Maintenance Manual and marked
adjacent to the aircrafts fuelling point(s).
Care should also be exercised so as to avoid contamination of
the fuel system with water or other contaminants. The fuel
supply should be regularly checked for water contamination and
a sample of fuel drained off after refuelling, so that a water
check may be done.
It will sometimes be necessary to filter the fuel during over-wing
refuelling, particularly in dusty climates.
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Refueling
When refuelling the AMM should always be consulted so that
the positions and capacities of the fuel tanks and also the type
of fuel, position of the refuelling point(s) and refuelling
procedures are known. There are two general re-fuelling
methods:
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DEFUELLING
Occasionally, it is necessary to remove fuel from an aircraft, to
facilitate fuel tank maintenance, or because the aircraft is too
heavily loaded for the next flight.
Removing fuel from an aircraft can be accomplished by either
the gravity or by the pressure defuelling method.
The gravity method entails draining the fuel into a suitably
earthed container, and this is typical of light aircraft, which are
normally gravity refuelled. The fuel removed must be disposed
of in the correct manner, with regard to local instructions and to
the environment.
Aircraft that are normally pressure refuelled are normally
equipped with a pressure defuelling facility. Pressure defuelling
is achieved by utilising a small negative pressure (suction),
which effectively draws the fuel out of the tank and returns it into
the fuel tanker (bowser).
Current rules will normally only allow the fuel, removed from an
aircraft, to be placed into a dedicated defueller vehicle and the
fuel will not be permitted to be used in another aircraft. This
ensures that any contamination such as water or debris will not
be transferred to other aircraft.
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DE-ICING/ANTI-ICING OF AIRCRAFT
Ice Types
There are three main types of ice/frost that can affect an
aircrafts performance, Hoar Frost, Rime Ice and Glaze Ice. The
temperature and weather conditions will determine the type of
ice that forms, but all three types can have a detrimental effect.
The Dew Point is the temperature at which moist air becomes
saturated and deposits dew if in contact with a colder surface or
the ground. Above ground, condensation into water droplets
takes place.
Hoar Frost is a deposit of ice crystals that form on an object
when the dew point is below freezing point. High humidity will
normally produce hoar frost, as these are similar to conditions
that produce dew. Hoar frost can form when the air temperature
is greater than 0C, but the aircraft skin temperature is less than
0C. This type of frost produces a very rough surface which
leads to turbulent airflow.
Glaze Ice can be either transparent or opaque and can form into
a glassy surface due to liquid water flowing over a surface
before freezing. It is the most dangerous type of ice found on an
aircraft and is dense, heavy and tough. It adheres firmly to a
surface, is difficult to shake off, and if it does breakaway, it does
so in large chunks.
During cold weather operations, it may be necessary to remove
ice and snow from the aircraft, while it is on the ground, and to
keep it clear long enough, to allow the aircrafts systems to cope
with snow or ice removal. This may not occur until the aircraft is
flying.
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On the ground, the aircraft must be cleared of all snow and ice
from its wings, tail, control surfaces, engine inlets and other
critical areas (refer to Fig. 4) before the aircraft can take-off.
Rudder
VHF
Antenna
Ailerons
Elevator
TCAS
Antenna
Flaps
Pitot and
Static
Heads
Slats
Engine Nacelle
Critical Surfaces for De-icing and Anti-icing
Fig. 4
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Definitions
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The One Step method utilises hot fluid to de-ice the aircraft, and
this fluid remains on the aircraft surfaces to give a limited antiicing capability.
The Two Step method consists of two separate fluid application
procedures. The first step is the de-icing part and the second
step the anti-icing. This second step must be done within three
minutes of starting the first step, surface by surface if
necessary. The second anti-icing step protects the aircraft
surfaces for a holdover period.
Whilst the AMM will detail the exact areas for de-icing and antiicing, particular attention should be paid to areas around
probes, antennas, and pitot/static ports as well as control
surfaces, landing gear and inlets and exhausts.
Chemical De-Icing
Freezing Point Depressant (FPD) compounds are often used in
conjunction with mechanical methods, and there are two main
types of FPD compounds:
Type 1 (unthickened)
Type 2 (thickened)
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Light dry snow should be blown off using a cold air blower. Hot
air is not recommended as it may melt the snow which may
accumulate and freeze requiring further treatment.
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On some aircraft, not equipped with aerofoil or propeller deicing systems, the use of a de-icing paste may be specified. The
paste is spread evenly, by hand, over wing, tail and propeller
leading edges. It provides a chemically active surface on which
ice may form but not produce a bond. Any ice, which forms, is
blown away by the airflow. The paste should be re-applied
before each flight in accordance with the AMM.
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Tyres to ensure that they are not frozen to the ground. They
should be freed by the application of hot air to the ice (not
the tyre) and the aircraft moved to a dry area
Engine air intakes for ice and snow deposits
Gas turbine engines for freedom of rotation by hand.
Restriction may indicate icing in the compressor region and
the engine should be blown through with hot air immediately
before starting until the rotating parts are free
Shock absorber struts and hydraulic jacks for leaks caused
by contraction of seals and metal parts
Tyre pressures and shock absorber pressure and extension
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The 115 volt ac connection has six pins, with four pins being
longer than the other two. The four longer pins provide the three
phases and the neutral connection whilst the short pins provide
the safety interlock.
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3 PIN EXTERNAL
POWER RECEPTACLE
EARTH
EXTERNAL
POWER
READY
LIGHT
SERVICE
INTERPHONE
CONNECTION
NOSE
WHEEL
WELL
LIGHTS
A.C. PHASE A
EXTERNAL
SUPPLY SOCKET
A.C. PHASE B
POSITIVE D.C.
3 PIN
PLUG
POSITIVE D.C.
A.C. PHASE C
ACCESS
DOOR
A.C. NEUTRAL
D.C.
ac Power Receptacle
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The rig must be kept clean and all hoses blanked when not
in use
The filters must be changed or cleaned
All the gauges should be calibrated
Any electrical equipment on the rigs should be checked.
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EFFECTS
OF
ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND OPERATION
ON
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Falling rain (and fog) will demand that more care be taken, due
to the reduced visibility, especially when towing is in progress.
The use of all normal lights, day or night, when moving vehicles
in rain, is most important.
Where there is a risk of rain and the aircraft is to be parked,
then the appropriate aircraft blanks and covers must be used. It
is also inadvisable to re-fuel aircraft by the open line (over
wing) method in rain, due to the high risk of water getting into
the tank whilst the filler cap is removed. Great care must be
taken, to protect the filler neck orifice, so that very little water
enters the tank.
If a task needs to be completed on the upper surface of a wet
wing, it would be advisable to use a safety raiser or cherry
picker. This mobile craning device will allow safe access to the
upper surfaces of a high wing and also provide the technician
with a safety device, to hook onto, should the need arise.
Snow and Ice
Many of the precautions, already mentioned, also apply in
conditions of snow and ice. Aircraft towing and taxiing may be
restricted until all standing precipitation has been cleared from
the area to be used.
The loss of visibility during falling snow can be severe,
especially at times of low light, so great care must be shown if it
is considered essential that an aircraft movement must take
place. This may require a larger than normal towing team and
the use of extra lights.
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High Temperature
Certain items of equipment are temperature-sensitive and,
when aircraft are operated in environments of extreme high
temperature (+55C), then several extra precautions have to be
taken.
Some form of cooling must be provided to ensue that the crew
does not suffer from heat exhaustion, and reduce their
efficiency. The operating temperature electronic equipment
must also be kept below a critical level, to ensure its continued
serviceability.
Most of the larger aircraft have an auxiliary power unit (APU),
which can provide a supply of bleed air to allow the air
conditioning system of the aircraft to operate on the ground.
If an APU is not available, then external air conditioning units
can be connected to the aircraft to keep the inside cool. These
cooling rigs should have an air conditioning unit of suitable
capacity for the size of the aircraft that requires cooling.
Some turbo-propeller passenger aircraft have the facility to run
an engine, without the propeller turning, to provide air
conditioning on the ground.
This facility is known as the Hotel Mode and, effectively,
enables an engine to operate in a similar manner to an APU,
without the need to carry extra weight.
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