Cultural Values Reflected in Theme and Execution: A Comparative Study of U.S.

and Korean
Television Commercials
Author(s): Bongjin Cho, Up Kwon, James W. Gentry, Sunkyu Jun and Fredric Kropp
Source: Journal of Advertising, Vol. 28, No. 4 (Winter, 1999), pp. 59-73
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4189125
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of

Study

Comparative

in

Reflected

Values

Cultural

U.S.

and

Theme
Korean

and

Execution:
Television

Commercials

Bongjin

Cho,

Up

Kwon,

James

W.

Gentry,

Sunkyu

Jun

and

Fredric

Kropp

to examine underlying
cultural dimensions:
content analysis
This study develops a cross-cultural
framework
Most cross-cultural
with
and
time orientation,
individualism
nature,
/collectivism,
contextuality.
relationship
in execution have been due to assumed
cultural differences
in the
have inferred that differences
content analyses
the
structure
on
the
here
work
based
the
societies examined
[1980]);
development
of
proposed
ofHofstede
(often
commercials
will allow the direct investigation
from the U.S. and Korea were
of those cultural issues. Television
and East Asian commercials.
are present-time
Both countries
as being representative
of North American
in
are
is more domicollectivism
both
and
individualism
while
individualism
and
cultures,
oriented,
prevalent
more
than
U.S.
and U.S.
stress oneness-with-nature
nant in the U.S. Korean commercials
commercials,
slightly
research
are
Directions
and
use more direct approaches.
commercials
future
for refinement
identified.

selected

Bongjln Cho (Ph.D., Pusan National

University) is a Professor and Director,
the Business Incubation Center and
Research and Entrepreneurship,
Keimyung University.
Up Kwon (Ph.D., University of
Alabama) is an Associate Professor of
International Marketing, Keimyung
University.
James W. Gentry (D.B.A. in
Marketing, Indiana University) is a
Professor of Marketing, University of
Nebraska-Lincoln.
Sunkyu Jun (Ph.D., University of
Nebraska-Lincoln) is an Associate
Professor of Marketing, Hannam
University.
Fredric Kropp (Ph.D., University of
Oregon) is an Assistant Professor of
Marketing, Monterrey Institute of
International Studies.

Journal of Advertising,
Volume XXVIII, Number 4
Winter 1999

would prefer to have a consistent

many marketers
global mix of
and
distribution
chanpromotion
campaigns,
pricing structures,
products,
variables
often
modified
mix
are
when
services
and
nels, marketing
goods
are readied
to cross national
boundaries.
are common
due to
Adjustments
cost
cultural
Mueller
and/or
(1994)
concerns,
preferences.
policy regulations,
found few attempts
These
being made to standardize
advertising
campaigns.
to be more effective
have the potential
when they are culturmodifications
Moon and Franke (1987) found that Korean magaally based. For example,
zine ads are more informative
and less image-oriented
than U.S. ads, while
an experiment
and
conducted
Wilson
(1997) found that
by Taylor, Miracle,
and
less
Koreans
context
information-oriented
ads more than
prefer high
and
Americans
do. Similarly,
So
noted
that
creative
(1998)
Speece
appeals
in Hong Kong had only recently
shifted from hard sell to a softer approach to
be more in line with the local culture.
That advertising
should be congruent
of local
with the values
messages
and
has been long advocated
culture
(Belk, Bryce
Pollay 1985; Boddewyn,
Although

Soehl and Picard 1986; Buzzell

1968; Harris 1984; Hornik 1980; Zhang and
Gelb 1996). Pollay and Gallagher
this position by noting
(1990) summarized
values are the core of advertising
that cultural
and typical advermessages
and
tisements
In addition,
reinforce
cultural
values.
endorse,
glamorize,
found
that
have
advertisements
studies
(some) local culempirical
reflecting
tural values are more persuasive
than those that ignore them (Gregory and
Munch 1997; Han and Shavitt
and Zinkhan
1994; Hong, Muderrisoghi
1987;
and
Cabellero
Matsukubu
Madden,
1986; Marquez
1975; Taylor et al 1997).
The most common process used to investigate
in
cross-cultural
differences
has
been
content
The
vast
the
of
studies
(with
advertising
analysis.
majority
of McCarty
the exception
and Hattwick
that
1992) have assumed
implicitly
cultures
differ on certain dimensions
and have then investigated
the match
between
those "differences"
and the content
of advertising
For
messages.
dissimilarities
from
cultural
differences
have
been
found
example,
stemming
to be prevalent
both in advertising
themes
(Han and Shavitt
1994; McCarty
and Hattwick

1992;

Mueller

1987;

Tansey,

Hyman

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

and Zinkhan

1990)

and

The

60
Olsen
and Lee 1993; Biswas,
Lin
and
1993;
1992;
Javalgi
1992;
Nevett
and
1992;
1992;
Miracle,
Taylor
Chang
1992).
Chang and Catalano
Zandpour,
in cultures
in nearly
As noted above, the differences
the
all cases were not measured
Instead,
explicitly.
execution

(Alden,

and Carlet

Hoyer
Cutler

were based on assumptions

in cultures
e. g., one
in past cross-cultural
literature,
than
individualistic
be
more
to
assumed
is
country
25
obtained
data
on
based
often
years
nearly
another,
dimen1980). Over time, the Hofstede
ago (Hofstede
Culture Conin content
sions have changed
(Chinese
et al.
Fernandez
and
Hofstede
nection
1994),
1987;
differences
embodied

in value classifications
(1997)
significant
his origiconducted
in some countries
since Hofstede
dicultural
that have measured
nal study.
Studies
differences
that
of
exist)
mensions
(instead
assuming
shifts

found

(1980).
have found results counter to those of Hofstede
et al. (1988) found Japanese
Triandis
For example,
than stuto be more individualistic
college students
Wilcox
et
al.
while
dents in the U.S.,
(1996) found
students.
U.S.
and
Korean
between
results
similar
relevant
that
concluded
(1994)
finding
Kagitcibasi
to the understandis necessary
variables
intermediate
obfor
differences
accounts
in
"culture*'
ing of what
cultures.
served across
is that
of content
Another
analyses
major criticism
demechanical
more
on
concentrate
they frequently
of
sex
and
tails such as types of products shown, length,

Journal

of Advertising

are the three basic components

of
tion, and language
a multinational
(1978)
advertising
campaign.
Killough
a distinction
also makes
between
proposals
buying
("what one says") and creative
("how
presentations
to international
advertissays it") with respect
and
that
are
much
suggests
buying
proposals
ing,
to international
transfer
more amenable
than creBoth themes
and executions
ative presentations.
are
the
there
of
creative
are
however,
outputs
process:
is
the
differences
between
them.
Theme
content
key
of the message,
that is, the "what is communicated."
is the creative
of the mesExecution
presentation
one

is communicated."
The
sage, the "how the message
extent
which
examines
the
to
cultural
study
present
in themes
are reflected
and executions
dimensions
in
This
is
especially
important
separately.
separation
the advertising
context studcommercials,
as
costs
here,
may reduce the
high production
across
cultures.
executions
to
flexibility
modify
In the few cases where both theme and execution
have been noted.
were evaluated,
practices
varying
in Hong Kong,
in a study of advertising
For example,
television
ied

and Taiof China, Singapore,

the People's
Republic
multinational
found
that
most
Tai
(1997)
wan,
corpoand main themes for
rations use the same positioning
in
executions
but adopt different
all four markets,
with the pracThis finding is consistent
local markets.
advocated
tice of "pattern
by many inadvertising"
ternational

marketing

Cultural

Dimensions

textbooks.

indirect

This necessitates
argumaking
spokesperson.
for the
cultural explanations
ments as to the underlying
differences.
Further, Taylor et al. (1997) and Taylor and
Stern (1997) make the point that content analyses reflect
would

not what consumers

what is available,
prefer.
The intent of this paper is to develop a comprehenset of culand parsimonious
exclusive,
sive, mutually
review
of the
based on an extensive
tural dimensions
dimenthese
After selecting
literature.
cross-cultural
the
and developing
sions
definitions,
operational
investia preliminary
is used to conduct
framework
Asian
East
in
(Korea)
advertising
gation of television
the
contexts.
American
and North
(U.S.)
Although
what
consumers
measure
does not
use of this structure
the advertiswould prefer, it is used to assess whether
across
content
in modifying
ers' intentions
advertising

has been proposed

of dimensions
A wide variety
of advertising
across
and used in the content analysis
the
In developing
a systematic
cultures.
framework,
need to be exhaustive
selected
dimensions
cultural
valand need to reflect those cultural
and exclusive,
context.
to an advertising
Pollay
list
42
common
cultural
of
a
(1983)
apdeveloped
(1996) later modipeals, which Cheng and Schweitzer
Albers32 cultural values. Similarly,
fied to encompass
list
to enMiller and Gelb (1997) modified
Polla/s
While
values.
cultural
30
different
Cheng
compass
and Schweitzer
(1996) did find significant
(p<.05) difof 11 of the
of observation
for the frequency
ferences

ues

most

relevant

Execution

loses some appeal due to its

32 values, the framework
such as exclusivity,
lack of parsimony.
Thus, issues
have not been
and
frequently
parsimony
exhaustivity,
of studies
number
the
handled
well, especially
given

have been found both

differences
Cross-cultural
Duncan
executions.
and
themes
in terms of advertising
executhat
and Ramaprasad
(1995) suggest
strategy,

advertising.
set of culhave used a more limited
in dimensions
with a large variety
tural dimensions,
include indiof dimensions
Examples
among studies.

cultures
The

were

Need

put into practice

to

Focus

on

appropriately.
Both

Theme

And

on cross-cultural
Most studies

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Winter

1999

61

(Han and
Hattwick
1995; McCarty
hard
et al.
Wilcox
1996);
as
direct/indirect
operationalized
et
emotional
(Biswas
appeals

vidualism/collectivism

and

Shavitt

1994; Huang
1992; Mueller
1987;
also
sell/soft
sell,
or informational/
and
al. 1992; Cutler

and Kernan
1993; Johansson
1992; Domzal
Javalgi
Lin
Mueller
1987, 1992); utilitarian/he1993;
1994;
donic appeals
(Tse, Belk and Zhou 1989); use of inforet al. 1992; Ramaprasad
and
cues (Miracle
mational
of
use
visual
(Cutler
1992);
components
Hasegawa
Kamins
and Javalgi
1992); use of metaphors
(Graham,
and Oetomo
1993; Kaplan
1992); drama vs. lecturer-

the dimensions
Culture
(i.e., the Chinese
empirically
Connection
Hofstede
Schwartz
1987;
1980;
1992;
As noted
the various
1993).
Trompenaars
earlier,
dimensions
are sensitive
to reempirically-derived
differences
the
of
failure
avoidgional
(i.e.,
uncertainty
ance to generalize
to Confucian
Chinese
cultures;
Culture
Connection
in cultures
1987) and to shifts
over time (Fernandez
et al. 1997).
Two of our selected
individualism/coldimensions,
lectivism
and context,
were found by Taylor, Wilson
and Miracle (1994) to be the most prominent
dimensions in explaining
cross-cultural
after
differences,

et al. 1992); relationship

with
typed ads (Zandpour
and
Hattwick
Mueller
nature (McCarty
1992;
1987);
materialism
orienta(Belk and Bryce 1986); activity
tion (McCarty
and Hattwick
1992); and one's urban/
rural orientation
1990).
(Tansey,
Hyman and Zinkhan
While many of these studies do, indeed, identify difa lack of fit may result when
ferences between cultures,
from a cross-cultural
are
borrowed
cultural dimensions
to
a social domain far
with
theory developed
respect
from
the
context.
For instance,
different
advertising
cultural
oft-cited
four
Hofstede's
dimensions?
(1980)

and books in the

they had read more than 75 articles
area. To determine
the other dimensions,
we went
back to the conceptual
work of the Kluckhohns
(C.
Kluckhohn
F. Kluckhohn
and Strodtbeck
1951,1956;

individualism/
avoidance,
uncertainty
power distance,
and masculinity/femininity?were
collectivism,
initially
as work-related
in the context
values
of a
developed
multinational
single
organization.
Huang (1995, p. 159)
studied
noted, "one must keep in mind that Hofstede

and Hattwick
McCarty
1992; Mezei 1974; Schwartz
and Brown 1995; Triandis,
Chan and
1992; Singelis
Bhawuk
1995; Trompenaars
1993; Zhang and Gelb
our dimensions
1996). In terms of process,
were selected in a manner somewhat
similar to that of McCarty
and Hattwick
(1992), though they relied more on the

work-related
values.
to consider
work
People tended
as important
in their lives. Whether
the same values
would be manifested
as promoting
esconsumption,
in
is
low-involvement
promoting
pecially
products,
to
the
Hofstede
Nonetheless,
surely open
question."
in cross-culdimensions
have been used frequently
across a variety
of disciplines.
tural studies
of cultural
The selection
dimensions
also requires
a
balance
between
and
While
exclusivity
exhaustivity.
in a content
the cultural
dimensions
of TV
analysis
commercials
should be unique,
it is likely that some
will have a degree of conceptual
overlap. For instance,
in Hofstede's
is a
original (1980) work, power distance
dimension
from
individualism/collectivism.
separate
we argue that greater power distance
is emHowever,
bedded in the more collective
nature of a society, due to
the priority placed on agreement
among people and on
to
or
to elders.
In fact,
showing
respect
superiors
Triandis (1990, p. 57) claims that "collectivism...includes
power distance," noting that power distance was highly
in
(rank order) correlated
(r=-.70) with individualism
the Hofstede
study.
We based our selection
of cultural
dimensions
on
an extensive
review
of the cross-cultural
literature
rather than basing our choices
on work that derived

and C. Kluckhohn
1961; Kroeker
1952), from which
we considered
the dimensions
of Time Orientation,
Orientation
Activity
(Being, Having,
Doing), and Rewith Nature.
The work of the Kluckhohns
lationship
has been cited frequently
as a basis for selecting
crosscultural
dimensions
et al. 1997; Gregory
(Fernandez
and Munch 1997; Gudykunst
et al. 1996; Henry 1976;

Hofstede
dimensions
and did not include context.
We found the Kluckhohn
and Strodtbeck
(1961)
Orientation
dimension
to be appealing,
as
Activity
the Having component)
it could be expected
(through
to encompass
the materialism
construct
so prominent in much of the cross-cultural
work
advertising
by Belk (Belk and Bryce 1986; Belk and Pollay 1985;
develTse, Belk and Zhou 1989). However,
problems
the theme and execution
oped when operationalizing
items associated
with the dimension,
and the data
from a pretest
later) were so noisy
study (described
that the dimension
was deleted
from the main study.
We considered
other dimensions
as well, but did not
include them because of expected redundancy
with those
selected. For example, we considered the Hofstede (1980)
dimension
of masculinity/femininity,
but decided that
its workplace
context
is somewhat
distinct
from the
common
sense psychological
definition
more likely to
be relevant
in an advertising
context. Further, we perceive that the nurturer/independent
elements
of sexrole orientation
are embedded
in the individualism
and
collectivism
concepts (Gregory and Munch 1997).
selected
here (IndividuThus, the four dimensions
alism/Collectivism,

Context,

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Time

Orientation,

and

62

The

are ones that have been

with Nature)
as central tenets of culture and which have
proposed
to be funresearchers
been shown by cross-cultural
in adto an understanding
of differences
damental
Relationship

vertising
practice
Individualism

across cultures.
vs. Collectivism.

Triandis
(1990,
dicultural
important
pp.42-43)
in social behavior
is the relative
mension
emphasis
with individuversus
on individualism
collectivism,
is
more in the West while collectivism
alism valued
notes

that

more in Eastern
cultures.
Among the cultural
cultures from East
Western
dimensions
differentiating
versus
collectivism
individualism
Asian
cultures,
used across
seems
to be one of the most frequently
of
content
advertising
analyses
including
disciplines,
(Belk and Bryce 1986; Han and Shavitt
1994; Miracle
Miracle,
Taylor and Chang 1992; Mueller
and
Gelb
1996). Individualism/collectiv1987; Zhang
ism fits the present
study as well, since Korea is a
and the U.S. is the most
culture
collectivistic
typical

et al. 1992;

culture.
U.S.

individualistic
showed

that

the

Hofstede
For example,
(1980)
is much more individualistic

values.
to work-related
with respect
is
in
cultures
individualistic
behavior
one's
While
is
it
the
determined
goals
goals,
by personal
mostly
one's behavthat determine
shared with an in-group
of adverIn the context
cultures.
ior in collectivistic
has
of
the
individualism/collectivism
impact
tising,
of
and executions
in both the themes
been identified
in individualistic
Advertisements
advertisements.
cultures
(or being
place a high value on individuality
than

Korea

unique), independence,
to one's
and benefits
cultures

reflect

success
own

self.

and/or
Ads

self-realization,
in collectivistic

family
integrity,
interdependence,
concern for others, and group goals
1994; Miracle
1986; Han and Shavitt

group well-being,
(Belk and Bryce
et al. 1992; Mueller
1987).
One relatively
unique aspect of our use of the indiis that we separate
dimension
vidualism/collectivism
from
those of collectivof
individualism
the measures
that they
not
make
the
do
thus
assumption
ism, and
Triandis
of a continuum.
are end-points
(1990, p. 43)
and
toward
collectivism
notes that "the tendencies
to think of
so it is incorrect
can coexist,
individualism
Han and Shavitt
as opposites."
(1994) incorpoin
their
this
Further,
study.
perspective
and
et al. (1995) found that individualism
Kashima
Our
dimensions.
are empirically
collectivism
separable
in this
of the constructs
for the separation
rationale
advertisethat
some
the
observation
is
on
based
study
them

rated

both individualwhile
istic and collectivistic
orientations,
many others
orientation.
neither
to demonstrate
were observed
ments

have

elements

consistent

with

of Advertising

Thus, we hypothesize:
Hla: Television
commercials
in Korea (East
Asia) will indicate
higher levels of collectivism.
Hlb: Television
commercials
in the U.S.
(North America) will indicate higher levels of individualism.

the most

valued

Journal

Time

Orientation.

Time orientation
refers to the
of
the
tradition
and
as
emphasis
past
opposed to livfor
in
or
tomorrow.
Research
ing
today
investing
sugthat
one's
time
orientation
is
a
gests
product of one's
socialization
and that time orientation
is one major
cultural
value varying
across
cultures
(Kluckhohn
and Strodtbeck
the most recent di1961). Further,
mension
added to the Hofstede
framework
(Hofstede
which
the
Chinese
Cul1994) is Confucian
Dynamism,
ture Connection
(1987) found in an Asian context. The
focuses on long- versus short-run
dimension
orientations and separates
cultures that stress future-oriented
Confucian values such as thrift and perseverance
from
those which stress more past-oriented
Confucian
values such as saving face and respect for tradition.
In general,
such
people from East Asian countries
as China, Japan,
and Korea tend to have past time
while Latin Americans
are more present
orientations,
such
as
Americans
and
Westerners
and
oriented,
have
a
more
of
future
oriNorthern
time
Europeans
and Strodtbeck
entation
(Hall 1976; Kluckhohn
1961;
we expect Korean commercials
Yau 1988). Therefore,
as a symbol of qualto be more likely to use tradition
will be more likely to
U.S. commercials
ity, while
about the
focus on the need to plan and be concerned
future.
short-run
With exceptions

such

as Caill?t

and Hattwick
and McCarty
little attention
has received

and Mueller
time

(1992),
in the content

(1996)
orientation

of
analysis
the
of
international
advertising.
Operationalizations
of the time-orientation
theme and execution
aspects
in the present
dimension
study are largely based on
to capture
the general
characterisscales developed
al.
et
tics of time orientation
1994; Kluckhohn
(Gentry
and
Ko
and Strodtbeck
1991). These
1961;
Gentry
that a past time orientation
scales suggest
emphaand
sizes tradition,
past accomplishments,
history,
orientations
are
of the past. Present
maintenance
in the short run with
with enjoyment
more concerned
in the
less attention
being paid to what happened
in the future. Future oripast and what will happen
value
on
more
entations
plans for the future.
place
Thus we hypothesize:
in Korea (East
commercials
H2a: Television
Asia)

will be more

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past

time

oriented.

Winter
H2b:

1999

?3

Television

commercials
in the U.S.
will be more future
(North
America)
time oriented.
with
Nature.
Kluckhohn
and
Relationship
Strodtbeck
a
Human-to-Environ(1961)
recognized
ment orientation
as a fundamental
cultural
value.
three
of
values:
over
They suggested
types
mastery
with nature,
and subjugation
to nanature, harmony
ture. Mastery
over nature
involves
the perspective
that all natural
forces can be overcome
and/or put to
use by humans.
with
nature
draws
no disHarmony
between
or among human
tinction
and
life, nature,
the supernatural,
but sees each as an extension
of the
others. Subjugation
to nature involves
the belief that
can
be
done
to
control
nature
and that fate
nothing
must be accepted.
Kluckhohn
and Strodtbeck
(1961)
further contend that the U.S. culture is more prone to
while
the Chinese
culture
is
mastery-over-nature,
more oriented
to harmony-with-nature.
For example,
Korean

covers are likely to show scenes from

magazine
while
U.S.
covers are more likely to show people,
nature,
the
cultures'
of one's
reflecting
varying
perspectives
with nature (Wilcox et al. 1996).
relationship
The cultural
of "relationship
dimension
with nature" has not been reflected
in advertiseextensively
ments (McCarty
and Hattwick
1987).
1992; Mueller
In Mueller's
1987 study, "manipulation-of-nature"
and
"oneness-with-nature"
were investigated
for U.S. and
but no major differences
Japanese
advertisements,
were noted in the employment
of nature-oriented
apbetween
the
two
countries.
a subtle
peals
However,
in the application
difference
of this appeal was found:
U.S. advertisements
in this category
focused on natural as opposed
to man-made
goods, while the Japanese

advertisements
the individual's
relaemphasize
with
nature.
tionship
Thus we hypothesize:
H3a: Korean (East Asian) television
commercials will emphasize
with na"harmony
ture" more.
H3b: U.S. (North American)
television
commercials
will emphasize
"manipulation
of nature" more.
Besides
Contextuality.
individualism/collectivism,
the contextuality
of a culture
is one of the most freused constructs
for distinguishing
Asian culquently
tures from Western
ones. Hall (1976, p. 91) notes that
"a high-context
communication
or message
is one in
which most of the information
is either in the physical context
or internalized
in the person while very
little is in the coded, explicit,
transmitted
part of the
A
low-context
communication
is
message.
just the
the
of
mass
the
information
is
vested
in
opposite;
i.e.,

the explicit
code." Hall (1976) also indicates
that lowcontext communication
is relatively common in the U.S.
while Japan has a high-context
the Korean
culture;
culture is also recognized
as a high-context
culture due
to the influence of Confucianism
Yoon and
(Gudykunst,
Nishida

Yum 1987).
1987; Taylor et al. 1994,1997;
Past studies of cross-cultural
have found
advertising
contrasts
between
and low-context
culhigh-context
tures.
in low-context
Advertisements
cultures
are
(Lin 1993), have more of a
prone to be informative
hard-sell
(Mueller
approach
1987, 1992), use direct
and confrontational
appeals (Cutler and Javalgi
1992;
Miracle
et al. 1992), have a more direct rhetorical
and Mueller
style (Caill?t
1996), and stress breadth
rather
than depth
brand
(Roth
image
perceptions
1992). On the other hand, advertisements
in highcontext cultures
are likely to be emotional
et
(Biswas,
al. 1992), have more of a soft-sell
(Cutler
approach
and Javalgi
1992; Johansson
1994; Mueller
1987,
use indirect
and harmony-seeking
1992),
appeals
et al. 1992), and stress depth brand image
(Miracle
(Roth 1992).
perceptions
different
notions
such as informative
vs.
Although
hard-sell
vs. soft-sell,
and/or direct vs. inemotional,
direct have been used in content analyses,
the undervalue behind these executions
of adverlying cultural
is contextuality.
Hall's (1976)
work suggests
tising
that advertisements
in a high-context
culture would
in an abstract,
and indirect
convey messages
implicit,
and that meanings
are interpreted
based on
manner,
the intuition
and contemplation
of the audience.
For
Miracle's (1987) summary
of Japan's feel-doexample,
learn hierarchy
of effects concluded
that Japanese
TV
commercials
(1) try to make friends with the audience,
(2) try to prove that their feelings
are understood,
(3)
is nice, and (4) in gentry to prove that the advertiser
because
the buyer is
eral, try to generate
purchase
familiar with the firm and trusts it. On the other hand,
in low-context
advertisements
cultures
would convey
information
in a concrete, explicit, and direct manner.
Thus, we hypothesize:
H4: Korean
television
(East Asian)
commercials
(North

will be more
American)

high context
ones.

than

U.S.

Method
Based on the previous
discussion
of the four cultural dimensions,
we developed
a framework
based
on the dimensions
and used content
as an
analysis
the reflection
of these
exploratory
step to examine
dimensions
in the themes
and executions
of Asian
and Western
advertisements.
Content
is a
analysis

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64

The

information
to
for classifying
qualitative
procedure
to
data
amenable
obtain
manipulation.
quantitative
is a multi-step
that requires
The procedure
process
thematic
for coding
content,
developing
categories
data, and stacoders, coding the categorical
training
the coded data (Kassarjian
1977;
analyzing
Wheeler
and Cox 1992).
Pollay 1983; Schneider,
of national
brand TV commerSample.
Samples
in each country
cials shown on the major networks
between
March 20 and May 20, 1995.
were collected
of ad content
with regard
To reflect the universality
seon each randomly
and channels
to days, times,
tistically

U.S. national
lected day, three major privately-owned
networks
(ABC, CBS and NBC) were recorded at ran6 p.m. and midnight.
times between
domly selected
of national
brand
local ads and duplications
Further,
from master lists. A similar proads were eliminated
cedure was followed to provide a representative
sample
TV commercials
were taped
of Korean commercials.
show commerchannels
which
from three national
owned
a government
cials:
MBC, SBS and KBS2,
does not
station.
station,
KBS1, another
government
on
brand ads monitored
National
show commercials.
did not differ from
channel
the government-owned
in terms of frequency
owned stations
those of privately
a total of 253
This procedure
and content.
yielded
from the U.S. and 235 comcommercials
unduplicated
While
from Korea for the present
analysis.
a mix of national
used assured
approcedures
of all television
peals, the ads are not representative
as the Fox channel
in the countries
advertisements
in the U.S.
were not sampled
and cable channels
codAs was noted earlier, separate
Coding Scheme.
mercials

there

was

Journal

of Advertising

concern

that the translation

process could
the
of the coding task.
compromise
equivalency
Coders initially
evaluated
each cultural
dimension
on its level of inclusion
in the commercials,
using the
scale "not at all," "somewhat,"
and "very
three-point
much." Subsequently,
"somewhat"
and "very much"
were coded as "1" and "not at all" was coded as "0"
when post hoc analyses
revealed
that the coders were
not able to discern
the level of cultural
dimensions
in themes and executions.
reflected
The percentage
of
between
the bilingual
coder and each naagreement
tive coder was used as a coefficient
of interjudge
reli(1977, p. 14) noted that researchability. Kassarjian
ers could be quite satisfied
with coefficients
of reliabove 85 percent;
in the present
ability
study, the
rate of interjudge
on themes
was
average
agreement
70.9% for the U.S. commercials
and 71.5% for Korean
and the average rate of interjudge
commercials,
agreement on executions
was 75.4% for the U.S. commercials and 77.5% for Korean
commercials.
The comwhich showed disagreement
mercials
between
coders
in the analyses
were not included
of those variables,
of coders in two different
as the location
countries
it difficult
to discuss
and reconcile
their disthese ads were analyzed
for
However,
agreements.
on which the coders agreed.
those variables
For the executional
we tried to improve
measures,
a purification
their content
validity
through
process
made

the

1978, pp. 93-94). First, items that had low

(Nunnally
correlations
item-to-total
were discarded
to achieve a
moderate
level of internal
consistency
among the exitems such that they measure
ecutional
a common cultural dimension.
items that had
Second, executional

with respect
to theme
were developed
ing schemes
1 and 2). In developing
and execution
(Tables
coding
from both theoa list of items was selected
schemes,
work and from previous
retical cross-cultural
empiriin the
cal work. Items which coders rarely observed
which
after a pretest,
were discarded
commercials
that were not
from each culture
used commercials
in the main study. The final coding schemes
included
which
after a purification
were determined
process

with their corresponding

themes
strong correlations
of investigating
were kept to insure the possibility
the
themes and their execuexistence
of linkages
between
For the remaining
tions in the two cultures.
items, the
internal consistency coefficients ranged from .59 to .87 (see
Tables 1 and 2) and the correlations (see Table 3) to their
theme were significant at p<.001 except for
corresponding
items of low/high contextuality
the executional
(in both
orientation (U.S.) and manipulacountries), present-time
tion of nature (Korea). In the low context U.S., the theme

later in this paper.

will be explained
in the
A bilingual
coder (not one of the co-authors)
U.S. and one native coder in each country coded the
coded both the
individual
the bilingual
commercials;
coded
and the natives
U.S. and Korean commercials
Alden et
of each country.
the commercials
Following
al. (1993), the use of a
enhance
the judgment
tensive understanding
coders used a standard
since the Korean coder

to
coder was expected
based upon his/her exvalidity
of the two different cultures. All
coding sheet written in English,
in English
and
was proficient

bilingual

items for ''high context" were not correand execution

while in high context
lated significantly;
Korea, the
items for "low context" were not
theme and execution
correlated significantly.
Thus, there appears to be some
when the
confusion as to the fit of theme and execution
to that of the culture.
"context" of the ad is dissimilar
the executional
between
The low correlations
items
and the themes for low/high contextuality
may be due
for the theme itself.
reliabilities
to the low interjudge
of the
The low correlations
also reflect the vagueness

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Winter

1999_65
Table

1
of Themes

Operationalizations
Collectivism
(.75?76)*
to family or social
about the integrity of or belonging
appeals
or
on
emphasis
conformity
harmony
- reflection of
with others
interdependent
relationships
on
achievements
of
the
the
family or social group
emphasis
- emphasis
on the benefits to families or group members

group

Individualism
(.68/.74)
of the audience
about the individuality or independence
appeals
or
on
emphasis
uniqueness
originality
- reflections
or competition
of self reliance, hedonism,
or self realization
on
self
self
fulfillment,
emphasis
development,
to
on
the
benefits
an
consumer
individual
emphasis
Past Orientation
(.85/.93)
on being classic,
emphasis
man's
appeals
concerning

historical, old, or antique

or knowledge
accumulated
experience

Present Orientation
(.85A67)
or now
on the contemporary
emphasis
in
the
and what will happen
what
past
happened
ignoring

in the future

Future Orientation
(.73/.72)
on the future or being progressive
emphasis
about the creativity of youth
appeals
Manipulation
emphasis
- reflections

of Nature (.59A93)
is on man's superiority over nature
achievements
of man's technical

with Nature (.73/.83)

Oneness
on the goodness
and beauty of nature
emphasis
- reflections
of the interaction and affinity of man and nature
Subjugation
emphasis
- reflections

to Nature (.91/.97)
on nature's superiority over man
of man's fatalism; being at the mercy

Low Context (.67/.38)

on product features
and characteristics
emphasis
explicit mention of competitive
products
- use of
appeals
comparative
the consumer's
practical, functional,
addressing
- use of numbers or
graphics

of nature

or utilitarian

need

for the product

High Context (.33A22)

on emotion and mood
emphasis
- use of
or aesthetic
expressions
metaphors
a product with a particular situation or type of person or lifestyle
associating
affective or subjective
of intangible aspects
of a product
impressions
addressing
?Numbers in the parenthesis indicate the percentage of interjudge agreement for the U.S. commercials and Korean commercials, respectively.

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Journal

66_The
Table
Executional

of Advertising

2
Items

- Individualism
(.87/.72)a
1. featuring a person enjoying being unique (.85/.76)b
benefits to oneself
2. addressing
(.81/.95)
3. featuring a person doing something
by oneself (.827.35)
- Collectivism
(.7T/.78)
1. a conversation
among people (.59/.74)
2. featuring people in harmony with one another
3. featuring

people

working

together

(.96A97)

(.75A45)

- Past Orientation
(.59A74)
1. featuring old fashioned
(.57/.91)
settings
2. using old music (.51/.89)
3. featuring the elderly's advice, opinions,
and/or

recommendations

- Present Orientation
(.22A69)
1. association
of youth with a product (ns/.57)
2. addressing
and pleasure
short-run enjoyment

(nsA97)

(.77A53)

- Future Orientation
(.22A66)
to portray the future (.83A55)
1. use of high technology
2. use of computer
graphics to portray the future (.33A63)
-

of Nature (na/.81)
Manipulation
1. portrayal of man's superiority to nature
2. featuring people struggling to overcome

(ns/.71)
nature

(.70/.99)

- Oneness
with Nature (.96A97)
1. featuring people being in harmony with nature (.90/.97)
2. featuring the product as a means of being one with nature

(.97A98)

to Nature
Subjugation
1. featuring the product

as a means

- Low Context
(.60/.77)
1. emphasis
on product features
2. addressing
utilitarian aspects
3. use of numbers
(ns/ns)

of safeguarding

(ns/.54)
of the product

humans

from nature

(.19*/ns)

High Context (.62A84)

on emotion and mood (ns/,37*)
1. emphasis
2. use of metaphors
(ns/.42*)
3. use of aesthetic
expression
(ns/ns)
? Numbers next to each cultural dimension indicate the Cronbach alpha for the U.S. and Korean commercials respectively.
b Numbers next to each Item indicate its correlation with the Measure of the corresponding theme for the U.S. and Korean commercials respectively.
na:not calculated as there was insufficient variance in response,
ns: non-significant,
'?significant at p<05, all the other correlations reported were significant at p<001.

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Winter

67

1999
Table
Correlations

Among

Themes

3a
Constructs:

and Executions

United

Data

States

Executions

?
E
M
E
E
S

PRES

FUT

MAN

ONE

SUB

LOW

HIGH

.10

na
na

-.04
-.11

.06
-.08

.07

-.13

-.07

-.10
.26"

-.05
.00
.74"

na
na
na

-.05
.10
.19

-.04
-.02
.47?

.19
-.31"
.34?

.37?

.95?
-.11

COL

COL

.88?
-.91?

.88?

PAST
PRES
FUT

-.28?
-.04
-.10

.22"
.00
.02

MAN
ONE

-.18
.07
.05

-.08
-.02
-.05

.00
.03

SUB

.14
-.16
.08

.01

-.02
.11

LOW
HIGH

-.07
-.10

.10
.14

.04
.11

-.01
.00

-.04
.06

IND

PAST

IND

na

.26
.04

.05
-.05
.79"
.02
.00

.19
-.12
.28*

Table
Correlations

Themes

Among

And

.17
.31"
-.13

na

na

na

.99?
-.04

.10
.99?

-.18
.25b

.50*
-.03

.04

.08

.06

-.20

.02
.07

.54?
-.11

-.59?
.21

LOW

HIGH

.00

na

3b

Executions

Constructs:

Korean

Data

Executions
IND
IND
COL
?
?
E
M
E
S

PAST
PRES
FUT
MAN
ONE
SUB
LOW
HIGH

COL

-.10

PRES

FUT

MAN

-.04
.16

-.05

ONE

SUB

.03

na

na

-.04

-.06

-.02
.07
-.02

.05
.11
-.06

-.01
.07
-.02

na
-.18

.23
-.17

.92?

.24

.32b
-.17

.11

.99a
-.45a

.31b
.81a

.07

-.92a

.03
-.34a
.74a

-.06
.08
.04

-.09

na

-.01

-.08

-.08
-.04

-.05
-.01

.99a
-.03

-.03
.99a

-.36"
na

.21

.07

-.03
.00
-.01

.06

-.20"
-.08

-.01
.02

.02
-.07

-.31b
.22

.39"
-.55"

-.03
.39"

.10
.03

.04
.00

-.13
-.61?

-.86?
.75?

.93?
-.99a
-.13
.26"
-.28"
-.12
.20"

-.76*

PAST

-.23"
.26"
.11

.03
.14

.20

.02
.05
na
.66?
-.13
na
.05

?
p<.001.
b p<.05.
na: correlation not calculated due to lack of variance in responses.
Numbers on the diagonal indicate correlationsbetween themes and executions. Numbers on the lower triangleindicate correlationsamong themes.
Numbers on the upper triangle indicate correlations among executions.
and Brown
as Singelis
of contextuality,
that
note
(1995, p. 364)
contextuality
operationalizing
difficult
task.
is a particularly
in Table 3 also point out
of correlations
The patterns
are relatively
dimensions
that the cultural
indepen-

definition

dent of one another

five were significant

(of the 45 pairs among themes, only

at p<.05 in the U.S. data and 14 in
of
the 45 pairs among executions,
the Korean
data;
in the U.S. data and seven
were
significant
only eight
in the Korean data). These results
indicate
that the

four cultural
dimensions
were somewhat
mutually
In the following
section,

in the present
study
as was intended.
exclusive,
we will report the results of
of
cultural
dimensions
in terms of
analyses
frequency
themes and executions
across the two cultures.
used

Results
Table 4 presents
the
dimension
was observed

with which each

frequency
in the themes,
as well as the

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68

The
Table
Frequency
Cultural

Of Cultural

Observed

In Theme

Chi-sq.(p<

Individualism

74.7

Collectivism

50.5

Past Orientation
Present Orientation
Future Orientation

99.5
13.3

3.8
80.4
18.3

Subjugation

4.8
12.8
2.9

16.8
0.5

ns
ns
ns

High Context

60.0

88.9

15.0

of Nature
Manipulation
with Nature
Oneness

_Low

7.2

Context_97.6

of Advertising

Dimensions

Frequencies
(%)
U.S.
Korea

Dimensions

Journal

53.0
51.2

17.1

(.001)

ns
ns
41.3
ns

1.4

89.8_7.2

(.001)

(.001)
(.01)_

ns: non-significant at p<.05.

of chi-square
tests of differences
between
the
results
As mentioned
U.S. and Korean commercials.
earlier,
were operationalized
individualism
and collectivism
as two separate
The theme of individualconstructs.
in the U.S. (74.7%) than
ism is much more prevalent
in Korea (53.0%, Chi-sq.=17.01,
p< .001). This findIB.
was no significant
There
ing supports
hypothesis
in the frequency
of collectivism
difference
(U.S.=50.5%,
1A
not
is
therefore
Korea=51.2%),
supported.
hypothesis
in both countries
While most of the commercials
there were difwere observed
to be present
oriented,
Kothe countries
between
ferences
(U.S.=99.5%,

is found more often in U.S.

manipulation-of-nature
commercials.
The context
results
were as hypothwith
ads
Korean
seen
as
more
esized,
high context
and U.S. ads seen as more low context.
The frequency
of each executional
item is shown in
Table 5. Similar
to the frequencies
for the
reported

rea=80.4%,
Chi-sq.=41.3,
p< .001). Both a past and a
was observed
in some commercials
future orientation

benefits
to oneself
df)=48.1,
p<.001),
"emphasizing
82% vs. KOR:
(U.S.:
(1
35%, chi-square
df)=63.1,
and "featuring
a person doing something
p<.001)
by

in both

countries

(U.S.:

7.2%,

18.3%,
13.3%, Korea:
the differences
between

however,
3.8%, respectively),
Conthe countries
were not statistically
significant.
and
Korean
to
2,
hypothesis
prior expectations
trary
nor were
were not more past-oriented
commercials
in their
future-oriented
more
U.S.
commercials
difwere
indicated
there
as
themes.
above,
However,
in time orientation,
with U.S. commercials
ferences
oriented.
being more present-time
seems
of relationship-with-nature
The dimension
to oneness-withmost with respect
to be reflected
nature across the two countries
(U.S.:
12.8%, Korea:
and subjugawhile
16.8%),
manipulation-of-nature
4.8% and
were relatively
rare (U.S.:
tion-to-nature
1.4% and 0.5%). Again, the differences
2.9%; Korea:
were not statistically
the two countries
between
sigdirectional
There was only non-significant
nificant.
that oneness-with-nature
for the contention
support
and that
is found more often in Korean commercials

was reflected most

individualism/collectivism
themes,
in the executions
across the two countries.
As hypothwas observed
more often in the
esized, individualism
execution
of the U.S. commercials
in terms of the
three executional
items: "featuring
a person
being
vs.
74%
KOR:
(U.S.:
(1
34%, chi-square
unique"

oneself

56% vs. KOR:

(1
6%, chi-square
In addition,
as hypothesized,
the
d0=86.4,
p<.001).
execution
of Korean commercials
was more collectivistic in terms of "a conversation
among people" (KOR=25%
vs. U.S.=14%,
(1 df)=6.5, p<.05), but there
chi-square
were no significant
differences
across the two cultures
in terms of "featuring
in
with one anpeople
harmony
other" and "featuring
people working together."
(U.S.:

As was the case in the themes,

past- and futuretime-orientation
were not observed
in exfrequently
in either culture, while "association
ecutions
of youth
with a product" and "addressing
short-run
enjoyment
and pleasure"
were observed
in both culfrequently
tures. Of the two cultures,
Korean commercials
associated youth with a product more often than did the
U.S.

50% vs. U.S.:

31%, chiwhile
the
U.S.
commerp<.001),
square (1 d0=10.8,
cials addressed
short-run
and
enjoyment
pleasure
commercials

(KOR:

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Winter

1999

69

Frequency

Table 5
of Executional

Frequencies(%)
Korea
U.S.

Items
Individualism
1. enjoy being unique
2. benefits to oneself
3. doing

Items

something

by oneself

Collectivism
1. conversation
among
2. people in harmony
3. working

74

people

together

Past Orientation
1. old fashioned
settings
2. using old music
3. elderly's advice, etc.

34
35
6

82
56
14
45
21
2

25
41

Chi-sq.(p<)

48.1
63.1
86.4

6.5

(.001)
(.001)
(.001)

(-05)

ns
ns

15

3
3
2

ns

2
4
31
95

50
80

10.8
19.0

(.001)
(.001)

7
1

5
7

ns
10.8

(.001)

Manipulation
1. man's superiority
nature
2. overcoming

1
1

1
1

ns
ns

with Nature
Oneness
1. people in harmony with nature
2. being one with nature

8
8

13
14

ns
2.9

(.10)

7.3

(.01)

Orientation
Present
of youth and product
1. association
and pleasure
now
2. enjoyment
Future Orientation
1. high technology
2. computer
graphics

ns
ns

of Nature

Subjugation
1. product as a safeguard
Low Context
1. product features
2. utilitarian needs
3. use of numbers
High Context
1. emotion and mood
2. use of metaphor
3. aesthetic

expression

88
53
17

57
23
16

41.6

74

61
37
52

6.1
42.8
ns

5
49

30.8
ns

(.001)
(.001)

(.05)
(.001)

ns: non-significant at p<. 10.

95%
more often than did Korean commercials
(U.S.:
vs. KOR: 80%, chi-square
(1 df)=19.0,
p<.001).
and
Although the occurrences of manipulation-of-nature
subjugation-to-nature
appeals were relatively rare as was
the case with the themes, oneness-with-nature
was observed quite often in both cultures. However, the difference in the executional
reflection of oneness-with-nature
across the two cultures was relatively minor, there was no

significant difference in terms of featuring

people being in
harmony with nature." Korean commercials featured products as a means of being one with nature more often than
did the U.S. commercials,
but the difference
was only
marginally significant (KOR: 14% vs. U.S.: 8%, chi-square
(ldf)=2.9,p<.10).
The U.S. commercials
emphasized
product features
and the utilitarian
needs for the product more often

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The

70
than did Korean commercials
(U.S.: 88% and 53% vs.
and 30.8,
KOR: 57% and 23%, chi-square
(1 df)=41.6
and
the
U.S.
comboth
Korean
both p<.001).
However,
emotion and mood, with
mercials seemed to emphasize
the U.S. commercials
doing this more often (U.S.: 74%
KOR:
vs.
(1 df)=6.1, p<.05). On the
61%, chi-square
was more prevalent
other hand, the use of metaphors
in
the
than
U.S. commercials
in Korean commercials
(KOR: 37% vs. U.S.: 5%, chi-square
(ldf)=42.8,p<.001).
for both the themes
and
the results
To summarize,
were found to
of television
the executions
advertising
be more

in the

individualistic

but
esized,
collectivistic

Korean

ads

were

U.S. ads as hypothnot found to be more

or execution.
Contrary
were not more
U.S. commercials
to our hypotheses,
nor were
in either theme or execution,
future-oriented
more past-oriented.
Korean commercials
Instead, comdemonstrated
in both
cultures
mercials
strong
are generThese
results
orientations.
present-time
with those of Cheng and Schweitzer
ally consistent
and "youth"
who found "modernity"
(these
(1996),
orienwith a present-time
values are often associated
in either

theme

values shared by
tation) to be the only two dominant
in both the U.S. and China. Also, concommercials
did not
U.S. commercials
trary to our hypotheses,
of nature more than Korean
stress the manipulation
with
to the extent that one's relationship
commercials;
adverin Korea and U.S. television
nature is present
tends to be the dominant
tising, oneness-with-nature
were consisappeal. The results in terms of execution
as Korean comtent with the contextuality
hypotheses
in nature.
were more high-context
mercials
Limitations

and

Discussion

a
of this study was to develop
The main purpose
advertisfor comparing
framework
culturally-based
dimenon cultural
Most research
ing across societies.
from Western
sions has emanated
Europe and North
due to cultural
and is prone to restrictions
America,
Culthe Chinese
For example,
bounded
rationality.
that the seemture Connection
(1987) noted forcefully
do not generalize
dimensions
ingly sacred Hofstede
and that diand East Asian cultures,
to Southeast
backcultural
from a different
mensions
generated
in the West.
from those generated
diverge
ground
of this paper came from three
the authors
Though
we relied heavily on North Ameridifferent continents,
framework.
our conceptual
to develop
can literature
the probin the coding process (for example,
items in the U.S. and the
lems coding high context
that one's own
items in Korea) indicate
low context
of stimuli
the perception
roots may inhibit
cultural
Problems

Journal

of Advertising

This probcoming from another cultural

perspective.
lem also occurred
in the Graham
et al. (1993) study,
in which the American
judge failed in several cases to
in
ads upon which both
recognize
metaphors
Spanish
Spanish judges agreed. Coding probably should
formed both by those steeped only in their own
and by those who are far more bi-cultural.
The
can determine
more accurately
those elements
the traditional
culture, but the latter
senting
more accurate in terms of recognizing
change.

be perculture
former
repremay be

were discussed
in an atproblems
the success
of future efforts. Notthe framework
issues,
methodological
withstanding
was used to examine
the presence
of the cultural
in the themes
and executions
dimensions
of U.S. and
As described
Korean commercials.
above, the frameof similarities
work allowed identification
and differthemes
and executions
ences in advertising
between
In spite
North
America
and East
Asia.
of low
in the coding process, the study
reliability
interjudge
offers cultural
dimensions
that are relevant
in the
context of the U.S. and Korean commercials.
One use
is to provide
of such a framework
into the
insight
Methodological
to facilitate

tempt

over time. For example,

nature
of cultural
change
Johansson
of (low
(1994) noted the gradual emergence
in Japan. The
attribute-oriented
context)
advertising
use of a framework
based on key cultural dimensions
of such shifts.
can provide a baseline for the monitoring
most frewas found
Individualism/collectivism
in commercials,
with U.S. commercials
requently
more both in theme and execuflecting individualism
tion. However,
collectivistic
appeals were not observed
in Korean commercials.
This result
more frequently
based on cross-culto prior expectations
is contrary
tural research
(Hofstede
1980; Triandis
1990), but is
which have noted that
with past studies
consistent
in East Asian
and practice
both advertising
content
are moving toward those of the West (Belk
cultures
and Bryce 1986; Huang
1995; Tse, Belk and Zhou
1989). On the other hand, the relatively
frequent indiin both cultures
commercials
are inconsisvidualistic
Nelson
and Yuan
of Shavitt,
tent with the findings
(1997) that found both U.S. and Taiwanese
subjects to
and with those of Huang
appeals,
prefer collectivistic
ads were more collec(1995) who found that Taiwanese
in terms of
tive than U.S. ads, but found no differences
it is not clear how much the
individualism.
Although
are mirrored in TV
cultures of both countries
consumer
at least imply that Korea
these results
commercials,
culture in the
may be moving away from the traditional
to the West.
process of adapting
to be predominantly
were
also found
Appeals
seen on
oriented.
Thus, the emphasis
present-time

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Winter

1999

"Modernity"
the Cheng

71

and 'Youth"
and Schweitzer
to the Korean

in the
(1996)
context

Chinese

culture

study appears
as well. While

in
to
we

generalize
that tradition
is not important
clearly do not suggest
in the Korean
we did find that "tradition"
culture,
are used
there.
appeals
relatively
infrequently
the "imperialism"
of Western
this reflects
Whether
or an appropriate
fit with
promotional
approaches
of the two)
current
Korean values
(or a combination
is unclear.
But it does appear that Korea had a strong
in 1995.
present in its commercials
"youth orientation"
with nature, both
With regard to one's relationship
U.S. and Korean commercials
reflect the cultural value
of being one with nature
much more often than the
or subjugacultural values of manipulation-of-nature
of oneness-withtion-to-nature.
Further, the reflection
in Korean commercials
nature was not greater
than
in the U.S. commercials.
These results
that
indicate
the current

environmental

consciousness
in the U.S.
with
nature.
the
Whether
harmony
emphasizes
internal
locus of control tendencies
of Ameristronger
be inferred
cans are changing
from the
(as might
or whether
oneness-with-nature
statement)
previous
are just much more politically
correct than
appeals
is unclear.
appeals
manipulation-of-nature
The results
that the low-context
indicate
culture of
the U.S. was mirrored
in terms
by U.S. commercials
of the usage of direct appeals
as was the high-context
culture of Korea mirrored
by the Korean commercials
in terms of indirect
While these results
are
appeals.
also

consistent

with

(Hall 1976), as well

prior expectations
on the advertising
execution
of the
commercials
(Miracle et al. 1992), it
should be acknowledged
that the present
study may
a part of the dimension
have
of
captured
only
Future work is needed in the developcontextuality.
ment of valid and reliable measures
of this dimension.
we advocate
that more emphasis
More specifically,
be
et al. (1996) development
of
placed on Gudykunst's
measures.
contextuality
They started with 152 items
and generated
ten factors, eight of which were interpreted. While this work does not offer the parsimony
being sought in our efforts, their factors do offer directions for the expanded
measurement
of context.
The present
for future work
study provides
insight
content
of cross-cultural
advertisinvolving
analyses
values
ing. First, there is a need to turn to cultural
other than individualism/collectivism,
such as one's

as past findings
U.S. and Korean

and time orientation.

with nature
Secrelationship
of culmeasures
ond, the dual (theme and execution)
tural dimensions
should be pursued in future research,
as the present
revealed
more divergence
in
study
executions
than in themes
across the two countries.

While the evidence

for the appropriateness
of stanof advertising
dardization
across cultures
is mixed,
less uniformity
at the level of detailed
creative
output
was found, as was suggested
Walters
(1986). Our
by
results
tend to support
the admonitions
of Alden et
al. (1993),
Duncan
and Ramaprasad
James
(1995),
and Hill (1991), and Onkvisit
and Shaw (1987) and
the findings
of Tai (1997), that the design of international advertising
should be based on a shared interdenominator
but be
(the common
country
theme),
modified
in terms of execution.
there should
be further
Finally,
study as to the
of
nature
cultural
in
changing
values,
particularly
the rapidly
economies
of
East
and
Southchanging
east Asia, which appear to be adopting
Western
symbolism at a rapid rate. To the extent that advertising
reflects the changing
nature of cultures
the
globally,
a
of
framework
to
use
development
culturally-based
in content
a vehicle
for examining
analyses
provides
the

nature

of these cultural
the
Further,
changes.
of
across
cultures
sheds
contrasting
advertising
light
on which cultural
tend to be more universal
aspects
and which tend
collectivism)
(perhaps,
increasingly,
to be more unique (individualism,
for example).
While
our framework
offers a good start in this direction,
much more development
of the dimensions'
operational definitions
is needed.

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