Development, Learning and Cognition

Lesson Plan Analysis Essay

Introduction
Teaching and learning form a continuous cycle, one does not come before or
after, they exist together. Over time, the way in which we teach has changed as
varying student needs and methods of learning are more widely recognised.
Instead of approaching teaching as a journey with only one route, modern
educators encourage the exploration of various routes to learning. This allows
students to find a path that makes sense to them, so they can understand
concepts in their own way, instead of memorising one that has been regurgitated
time and time again. We are now more aware that sitting at a desk completing
problem after problem does not give students the whole picture of a concept, but
just a snapshot of what they should know. Exploring, explaining, discussing and
relating problems to real world situations, teaches students to apply their
thinking, leading to a more solid comprehension.
Theorists Lev Vygotksy and Jean Piaget have developed theories that mirror
these beliefs, their approaches are student centred rather than teacher directed.
They encourage discussion and exploration of concepts which leads to cognitive
development (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013). Their theories have been adapted in
many ways that inspire classroom learning using students internal capabilities
and external experiences.
Jean Piagets theory of cognitive development was created to describe the way
we gather and organise information to make sense of our world (Woolfolk &
Margetts, 2013). Piaget believed humans learn through schemes that organise
information and that cognitive development is characterised by four discrete
stages, related to cognitive ability (Simon & Tzur, 2004). Vygotskys
Sociocultural perspective shares similarities with Piagets theory, as he was
influenced by his work. Similar to Piagets stages, Vygotsky theorised that at any
point a person is on the verge of being able solve new problems but needs help
to do so (Cok & Wertschb, 1996). Vygotskys theories are heavily based around
the idea of social and cultural influences in a childs life and he penned the term
cultural tools to describe this (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013).
A Mathematics lesson plan Dream Bedroom, for a year 4/5 class has been
analysed using two main ideas from both Piaget and Vygotskys theories. The
first analysis uses Piagets Scheme theory and Stages of Social Development,
while the second focuses on Vygotskys Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and
Cultural Tool theory.

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Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development

Schemes
Piaget defined schemes as an organisation system that allows us to think about
objects or events in our world (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013). When a person is
faced with a new situation, Piaget suggests we try to fit this into our pre-existing
schemes to make sense of the information. If it fits, this is called assimilation, if
not, the person experiences disequilibrium which forces them to make new
connections, the process is referred to as accommodation. This is where existing
schemes are altered to fit new information, thinking changes, learning occurs
and the person can move forward in a state of equilibrium (Simon & Tzur). For
example, when a child is sitting at school practicing addition, their addition
scheme remains the same because they have already learnt it, however, when
subtraction is introduced, they become quite confused but gradually with
practice and discussion, they come to understand that subtraction is the reverse
of addition, therefore the addition scheme has accommodated new information.
This lesson plan Dream Bedroom indirectly accesses Piagets Scheme theory
by drawing on students prior knowledge and challenging them to expand it.
Using the practical activity of measuring, drawing and designing their own
bedroom, students are able to apply units of measurement and financial
mathematics to a real world situation.
The lesson plan begins asking students to measure and draw their bedroom, they
are prompted to draw their plan to scale with a very brief explanation of how to
do so 1 metre equals 5 centimetres. So if one of your walls equalled 5 metres,
on your diagram it would be 25 centimetres long. This reflects an intention for
students to attempt sketching to scale by drawing on their schemes of
measurement, conversion and multiplication and applying them to a new
concept. Piagets theory states that this is when accommodation would occur as,
a new situation arises (von Glasersfeld, 1999).
Students are also required to calculate how much paint is needed for their room
and the cost involved. It is unlikely students in a 4/5 class would have done this
before, so the teacher has used familiar concepts in sequential, clear steps to
explain how to do so. In doing this, students are able to process and
accommodate new information into their existing schemes of area and money
(Thompson & Thompson, 1996).
This task also introduces the concept of overdrawing and refunds, unlike most
other problems, no explanation is given to guide students. This illustrates the
teachers confidence that students will be able to apply their pre-existing
schemes about percentages, subtraction and refunds to this real world problem
through assimilation.

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In terms of schemes, more detailed explanations could have been given to

students, for example the teacher says if you can convert square metres to
square centimetres and square millimetres have a go. Some students may not
attempt this question without some sort of prompt or example, so that they can
access the right scheme that will lead them to an answer (Levin & Rubin, 1983).

Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget clearly defined four stages of cognitive development, Sensorimotor,
Preoperational, Concrete operational and Formal operational. Each has their own
characteristics that show cognitive development at different ages, for example
children in the Sensorimotor stage are egocentric and believe that their point of
view is the only perspective, hence the saying its like reasoning with a 2 year
old. This lesson plan was devised for students in years 4/5 who Piaget would
suggest are in the Concrete operational stage. Characteristics of this stage
include being able to mentally manipulate objects, think logically, understand
conservation, classify and consider different perspectives (Woolfolk & Margetts,
2013).
The concept of this task is very relevant to Piagets Concrete operational stage,
as Burns and Silvey (2000) emphasise the great importance of mathematical
concepts being explored through hands on experiences. In doing this, students
are able to make abstract ideas concrete by demonstrating how mathematical
concepts are useful problem solving tools.
While this is a hands on task, many aspects require abstract thinking and it
compels students to mentally manipulate objects without being able to see
them. The act of drawing their bedroom to scale, adding new furniture, carpet
and paint is a mental manipulation that students in the Sensorimotor and Preoperational stages would struggle with (Piaget, 1970).
According to Ojose (2008), students in the Concrete Operational stage have the
ability to consider multiple perspectives and dimensions at the same time. This is
useful to students in drawing their bedroom from a birds-eye view, it would be
unlikely that students had ever seen their bedroom from this perspective before,
so as they draw, a mental image of their bedroom from eye level will need to be
manipulated to a birds-eye view perspective.
The teacher has given very clear steps for students to follow, which is especially
important for students in this stage because they are now developing a more
logical thought pattern (Ogise, 2008). Further, Concrete operational students can
think in multiple directions and understand reversibility (Woolfolk & Margetts,
2013). This is tested in the final problem which asks students to pay back all of
the money they have spent, while only receiving 50%- 75% back for purchases
they return. This requires students to think back, calculating the sum of money
they will be able to recover and how much they still owe.
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Woolforlk and Margetts (2013) state that in the next stage, Formal Operations,
the ability for deductive and hypothetical reasoning is developed. To encourage
their development onto this stage, the whole task is hypothetical, challenging
students to think in a different way than they would ordinarily. Students are also
asked to consider how many modern appliances are dumped, even though they
work and how we can become more resourceful, which invites deductive
reasoning into the task. Again challenging their current stage of development
and moving towards a more Formal Operational way of thinking.
To strengthen this lesson plan, students could be required to build a model
version of their new bedroom. In doing this, it allows students to further their
experience considering multiple perspectives and dimensions. It also adds
another level to the task by consolidating learning through a physical experience
which Ojose (2008) states fosters development in this stage.
Piaget also theorised that interactions between peers were the most powerful for
students (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013), therefore a more group based
environment could have been beneficial to encourage discussion, leading to a
deeper understanding.

Vygotsky Sociocultural Perspective

Zone of Proximal Development
The Zone of Proximal development is the distance between two points; the
current developmental level determined by independent problem solving, and
potential developmental level determined by problem solving with adult
assistance (McLeod, 2013). Vygotsky believed that during any point in
development, there are particular problems that a person is on the verge of
being able to solve. It is with cues, structure, encouragement, scaffolding and
reminders from others that they will be able to solve these problems (Woolfolk &
Margetts, 2013). For example, children learn to tie their shoes by having adults
show them, remind and encourage them. After some time, support can be
reduced then withdrawn, as students guide themselves through these types of
problems (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013).
The teachers language in the lesson plan is in line with Vygotskys ZPD theory as
terms such as try, if you can, if you cant dont worry are used. This
illustrates an attempt to move the students forward with problem solving by
providing a challenge, without frustrating students or causing a loss of
motivation, which often occurs when students are challenged beyond their
capabilities (Chaiklin, 2003).
Scaffolding is a crucial factor in Vygotskys ZPD theory because it is used to
guide students learning and development (Verenikina, 2003). It is used heavily
in this lesson plan as very clear and concise step by step instructions are used to
assist students through most problems. The best example of this is when
students are asked to paint their bedroom and the teacher gives five, clear
instructions like find out the area of each of the walls and ceiling and work out
the total area of the walls and ceiling. For a complex problem like this,

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scaffolding is necessary to guide thinking and help students process information

and problem solve gradually.
In the ZPD theory, Vygotsky placed much emphasis on interactions between
students and more capable peers such as older children and teachers (Tudge,
1992). To strengthen this lesson plan, a more collaborative environment would
be beneficial, students could partner up with year seven students who would be
able to guide them, answer questions, give encouragement and discuss ideas.
The teacher could create study groups and work with each group individually,
encouraging them, using cues, reminders and other verbal prompts to challenge
their current level of understanding (Tudge, 1992).
While there were clear instructions included in this task, students also require
specific cues and reminders about the concepts needed to reach answers
(Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013). It would have been advantageous for students to
receive a cheat sheet of sorts, with reminders about how to go about solving
specific problems, such as converting square metres into square centimetres and
square millimetres.

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Cultural Tools
Vygotsky created the term Cultural tool to describe tangible and intangible
items embedded in cultures. In this lesson plan, items like measuring tapes,
rulers, calculators and computers are considered physical cultural tools (Woolfolk
& Margetts, 2013). While the mathematical systems of finance and measurement
are considered symbolic and psychological tools, Vygotsky theorised that the
more complex these systems were, the greater the potential for highly complex
thought (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013). The process of receiving and developing a
cultural tool kit begins with children engaging in activities with more capable
peers, exchanging ideas, thought processes and ways of presenting concepts.
Drawing a map or explaining a mathematical formula are some examples of this
(Gauvain, 2001). Vygotsky believed that in acquiring these new tools and
creating a tool kit, children are able to learn and make sense of their world
(Gauvain, 2001).
This lesson plan is based around the symbolic and psychological tool of finance
and measurement. Giving students the opportunity to work with concepts like
this further develops their ability to use these tools in other situations (Abreu &
Cline, 2003). The number systems used, encourage and support cognitive
development, including high order complex thought, as students come to
understand new concepts by applying them with assistance from the physical
tools of measurement devices and calculators (Abreu & Cline, 2003). Measuring
tapes allow students access to accurate units of measurement from which they
can derive calculations for area and perimeter. This process of measuring and
calculation develops cognition in a way that without these tools would not be
possible (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013).
The teacher encourages students to use a calculator for more complex
algorithms, calculators are a physical tool that give students the opportunity to
reach answers that would otherwise be difficult. In order to use a calculator,
students must still know what equations are needed to solve the problem, which
demonstrates an understanding that can be further developed through the use of
this tool.
The use of another physical tool, the computer, is also encouraged to help
students draw and design their bedroom to scale in 3D, using Google Sketch-up.
This program makes use of students spatial awareness, abstract thinking and
knowledge of measurement principals. In doing this they can make sense of their
world by understanding the relationship between measurement and space more
easily than if they were to draw on paper because they are able to see the
shapes in space in a more realistic way.
By giving students the opportunity to use measurement devices, calculators and
computers as well as the mathematical systems needed for this task, the teacher
has added to the students cultural tool kit, which they will now be able to use
and adapt when needed (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013).
Vygotsky stated that language is the most crucial symbol system in the tool kit,
as it assists with the addition of new tools (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013). The
mathematical terms and phrases used in this task are an example because even

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though they may not be new terms, they are being reinforced and meaning is
added as students apply them and develop a deeper conceptual understanding.

Conclusion
In modern classrooms, teachers are more aware of the works of Piaget and
Vygotsky and directly or indirectly use their theories to guide their practice.
Piagets Scheme theory is a fundamental part of learning, being aware of this
theory can allow teachers to structure lessons in a way that allows students to
relate new concepts to things they already know. This was shown in the lesson
plan when the teacher prompted students to draw their bedroom to scale, and
explained how to do so therefore expanding their knowledge and ability to apply
measurement. Stages of Cognitive Development are also a good guide for
teachers to use when planning lessons. The teacher who designed this lesson
plan, worked within the ability of the year 4/5 Concrete Operational students by
using a hypothetical and abstract task, which allowed them to experience
multiple dimensions and perspectives at the same time.
As for Vygotsky, his Zone of Proximal Development can be used in conjunction
with Piagets stages of Cognitive Development, knowing where students abilities
are, and challenging them that little bit further so they can move forward in their
development. This is reflected in the lesson plan as the teacher asks students to
try out new concepts that will be challenging, but with the assistance of
scaffolding are achievable. Finally the use of cultural tools is reflected
throughout the task; calculators, measuring devices, computers as well as the
mathematical systems of measurement and finance are used constantly,
reinforcing their place in the students cultural tool box.
This analysis shows that Piaget and Vygotskys theories should be used in
conjunction with one another, to guide plans and ensure the best outcome for
students. It is important to note, that these theories transcend planning and are
important also for implementation. Personally, my views of teaching and learning
are based around these two theorists underlying message of student centred
classrooms, so students are able to find enjoyment in their education by learning
in a way that makes sense to them.

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References
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