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Running head: LEARNING THEORIES

Learning Theories
Team Four
Alysce Parish, Kimberly Vice, Molly Little, Nicolette Silverio
NURS 5327
University of Texas at Tyler

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LEARNING THEORIES

Learning Theories
Behaviorism
The behaviorism learning theory is centered on the thought that learning is a change in
the form or frequency of observable behavior that happens in response to an environmental
stimulus (Ertmer & Newby, 2013). Three scientists have contributed to the behaviorism learning
theory, Pavlov, Thorndike, and Skinner. Pavlov introduced the idea of classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning is when an unconditioned response occurs after the introduction of an
unconditioned stimulus (Pettigrew, 2015). Thorndike proposed that learning occurs through trial
and error. He hypothesized that learning is the formulation of connections between sensory
stimuli and neural impulses that are identified through behavior" (Pettigrew, 2015, p. 17).
Skinner formed the theory of operant conditioning which is a set of principles and
techniques (Aliakbari, Parvin, Heidari, & Haghani, 2015). Skinner looked at the final result of
the behavior as being formed from an action and its consequences. In operant conditioning,
behavior is changed through reinforcement. These reinforcements are either neutral, positive, or
negative (Pettigrew, 2015). When positively reinforcing a behavior, it strengthens the behavior
which can lead to the chance of recurrence thereby reaching learning goals (Aliakbar et al.,
2015).
In behaviorism, environmental factors place the greatest emphasis on learning (Ertmer &
Newby, 2013). The arrangement of stimuli and consequences within the environment are critical
to learning. The environment of the clinical setting or skills lab is stimulating and enhancing for
nursing students providing them strong learning experiences from the behaviorist perspective.
This provides opportunities for the students to learn a behavior in the presence of a stimulus.

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LEARNING THEORIES

However, unlike in a skills lab, the environment of the clinical setting cannot be fully
manipulated by the instructors. This creates a weakness in nursing education from the
behaviorist perspective.
Cognitivism
Cognitivism theories focus on the internal process of learning. Learning is not a change
of behavior and cannot be observed, but is associated with a change in mental structure and
emphasis on promoting mental processing. Learning is based on what students know and how
they come to acquire it (Ertmer & Newby, 2013). "Cognitive theories focus on the
conceptualization of students learning processes and address the issues of how information is
received, organized, stored, and retrieved by the mind" (Ertmer & Newby, 2013, p. 51). Memory
plays an important role in the cognitivism theory. Learning results when information is stored in
memory in an organized, meaningful manner.
The use of the cognitive theory is appropriate for explaining complex forms of learning,
such as reasoning, problem-solving and information- processing (Ertmer & Newby, 2013). This
makes it useful in nursing education. A weakness of cognitive theories is that instructional
components alone cannot account for all the learning that results from an instructional situation.
Many of the necessary key elements needed for learning rely on how the learners gather, store,
and retrieve the information.
Social cognitivism
A major contributor to the social cognitivism is Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky expanded Jean
Piagets developmental theory of cognitive abilities to include social-cultural reasoning
(Oermann, 2015). His theory of Cognitive Development is centered on the interaction between
the learner and social environment (Aliakbari, Parvin, Heidaria, & Haghani, 2015). The theory is

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LEARNING THEORIES

based on the role that culture and language have on thinking and how teachers and students assist
one another in formulating new ideas and skills. The concept of the zone of proximal
development was introduced by Vygotsky, suggesting that students learn better with assistance
from teachers or peers in areas just outside of their level of experience (Oermann, 2015).
Social Learning Theory is based on the theory that much of human learning occurs in the
environment. The theory is built on the work of Albert Bandura. Banduras theory focuses on the
importance of learning, imitations, and modeling. The hypothesis of the theory is that there is a
continuous interaction between behaviors, cognitions, and the environment. The student and the
environment influence each other through modeling from observation of peers. Learning is
dependent on three internal processes: attention or observation, retaining or processing in
memory, and drive or having a reason to duplicate anothers behavior (Oermann, 2015).
Strengths of social cognitivism theories include concern with significant human social
behaviors and the focus on important theoretical issues like the role of reward in
learning (Meissler, 2012). Both of these strengths are useful in nursing education. Nursing
student must learn professionalism and many skills. Through preceptorship, students can learn
from human social behaviors. Students can observe the preceptors perform skills and techniques.
The student can learn effective ways of communication from observing the preceptors
interactions with patients and team members. Educators can act as stable professional role
models as well. They can display enthusiasm and interest in the nursing profession and transfer a
positive attitude to students (Aliakbari et al., 2015). Social cognitivism theories are not without
weaknesses. Free will is not taken into account in regards to a students response to the observer.
The theories assume that the student will establish rapport with the observer they are modeling.

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Humanism
The Humanistic Theory is based on cognitive and affective learning in which learning is
viewed as the attainment of ones potential. Abraham Maslow introduced the Hierarchy of Needs
theory in 1943. The concept of his theory is that our actions are focused toward goal attainment.
The lower level of needs (physiological needs) supersede the higher level of needs (selfactualization). When the highest level of needs is achieved ones growth potential is achieved.
According to Maslow, self-actualization cannot be reached until all lower level needs are met.
The lowest level of needs includes food, air, and water. Then second level of needs would be
based on safety. The next level of needs would include love, belonging, and esteem needs. The
final level of needs is self-actualization. Carl Rogers agreed with Maslow theory and expanded
it to take into account environmental needs. Rogers concluded that an individual needs and
environment that is genuine, accepting, and empathetic. Participatory and discovery methods are
two teaching methods based on humanism. The methods allow learners personal choice and
opportunity, while providing means and motivation (Oermann, 2015).
The educator using humanistic teaching methods needs to be emotionally mature and
open to sharing feeling and beliefs. This could be weakness for some educators that are new or
are accustomed to traditional teaching methods. For students that are used to traditional teaching
methods, they may interpret humanistic methods as irritating and unsatisfying. A strength of the
humanistic teaching methods is that it can foster strong student-teacher relationships. These
relationships will be based on reciprocal respect. The learning environment will encourage a
learner not to limit ones thoughts and opinions (Aliakbari et al., 2015).
Constructivism
The theory of constructivism is unique in that the learner constructs his or her own

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knowledge based on life experience, culture, opinion, and even interaction with the outside
world. Constructivisms main theme is that learning is an active, experiential process as opposed
to being acquired (Oermann 2015). Simply put, knowledge is created not learned from a
particular person i.e. an educator. This theory allows for the educator to take education from a
lecture, teacher-centered learning environment to an interactive, student-engaged learning
environment (Brandon & All 2010). As student-centered as this theory may be, it is not without
fault or weakness. One specifically is that each individual has different life experiences. The
foundation on which their knowledge is constructed is different by default. Furthermore, a
desired, measurable outcome may not be achieved. This could become problematic in nursing
education as most learning is measured in specific outcomes. The outcomes would need to be
measured differently for each individual. Strengths include the student-centered learning
environment. Students are in control of their own learning although this may make the
environment feel unstructured. Students will also hold more ownership of what they learn. This
theory encourages independence and autonomy in learning as opposed to being completely
teacher-dependent. This theory transforms the teaching role into a coaching or facilitating role.
Constructivism encourages and implores meaningful learning as the student is building upon
already experienced information.
In nursing education we see constructivism most commonly used in the clinical setting,
lab, case studies and simulation experiences. Students are actively participating in an experience,
therefore constructing new knowledge based on their personal experiences (DeCoux 2012).
Brain-Based Learning
A newer theory based from the influx of neuroscience is brain-based learning. This theory
is based in the extensive research using positron emission tomography and magnetic resonance

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imaging that has provided visualization and real time information on how the brain learns.
According to cognitive neuroscientists, learning literally changes our brain (Oermann, 2015).
Brain plasticity is a concept that has emerged from this research. The idea that experiences and
learning can change the physiology of the brain. During learning the area of the brain that is
stimulated develops increased number of branches in the neocortex enhancing connections with
other neurons creating more synapses.
Nursing and the education of nurses requires very diverse and varied teaching methods.
Some examples of brain based teaching include providing frequent, nonjudgmental feedback,
encourage peer support, allow students time to practice prior to testing and maintain a variety of
teaching methods. All of these examples are utilized in nursing education courses. Through
clinical groups, and labs, students are provided with more feedback from instructors and peer
support. A con to this theory it is not all inclusive. Some of nursing training requires straight
forward lecture and independent study of materials. It should be used in conjunction with other
theories. It encourages the social and physical growth of the student. Some students require
private study to work through problems on their own. Brain based learning encourages students
to make choices and encourages risk taking. This can be helpful as nurses improve critical
thinking skills and are required to make real time decisions.
Theory Comparison

Behaviorism

Cognitivism

Social Cognitivism

Humanism

Constructivism

Brain-Based
Learning

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Change in the
method or
frequency of a
behavior due to
some interaction
with the outer
environment"
(Pettigrew, 2015,
p. 17).

"Learning is a
semipermane
nt change in
mental
processes or
associations."
It is "not a
change in
behavior but
a change in
mental
structure"
(Oermann 20
15)

Role of social practices

in addition to internal
practices (Oermann,
2015).

Individuals act
based on
alleged needs
(Oermann,
2015).

"Learning is an
active,
contextualized
process of
constructing
knowledge
through
experiencing
and reflecting
on the
experience
rather than
acquiring it"
(Oermann 201
5)

Example
of
Teaching
Methods

Teaching
methods include
lecture,
repetition, skill
exercises, and
programmed/stru
ctured learning
and instruction
(Oermann 2015).

Teaching
methods
include
problem
solving,
reciprocal
teaching, and
scaffolding.

Teaching methods of
social cognitivism
include
demonstration/return
demonstration,
observational learning,
role modeling, and
scaffolding (Oermann,
2015).

Teaching
methods of
humanism
include
participatory
and discover
methods
(Oermann,
2015).

Teaching
methods
include class
discussion,
role
play, simulatio
n experiences,
team learning
(Oermann 201
5)

Ideal
Situation
for Theory
Use

During skill
exercises, such
as IV insertion,
the educator will
use positive
reinforcement to
solidify a
student's positive
behaviors.

The educator
will present a
case study
and provide
the students
with
appropriate
resources to
problem
solve
(example of
scaffolding)
(Oermann
2015).
Pros:
- Use of
numerous
resources
students take
active role
-promotes
complex
forms of
learning
- Develops
own potential
Cons:
- Outcomes
are measured

Students observation of a
preceptors for learning
objectives of
skills/techniques and
professional
communication.

Connection of
material to a
subject matter
that is
interesting to
learner. An
example would
be teaching
statistics to a
group of young
boys using
baseball
analogy.

The use of
clinical lab
learning teams
to help
students learn
confidence in
the clinical
setting and
experience lab
skills under the
guidance of an
educator.

Pros:
- Is helpful in group
environment.
-A weaker student can be
strengthened by a
stronger student in group
setting.
Cons:
-Not all
learners/observers with
respond to models the
same way.
(Aliakbari et al., 2015).

Pros:
-Encourages a
strong studentteacher
relationship.
Cons:
-Requires
curiosity in the
learner.
- May be
difficult
method for
teaching used
to traditional
methods or

Pros:
-Encourages
independent
learning/thinki
ng.
- Studentcentered
learning
environment
- Students
bring their own
history, culture
and
experiences to
learning

Theory
Definition

Skills lab using

mannequins
Pros and
Cons

Pros:
- Programmed
instruction
allows for
simplicity and
ease of both
learner and
educator
- Positive
reinforcement
strengthens good
behaviors
(Oermann 2015)
Cons:
- Behaviorism

According
to Jensen,
the active
engagement
of
purposeful
strategies
based on
principles
derived from
an
understandin
g of the
brain( as
cited in
Oermann,
2015)
Teaching
methods
include peer
support,
provide
some form
of feedback
to each
student,
classroom is
safe for risk
taking,
providing
choices.
Peer groups
such as
study groups
and clinical
groups, and
skills labs
allowing
students
practice and
environment
s to take
risks and
learn with
feedback.
Pros:
-Encourages
feedback for
students and
development
of critical
thinking
through risk
taking and
choices
Cons:
-does not
allow for the
need of
lecture

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LEARNING THEORIES
does not develop
advanced skills
such as problem
solving,
inference
generating, and
critical thinking
(Ertmer &
Newby, 2013).

only
cognitively
- Lack of
creativity
-instructor
must be very
experienced
and
knowledgeabl
e

new educators
that have not
completed selfdiscovery
(Aliakbari et
al., 2015)

Cons:
-Each student
is unique.
Learning/teach
ing cannot be
one-size-fitsall.
-May 'feel'
unstructured

material and
independent
study

-learning
involves
students'
previous
knowledge

Conclusion
In conclusion, there is more than one way to adequately approach learning and teaching.
Nurses and educators are committed to lifelong learning. Each learner, including the educator,
brings their own uniqueness to the classroom and the clinical setting. Therefore, the individuality
of the group as whole should be considered. According to Oermann, "the diversity of our
classrooms no longer allows a one-size-fits-all approach to learning." Nurse educators are
commissioned with the task of an engaging and challenging learning environment for students. It
will not be without challenge but the end result will be well taught, well rounded nurses.

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References
Aliakbari, F., Parvin, N., Heidari, M., & Haghani, F. (2015). Learning theories application in
nursing education. Journal of Education and Health Promotion, 4(2). doi:10.4103/22779531.151867
Brandon, A., & All, A. (2010). Constructivism theory analysis and application to curricula.
Nursing Education Perspectives, 31(2), 89-92 4p.
DeCoux Hampton, M. (2012). Constructivism applied to psychiatric-mental health nursing: An
alternative to supplement traditional clinical education. International Journal Of Mental
Health Nursing, 21(1), 60-68 9p.
Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (2013). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing
critical featurees from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement
Quarterly, 26(2), 43-71. doi:10.1002/piq.21143
Oermann, M.H. (2015). Teaching in nursing and the role of the educator: The complete guide to
best practice in teaching, evaluation, and curriculum development (pp. 15-33). New
York: Springer Publishing Company. ISBN: 9780826195531
Pettigrew, A. C. (2015). Learning and students. In M. H. Oermann (Ed.), Teaching in nursing
and role of the educator (pp. 15-33). New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company.
Meissler, M. (2012, June 26). Social Cognitive Learning Theorys Limitations, Strengths and
Weaknesses. Retrieved from https://meisslerm.wordpress.com/2012/06/26/strengths-andweaknesses-of-the-social-cognitive-learning-theory/