Basic Joints & Blueprint Reading

PART OF THE CWB CERTIFICATE PROGRAMS
All Rights Reserved 1996
BASIC JOINTS, BLUEPRINT READING & PREPARATION FOR WELDING

BASIC JOINTS
LESSON OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this lesson is to expose the student to some of the current terms which
are acceptable to the American Welding Society and which are mainly used in the
welding industry throughout the North American Continent.
Upon commpletion of this lesson, the student should know the following:
1.
The basic joints used in welding.
2.
The basic weld types.
3.
The various types of groove welds and weld types applicable to various joints.
4.
Joints and wM nomenclature or terms.
5.
The measurement of various kinds of fillet welds.
6.
Positions with respect to welding.
7.
Miscellaneous terms describing commonty used terms in welding and including

continuous, intermittent, tacks, wleders, welding operators, etc.
l- .
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Fundamentals of Weldng Technology

INTRODUCTION
Welding consists of joining two or more pieces of metal by the application of heat and sometimes
pressure. In arc welding the heat comes from an electric arc and no pressure is employed to fuse
the metal parts. Sometimes the heat from the arc is used to melt and fuse the parts together with
out adding extra metal. In most applications of arc welding, however, molten metal is added to the
joint and usually this joint is specially prepared like a mould to receive such metal.
Since welding is a joining process the student should first have a knowledge of the joints themselves,
what they look like, what they are called, how they are prepared and what are their uses and limitations; likewise the various types of welds used to make these joints are equally important.
Not only must the names of these joints and welds be familiar, but also the terminology hy which
each is designated. It is through the correct terminology that one can communicate with other
people in this field and indicate in the shortest possible manner our own thoughts and ideas.
It should be recognized that welding has become much more complex, and the industry should use
preferred terms and definitions. Those shown in this lesson have been taken from AWS A3.0-76
and CSA Standard W59. They should be used in writing codes, specifications, procedures and all
other documents concerning welding.
1. Joint Definition
JOINT: The junction of members or the edges of members which are to be joined or have been
joined-
If the student refers to the following IIgUrCS showing various joints it can be seen that an alternative
. description of a joint might refer to the ..faying surfaces which are in contact". While this is not
entirely correct, it will assist the student in deciding on the joint which. is present under certain
conditions.
Look at the joint following; and at the same time, consider the definition of the word joint" and
also the "faying surfaces which are in contact".
Fig.!
The student should realize that there is only one joint shown in Fig. 1, and that joint extends the
whole length of the plate. If one wished, it would be possible to define that joint in terms of:
"thickness x length".
Basic Joints, Bluepri'nt Reading & Preparation for Welding

Now look at the assembly consisting ,,f thrn: plat<,:s. Consider the numhcr of joints ;md select your
answer from the: following:
2 Joints
3 Joints
4Joints
Check your answers below.
ANSWERS
COMMENTS ON ANSWERS
1 Joint only
No. You are thinking of one assembly which after

welding will form one wcldment. A weldm.:nt is
an assembly whose component parts are joined by
welding.
2Joints
This answer is correct. The. three plates form two

joints. The actual joint is the faying area in contact with the centre plate.
3Joints
No. You arc considering three plates which form

part of the assembly. Go back and try again.
4Joints
Perhaps, you are considering each side of the joint.

For example, there are four sides where rillet welds
could be made. However, these aie only two areas
of faying surfaces. The correct answer is two.
The faying surfaces of these two joints have been marked by a thick black line.
F(~- 2
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Fundamen.Uzls of Welding Technology
1.1 Fwe Basic Joints

There are only five basic joints, although n:ia:ny variations of these result from the manner of
preparation and assembly.. These five, illustrated herewith, are tenned butt jomt, comer joint, tee
joint, lap joint and edge joint.
The actual joint is shCl/1'11 as a hatched area.
BUITJOINT
CORNER JOINT
TEE JOINT
LAP JOINT
EDGE JOINT
-------------
-~----
-- -
]Jasic Joints, Blueprint Reading & Prepuation for Welding .
2. DEFINITION
The current definition in the North American-continent for a weld is shown below: This was taken
from AWS A3.0-80 and CSA Standard W59-1977 -Appendix E.
Weld:
A localized coalescence of metals or non-metals produced either by heating the materials to
suitable temperatures, with or without the application of pressure, or by the application of pressure
alone, with or without the use of filler material. The word "coalescence'' is used smce coalescence
is defined as "growing together, or growth into one body". In weldmg metals, the metallic bond
is fonned as the weld is being made.
The student may be interested to know that the definition of this term in the United Kingdom is
natwally similar but not identical. The following definition was taken from B:Citish Standards
Bs-499 Part 1:1965.
Weld:
A union between pieces of metal at faces rendered plastic or liquid by heat or by pressure, or
by both. A filler metal whose melting temperature is of the same order as that of the parent materiai may or may not be used.
2.1 "l1uee Basic Welds
welds.
There are only three basic

"There seeins to be general agreement with respect to this state- .
. ment. In Canada and the U.S.A. they are considered as groove, fillet and plug. These terms are
. somewhat descriptive of the joint and the weld. Many variations are possible.
All welds are composed of one or more beads. A bead is a single run or pass of weld metal. A bead
or beads may be used to build up a surface and need not necessarily be used for making a joint.
When it is used to build up, lo.yer or butter a surface it may be termed a bead weld thus making, in
a sense, a fourth type (quoted from an earlier edition of Welding Fundamental Principles and
Practices). However, at the same time, it should be recognized that in the United Kingdom, the
edge weld is considered to be one of the three basic types. Therefore, the edge weld could, perhaps,
be considered as a fifth alternative.
The Three Basic Welds considered as such in the North American Continent are shown in
Fig. 4.
Fundamentals of Welding Technology
Fillet weld
(making tee joint)
2.
Fillet weld
(making lap joint)
Groove weld
(making butt joint)
Slot weld vacant at plug weld

(making lap joint)
Plug or rivet weld

(making lap joint)
Three Basic W~;lds

Fig.4
and
In preparation for the plug

~ot welds i.t.bove, holes or slots have been made in the upper plate. On relativ~y thinner material such welds can be made without preparation and are called arc spot
and arc seam welds.
f
Ir
I
l
II
I
Bead Weld (for buif4ing up and surfacing)
Fzg.5
6
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Basic]oi:nts, Blueprint Reading & Preparati~n- for Welding
2.2 Edge Welds

These consist of comer-flange welds, edge welds, and edge-flange welds. Since these are not included in the types of groove welds, and it is obvious that they are neither fillet welds or plug welds,
they might be considered as another type of weld.
Edge Weld
Edge-:{lllnge
W~ld
Corner-:{lllnge Weld
Fig. 6
3. DEFINffiONS
Groove Weld
A weld made in the groove between two members to be joined." Standard types of groove welds
are shown below:
double-bevel-groove weld
double-flare-bevel-groove weld
double-flare-V-groove weld
double:)"-groove weld
double-U-groove weld
double-V-groove w~ld
single-bevel-groove weld
single-flare-bevel-groove weld
single-flare-V-groove weld
single-U-groove weld
single-V-groove weld
square-groove weld
Flange Weld
"A weld made on the edges of two or more members to be joined, at least one of which is flanged."
Edge-Flange Weld-
"A flange weld with two members flanged at the location of welding.''
Edge Weld
"A weld in an edge joint."
Comer-Flange Weld
"A flange weld with only one member flanged at the location of welding."
Projection Wdd
"A weld made by projection welding."

Projection
Before
Fig. 7: Projection Weld

Projection Welding
A resistance welding process which produces a coalescence of metals with the heat obtained from
resistance to electric current passing through the wozk parts which are held together under pressure
by electrodes.
The resulting welds are localized at predetermined points by Projections, Embossments or
Intersections.
Basic joints, Blueprint Reading & Preparation for Welding
Seam Weld
A continuous weld made between, or upon overlapping members, in which coalescence may start
and occur on the faying surfaces, or may have proceeded from the surface of one member. The
continuous weld may consist of a single weld bead or a series of overlapping spot welds.
Fig. 8: Seam Weld

Spot Weld
A weld between, or overlapping members in which coalescence may start and occur on the faying
surfaces, or may proceed from the surface of one member. The weld cross-section is appro;rimately
circular.
Fig. 9: Spot Welds
3.1 Various Types of Groove Welds

As the name implies, the joints for such w~lds are in some manner prepared to form a groove or
crucible to receive the weld bead or beads. These might be considered as five main types of groove
welds: square groove, V-groove, bevel groove, U-groove andj-groove.
However, it should be recognized that the current defmition
teen standard types of grpove welds.
~ bsA Standard W59-19771ists tnir
'
The following illustrations of the various types of groove welds are all shown as applying to butt
joints. Some, or all of these welds are also applicable to corner joints, T-joints, lap joints and
edge joints. Both single groove and double groove joints can be prepared.
...__,.____...00 .
SqUII.Te Groove
62>.
]-Groove
Q
U-Groove
Bevel Groove
Double Flare-Bevel Groove
Double Flare-Vee Groove
V-Groove
Fig. 10
3.2 Types of Welds Applicable to Various Join~

Applicable Welds
Square-Groove
V-Groove
Bevel-Groove
U-Groove
Butt joint
]-Groove
Flare-V-Groove
Flare-Bevel-Groove
Edge-Flange
Braze
Applicable Wdds
Fillet
Square-Groove
V-Groove
Bevel Groove
U-Groove
J-Groove
Flare-V-Groove
Flare-Bevel-Groove
Edge-Flange
Comer-Flange
Spot
Projection
Seam
Braze
Comer joint
Applicable Welds
Fillet
Plug
Slot
Square-Groove
Bevel-Groove
T-]oint
J-Groove
Flare-Bevel-Groove
Spot
Projection
.I
Seam
Braze
Applicable Welds
Fillet
Plug
Slot
Bevel Groove
J-Groove
Flare-Bevel-Groove
Spot
Projection
Seam
Ltzp joint
Braze
. Applicable Welds
Square-Groove
Bevel-Groove
V-Groove
U-Groove
J-Groove
Edge-Flange
Comer-Flange
Seam
Edge
Edge]ont
The student will note that not all types of welds are applicable to every type of joint. For example,
one cannot make a fillet weld on the edge joint which is described above.
10
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4. JOINTS AND WELD NOMENCLATURE OR TERMS

Som~ of the old terms are supplied to assist the student who may have access to other documents
which use them and correctly so, at the time of publication. The change in terms has been accomplished to cover situations not previously envisaged or to conform with the majority opinion of
experts in the field. Definitions are covered in AWS 3.0.
4.1 Definitions
"
Angle of Bevel
See preferred term "Bevel Angle".
Backing Ring
Backing in the form of a ring, generally used in

welding of pipe.
Backing Strip
Backing in the form of a strip.
Backing Weld
Backing in the form of a weld.
Base Metal
The metal (material) to be welded, brazed,

soldered or cut.
Bead
See preferred term "Weld Bead".
Bevel
An angular type of edge preparation.
Bevel Angle
The angle formed between the prepared edge of

a member and a plane perpendicular to the surface
of a member.
Butt Joint
A joint between two members alinged in approximately the same plane.
Butt Weld
An erroneous term for a weld in a butt joint.
Chill Ring
See preferred term "Backing Ring".
Complete Joint Penetration
Joint penetration in which the weld metal

completely fills the groove and is fused to the
"Base Metal" throughout :ts total thickness.
Concave Root Surface
A root surface which is concave.
Convex Root Surface
A root surface which is convex.
Depth of Fusion
The distance that fusion extends into the Base

Metal" or previous pass from the surface melted
during welding.
Effective Throat
The minimum distance from the root of the weld

to its face, less any reinforcement.
11
Groove Angle
The total included angle of the groove between

'parts to be joined by a groove weld.
Groove Type
The geometric configuration of a groove.
Groove Radius
The radius used to form the shape of a J or

0-groove weld joint.
Included Angle
See preferred term "Groove Angle".
Incomplete Fusion
Fusion which is less than complete.
Lack of Fusion
See preferred term "Incomplete Fusion".
Joint Design
The joint geometry together with the required

dimensions of the welded joint.
Joint Build-up Sequence
The order in which the weld beads of a multi-pass

weld are deposited with respect to the cross-section
of the joint.
Joint Penetration
The minimum depth a groove or flange weld

extends from its face into a joint, exclusive of
rcinforcement. Joint penetration may include
"Root Penetration".
Joint Welding Sequence
See preferred term ''Joint Build-up Sequence".
Land
See preferred term "Root Face"..
Layer
A stratum of weld metal or surfacing material. The

layer may consist of one or more weld beads laid
side by side.
Partial Joint Penetration
Joint penetration which is less than complete.
Pass
A single progression of a welding or surfacing
operation along a joint, weld deposit or substrata.

The result of a pass is a weld bead, layer or spray
deposit.
Rcinforcement of Weld
Weld metal in excess of the quantity required to

fill the joint.
Root
See preferred terms "Root of Joint" or "Root of

Weld".
12
. --..:.:-.','7 , ..
'-'....
Root Edge
A root face with zero width.
Root Face
That portion of the joint to be welded where the

members are closest to each other.
In a cross-section, the root of the joint may be
either a point, a line, or an area.
Root Gap
See preferred term Root Opening".
Root of Joint
That portion of a joint to be welded where the

members are closest to each other.
Root of Weld
The points as shown in cross-section at which the

back. of the weld intersects the base metal surfaces.
Root Opeining
The separation between the members to be joined

at the root of the joint.
Single-Welded joint
In .arc or gas welding, any joint welded from one

side only.
Groove Weld: The joint penetration (depth of

bevel plus root penetration when specified). The
. size of a groove weld and its effective throat are
one and the same.
Size of Weld
Fillet Weld: The leg lengths of the largest right

triangle which can be inscribed within the fillet
weld cross-section.
The act of adding a separate piece, or pieces,-of
material in a joint before or during welding that
results in a welded joint not .complying with
design,
drawing, or specification requirements.
Slugging
Spacer Strip
A metal strip or bar prepared for a groove weld,

and inserted in the r.oot of a joint to serve as a
backing and to maintain root opening during
welding. It can also bridge an exceptionally wide
gap due to poor fit-up.
Throat" of Groove Weld
See preferred term "Size of Weld".
Weld Bead
A weld deposit resulting from a pass.
13
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..--.;-:::--.- . -,-,.___
-~-
"..
:...
.Fundamentals of Welding Technology
4.1 Currentjoint& Welding Terms
The figures below show some of the terms that have been previously defined.
Bevel angle
Groove radius
T"- Thickness
Root Face
Groove angle
h\LJ:--------.~u-
~ J.- Root
~ize of wet:!)
opening
of fusion
,----Face
r----Toe
~----Depth
reinforcement_.;.____
of weld
Root
Complete
penetration
lncompJete
penetration
Fig.ll: Joint & Welding Terms
Note: The weld size (x) is defined in sketches B, C, and D. Where joint penetTation is complete as
at B, the weld size is the thickness of the plizte. Where joint penetration is incomplete as at C, the
weld size is the depth ofpenetration. Where the plates differ in.thickness as at D and joint penetration is complete, the weld size is the thickness ofthe thinner plate.
14
Basic Joints, Blueprint Reading & Preparation for Welding
4.2 Description of Groove Welds

Welds which are made from one side with respect to square-groove welds or which are made from
one or both sides, but bevelled only from one side are indicated by the term "single".
Fig. 12: Square Groove Weld

This is a square gToove-weld made from one side only. .It is called a single-square- gTOove weld.
I Q
Fig. 13: Bevel Groove Weld

This is a bevel-groove weld which is chamfered on one side only, but welded from both sides. It is
commonly considered as a single-bevel-gToove weld.
These are examples of single-vee-groove welds.
Welded only from one side.
.\2! i
Welded and backgouged and welded from both sides.
Welded onto a backing strip.

Fig. 14: Single V-Groove Welds
15
. ,. -
.~---
Fundamentals of Weldng Technology
The student is directed to the following definition which is taken from Appendix E, CSAStandard
W59-1977 or from ANSI/AWS A3.0-~IO.
The term "Single Welded joint" refers to any joint which is welded from one side only. However,
the term "Singe-Vee-Groove Weld" is ocly a type of groove weld. The old.WFP&P course gave
examples of a "Single-V-Groove welded from both sdes" a,nd therefore the examples shown 4.2
"Description of Groove Welds" would appear -t~ have common concurrence.
Fig. 15: Illustration taken from the old W.F. P. & P. Course
The student should further note that our examples agree with Figure 10-1 in CSA Standard
W59-1977. Joint B-U2a, or {M2-1) shows a "Sngle V-Groove" which is welded from both sides.
Joint B-U8 or (M8-l) represents a "Single ]-Groove Weld"which is made from two sides.
SINGLE J GROOVE
2-SINGLE V GROOVE
MB-!
M2-l
-~M
~GrSM or ~GfSM
45
t
G=0-1/8
'R
4l:
-Rr:-=1/Sor greater
..
f-=r =~6or
. IWei~ I
greater
_in FVO
~po:=s'=ti=O=n=s=o=n~ly:_l__j
L-------=B,___,U_?~L..:::
Fig.16
16
:.. " . .
...... ,
'
-~-".
... ,
-~
4.3 Double Groove Welds

When welds are made from both sides of a square-groove weld or when both sides of the joint have
bee. chamfered to form a similar type of weld on both sides, then the term "Double" is used.
(6A) Double-square-groove weld
(6B) Double-bevel-groove weld
(6C) Double-V-groove weld
(6D) Double-]-groove weld
(6E) Double-U-groove weld
(6G) Double-flare-V-groove weld
(6F) Double-flare-bevel-groove weld

Fig.17
17
4.4 Joint Design

To ensure sound welding, joints should be so designed and dimensioned that the welder .uses the
least amound of consumable material in order to make a satisfactory joint. The student might
question why any joint preparation is necessary. In" order to explain this, it is necessary to view
the joint penetration which is obtained when depositing a weld bead on a half inch butt joint using
a square groove weld. If no root opening is allowed, the joint penetration might appear as noted in
Fig. 18.
- ... - ..
Fig.18
If the student increases the root opening the joint penetmtion could increase as shown in Fig.19.
Fig.19
However, if the gap is made too large, weld metal will be subject to the force of gravity and will
drop through the joint.
This is recognized by limitations in the maximum weld opening in several codes where prequalified joints are included. The square-groove weld is limited in thickness usually to a maximum of
3/16" when bafk gouging is not required (see CSA Standard W59-1977) and welding is perforriled
from both sides (SMA W- Manual Metal .Arc Welding) for all positions.
The square-groove weld can be made with a greater root. opening provided that welding is done
from one side only onto a backing strip. as shown in Fig. 20.
!I
I
~ .
Fig.20
The maximum root opening is equal to "t"

. "t" maximum equals 1/4" (SMA. W)
"t" maxi'mum equals 3/8" (FC.A W)
18
\.
The~e square-groove welds can be subject to incomplete fusion on the side walls due to the inability
of the welder to direct the electrode against the side walls. For this purpose, such joints are also
limited in thickness. The permissible thickness will depend upon the welding process which is used
in the procedural stipulations with respect to prequalified joint requirements and the appli.::ahle
code or standard permitting prequalifed joints.
In order to meet the initial requirements to produce a sound weld using the least amount of welding
consumables, it is necessary to bevel the plates.
1....
Consider a Single V-Groove Weld. .This will enable the welder to direct the arc to the side walls and
develop a proper teclmique which will eliminate incomplete fusion.
a
Fig. 21: Single V-Groove Weld

The size of the groove angle "a" is dependant upon the diameter of electrode, the arc length and
welding position, but should be as small as possible to allow the minimum deposit of weld metal;
not only for economy, but also for less distortion.
The student should also recognize that the thickness .of the electrode coating can have some bearing
on the size of the groove angle.
As the coating thickness increases it will be more difficult to reach the root of the joint for a
particular constant groove angle. This applies even though the nominal size of the -electrode remains
:the same.
.
4.5 Bum Through with Feather Edges

In order to understand why ~ cail be a problem it is first necessary to examine the manner in
which heat is removed from a joint. Heat will be removed from a joint at a rate which will depend
on ihe thickness and the conductivity of same.
Fig. 22
Therefore as the plate becomes thicker and the conductivity increases, it will be necessary to
increase the total heat input in order to provide sufficient heat to properly make the weld.
19
'
Thus when using a specific electrode size . and t)rpe; the current and voltage ~hich ~y be
satisfactory for one instance {thin plate) ma'y'be entirely unsatisfactory with respect to a similar
joint, but with a thicker plate.
Feather Edge Preparation
~ese
The feather edge preparation will change

.conditions so that the plate thickness in the viclriity of the
arc is J:educed. More heat will be available for the actu~
weld metal and there is a.danger that the arc will bum
through the feather edge so that the weld metal drops
through instead of making a weld. It is for this reason
that it is customary to make a small root face :rather
than leaving a feather edge.
~t Absorpti.~
)k
. _.!~
~~
.
Fig. 23
still
Even when feather edges have been eliminated, it is

possible to find situations such as T joints where the
heat sink va#es from one side of the joint to the other.
In this T joint with a single bevel groove weld the

capacity fo:r abso:rbing heat is much greater on the
unbevelled plate. This can lead to incomplete fusion
on the plate whicli is not bevelled. In order to prevent
this defect, it is. necessary to direct the arc against the
side having the greater heat sink~
Fig. 24
4.6 Prequalified Joints

Some codes require all types to be procedure qualified. In other cases standards such as CSA
Standard W59-1977 list many weld types and applicable joints which are considered as prequalified
providing the procedural stipulations of the Standard have been met. The student should
understand that it is extremely imp~rtant to follow the required procedural stipulations which are
not discussed in the folio~g section. Refer to the appropriate code for further information.
The student should however realize that there are no universally accepted prequalified joints. Those
which are noted in this section have references to the prequalified joints indicated in either AWS
Dl.l-80 or in CSA Standard W59-1971. This section does not cover all the prequalifiedjoints
which are included in W59 and the student is recommended to refer to the Standard itself fo:r
complete information.
4.7 Economical Welding
When it is impossible, or undesirable economically, to weld butt joints from both sides, backing
strips or bars may be used to permit a full and even penetration of the weld through the joint.
The dimensions for joinl design and welding instructions must be carefully conveyed to the shop
staff by means of standard sheets or product drawings. A cross-sectional vciw of unusual joints and
weld combinations may be necessary if the stand~d welding symbols do not suffice.
20
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,,, ' . .
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Basic Joints, Blueprint Reading& Preparation for Welding
4.8 Joint and Weld Designations.

The method of joint and weld designations for prequalifiedjoints shall be as_ shown below:
Symbols for Joint Types:
..
BCTBC-
butt joint
comer joint
T-joint
butt or comer joint
TC- T or comer joint
BTC- butt, T- or comer joint
'
Symbols for Base Metal Thickness and Penet:Iation:

L- limited thickness - complete joint penetration
U- unlimited thickness - complete joint penetration
l'- partial joint penetration
Symbols for Weld Types:

1- square groove
2 singie-V groove
3456789-
double-V-groove
single-bevel-groove
double-bevel-groove
single-U-groove
double-U-groove
single-J-groove
double1-groove
Symbols for Welding Processes, ifnot Manual Shielded Metal Arc:
s-
submerged arc
FC flux-cored ;m:
The above symbols are therefore used in order to completely define the joint as follows:
e.g. Unlimited thickness Double-V-groove - Butt Joint.
Butt joint: The type of joint is shown rust - "B".
After the hyPhen (-),the thickness limitation (U-unlimited) and weld type (3- DoubleV) is shown. If there is only one type of this joint, it will be B-U3.
If several variations of this joint occur, the first will be designated as "a" and the second as ''b" and
so forth.
e.g. B-U3a is the first variation

B-U3b is the second variation
B-U3c is the third variation
21
. --"-:-:: --... --~;,, :..;,
-~-
..
4.9 Joint Geometries

The student should be constantly aware of the posSibility of fracture when a weld is made from one
side only and particularly when penetration is less than complete.
Load~
~Lead
.[_
F10ctwe
IJ_
Fig. 25
Note: The allowable working strength of joints welded from one side only is restricted, as compared to that allowed for jo~ts welded from both sides, or with a suitable baclclng bar.
Moreover. this type of joint must not be used when the root is likely to be subjected to
tension as shown above:
.---01. 1-80 1/32 to l/8
W59-1977
Dl. 1-80
r----___jL-~:::;-;:::s;=~=-W_::5_::9_-_:_'9~77
. W59-1977: G=t/4 max
--..1i 1-- E~tive

Throat=T
T
for both 01.1
W59 W59
---.........
G= 0- 1/16
01.1-80
and
..::::::::;t
Sngle-Square Groove Butt Joint welded with

bead weld from one side.
Fig. 26
22
-
1/8 max
.- .............. ,.
---~:::
4:.10 Square
Gr~ve
PrequalifiedJoint
,_
~
s
SQUARE GROOVE
Gmin=T
{B)
t:i
a.rrr
a: fi
tad- (SMAW)
f=tTmax=J
II
-~GMAW
-8 FCAW
B L1a
Weld
Process
Joint
Design,.tion
Code
Maximum
Thickness
(Inches)
Root
Opening
(Inches)
Position
SMAW
W59
B-Ila
1/4
Tminimum
SMAW
D1.1
B-Ila
1/4
T but subject
All
to workmanship.
tolerance of+
All
1/16~'
or - 0"
GMAW
W59
Not Prequalified
GMA.w*
Dl.l
B-Lla-G
3/8
T but subject to
All
workmanship
FCAW
W59
B-Ila-FC
FCAW
Dl.l
B-Ila-F
3/8
3/8
Tminimum
Flat
T but subject to
All
workmanship
tolerance of min.+ 1/6"
or - 0"
.
*Not prequalified for short circuziing arc.

fT ma>.: as shown in Table
23
. .'
-.-,
.;
.. -: ::- .

4.11 Square Groove Butt Joint Welded with~ weld from both sides. -PrequalifiedJoint.
.Reinforcement
Thickness
of weld
jf
RootopetJinla
Fig. 27
The student should note that the maximum thickness, the root opening and notes regarding back
gouging differ according to the Code.
Weld
Process
Code
Joint
DP<:igoation
SMAW
SMAW
SMAW
W59
D1.1
W59
B-Llb
B-Llb
B-Ile
W59
Dl.l
W59
Dl.l
Not prequalliied
B-Llb-G
B-Llb-Fe
B-Llb-F
W59
B-Il-S
Dl.l
B-Il-S
GMAW
*GMAW
FCAW
FeAW
SAW
SAW
Maximum
Thickness
(Inches)
Root
Opening
(Inches)
Positions
1/2
1/4
1/4
3/16
T/2>3/16
T/2
T/2
T/2
All
All
F,Vonly
All
3/8
0-1/8
0
0-1/8
0
0
All
Flat
All
Flat
Flat
1/2
3/8
1/2
1/2
Note
.
GTSM
GTSM
BGNR
BGNR
*GTSM
GTSM
GTSM
we
we -
Note: Reinforcements is limited to lf8"maximum in both CSAStandard W59-1977 and

andAWS Dl.l-80.
*Not prequalifted for GMA W using short circuiting transfer.
U- Unlimited Thickness
L - Limited Thickness
CSTM- Gouge to sound metal
WC- Welds must be centered on joint
B -Butt joint
1 - Square groove weld with respect to joint designation.
BGNR- Back gouging not required.
24
=cc=-c-:cc-.c:-c.........

4.12 Single V-Groove Weld- PrequalifiedJoints
Single v gnxwenreld (2)

Butt joint (B)
~,.;;trx
~ f.{\{/
.)
_,.~~
~T
-r-
joint Designation - B-U2
.
Wdd
Groove
Root
Root
Face
Gap
(Inches) (Inches)
Process
Code
Angle
Maximum
Thickness
(Inches)
SMAW
W59
45
Unlimited
0-1/8
SMAW
Dl.l
60
Unlimited
GMAW*
Dl.1
60
Unlimited
GMAW
W59
Not Prequalified
FCAW
W59
45
FCAW
.Dl.l
SAW
SAW
SAW
Positions
Note
;;.,1/16
F,V,OH
GTSM
0-1/8
0-1{8
All
GTSM
0-1/8
0-1/8
All
GTSM
Unlimited
1/8minimum
Flat
60
Unlimited
0-1/8
0-1/8
All
GTsM
W59
60
Unlimited
Flat
BGNR
Dl.1.
60
1{2to 1"
1/4 max:unum
1/4 max:unum
Flat
BGNR
l-H2
1/2 max:unum
Flat
GTSM
1~-2
5/8 maximw;n
Flat
GTSM:
Unlimited
Over 1/4"
Flat
GTSM
W59
60
Note: BGNR= !Jack Gouging Not Requred.

GTSM = Gouge to Sound Metal.
*but not short circuiting.
25
..
. .,.. . ..
. .. .,.
~-
r -:
GTSM
4.13 Single V-Groove Weld -PreqwilifiedJomt
(J
20
gov
45u
60
W59 Positions
I/2
3/8
1/4
3fl6
F,O only
F,OH
F,V,O
F,V,O
All
Not covered
DI.l Positions
SU2b
Fig. 28
4.14 Single Bevel-Groove Weld- PrequalifiedJoint

The reqtrirements for W59 are shown in Fig. 29. However, with respect to AWS Dl.I, the following
changes are noted: Root Face (RF) 0 - I/8, Groove Angle -does not include the bevel on the lower
plate (0-15) which is permitted under W59.
In both codes, this joint can be used for all positions. However, in AWS Dl.I, this joint is limited
to the Horizontal position only, with respect to dynamic structures such as bridges.
~=1..(6 or greater
--h
~GTSM.
'\.
Fig. 29
S-U4a
4.15 SjngleJ-Groove.Weld- PrequalifiedJoint
-~TSM
R
=1/S or greater
W59 Positions Dl.1 Positions Process
0-1/8
20
F,Oonly
Not included
SMAW
0-1/8
45
All
All
SMAW
0-1/8
30
NfA
All
FCAW &: *GMAW
1/8 min 30
F,H
NfA
FCAW
B-US
Fig. 30
*Not GMAW short circuit transfer- N/A =Not Applicable.
-----
26
----------.

4.16 Single U-Groove Weld- Prequalifiedjoint
W59 Positions
Dl.l Positions
Process
20
F,O only
F,OH
SMAW
45
F,V,O
All
SMAW
Radius for Dl.l is 1f4"instead of3f16 which is called for in W59-197Z

Root face in D.l is 1/8':
G=0-118
Fig. 31
27
:''"<
'.
5. THE MEASUREMENT OF FU.LET WELDS
The student will learn to recognize the various types of fillet welds and their measurement in ,
accordance with some code requirements.
DEFINITIONS
. A fillet weld having a-cencaveface.
Concave Fillet Weld
Convex Fillet Weld
A :fillet weld having a convex face.
~ective
The minimum distance from the root of a weld to

its face, less any reinforcement.
Throat
A weld,
approximately triangular in cross-section,

two surfaces usually at right angles to each
other in a lap joint, T-joint or comer joint.
Fillet Weld
jo~
Size of Fillet Weld
For equal leg fillet welds, the leg lengths of the largest right angled triangle which can be insaibed
within the fillet weld cross section.
e.g. Fillet weld with both legs equal to 1/4" would have a size of 1/4", if weld profile was
flat or convex.
,
For unequal leg fillet welds, the leg lengths of the largest right angled triangle which can be
inscribed within the fillet weld cross section.
e.g. Fillet weld with one leg 3/16" and other leg 3/8" would be 3/16 x 3/8, providing the
weld as flat or convex.
Note: When one member makes an angle with the other member greater than 105 degrees, the leg
(size) is of less significance than the effective throat which is the controlling fact or for the strength
of a weld.
Throat of a Fillet Weld

Actual Throat
The shortest distance from the root of a fillet weld

to its face.
Effective Throat
The minimum distance minus any reinforcement

from the root of a weld to its face.
Theoretical Throat
The distance from the beginning of the root of the

joint perpendicular to the hypotenuse of the largest right-angled triangle that can be inscribed
within the fillet weld cross section.
28
. -
-~,
',;
-~:
.-:
."---#
'
, __ _
6. VARIOUS FILLET WELD TYPES

6.1 Ideal Fillet Weld
This term is given to welds making Lap. joints, T-joints or inside comer joints. Such welds may
consist of one or more beads or layers and are approximately triangular in c::oss section; they join
two surfaces, usually but not always, at right angles to each other in the above mentioned joints.
Fusion
Leg
Penetration
As will be noted above, the ideal fillet weld is one where the joint faces are at 90; the weld has
equal legs; the face is flat or slightly convex and the toes merge ~oothly with the surfaces of the
joint members.
6.2 Convex Fillet Weld
Leg md size
Act-.Jol throat
---+-----..
Leg and size

Effective throat
./----'--f-Theoretical
throat
Fig. 33: Convex Fillet Weld
It will
be noted that metal lying outside of the resulting equal leg triangle is wasteful and un!J.ecessary, so that unequal or excessively concave fillet welds are undesirable.
29
.. _, .- .
.. .
. .-:
.;.:~:
__
., ... ..
Funr:Ulmentals of Welding Technology
6.3 Concave Fillet Weld
Adual throat and

effective throat
Concavity
Theoretacal throat
Fig. 34: Concave Fillet Weld

*(See Clause 4.3.2.4 for defnition of effective throat u:n.der this Standard)
In the above sketch, the effective throat of the concave weld shown as per Clause 4.3.4 in W59
would be equal to the "Theoretical Throat".
In other. words, the size of the fillet weld shown would be equal to the Ierigth of the side of the
inScribed isosceles triangle which is diagrammatically shown, i.e., the theoretical throat x 1.4;
6.4 Uneven Leg Fillet Welds
Fig. 35: Uneven Leg Fillet Weld

The size of the fillet weld shown is equal to the leg lengths of the largest triangle which can be
inscribed within the cross-section.
e.g. The size of the fillet weld = ax b.
30
7. GENERAL RULES FOR MEASURING FILLET WELDS

For many years it has not been considered practical to measure :fillet welds to a :fmer level than
1/16" (1.6 mm). Perhaps the change over to metric will change tllls slightly.
However, on a practical basis, an equal legged fillet weld might be considered as one which has leg
sizes which will not differ by more than 1/16". If one considers such a :fillet weld, the size of that
weld will depend upon the smallest of the following three dimensions:
(a) The measurement of one of the :fillet legs.
(b) The measurement of the o~er fillet leg.
(c) The throat as measured by a fillet gauge and multiplied by 1.4.
The smallest dimension would be adjusted to the nearest size in 1{16 of an inch intervals. The
examples in Fig. 36 will illustrate the foregoing.
5
9
Tif
32
~~
21
32
a. 5/16"
32
b. 11/32"
c. 9/32 x1.4 -12.6/32~'
a. 9j16"
32
b. 11/16"
C. 5/16 X 1.4 = 7/16"
The smallest dimension is 5/16";

the size ofthis fillet is 5/16'~
The smallest dimension is 7f16";

the size of this fillet weld is 7f16",
32
a. 11/32"
b. 3/8"
c. 9f32" 1.4 = 12.6/32"
The smallest dimensions is (a) 11/32': but this is a size which is between the practicalsizes of 5/16"
a:nd 3/8". Therefore, the size of this fillet weld would in practice be 5/16".
Fig. 36
31
;. .
':.
''.'
:.;;o,-
i-
8. POSIDONS OF WELDS
With metallic arc welding, it is possible to deposit metal in any position so that an operator may
make a joint that is below him, in front of him, above him, or at any intermediate position between
these three.
The student should peruse the following definitions in order to properly understand this section.
8.1 Definitions
Flat Position
The welding position used to weld from the upper

side of the joint; the face of the weld is approximately horizontal
Horizontal Position
Fillet Weld - The position in which welding is

performed on the upper side on an approximately
horizontal surface and against an approximately
.vertical surface.
Groove Weld - The position of welding in which
the axis of the weld lies in an approximately
horizontal surface and against an approximately
vertical surface.
Horizontal Fixed Position
The position of a pipe joint in which the axis of

the pipe is approximately horizontal and the pipe
is not rotated during welding.
Horizontal Rolled Position
The position of a pipe joint in which the axis of

the pipe is approximately horizontal and welding is
performed in the flat position by rotating the
pipe.
Overhead Position
The position .in which welding is performed from

the underside of the joint. -
Positioned Weld
A weld made in a joint which has been so placed as

to facilitate making the weld.
Position of Welding
See flat, horizontal, vertical and overhead positions; and horizontal rolled, horizontal fixed and
pipe welding positions.
Vertical Position
The position of welding in which the axis of the

weld is approximately vertical.
Pipe Welding - The position of a pipe joint in

which welding is performed in the horizontal
position and the pipe may or may not be
rotated.
'-
32
!'

9. GENERAL WITH RESPECT TO POSITIONS
This section will give the student a quick view of the welding positions with respect to groove and
fillet welds made on plate material.
A weld is said to be made in the flat position, horizontal position, vertical position or overhead
position depending on the position of the joint in relation to the floor. Welding techniques for the
four positions of welding vary according to the case of depositing metaL It is possible to deposit
weld layers of considerable volume in the flat and vertical position, but stringer beads are normally
used for horizontal and overhead welding. These positions are better illustrated than described, and
are shown in Fig. 3 7 to augment some of the definitions given in Section 8.
Position
of weld
GIOOe
Tee joint fillet
Flat
Horizontal
Vertical
Overhead
. Position of Fillet and Groove Welds

Fig. 37
33
..
-~-
::- ...
--
9.1 Positions of Groove Welds
When the student examines the definitions with respect to pos1t1ons, he will fmd the word
"approximately" creeping into the description. In order to more specifically def'.ne such positions, which might be .doubtful, the chart in Fig. 38 was prepared with respect to groove welds.
TABULATION OF POSITIONS OF GROOVE WELDS
Diagram
Position
reference
Flat
Horizontal
Overhead
Inclination
of axis
R01ation
offac:e
Vertic:al
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
..;r
G)
c:
-...
I
1
I
I
I
I
---
....._
..........
....._
----
~ n\OOe
\ZOT\,0\ '~"'
--\"\Of
---
'....._
....._
.......
Fig. 38: Positions of Groove Welds

34
- - --
I
f
'.:::~
- --- --
9.2 Positions of Test Plates for Groove Welds

The numbering of these test plates has become fairly standardized in a number of codes. The G
stands for Groove Weld.
In order to standardize the welder performance tests, these test plates are normally always performed in the positions illustrated in Fig. 39.
Plates vertical
Plates horizontal
axisofweld
horizontal
(A) Test position 16
for flat position

{B)
Test positiol\ 26
for horizontal position
Plates horizontal
Plates vertical
axis of weld
verfical
Yt\
{D) Test position
46
for overhead position
(C) Test position 3 G

for vertical position
Fig. 39: Posit:"ons of Test Platesfor Groove Welds

The student will note that the test position number will identify the position, e.g., 3G means
vertical position.
35
.. ..
9.3 Positions of Fillet Welds

As with groove welds there is always an area of doubt with respect to the approximate position
especially in areas which ~cht change from flat to horizontal or from vertical to overhead.
The chart in Fig. 40 _was prepared to resolve these situations.
TABULATION OF POSITIONS OF FILLET WELDS

Diagram
Position
reference
Inclination
of axis
Rotation
of face
Flat
0to1s"
150 to 210
r-...
.........
125 to 150
Horizontal
0 to 1s"
:210 to 235
Ow:rhead
0 to 125
0to80
15 to80
1:25 to 235
80to90
0 to 360
:23s" to 360
Vertical
................ ,
.......
............
900 .......
r-- ................
I
I
-~
i~
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
(.)
...
;::
Cl)
>
I
I
--- -
I
I
...._
'...._
---- -.
Fig. 40 Positions of Fillet Welds
.......~
.1 '.
36
1 ,-
9.4 Positions of Test Plates For Fillet Welds

The test plates used for welding procedure qualification tests have been standardized and the numbering system used is shown in Fig. 4L F stands for Fillet Test.
-- -
Axis of weld
horizontd
.....--
Axis of weld
horizontal ...-
(A) Test position "IF

for flat position
Axis d weld vertical

plates ve rtica 1
(B) Test position2F
Axis of weld horizontal
(C) Test pesi:tion 3F

for vertical position
(D) Test position 4F

fo~ overhead positien
Fig. 41: Positions of Test Plates for Fillet Welds

The student should realize that many welders in small shops have a tendency to think of :fillet welds
made in the 2F position as being flat fillet welds. This is incorrect. Only the troughed position is
the flat position as shown above under test _position IF.
37
9.5 Positions of Pipe Welds

Fig. 42 indicates positions which would be involved with a pipe whose axis varied between 0 and
90. The shaded areas identify the positions covered by a circumferential weld made in a specific
axis.
E.g., at 0 the pipe has an axis which is horizontal, but the position would include overhead, vertical
and a little flat position weld near the top. It would not cover the horizontal position.
Fig.42
38
9.6 Positions of Test Pipes for Groove Welds
The standard test positions for pipe welds are shown in Fig. 43. The 6GR position is not included
in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. In CSA Standard W47.1-1973, the 6G and 6GR
p~ti~=no<=B
)3:
Pipe horizontal and rotated.

Weld flat (::!:: 15"). Deposit
filler metal at or near the top
(A) Teat position 1G

forftatpoaitlon
Pipe or tube vertical and

not rotated during welding.
Weld horizontal (:::15").
(B) Test posiUon 2G

15" 15"
15"
15"
Pipe or tube horizontal fixed (::!:: 15"). Weld Hat. vertical. overhead.
(C) Test position 5G
for multiple position
Pipe inclined fixed {45::!:: 5") and not rotated during welding.
(D) Test position 6G
(E) Test position 6GR

(T, K, or Y connections)
Fig. 43: Positions of Test Pipes for Groove Welds
39
9.7 Combination Test Plates

CSA Standard W47.1-1973 makes use of test plates which combine fillet welds and groove welds.
Welders and welding operators in the 'S' classification shall be considered qualified to weld from
one side with backing only or from both sides without backing when joints are backgouged and
backwelded in positions as shown in Fig. 44.
Plafes
Vertical
Axis of
Weld
Horizontal
{o) Test position IGF
Plates
Vertical
Axis of
Weid
Vertical
(d)-Test position 4G F
Combination Test Plates

Fig. 44
In the case of the combination test plates, the root opening is 1/2" for thickness -up to and including 5/8".
In the case of the horizontal joint 2G, the root opening is only 5/16" and presumably the
Committee felt that this would not require a fillet weld and consequently, it was not considered as a
combination .test plate, but rather as a groove weld test plate. Hence, it is referred to as the 2G
position rather than the 2GF position.
40
.'
..
: ' t .
Basic joints, Blueprint Reading& Preparation for Welding
10. MISCELLANEOUS WElDING TERMS

Over the years, a number of terms have been associated with various definitions and meanings.
However, it is felt that a student commencing his studies of this course should not be confused by
receiving detans on definitions which were acceptable in the past, but to concentrate on definitions
currently in use. These definitions, there~ore, have been taken from AWS A3.0-80 or CSA Standard
W59-1977 Appendix E.
The terms '"welder" and "welding operator" are applicable to the individual only, and it is noted
that the machine performing the welding operation should be referred to as the_ "welding machine".
The equipment that supplies current for electric welding should be referred to as either "welding
generator" or "welding transformer".
Under CSA Standard W47.1, the "welder" is considered to have a higher level of skill than a
"welding operator". The "welder" may be involved with manual or semi-automatic welding. On
the other hand, someone who operates automatic welding equipment will not need the same level
of skill as a "welder". He would be termed a "welding operator".
The student ~ould be careful to note the difference in the meaning of "welding procedure" and
"joint welding procedure". This was covered by the Introduction to AWS A3.0-80.
"
To clarify the situation, the term "welding pro-cedure" pertains to the manner of welding a complete weldment; whereas, the tenn "joint welding procedure" pertains to the manner of welding
any particular joint. In many situations, the Standards have referred to what has been interpreted
for many years as "joint welding procedures" with procedure qualification tests being conducted
as part of the verification of ''joint welamg procedures;'.
Definitions
Acceptable Weld
A weld that meets all the requirements and acceptance criteria prescribed by the welding
specifications.
ContinuoUs Welds
A weld whlch extends continuously from one end

of the joint to the other.
Where the joint is es5entially circular, it extends
completely around the joint. ''Welds are made
continuous unless otherwise specified." This is not
part of the definition, but it is added to assist the
student.
Intermittent Welds
"A weld m which the continuity is broken by

recurring unwelded spaces."
The student should note that such welds are short
welds, usually of equal length (2" to 12" generally)
spaced at equal intervals along a joint. They may
consist of one or more beads.
41
Joint Welding Procedure
The materials, detailed methods and practices.

employed in the welding of a particular joinr
Tack Weld
A weld made to hold parts of a weldment in proper

alignment until the final welds are made.
Tacker
One who, under the direction of a fitter, or who

is a fitter, tack welds parts of a weldment to hold
them in proper alignment until the final welds
are made
Welder
..One who performs a manual or semi-automatic

welding operation."
The student will note that sometimes this term
has been used erroneously to denote a welding
machine. This terminology may be found in some
old textbooks.
Welding Machine
Equipment used to perform the welding operation.
I
I
e.g. Spot welding machine

Arc welding machine
Seam welding machine
Welding Procedure .
The detailec:l methods and practices including a(

joint welding procedures involved in the production of a weldment.
See "Joint Welding Procedure'' which refers to the

welding of a joint rather than the welding of a
weldment which could contain many joints.
Welding Operator
One who operates a machine or. automatic welding

equipment.
* * *
42
BLUEPRINT READING
LESSON OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this lesson is to enable the student to learn the basics of blueprint reading. Upon
completion of this module the student will be able to:
I.
Understand elementary blueprint reading.
2.
Understand shop prints with respect to brazing or surfacing requirements.
3.
Be able to comprehend the non-destructive test requirements as defined by NDT symbols.
4.
Have a knowledge of multiple reference lines.
5.
Realize the importance of following the instructions on a blueprint..
43
. . :
-/
..
..
---~"'""''
.-.
..
Furzdamentlzls of Welding Technology
ELEMENTARY BLUEPRINT READING
1. BLUEPRINT READING
The section of this lesson on blueprint reading is brief and deals only with how to read lines and
understand the relationship of the views shown on a drawing. Its prime purpose is to acquaint
the student with principles used in making and htterpreting the standard welding symbols described
in another section of this lesson. Therefore, unless the student is already familiar with drawings and
blueprint reading, he should study this sectio~ before going on to symbols.
Communications
Of all the means to convey design instructions from the engineering department to the fabricating
shop, drawings are by far the most frequently used.
A drawing is a means of communication. It .conveys information to the fabricating shop and
pro\ddes a permanent record at the same time. It conveys specific information, putting the
engineer's designs in such a form that the various component parts of a machine or piece of
apparatus can be manufactured and assembled correctly. Drawings also furnish the end user with
the information necessary to install the apparatus and to enable the manufacturer to provide
duplicate parts.
Sign Language
Blueprints make use of a sign language, but one that is precise and exact. Like a sign language,
it is universal, understood equally .well by all who have taken the trouble to study and learn it
whatever their nationality.
There are two parts to this sign language:-
1. the making of signs (the drawings) and

2. the translation .of the signs (blueprint reading).
It is important that the draftsman makes use of the correct signs and uses them in the normal
accepted manner. It is equally important that the men in the fabricating shop interpret these
signs correctly. Thus, blueprint reading is a necessity for the designer, draftsman and shop foreman.
It is equally desirable for the welder who, if unable to properly interpret a dra:wing and welding
symbol, must constantly rely on his foreman or others for an idea of what the part looks like.
However, the welder himself should be able to translate the drawing into a welded product and to
do so is not only essential but a most satisfying accomplishment. It may be difficult for someone
to admit he is unable to properly read and understand a drawing. On the other hand, it may be
dangcrous and costly to proceed without fully comprehending the instructions as revealed by the
blueprint. The only satisfactory answer is to know, and understand the subject thoroughly.
44
.: ...:.;;:.> ..
""."' :.; ... ~. .c
_ . It should not be supposed that reading this lesson oreven a close study of it will make anyone fully
/ ,,.)proficient in the reading of drawings. Practice is necess2I]'. For this reason, several exercises and
programmed material are supplied to assist the student. All students are advised to work over
actual shop prints whenever they can in the course of their duties.
It should not be implied that every operator should be a draftsman. This isn't true any more than
he shoulrlkncw how this page is printed in order to read it. Learning to be a draftsman is entirely
different and is not being discussed here except ir.sofar as it affects the reading of the drawing. To
read a drawing,a great deal rn,ust be known about the dr<~.ftsman's work, but it isn't necessary, for
example, to know how to draw a certain type of line or make a certain rxgure, but it is necessary to
know what that line or figure means. In other words, the ietters, the words, the sentences, must be
known so that the story may be read. Once these concepts are understood, all that is necessary is
to practice or study blueprint reading for a sufficient length of time, in order to become proficient
in it. The student will then be able to interpret the drawmg and visiualize the part which is to be
made.
2. DESCRIPTION OF SHAPE
It might be thought that as we learn the letters first and then the words of a language, it would be
well to learn the meaning of lines and then a dra\\--lng on blueprints. However, it is easier to start
from an object (such as simple welded base, which has been fabricated) and work backwards to the
lines. This gives something tangible and familiar with which to work.
As an example, consider a simple welded base made of angle iron as the object of this discussion.
2.1 Pexspective and Isometric Drawings

Picture drawings may divided into two general classes, true pictures called perspective drawings and
distorted pictures called isometric drawings. Picture drawings are of use in studying the appearance
of a part, but are not of any great use for contruction purposes because they are not to scale.
The fammar example of lookfug down a railroad track with the rails seeming to run together,
illustrates the picture effect. The further away a tie is, the smaller it appears. We know the ties are
all about the same length, but in the true picture they do not appear to be. A perspective picture
of a simple welded base is sliown in Fig. 1. Note that the lines on the paper do not give or represent
the actuallen.,crth. but combine to form the picture.
I'""
Perspective or Picture Drawing

of a Simple Welded Base.
Isometric or Dimensioned Picture Drawing

ofa Simple Welded Base
Fig.l
Fig. 2
45
.
...
'
-~-
. . ...
Fundamentals ofWelding.Technology
Such a perspective picture as shown is useful when studying appearance. It does not easily serve as
a means of giving information and dimensions for the fabrication of parts into a completed,,-.
assembly.
Another type of picture drawing different from the perspective in that it contains some information and data regarding dimensions, is known as an isometric drawing. This is made in a similar
way to the perspective drawing, but is not a true picture. The rear dimensions are too large and
as a result, the object appears distorted. Isometrics are sometimes called ..shop perspectives ...
Although isometrics and perspectives are alike in that they present a picture, some of the lines on
the isometric are made to actual length or scale and not shortened as they are in the perspective.
These drawings are much easier to make than perspectives, giving an idea of what the part looks
like, and may be used as drawings from which the part may be made.
An isometric drawing of a simple welded base is shown in Fig.2. The differmce between this and
the perspective is evident by examining these two drawings. The width, length and depth are laid
off on inclined lines, usually 30 to the horizontal, and the points so located are connected by
vertical lines. The result is an isometric drawing. These lines are drawn as shown in Fig. 3.
Vertical
Fie:. 3
With the isometric drawing in Fig;- 4~-,::onsider the angle iron end nearer to the reader. The length
of each leg ~~ the length of the angle may be measured. The length and width of the top of the
base may be determined by measur~ment.
It is evident however, that. the distance, as measured on the drawing, between diagonal comers
AB is not the same as diagonal distance CD. Consequently, the measurements of these dimensions
.do not tell the true story.
Fig.4
3. PROJECTED VIEWS
3.1 Showcase Concept
It is very necessary to have drawings from which all important dimensions may be obtained. In
order to develop such a method of making a drawing, it is necessary that some study be made of
46
...
Basic joints, Blue{irint Reading & Preparation for Welding
how we observe things, how we know size, how that information as to size and shape may be
recorded and transmitted to someone else and ho~ he, in tum, may translate and visualize this
information - so a complete idea of the object is obtained. This is important. In orde:r to build
something it is necessary to know what it looks like.
Suppose a purchase is to be made, and the article is in a showcase. To obtain a complete picture of
that article it is necessary to move from one position to another around the showcase. The three
positions which will usually tell the buya most about the article are: (1) looking down from the
top, (2) from the front and (3) from the side. Suppose the welded base is placed in a showcase
studied from the front, top and side. What kind of a picture would be obtained from each position?
Would any one view completely describe the base to the observer?
l'-Eye-A:
Lines of sight
........,/
1/
Eye .,/
Welded base in a showcase as it would

appear obseriJed at a rather short
distance from the showcase.
Line of Sight. Projection of views to

the sides ofshowcase.
Fig.S
Fig. 6
Consider the showcase as it would look at a rather short distance. Inside the showcase is the welded
base - resting upon blocks which elevate it for inspection. The sides of the base are parallel to the
sides of the showcase and the top parallel to the top of the showcase.
If the glass of this case is marked with a special pencil (these are available) it would be possible to
mark on the glass the points and Imes representing edges and surfaces of the base. These marks
would be placed on the glass where an imaginary l!ne, at right angles to the glass, and extended
from the edge or surface being drawn, meets the glass side of the showcase. Carefully note that the
eye moves to a new position for each point. The "line of sight" from the eye to the point being
drawn is always at right angles to the sides of the showcase. Three views result (shown in Fig. 8)
top, front and right side. These views are called projected views.
47
-:;'
.: : ;.--
3,2 Orthographic Projection

When the limitation "that every line of sight be at right angles to the showcase side", was made, the
process became a "right-angled projection of points". The word "orthographic", a Greek word
meaning "right-angled writing", is sometimes used to describe this method of drawing. The drawing
is called an "orthographic projection".
If one examines the previous sketch showing line of sight projection (Fig.8) then it will be seen
that any single view, by itself, does not completely describe the base. By considering all three views
together and interpreting the relation of one line in one view to another in another view, the true
picture is formed. This is not difficult. It can be shown clearly by further discussion of the
showcase example.
For example, when an edge is seen as a line in the front view, it must appear as a line or a point in
the other views. Check this by observing the form in which each edge and surface of the base
appears in each of the three projected views, and compare these conclusions with a mental picture
of the top, front and right side of the base in a showcase. This study should be continued to be
sure that this idea of the form is thoroughly understood. Understanding these principles is essential
to reading blueprints.
Since the drawing must be made on a sheet of paper, the three views must be shown together in
some way that will bring out the fact that they are really projected at right angles to each other.
How is this to be done on a flat sheet of paper? Suppose the transparent sides and top of the
showcase were hinged on the edge nearest the front, and, after the projected views were drawn on
the sides of the showcase, the hinged top and right side were swung around until they were both
in the same plane as the front of the showcase. Fig. 6 indicates this situation.
The hinged showcase side and top being swung into plane of the front.
Fig.6A
48
.... ,
:'.

The sketch (Fig. 7) indicates the showcase with the hinged sides swung into one plane. If it is now
visulaized that the showcase is removed, the three views will remain as in Fig. 8.
..J
iI
I
:21
The front of the showcase with the hinged top and right sides
swung into the same plane.
Fig. 7
Note the relationship of the three views drawn on the sides of the showcase in Fig. 7.
Every time a drawing is read, this concept of swinging out the top and right side views must be
remembered and applied.
The next step is to draw the three views as they would appear when the top and sides are swung
so as to line up with the front of the showcase.
~~1---Top~ll
Front
..JI
Right side
IL
The three projected views without the showcase outline. They are moved closer together
and the general relationship is indicated
Fig. 8
49
Fundamentrlls of Welding Technology
3.3 Spot and Line Projections

The student should study the simple sketches in Fig. 9, which show the showcase outline or projection of a spot and a line.
views
0
--k
Top view
A spot will be seen as a
point on all three views.
Front view
0
u
Si~ view
"'
Blue pnnt
A spot in center ofa cube obseroed from 3 sides of a cube.

Fig. 9
A line which is pezpendicular to a particular plane will project a point as noted m Fig. 10.
Front
This point on one plane'.

may be either a line or a
spot on other planes.
Side
0
"Blue print"
Three views show the line to be at right angles to the showcase side and
parallel to the front and top.
Fig.lO
Fig. 11 shows the projection of a line which is pezpendicular to the top plane but which is not
pezpendicular to the other planes. Notice that it appears as a line in all three views, but the vic:W in
which the line is parallel to the projected plane indicates the true length.
r
.
"'-.Top_
Li--~
I
I
Front
The three showcase views show the line to be horizontal, but the left end is farther
from the eye than the right end by the distance marked ~ ".
Fig.11
50

3.4 Examples of Orthographic Projection
The American projection which is third angle projection, is shown in this module. However, in
orde~ to acquaint the student with European practice a brief description of the first angle projection is given.
3.5 Third Angle Projection : Six Prlncipal_Views
This is the showcase example which was previously discussed. The object may be considered as
bcing in a showcase and the views are projected perpendicularly to the box faces.
See the example below which shows six principal views:
TOP VIEW
fRONT VIEW
LEFT
SIDE VIEW
RIGHT
SIDE VIEW
c:n.
LiJ
BOTTOM VIEW
Orthographic Drawing Showing The Six Principal Views

Fig.12
.-
51
..... -,
-_-
REAR VIEW
Fundamentals ofWeldng Technology
3.6 First Angle Projection
The first angle projection is used principally in Europe. Here the object is considered as having
been rolled over to either side, so that the right side of the object is drawn to the left of the front
elevation.
The student should note that the isometric drawing which is shown in Fig. 14 (A) has been drawn
in both the American (third angle projection), Fig. 14 (B) and European (first angle projection),
Fig. 14 (C).
(A) Pictorial ])Tawing (Isometric)
Rffi
rn
(B) Third Angle Projecton
Used mNorth America
(C) Ffrst Angle Projection
Used in Europe
A Comparison Between Third and First Angle Projection

Fig.14
When the first angle projection is used, the top and bottom views are reversed, as are the Right
Side View and the Left Side View.
52
;
Basic Joints, Blueprint Reading & Preparation for Ji.'elding
First angle projection ca.."l also be demonstrated by
~he
sketch in Fig. 15.
First Angle Projection

Fig.15
. The Views which are obtained are those which might be considered to be seen as projected onto
the plane beneath the view or onto the far side of the view.
The student should be aware of these two projections because an employer may be involved with
contracts from overseas. These t01.-o methods of projection are so widely used in the world today
that ISO (International Standards Organization) has developed special symbols to indicate the
applicable projection method which is used.
(A)First Angle
(B) Third Angle

ISO Projection Symbols
Fig.16
When it is desirable to indicate the method of projection, the ISO projection symbol, as shown
in Fig. 16 should be shown in the lower right hand comer of the drawing, adjacent to the title block.
53
4. Lines and Their Uses

The fact that the base is fabricated of angle iron, imparts information about the inner surfaces
which would otherwise be lost, if the views arc drawn only as shown in Fig. 1 7.
I~
~I
Top.
Front
Right side
~I
IL
Fig.17
It will be seen by the student that there is a need for more detail. Consider pieces having surfaces,
edges and comers which cannot be seen when a piece is observed in a showcase. There is a need for
a method of giving information about hidden as well as visible outlines, surfaces, edges and comers.
The "dotted" line is used to indicate "hidden" outline; the "solid" line being used to indicate
"visible" outline.
.,------,.hidden outline
_ _ _ ___;risible outline
Knowing that the base is fabricated of angle iron, the hidden surfaces would appear in a dxawing
as shown bdow.
It shows the complete story of the outline of the base - hidden and visible - inside and outside.
I[_____] I
L
'-n
"Showcase" Drawing with ".Dotted"lines showing hidden edges of surfaces

Fig.18
Further tho~ght on the subject -of. iJ"nparting complete information in "showcase" views reveals
the need for other distinctive lines to communicate important details to the reader. Some objects
are symmetrical abotj.t a centre line or plane, (one half of the piece is exactly the same as the other
half) so the centre'Iirie~ added-totheiiSt. -. .,__
- .,;
' ,-
,_- . _ , '
54
i.
'- . :-

The centre line is always used in indicat~ the centre of holes and cylinders, for the centre is most
important in drilling a hole or turning a shaft.
Left: Picture drawing of counterbored collar.

Right: Mechanical drawing of counterbored collar.
Fig.19
Front and right side showcase,. views are shown. The top view would be the same as the side view
and is not shown in order to prevent duplication. Dotted lines show hidden edges and surfaces.
Figure 19 shows both "dotted" and centre" lines used on the drawing of a thick washer-like piece
which has been drilled through to foim a hole of one diameter then the hole bored to a larger
diameter for a part of the thickness.
Not only is the external and internal shape .essential, but it is necessary that all fabricating
dimensions be detailed so they may be easily and accurately read. The dimension line is used for
this and will be discussed in more detail later
. The lines on which the dimension arrow heads terminate ar~ called "extension lines" and are used
to indicate the end of the dimension and keep the dimension lines off the drawing itself.
ll
Jl
Extension
Dimension line
Dimension figures here
Fig. 20
55
Details of the inner construction may be classified by showing how the object would appear if it
were cut in two. A drawing may be made of the view which would result if this were done. The
CUTTING PLANE line is used to indicate just where the cut is made. (Fig. 21)
"'1
t-
.L
Cuttin pia neline

.
----~----
.JA
Jt
Fig. 21
Since some objects are the same throughout their length, it is not necessary to make a complete
drawing. The drawing is shortened by omitting part of the uniform section. This is indicated by
a "break" line, which is usually wavy .or jagged but in some cases, a.~ in a "broken" shaft, a pictorial
outline as shown in Fig. 22.
" '
Fig. 22
This "Break" line is applied to the top of the base as shown in Fig. 23.
"Break" line
____ j
Fig. 23
56
t __ _
\.~
BaS7.c ]onts: Blueprint Reading & Preparaton for Weldng
Finally there are Cross-hatching lines which will be dealt with later. These lines fonn the "alphabet
of lines". They show the relative location of intersecting surfaces and other information about the
part drawn. The following list should be learned:
Visible outline
Heavy solid line

to indicate edge
Hidden edge or
outline
Light, short dashes
Dimension line
Thin, solid line and

arrows
Extension line
Thin solid line
Centerline
----
- - - - Thin, long and

short dash
Dimension line
with reference
or extension lines
Light lines indicating

limits of dimension
Section or cutting
plane line
-------
Long and short dashes
Cross-hatching
lines
W#J:i~~
Thin, sloping lines
Broken section
line
Full line with

freehand breaks
The preceding pages indicate the basic methods for reading blueprints. These were illustrated by:
First:
An object represented by three views as when viewed from the front - right side - and
top of a showcase. All points have been projected at right angles to the showcase glass.
Second: The "Alphabet of Lines" which conveys information about the object being represented
by three views.
57
Fundamentals ofWeldng Technology

6. DIMENSIONING
Lines have been discussed with reference to visible and hidden outline and centre lines. Dimension
lines were indicated. \Vhile dimensions can be measured on the drawings they may be, and probably
are inaccurate due to various mechanical difficulties - such as paper shrink?-ge due to atmospheric
conditions, etc.
For accurate work, the dimensions must be given in figures on the drawing. The dimension line was
included in the alphabet of lines shown earlier in the lesson. The arrowhead is characteristic of the
dimension line and indicates the limits of the dimension. Termination of the arrow head is either
on an outline, a centre line, or an extension line. The extension line is lighter than the outline
and is used only for dimensioning, usually being the continuation, after a short break, of the
outline. Various methods of including the dimension numbers are used as shown below. The letter
"R,. following a dimension number means "radius". "D" means "diameter".
I ,.
-~
Fig. 24
EXTENSION AND
DIMENSION LINES
(THIN)
!---- 3
.,..--~
ALTERNAnV
Fig. 25
Extension lines extend from the object to receive the dimension line. They should almost touch
the line which they are extending and should extend approximately 1/8" past the dimension line.
Arrowheads are placed at each end of the dimension line and touch the extension line. The
dimension is placed approximately at the halfway point in the dimension line, either in an opening
in the dimension line or above the line.
38
The familiar base which was previously discussed iS now shown in Fig. 26 including dimension lines
giving the overall dimension of this weldment. The measurements are shown below in Imperial
Units.
I ...
~-=-----=-----=---=----=!1-!_L
:~- - - - - - r- -:~- ~-o:._-_-_-=-_-=-_=~-3. . .;: ;1 r'Jf

t
Fig. 26
Dimension lines are generally

placed so that the drawing may be
read from the bottom and the right
hand edge of the sheet. Fig. 27
shows a three level base where
dimensioning is shown by the
conventional method and also by
baseline
dimensioning.
All
necessary dimensions should be
given. The reader should not be
required to make any calculations.
Where a dimension must be within
certain limits th1!{ are given as a
tolerance: 2.0 :o8~.
Conventional Dimenszoning
.Baseline Dimensioning
I
\.
\_
'
:
I
-----r-------~
~
't
~ g
I~ 8
~~------------------------~!~~------~
.t=.
1 - - - - - - - 3 . 0 0 0 - - - - - - - 11 S.>SELINE
1
Fig. 27
59
io25.___j
6.1 Scale
In connection with dimensions, the question of the actual size of the drawings arises. It is obviously
impossible to make a full size drawing in all cases. For that reason drawings are made in proportion,
that is- to definite 'scale". Models of.airplanes are examples of reproduction to a reduced "scale"
and the idea of cutting down every part to a convenient model size is just wl-...at is done in reduced
scale drawings. Drawings may be full size, half size, quarter size or any convenient size ratio.
Usually a note is made on the drawing indicating the "scale".
Reduction
Note
Full Size
Scale 1" = .1" or no note"
1/2"
1/4"
1/8"
1/2" = 1"
1/4" = 1"
1/8" = 1"
The three drawings in Fig. 28 represent the same object but are made full size, half size and quarter
size. It is obvious that the scale will normally be in relation to the overall size of the object, the
size of the drawing paper and the ability of the draftsman.
FuU Size
...
..
1
Half Size
Quarter Size
Fig. 28
60
Scale %' =::: 1"

An object is usually drawn to a scale which is just large enough to show the various views required
and fills a standard size sheet of drawing paper. Sometimes this scale is too small to give adequate
information on some details, so they may be drawn to a larger scale, or even full size, in order
to indicate clearly how the part is to be made. Where such details indicate the preparation and
welding of parts, the completed welds, if drawn, are usually shown by indicating the final shape
of the weld in full, bold outlines and the prepared edges of the plate in dotted lines. However, if
only the preparation of the plate is to be shown, then full lines are used to indicate the shape of the
part be~ore the weld is made. Examples are shown in Fig. 29.
.,
i--- -
......---
--
1:1.
---..
- - --:
1:;
J1 - - - - -- ---- --4.
- .1L
F
Plan View
End_ Vje-w
Ele'l'crfion
DErAIL "B"
Scale - full size

Showing Weld Preparation
DETAIL "A"
Sc:ale -
fvll $i%e-
$Jtowing Cofttpleted Weld
Fig. 29
The student should be aware that the above convention with respect to weld dimensions has started
to change. CSA Standard W591977 indicates the convention shown in Fig. 30.
Convention for Drawing:
indicate groove preparation prior to

otted lines indicate groove preparation after
fitting (and welding on "arrow side" if called for
in the welding procedures).
Fig. 30
(
"U" grooves due to backgouging have not been

shown.
~61
Fundamentals of .Welding Technology
For conveniently measuring distances to th~e and other common scales, metal and wood rulers
should be used as "scales" which are marked in divisions of inches and feet to the scales indicated
near the numbers. Fig. 31 shows a sketch of a scale which has four different reduction ratios.
To mark or check a dimension on a 1/2 size drawing, lay the edge marked 1/2 scale on that dimen
sion and mark or read the size as you would on an ordinary ruler. The l/4 and l/8 size scales are
used in the same manner without the delay caused by multiplying the actual measurement in inches
by the reduction number.
02.46810
Fig.31
The student may now wish to check the dimensions which are shown on the scales illustrated in
Fig. 32.
Scale 1:50
Distance A= _ _:...__ __
Fig. 32
The answer should be 3.4 metres. Now indicate the dimension if the scale had been quoted as l: 5.
The A dimension for scale 1 : 5 = - - - - - - - The correct answer is shown on the following page.
fi2

Answer
The A dimension (for scale 1 : 5) ,; 340 mm
=0.34m
The student should note that the actual measurement of 100 mm is 20 mm. In other words the
scale is reduced five times from full size.
6.2 Auxiliary Views
Every drawing should show sufficient number and the proper kinds of views so that a clear idea of
the object will be given. The number and kind vary with the object drawn. In some cases auxiliary
and (or) broken views are used. Some objects have a top or a side which is not at right angles to the
front and it becomes more difficult to read the exact picture from the views as projected especially when these slanting parts (which may be just a small slanting part of a.large machine)
have curved edges and surfac~. Examine the pictorial drawing of an angle brace shown in Fig. 33.
--"'
Fig.33
~
Upon placing it iJi, the showcase for observation by the outlined method; it is found that the three
customary views do not show def"mitely that the hole is circular. What particular angle of vision
would show this? At right angles to the slanting surface of course! A view, projected at right angles
to this surface, may be obtained very simply.
One side or part of a side of the showcase can
be inclined at. the same angle as the slanting
sUrface and the "line of sight" procedure used
as-before.
Here is a pictorial drawing -of the showcase
(Fig. 34) with part of the right side slanted at
the same angle as the brace.
Inside is the angle brace, while dotted lines at
right angles to the slanting side connect
comers of the brace to corresponding comers
of the projected view.
Fig.34
63
6.2 (continued)
T~e
sketch in Fig. 35 shows the view of the angle brace as it would appear in a blueprint. Definite
proof that the hole is circular is contained in this "explanatory" or "auxiliary" view. Including
more than just the slanting part in an "auxiliary" view makes the drawing harder to read so the view
is usually cut or "broken" with just the required part showing in detaiL
Top
Rigllt Side
Fig. 35
The sketch shown in Fig. 36 indicates a bracket which requires an auxiliary view to show the exact
shape of the one part.
---~
Top
front
' ""--
.
Fig. 36
64
'
.>
,..
.>::. ..
.--,~-: .,_,
... ::. ,.
Basc Joints, Blueprint Reading & Preparation for IVdding
6;2 (continued)
The student will note that slanting surfaces such as shown in the drawing in Fig. 37, require an
auxiliary view in order to describe the slanting part more clearly.
-- ..
.------------------.
I
: -Q-
TOP
.-------------------~
: -E3-
-43--;
'
4 HOJ5
Jlh
DIIILL
IIIGHT SIDE
Fig. 37
6.3 Cross Sections - Section VieWs

Sometimes it is difficult to show an object by means of all the usual outlines because to do so
would result in a very confusing drawing with too many lines. In such cases sections may be used.
A section shows what the object would look like if it were sliced in two parts and the part nearer
the reader removed. A section is really a picture drawing used only where needed to clarify the
instructions and indicated by cross hatching (fine cross lines).
65
Funtkmentals of Welding Technology
6.4 Section Views

The section may be located on the drawing proper or may be a separate view and so marked. The
plane of cutting is indicated by the cutting plane line, marked with letters such as A-A in conjunction with small arrows. The cutting plane is at right angles to the paper surface and therefore
at right angles to the top surface of the view in which the line appears. It is therefore necessary to
go to a view other than the one in which the line appears to show the details exposed by such a cut,
as illustrated in Fig. 38.
.,
D
l--A
;
---------r------
z""
i
i
0
;:::
..,...u
-------....L--------
I-A
__Jr------------
~ PICTORIAL VIEW
OF A PACKING GlAND
!'"-----3'.!.-----.
i-
BROICEH VIEW WITH

SECTION INSEiffEO IN BREAK
2-HOlES
'1: Dlllll
-,
'!
11
:J :1
11
WID
SECTION A-A
Fig.38
'j -.
66
. ---~- ,,_ .
':: -.
When a piece has the same dimensions for some pin-t of its length, a segment of that unchanging
section may be cut away and the ends moved closer together. The "break" line used to indicate this
has been discussed. Also a piece may be "broken" from a drawing if doing this would make it
simpler and easier to read. Refer to the two drawings shown in Fig. 39 which illustrate this point.
6
4
tibiT{b
tl
::;!
Ef:~
~I
SLOTTED BAR
Fig. 39
6.5 Offset Cutting Plane

The student should also be aware that a cutting line can change directions if this will help in obtaining details about an object, as illustrated in Fig. 40.
FULL
Fig. 40
67
SECTlCN
6.6 Maclrining
Sometimes mac.hme instructions are given such as "finishing requirements". This used to be
indicated by a small "I" on the surfacing requiring f"mishing. It is now shown by a special "tick" as
shown in Fig. 41 (A).
11j~
r--9'!'.
'
OLD METHOD
CSA SYMBOL
(B)
(A)
Symbols for Finishing

Fig. 41
In some cases drill, tap and ream are marked on the drawing. Screw threads appear in blueprints
with many interpretations. . In some cases very accurate pictorial drawings are made of the thread
out in most drawings the thread is identificl by a simple symbol and a note is added to indicate the
type and size of the thread.
Screw thread symbols
II
ltIJ
It
i' :
I'' ..'ttJ. ..
It
II
11
..
II I
II
!!
::
II
.:.. I ..:.i:
I
'
' I .It~
~~~
Screw thread in section
Fig.42
The sketch in Fig. 42 shows some typical ill~tions of screw thread symbols whic..IJ. need no
comment. Pictorial drawings of scr~w threads are self explanatory.
68

6. 7 Appearance
Mention was made of the study of appearance by the use of isometric (picture) drawings. On the
left of Fig. 43 is shown a part of a base in the usual mechanical drawing. Study this carefully in
reference to appearance.
While the conStruction of this assembly in not difficult to understand, the actual appearance may
more easily be studied from some type .of picture drawing. Therefore, make an isometric drawing
as in the centre sketch.
It is now possible to study the assembly with particular reference to appearance. VISUalize changes
which would improve the eye appeal of the construction. The student should notice how the
appearance of the assembly may be improved by adding small plates to the ends of the channels.
It is easy to study eye appeal from this type of drawing. In our modern age of streamlining, appearance is an important factor in the design of a great variety of machine parts. Thus there is a
valuable use for isometric or other picture drawings which is not affected by their shortcomings as
fabricating or shop drawings.
_\
Fig. 43
69
REFERENCES
1. Engineering Drawing, Design by jensen, McGraw-Hill Company of Canada Ltd.
2. Standard for Mechanical En.,a"ineering Drawing, CSA Standard B78.1-64.

3. American Drafting Sttzndards Manual, ASA Yl4.4-57.
4. Key Knowledge for Welding Inspection Personnel, The Welding Institute, Abington Hall,
Abington, Cambridge, U.K., 1979.
5. Fundamentals of Structural Shop Drafting, Canadian Institute of Steel Construction,
201 Consumers Road, Suite 300, Willowdale, Ontario , 1978.
70
- -. --. ....
~.-
--..- ...--, ----.. .
. ,__.. -.
,::_ -.-.
The Preparation of Joints for Arc Welding

Types of Joint Preparation
The ease with which an operator is able to make an efficient and economical weld
depends largely on the precision with which the plate or section edges are prepared, and
the general accuracy of the joint fit-up. These points are important and any time, trouble
and expense incurred in preparing a joint carefully will be well repaid in the quality and
economy of the welding thereby obtained. The need for precision in this respect is
emphasized in the following pages.
The five basic joints generally employed for arc welding have already been described
and illustrated in Lesson 1, Fig. 1.1, but the preparation of the actual joint edge must
be varied according to the following factors that influence the choice of preparation:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Welding process (source of heat, operational features); .

Welding position;
Thiclqless of material and type of joint;
Degree of penetration required;
Possibility of preventing distortion of the workpiece;
Economy of both edge preparation and consumption of weld metal.
There are three basic forms of edge preparation:

(1) The square, (2) The bevel, and (3) the J-profile.
}
Sq......,
!!eYeI
Variations of these arise when we consider all four edges of the tvo members of
the joint, e.g., if both members are bevelled on an adjacent side we have a Vee groove
or if both members have a "J" preparation we have a "U'' groove.
\I
Vee
Then if both edges of one member are bevelled we get a double bevel or "K" and
similarly for the double "J". Carrying this further, we can secure a double "V" or a
double "U''.
71
Fundamentals of Weldi'ng Technology
1 K
00{Jible Bevel
~ [}[]
Dggble;
Double Vee
ex
Double.u
,..- --
Again, circumstances roiy make it desirable to have a mixture of these preparations

or one which departs from the standard profiles.
All edges should be prepared with reasonable accuracy. The preparation and spacing,
if any, between the joint .edges should be uniform throughout the length of the joint.
Only in this way is it possible to ensure efficient fusion and uniform distribution of
heat input to the joint, maximum economy of welding time and material and a minimum
of distortion and stress.
It is outside the scope of this lesson to give detailed recomme11dations for the use
of each type of preparation. For the general guidance of students, however, limited
recommendatio~ applicable to the processes most commonly used in the welding of
steel are given. The following sketches, Figures 6.1 to 6.4 inclusive, present various
applications of the above mentioned basic forms of edge preparation. The symbols are
those used by the International Institute of Welding and have the following meanmgs:
a.- included angle (v)

s - root face (v)
g - root gap (iii}
d -depth of prepared edge (vi)
"'(-solid angle (angle at the root formed bY the edge and
surface of a component) (v)
{3- angle of bevel (v)
r - root radius (xii)
e - thickness of member (viii)
b - root width, of fiat-bottomed J (xxili)
' - 1;2 width of fiat-bottomed U (xxiv)
R- internal radius of upset flange (viii}
h - depth of upset flange (viii)
.n- acute angle of incidence (ix)
i
[
Roman numerals in the above are these used in Figs. 6.1 to 6,4.
I.
I..
A brief description of each type of preparation" is given herewith:

Fig. 6.1
r-
i. Flanged preparation - small thicknesses, medium efficiency.

ii. Edge weld preparation -used for Sealing purposes.
iii. Square butt preparation - economy, ease of assembly; full penetration
obtained only by back gouging and back welding.
iv. Square butt preparation with backing - full penetration is better ensured
in cases when the root of. the weld is inaccessible for a sealing pass.oNot the
best joint for fatigue stresses.
v. SinglE!-V preparation - for joints of high efficiency back gouging and
welding is necessary; dimensions depend upon the process ana welding
conditions.
Ii
1
!.
I
i
*See Recommended joint Preparation for Fusion Welding of Steel - Commission XV

national \Velding, Spring 1962 and British Welding .Journal, .January 1962, pp. 13.28.
72
Inter-
!
I
ii
iii
iv
vi
vli
viii
-2-
-1-
-2-
II .
ix
I
!
-~--..,~ L.
r--:x..
___,
-2-
-1X
1---1r
,.-
i . -.
,__________..,
-3-
xi
I
I
iI
I
-2-
-1-
-3-
lr
I
Fig. 6.1
!
f
I
1: .
73
l~
'-

.. -
xii
-4-
-2-
xiii
-4-
xiv
r--f---~.
J
9--.
'---1---
I!.J..
r----0
,-- i---
L__
-~
-2-
-1-
-3-
Vf----~
cc
~~
b~'
L-+---
~~
r--
/~
f
-:s-
-4-
--s-
-2xvi
-2-
-f-
-3-
Fig. 6.2
74
-
-,: .. -.;;..
..
oc
xvii
o<:'
D~
_.(9l
~
-1-
xviii
,--1
... Cl(
'- '-9-: ~-._A
1... ...,_.:..:.-.;.:
}"" r---
L.
r---
-~d.
oo
I~
9- _1::;
c::
.d"'
-2-
-1-
-3-
---~t;d~
1
I ~f-.+
xix
L.
od"
o<:"
-2-
o(
0
-
- - 1I
~~
-~-
-2-
XX
oc
""
r--7
l ~~d} D~
.
.xxf
d'
~d"
}.9___). . d
oc
"'
-1-
-2-
gtJ.
Q:
~--; s 'I.. . --J. (3,

\
.d
"
II
-.3-
-r
rrS
oa
~ ---c
Si
""
r-r
o(
-2-
-3-
-f-
xxii
fi~'
r---
r- ~--
r----
'--
)
L...
9-
9-
-f-
-3-
-2-
75
.... :
. xxili
---~s:
I..... ' d
-2.-
-f-
xxiv
-s-
-4-
G-3-
[)Q
.~
-4--
-2-
-1-
-i-
-3-
Fig. 6.4
76
'
.

vi.
vii.
Single-Y preparation - suitable for subarc or mixed welding both sides.

Single-\ ~nd Y pr.:>paration 'with backing _;___ similar to h: steel, copper
or flux bach.ing for subarc process.
viii. Flanged V preparation- for thkknt>Sses up to 3i16 in.
ix. Single-bevel preparation - for T and corner joints; back gouging is
necessary for high efficiency joints.
x. Single-bevel preparation with steel backing - s<.milar to iv; used in
nozzle attachment of boilers and pressure vessels and beam to column
connection.'>.
xi. Partial single-bevel preparation - is not generally recommended; partial
J preparation is preferred to obtain reasonable penetration ..
Fig. 6.2
xii.
Single-U preparation - in comparison v;.ith V preparation - smaller

volume of weid metal and decreased distortion; Back gouging and back
welding is necessary for high efficiency joint.
xiii. Partial-U preparation.
xiv. Single-J preparation- for T and corner joints, similar to ix.
xv. Partial-J preparation- better than xi; used in nozzle attachments.
xvi. Double-V or X preparation - saving filler metal, preventing distortion;
back gouging and back welding desirable.
Fig. 6.3
/
Double-V preparation with broad root face- used in subarc process.

Double-bevel or K preparation - for T or square corner joints with full
penetration and little distortion.
xix. Double-bevel preparation - doub!e-J preparation is to be preferred.
XX. Double-U preparation - above a certain thickness, volume to be filled is
smaller when compared with V preparation.
xxi. Partial double-U preparation - similar to xi and xiii.
xxii. Double-J preferred to xviii.
xvii.
xviii.
!"-.,
Fig. 6.4
xxiii. Partial double-J preparation - see xv.

xxiv. Mixed preparation - easy back gouging and back welding.
xxv. Special preparations- may be safer and cheaper than conventional preparation. No. 1 and No. 2 show chamfering, gouging and back welding,
No. 3 - superimposed passes on flat side of the T thus widening the bevel
and ensuring good penetration.
Edge Preparation Methods
Me .:hods of preparing plate edges are as follows:
1. Mechanical cutting and machining.

2. Flame or gas cutting and gouging.
3. Arc and plasma arc cutting and gouging.
77
1. Mechanical Cutting and Machining

Shearing
Shearing is considered the quickest and cheapest method of preparing straight
edges on plate up to %, in. thick, and, provided the sheared edge is free from cracks,
excessive roughness, or serious distortion, it is quite satisfactory for the preparation of
square edges for welding or for the preliminary sizing of plates in preparation for
subsequent beveling. On all ordinary mild steels there should be no cracking or serious
distortion if the shears are in good order.
.
In modem guillotine shears plates up to 10 ft .. wide by V:! in. thick can be sheared
with the edges quite clean and straight.
Deformation and edge disturbance, however, are sometimes unavoidable and, in
case the blades of the shearing machine are not sharp, a drag on the underside of the
cut as well as work hardening of the cut edge can occur.
Rotary shears have been used witlr some success for straight cuts for a square
butt set-up. Such a shearing machine can cut at speeds of 80 ft. per minute on thin
and medium thick plates (up to %, in.). Such speed is 50 to 60 times as great as by gas
cutting {15 to 20 in. per minute). One of the disadvantages is, however, that the plate has
to be turned over and placed in position before cutting each side, in other words the
advantages of the shearing machines (all types) over gas cutting equipment almost
. entirely depend on the efficiency in handling the plates. A separate travellh1g crane
should usually be reserved for material transpor..ation to and from t..l-}emachine.
Machine Planing
Planing machines, like shearing machines, are confined to straight edges, although
they are not so liwJted to types of preparation, such as square butt or bevel, as are
shearing machines. With a suitably fanned tool, "U" and "J" edge prepa..-ration can be
done on planing machines. As t.'J.ey are fixed xnachines, the plates have to be carried to
the machine a.nd usually oniy one edge can be cut at once. This involves setting up and
clamping down for each edge to be cut.
Li.ke shearing machines, planing machines are relatively high in capital cost, but
low in actual running cost (including material handling).
CUtting speeds are usually very high. On modern planers accuracy is higher
than that of oxygen cutting (this is particularly important in pressure vessel construction}.
There is one great disadvantage with machine planers, particularly with heavier
plates. Most machines exert only a hold-down pressure on the p\ate and, wit;h plate in
the order of % in. thick and up, this pressure is not sufficient to flatten out any warping
that may exist. Very few companies have rolls capable of flattening such thicknesses of
plate, and machine planing warped plate can result in bad preparation with a varying
nose thickness. With a flame planer it does not matter how much the plate is buckled,
since the height of the cutting head may be varied to follow the contour of the plate.
2. Flame Cuffing
As far as cost is concerned, it is generally considered that flame or gas cutting
falls midway between shearing and machining. In the small shop particularly, the
relatively low cost of the gas cutting machine and its ability to deal equally well with
any plate thickness is a considerable advantage.
Where both shearing and gas cutting are permitted the fanner would normally be
used for thinner materials and the latter for thicker. II} such cases machining would not
78
I
I
Ii
''

be considered because of cost. Machining is . sometimes specified for certain high-duty
requirements, and for reduction of thick edges. In such cases cost is not a factor.
Machine gas cutting is permitted by all classification authorities for most classes
of work and is applicable to all kinds of square or bevel preparation on straight, shaped
or circular edges. Moreover, the process has no detrimental effect on any mild or normal
welding quality steeL Also it is commonly used for preparing weldable air-hardening steels,
but in this case edges are usually ground back, after cutting, % in. or more. Preheating
and. postheating may also be necessary with such steels to avoid edge cracking.
General experience shows that, normally, plate distortion is a negligible factor with
either shearing or gas cutting. Where, however, narrow strips of plate are to be prepared,
it is possible .that gas cutting will produee slightly more distortion than shearing.
Usually any such distortion is not sufficient to cause any difficulty in weldir>..g. If it is,
it will be desirable to straighten the edges in order to ensure an accurate fit-up.
Where gas cutting is employed for cuffing narrow strips of J,.late, distortion can be
reduced, if not eliminated, by cutting the opposite edges of strip simultaneously, and is
accomplished by using a machine fitted with two or more torches. This method also
ensures that both edges will be paralleL
Basic Principle of Oxygen Cuffing

Briefly, the basic principle of oxygen cutting depends upon the simple fact that
steel at red beat will oXidize rapidly or 'burn' where a jet of oxygen is directed onto it.
The ordinary cutting torch enables this to be done by providing both a heating
flame and a pure oxygen jet - each with its own controls - the heating flame being
used chiefly to preheat the steel where the cut is to be started, after which the oxygen jet
does the cutting.
Only a sm:lll area needs to be preheated for st:"'U"ting the process since, as soon as
oxidation commences, the combustion of the steel produces. a very .intense local heat.
This further preheats the metal around the oxidation point, enabling the oxygen jet to
pierce almost any thickness of steel, or to make a cut in whichever direction the torch is
moved. After the cut has started, the main function of the heating :flame is to keep the
oxide fluid, (so that it will leave the cut easily) and to compensate for heat losses,
especially at the upper edge.
The metal is not melted. The process depends entirely on the combustion (that is,
burning) of the steel in the path of the oxygen jet. On mild and normal welding quality
steels, the process has no detrinlental effect on the metal* and there is no need to
machine the cut surface before welding.
Smoothness of the cut edge is. an important feature and this depends almost entirely
on the uniformity and precision with which the torch is moved. The movement may be
made with the torch held in the hand (i.e., manual cutting) or it can be mechanically
propelled - machine cutting~
Manual Cutting
:Manual cutting is usually undesirable for the preparation of joint edges, owing
to the inaccuracy ani:i irregularitieS of movement inseparable from hand control. Unless
the torch is carefully handled, such edges may be difficult to clean, since their roughness
tends to trap oxide. Any excessive roughness or adhering oxide should be ground off
before the joint is set up for welding.
It is only when the carbon content of the steel exceeds about 0.25% or when other air-hardening
elements are present, that there is any likelihood of appreciable hardening or cracking due to
the rapid heating and cooling of the cut edge.
79

However, for the preparation of structural sections and some types of short or
irregularly shaped plate edges, manua,l cutting is often employed. In such cases every
effort should be made to minimize unevenness of movement. By adopting a comfortable
position with one hand resting on the metal surface and supporting the nozzle end of the
torch, and the other controlling the cutting oxygen valve, many operators are able to make
reasonably smooth freehand cuts. There are, however, also sundry aids available which
will improve cutting accuracy. For instance, a nozzle guide will keep the nozzle tip at
a uniform distance from the metal surface and, on some types of guides, the angle of
the nozzle is adjustable for the cutting of bevels. For straight edges a guide consisting of
a piece of fiat bar or angle iron shoud be laid on the metal surface so that the nozzle or
guide can rest against it, enabling a fairly true straight edge to be produced. For cutting
circl~ a radius rod should be used. Such a rod is shown being used in conjunction '-"ith
a small variable speed traversing carriage running directly on the plate (see Fig. 6.5).
Fig. 6.5-Radius rod guides :flame-cutting head; carriage runs on the plate
Machine Cutting -Portable and Simple Stationary Machines

Machine gas cutting is an entirely different proposition. In this case the torch is
rigidly held and propelled at a uniform speed, so that - provided the track on which
the machine runs is clean ana free from irregularities - accurate cuts as smooth as a
saw cut are produced. Such edges need no machining or other finishing, and the oxide
should come away from the cut easily (e.g., by wire brushing) leaving it clean and ready
for welding.
For straight edge preparation or plate trimming, two types of.machine are available
---,(a) a simple type which runs (as in Figs. 6.6 and 6.7) on a track laid directly on
the plate surface, and (b) a more elaborate fixed type in which the track is supported
independently of the plate. Figure 6.8 shows such an arrangement, although the machine
shown incorporates other features which will be dealt with later.
~.'
80
Basic Joints, Blueprr."nt Reading & Preparatr:on for Welding
Fig. 6.6---For straight-line cutting, drive head runs on track laid on plate
Fig. 6.7-Twin cutting torches mounted on drive head runnmg on track laid on surface
81
.....
Fig. 6.8--Cutting heads run on track supported independently of plate. This machine is
controlled by photoelectric cell "reading" a drawing rolled on a drum
The first type is most generally employed, since . the eq1:1ipment is readily portable
and, in the case of large plates, it is usually easier to move the machine than the plate.
On the other hand, the track must be carefully set up for each cut. Carriages and special
track are commercially available with magnetic holding plates and grooved track to allow
use in any position. Track which can be bent to suit the application is also available.
Figures 6.9 (a) and (b) and 6.10 show such equipment in use.
Fig. 6.9(a)-Track, bent to suit shape of curved vessel, is held to work by magt?-ets
82
Fig. 6.9!bl-Curved track fits ship's hull to guide
cu~ting
head
)_
I
'
I
Fig. 6.10-Guide track takes up complex S-curve; rack teeth engage drive pinion of traverse motor
83
~-
--~
-~
-----
- ----------
--
Where the machine is independently supported, all material to be cut must, of course,
be brought to the machine and set up, but the mechanical accuracy of the machine is
not disturbed. Some shops have provided a fixed right angle track arrangement, on
which two portable machine units operate independently, for preparing two adjacent
edges of plates. Such an arrangement reduces plate handling and saves time. The two
cuts can be made simultaneously and the fixed right angle location of the tracks increases
the cutting accuracy. An extension of this principle is shown in Fig. 6.11 where both
longitudinal edges are bevelled and end cuts made.
Fig. 6.11-:Simultaneous bevelling of longitudinal edges and end cuts
84
.3asic Joints, Blueprint Reading & Preparation for Welding
In all cases the length of cut is limited only by the length of_ track, gas hose and
electric cable.
For cutting square edges and bevels without a root face, or bevels with a root face
if the square edge has been prepared by a previous gas cut or by sheartng, a machine
fitted with one torch will be suitable. Double bevels :nay also be prepared by turning the
plate over. For preparing a bevel with root face, or a double bevel at one cut, the machine
must be fitted with two torches (seeD and E; Fig. 6.12).
In some machines the torch holding fixture is provided with a plate riding device
in order t-o ensure that the nozzle tip is maintained at a uniform distance from the plate
surface, regardless of any undulations there may be in it. This is a useful feature for
bevel cutting since, if the nozzle distance varies, the cut edge will not be straight, and
the joint will not fit up accurately. In the absence of such an arrangement the operator
must adjust the cutter height while the machine is travelling, in order to maintain a
uniform distance.
.D
llsittg two fon:bes
Using a three Iorch :et up
Reducing the tb.ic:kneu of c plate edge
Fig. 6.12
Use of oxygen cutting for preparing square and bevel edges. (Note-figures in
brackets indicate order of the location of torches in the direction of cutting)
85
Fundamentals of Welding Technology.

Setting up for Cutting
.The plate to be cut should have ample support so that there will not be any
tendency for it to move during cutting - due, for example, to change of weight
distribution caused by the removal of metal. It is bad practice to lay plates directly
on the top of the tee bars which generally form the cutting table. Conical, or round
ended, steel or cast iron studs which are slotted and supported by the tee bars, provide
a more readily adjustable supporting means and avoid cutting damage to the tee bars.
The cutting line should be chalked on the plate and centre punched; in order to
help the cutting machine operator to set up his machine it is a1so useful to mark another
line to which he can set the machi.-re track. The path of the cut should be clean; any
scale, paint or other surface dressing being removed before cutting is commenced. Hand
traversing of the machine along the line of cut with the heating flame alight will
usually crack off any surface scale, and wire brushing will then produce a clean
metallic surface.
.As previously mentioned, smoothness and uniformity of the cutting operation
is an important factor in securing an accurate cut and a good fit-up. Track and
driving gear should, therefore, be free from any irregularities which will affect the
smooth running of the machine, and the site should not be subject to vibrations from
other machines. Also the gas hose and electric cable should be suspended so as to
avoid any drag or pull on the machine.
Bevel Cuffing
There are several re~vel cutting conditions differ slightly from those
employed for square edge
. . tting the nozzle at an angle increases the depth
of metal to be penetrated, thus n~tating a slight increase in oxygen pressure and
a reduction -in cutting speed. Moz:eover, when set at an angle most of the heat from the
flame goes in the direction in which the nozzle is inclined, that is, towards the part
which is usually scrap or discarded metal.
This can be appreciated by rEference to the sketches which Fig. 6.12 comprises.
Obviously these conditions are intensified
the nozzle angle increaseS. The usual
limit of angle for satisfactory cutting is about 45 and, in fact, tmder some conditions,
di:fficulty may be experienced in making a satisfactory cut at this angle, due to the
reduced heating influence of the flame. In such cases some benefit may be obtained by
providing additional heat from a welding torch, attached to the machine in such a way
that its flame is directed on the 'plate' side of the cut.
Where angles greater than 45 from the vertical are required - as for example
in making the 22 to 1 slope usually specified for the reduction of edges of thick
plates - the cut may be made from the plate edge instead of from the surface, as
shown at H in Fig. 6.12.
When the plate is first gas cut to size with square edges, the bevel cut should be
made while there is still considerable heat left in the edge from the previous cut.
Where the plate is first sheared or gas cut to size, the second cut should leave a slight
nose at the bottom of the bevel as a witness of the original correct size of the plate;
the nose also assists in setting up and spacing the edges.
On plate over %" thick, where shearing is not used for sizing the plates, the
necessity for making two separate gas cuts for making the bevel and nose may be
avoided by mounting two torches in the machine, as shown at D in Fig. 6.12. Torch X
should be about 2" in front of Torch Y.
Two torches may also be used for making a double bevel and nose from a previously
sheared or gas cut edge, as shown at E; again Torch X should be about 2" ahead of
as
86
Torch Y. Although machines fitted with three or four cutters have been developed for
forming both bevels and the nose simultaneously, as shown at G, such an arrangement
is generally limited to plates over 1" thick, as the high heat input to the plate edge
tends to melt the nose. Such a machine with the fourth torch used for preheating is
shown in Fi.e;. 6.13.
'
Fig. 6.13-Fourth torch provides preheat in double-bevel cutting of thick plate
Adjustment of Cutting Conditions
)'
The correct adjustment of the heating flame, oxygen pressure and cutting speed
contribute materially to the smoothness of the cut and the ease with which the scale
is removed after cutting. Usually the same size nozzle can. be used for square or bevel
cuts on any thickness.
The tor~ and cutting machine manufacturers generally provide .cutting data
which will guide the user as to the tip sizes, gas pressures and cutting speeds to be
employed for different thicknesses of steel. However, Slight modifications to gas pressures
and cutting speea may be found desirable to suit individual conditions or requirements.
. In fact, the standard of quality of cut, and the cutting conditions required to produce it,
. are best eStablished.by making trial cuts on
plate.
A specimen table of nozzle sizes, oxygen pressures and cutting speeds for making
square edge cuts on various plate .thicknesses is given in Table 6.1.
scrap
Oxygen
Plate
Tip Size
(Drill sizes)
Pressure
P.S.I.
Cutting
Rate
ins. per m:n.
'.4.
62/58
5116
60/57
30/20
35/25
35/25
. 40/30
40/30
45/35
55/45
21
20
19
17
16
15
14
Thickness
ins.
*
'''%
~Y.lf~'
, ....
r:i'~1
'1*'
57/55
56154
56/53
55/53
55/53
In the case of the oxjrgen pressures given above, the higher pressures would be
suitable for the smaller nozzles and vice versa.
Table 6.1
Approximate Guide for Machine Cutting Square Edges in Steel Plate
87

For the reasons previously mentioned, slightly more preheat is usually needed
for bevel cutting than for straight edge cutting, but with either type of cut the flame
should be so adjusted that there is no melting of the top corner of the cut. Where the
nozzle has four preheat holes, the line of cut should lie between each pair of holes, i.e.,
so that there are two preheat flames on each side of the cutting line, in order to obtain
the maximum benefit from the flames.
The distance between the tip of the nozzle and the metal surface should be carefully
regulated: between ~" and %" is usually about right. If the nozzle is too far away
from the metal, the oxygen jet will spread and make a wide cut. If it is too close, the
top corners of the cut may be melted and there is the possibUity of the nozzle being
fouled by scale or burned by reflected heat.
Excessive gas pressure is quite unnecessary and. often leads to rough cuts, apart
from the waste of gas involved. As previously mentionea, square c:uts can be made at
higher speeds than could be used for bevel cutting, and the most economical cutting
conditions are reached when the speed is 'SUch that the cut 'drags' slightly, i.e., when the
oxide stream on the underside of the plate lags behind the top of the cut. For either
square or bevel edges a certain amount of 'drag' is not objectionable, provided it does not
distort the cut surface - as it may do with excessive s~d or oxygen pressure.
Faults in cuts and their causes (other than those due to mechanical faults) are
shown in Fig. 6.14.
Correct Adjustments
END VIEW
Top edge shorp.

Cut surface smooth,
draglines &orely visible.
fgce of cut .square.
O.xide, ;; ony, easily
re"?cved.
Bottom edge sharp.
~Cutting
Speed too slow
Top edge meheO and

rcc.rnded..
Face of cut iegular,
with deep gouges.
BoHom edge Yery rough
end irregular.
Possibly oxide tightly
adhering fo fhe bottom
svrlaee of the plate.
I
I
I
I
Fig. 6.14-Flame Cutting Faults (cont'd. on following page)
88
Cvning Speed too Fast

Top edge fairly sharp bvt
with Jlight beading.
Oragline.r bo..-e pronounced
backward rake.
Consideroble undercuHing
just below top edge.
Bottom edge rounded.
Final corner uncut.
(
)
Preheat Flames too High

AboYe the Work
Top edge badly melted

and rounded over.
Slight undercutting just
.below top edge.
Face of cui otherwise .square.
Bottom edge sharp.
Preheat Flames too

Close to the Work
Top edge $lightly rounded.
Heavy beads along

fop edge.
Face of cv1 smooth
and .sqt:ore.
toHom edge sharp.
Could b'e considred o

fairly good cut.
Cutting-Oxygen
Preuure too High

Even bead entire
length of top edge.

cOntiderable under
cvtting below fop edge.
Noticeable toper from
top to bottom of cut.
face of cut smooth.
Bottom edge shc:rp.
Preheat Flames too Long
Top edge rounded over.

Heavy bead entire. length
of top edge.
.
Con.s;deroble taper from
top of boHom of cut.
face of CU'f .smooth, with

drogfines barely visible.
Bottom edge sharp.
Fig. 6.14-Flame Cutting Faults <c.ont'd. frum 1'-reviuu.s page)

'
.JA89

Equipment Maintenance
The main items requiring regular maintenance are the cutting tips, and particular
care should be paid to their cleanliness and the method by which they are cleaned. It
is. of little use to achieve accuracy in other respects if the tip bore is obstructed by
scale or burrs, or distorted by careless cleaning, since the smoothness of the cut e<lge
will be affected by any distortion of the oxygen jet. Nozzle holes should be cleaned only
with a drill of the correct size, and no attempt shouid be made to ream the holes by
rotating the drill; use an up and down motion only. If a suitable drill is not available
use brass, not steel, wire.
The gas pressure gauges and speed indicator on the machine should also be
maintained in good order so that reasonably accurate pressure and speed adjustments
.can be made and repeated whenever required.
Automatic Controlled Straight Line and Shape Cutting Machin~ulti-Torch Cutting
'I.,
''i
Modern stationary oxygen cutting machines usually run on tracks, with structures
which either span the work with a gantry-type bridge or. portal frame, as in ]figs. 6.8, and
6.11, or reach over the work with a cantilever device. (See Fig. 6.15).
These machines may be classified in two main groupings; machines for straight
line cutting and preparation and for shape t:Utting. Straight line machines are often
referred to as oxygen _planing macliines.
.
.
Shape cutting machines are of two basic designs, one a pantograph, illustrated in
Fig. 6.17, and the other a cross carriage mechanism. In both types of machine, the basic
element is a floating bar with a torch or torches loCa.~ed on one end and a tracing device
on the other. Most commonly used are machines with a cross carriage mechanism as
:!
.;
i.
Fig. 6.15-Electronic tracing oxygen flame-cutting machine in which

carriage reaches over the work on a cantilever beam
.
90
_\
Fig. 6.16-Flame-cutting machine with both tracing and cutting elements

on cantilever beam supported by single track
91
l
~I
Fig. 6.17-Small cutting machine illustrating pantograph principle
shovrn in Fig. 6.15 and other illustrations in this Lesson. These machines can cut regular
or irregular shapes. Ten or more torches may be used in normal operations.
Multiple cutting torches are usually mounted on a machine capable of moving them
in unison for repetitive, simultaneous straight line or shape cuts, ana the machines
themselves have been given a variety of guidance systems to ensure accurate operation.
Guidance Systems
Automatic guidance systems for shape cutting are of three general types ..:._ those
using a template, those using a drawing and those controlled by numerical tape.
F1g. 6.18 shows a magnetic head following a steel template. With a woOden or nonferrous template, a non-magnetic spindle head may be used, manually held against the
template.
In the machine shown in Fig. 6.19 (a) and (b), the lines of a drawing are followed
by a roller guided by the operator.
A considerable advan.ce over these systems is the electronic tracer employing a
photoelectric cell, which follows the contrasting lines of a drawing representing the part.
The drawing may be either full scale or a small replica with a ratio such as 1:10 o::- 1:100.
Although the equipment cost is substantially greater, the electronic tracer is more
92
~-
Basic joints, Blueprint Reading& Preparation for Welding
:')
. --.;
f..._ .. ~
Fig. 6.18
Magnetic roller head controlling machine by followin? steel template
--,""'
......-.
..
Fig. 6.19(al-Shape-<:utting machine with roller

manually guided on draWing
93
Fig. 6.19(bl-Manually guided roller mechanism
Fig. 6.20-Flame-cutting machine controlled by

"electric eye" following black-and-white drawing
94
Basic fonts, Blueprint Reading & Preparation for Welding
accurate and, as compared to the use of templates, the cost of the latter is eliminated,
shop space is conserved and handling procedures are reduced. Figures 6.16 and 6.20 show
the use of this "electric eye". It will also be seen in Fig. 6.8, where the drawing is in the
form of a long strip unrolled from a drum.
Actually, with the exception of tape-controlled machines, all currently used controls
for oxygen cutting machines involve the use of a pictorial or physical representation of
the part to be cut.
.
As the name indicates the distinguishing aspect of numerical control is that it
requires numerical data (i.e., aimensions instead of graphical data or templates) for its
input. The dimensional data are fed to the machine's control by way of perforated or
ma,.onetic paper tape." The elimination of the templates,. storage and the tracing area
could meana reduction in the machine floor space requiiements by as much as 50%.
Fig. 6.21 shows a numerically controlle:d maChlne and in Fig. 6.22 is a machine
arranged for either numeriCal control .qr .electronic tracing. The cabinet beside the
operator is the "director'' :and houses l!ll the electronic components necessary for tape
control of the machine. The "table .to-~. operator's right is for use when the tracing
system is employed and the sloping panel-beside it contains manual push buttons for
machine set-up, positioning, testing and other: <:ontrois for both systems.
The master tapes for numerical control caD. be duplicated. The whole process provides
exceptional dimensional stability, there being no i:leterimental effects from variations in
humidity and temperature.
lr).
,.
Fig. 6.21-Numerically controlled cutting machine
95
Fig. 6.22-Cutting machine arranged for either

numerical control or electr~nic tracing
Special Cutting Applications

Gas Gouging
Gouging (Fig. 6.23) is a variation of the normal gas cutting procedure, intended for
the removal of metal from steel surfaces, and is often used instead of chipping. It may
be performed by hand or machine; when applied manually, it is used for the removal of
surplus metal, surface defects or for grooving out the root of a weld in preparation
for the reverse side sealing run. When applied by machine, the most useful application is
for the preparation of the J edge as in Figs. 6.24 and 6.25.
Shallow, do-ep, & Multiple
groo~s
Fig. 6.23
Flame Gouging Procedure
)'
96
.
,.:..
Fig. 6.24
The J Edg~
Fig. 6.25- Simple circumferential J.grooving machine
97
The only special equipment required is a series of specially designed nozzles which
may be fitted to the normal hand -or machine cutting torch. The torch is held so that
the nozzle makes an angle of 5 to 10 with the metal surface - a slightly greater angle
may be necessary for starting the groove, as shown in Fig, 6.23. The depth of the groove
may be regulated by varying the speed of travel and by altering the angle between
the nozzle and the work.
J Profile
The U shaped groove was originally developed in order to reduce the amount of weld
metal which is required to fill a normal angle Vee groove on thick plate, e.g. over 1"
thick.
Each edge should be prepared as nearly as possible to the proportions shown in
Fig. 6.23.
For a time the preparation of accurate, uniform J-grooves (one side of the U) was
largely confined to machining, a relatively slow, costly process which limited the use
of this type of preparation. Latterly, however, a flame cutting process for J-groove
edges on heavy plate in a single pass at speeds up to 57 inches per minute has ~n
available. It is claimed that J-grooves can be cut 70% faster than by mechanical planing.
J-grooves in a. typical circular pressure vessel have been prepared in four minutes
compared to eight hours required by planing.
J-grooving equipment can be simple, requiring only a machine carriage to carry
the apparatus or thework at a constant speed (Fig. 6.25).
-Correct gas flow, carriage speed an"d nozzle setting are needed for the operation. To
vary groove depth, the speed of the machine carriage is changed; the faster the speed
the shallower the cut. Acetylene, propane or natural gas may be used.
Fig. 6.26
98
_,r-- -
4if
Basc joints, Blueprint Reading & Preparation for Welding
Single pass J-grooving works on any metal that can be cut by an. oxy-acetylene
or oxy-fuel ge.s ftame. Figure 6.26 shows a double U groove prepared in this way. The
grooves may be made in a vertical or a horizontal pos!tion. An air jet controls slag flow in
vertical grooving.
Circumferential J-grooves used on pressure vessels are made by revolving cylindrical

shells or heads under the nozzles, as shown in Fig. 6.25.
High Speed Edge Trimming
One method of attaining very high cutting speeds for square plate edges, is to carry
out the operation in two cuts which are made simultaneously, the machine being provided
with two torches. The first torch is fitted with
oversize nozzle inclined at a forward
angle to produce a rough severing cut at high speed; this operation preheats the plate
edge so that, at the same time, the rear or trailing no:Zzle (which is offset l/16 to 3/32
inch) trims off the rough edge, producing a final edge smooth enough for welding. The
saving in labour, plus overhead, more than makes up for the slightly higher gas cost
per cut.
an
Stack Cutting
A number of relatively thin plates may be piled one on top of the other, and then
cut as a single piece of steel. This is a useful method for producing a number of parts of
identical shape and is called stack cutting.
For successful stack cutting it is essential to fully press the sheets or plates together
so that air spaces are entirely eliminated. Special clamps are usually employed and
these may be supplemented by the Lise of weights or by welding the plate edges together
by means of a series of vertical welds from the top to the bottom of the stack.
It is not usually desirable for the individual plates to be more than 5/16" thick,
otherwise there may be difficulty in clamping the stack tightly; there is really no limit
to the total thickness of the stack, but two to four inches is usually most convenient.
Obviously the nozzle size, oxygen pressure and cutting speed should be adjusted as
for a block of steel of the same thickness as the stack.
Powder Process .
..
Stainless steel cannot be readily cut wi the normal oxy-fuel gas process. The formation of solid, high-melting-point QXides of the stainless elements (mainly chromium)
prevent the establishment of the oxidation reaction by which ordinary steels are cut.
However, by the introduction of a powder in the oxygen stream, the oxidation reaction
is accelerated and cutting is facilitated. This process can also be used with other hard~
to-cut materials such as cast iron, non-ferrous metals and concrete and other refractory
materials.
.
When the powders are burned in the presence of pure oxygen, a large amount of heat
is liberated, thus causing melting and spalling.
Iron-rich powders are usually used but the powder may also be composed of
materials which will react chemically with the hard-to-cut surfaces at the elevated
temperatures occuring during the preheating and rapid oxidation process. The techniques
used are virtually identical with those used in conventional oxygen cutting, scarfing
and gouging. On stainless steel the cuts are as clean and smooth as those produced in
mild steel. Moreover, on titanium and columbium stabilized steels the stainless qualities
of the cut are not impaired.
The iron powder method can also be used for cutting copper, bronze and various
alloys with a low ferrous content. Cast iron can also be more readily cut by this means.
99
Fuel Gases for Oxy-Cutting Equipment

It is well known that for more than a half century the major fuel gas for cutting,
welding and similar applications has been acetylene. More recently improved equipment
design has made possible the use of natural gas and propane. Both are inexpensive and,
in the case of propane, easy to handle. For welding, natural gas and propane cannot be
used.
A further development has been the production of a proprietary fuel gas, stabilized
methylacetylene-propadiene or MAPP. It is claimed that it offers the safety and ease
of handling and transporting of propane and greater versatility and safety than acetylene.
It is a1so said to out-perform propane and natural gas.
3. Arc and Plasma Arc CuHing and Gouging

Carbon-Arc Cutting
Carbon-arc cutting without the use of compressed _air was the original method of arc
cuttil}g. It employs the heat generated by the arc to melt metal and produce a cut. The
cut is much rougher than that produced by newer methods and the process has been
largely superseded.
Shielded Metal-Arc Cutting
As in carbon-arc cutting the heat of the arc formed between a stick electrode and
the work may be used to melt and thus sever the work piece. Standard welding electrodes
such as E6010 (preferably dampened) can be used but special electrodes have been
develope"d suitable for cutting, gouging and chamfering. This method has also been largely
replaCed by more efficient means.
. .......
Oxygen-Arc Cutting
This process makes use of a tubular covered stick electrode through which oxygen
is carried to the arc. The arc provides the necessary preheat and the oxygen impinges
on the sUrface and causes the steel to burn as in oxy-fuel cutting. For oxidation-resistant
metals, cutting is more of a melting action. In these instances the covering on the
electrode is an aid in helping the metal flow from the cut. The process was originally
developed for underwater cutting, with electrodes having a final water-proof coating.
As a later development, the principle was applied to cutting in air. The cut is somewhat
uneven and the process is seldom used in the preparation of welded join.ts.
. Gas Metal Arc !MIG) Cutting
Soon after MIG welding was introduced, the equipment was found adaptable to
cutting and the process found a degree of acceptance, particularly because of the interchangeability of the equipment, allowing the same unit to be used for cutting and welding.
Its main application has been in the cutting of aluminum and stainless steel.
Gas Tungsten Arc (TIG) Cutting
TIG cutting with a non-constricted arc can be used to sever non-ferrous metals
and stainless steel in thicknesses up to Y2 inch, using standard TIG welding equipment.
However, the much higher speeds possible with the constricted arc, now known as
Plasma Arc and its ability to cut heavy sections has resulted in a decline of interest in
TIG cutting with conventional equipment.
100
~
.,
-:~
l.
I'
~
.
'
~f".\1'l -,,,
-~~
i.
Plasma Arc Cutting

The basic plasma arc is not new - as early as 1922, Gerdien demonstrated his water
vortex plasma arc generator which exhibited a high temperature. It was, however, not
until 1955 that the plasma arc torch was put to work commercially and finally the year
1961 witnessed the appearance of a plasma flame cutter that could compete with oxy-fuel
processess for cutting steeL
What is plasma? Plasma is the "fourth state of matter" (the other three being
solid, liquid and gaseous) and refers to the state of the gas (ana recently, air) used in
a plasma flame torch.
The gas is raised to such high temperatures that its molecules break up and strip
off some of the electrons from the atom, thus partly ionizing the gas. This ionized gas,
or plasma, issues from the torch in a bright flame.
A good example of natural plasma is the sun. Consisting principally of hydrogen arid
helium, its gases are raised to extremely high temperatures. The sun's surface is estimated
to be 10,000F; with the plasma torch temperatures six times a.S great can be obtained.
Plasma arc cutting employs an extremely high temperature, high-velocity, con-'
stricted arc between an electrode, contained. '1\jthin the torch, and the piece to be cut.
(See Figs. 6.27 and 6.28).
\i
Fig. 6.27-Plasma cutting torch in operation
I)
')
tr~_:-_, _ ;_
f /'
,-.,
i~
J
,,,
?!:."
101
---------------------------------
TRANSFERRED ARC PLASMA TORCH
Fig.
G~omparing
NOHTRANsnlltl0 PUSIIIA TORCH
transferred-arc and non-transferred-arc plasma torches
The arc is constricted by passing it through a nozzle with a small diameter orifice.
The arc is thereby localized so that its energy is concentrated upon a small area of the
base plate where its intense heat melts the metal. The gas, heated by the arc, expands
and is accelerated as it is forced through the constricting orifice. The metal which is
melted is then continuously removed by the jet-like action of the gas stream to form
a kerf. By proper choice of gas, the kerf walls may be protected from oxidation. The
combined .heat and force of the arc stream produce a high quality, saw-like cut. Where
inert gases are used, the cutting process .depends ~pon thermal action only.
.....
Fig. 6.29-Dual-:tlow. .Plasma torch cutting thick steel block
102
.-
Basic Joints, Blueprint Reading C:.<t Preparation for Welding
When cutting such materials as mild steel and cast iron, increased cutting speeds
can be achieved by using oxygen-bearing cutting gases. In this case, the chemical
energy of combination is added to the. arc heat to permit higher speeds. Development of
this principle has brought about improvements in nozzle design to secure a separation
of the hot plasma gas from the cooler gas sheath of oxygen or air. This results in the
elimination of the tendency to produce rounded top corners, which persisted with earlier
designs of torch, and has increased the capabilities of the plasma cutting process in
both thickness and speed. Two types of nozzle are used to produce the sheath effect,
the multi-port and the dual-flow. A dual-flow nozzle is shown cutting thick plate in Fig.
6.29 and a schematic drawing of it in Fig. 6.30.
PLASMA
GAS
COOLING
WATE~
VORTEX SWIRL
INJECTION
Fig. 6.30--Principle of dual-fiow. plasma torch
There are two basic methods of P}~..zi: torch operation: Transferred (direct) and
non-transferred (indirect) arc (Fig. 6.;as~the first method, which is the one normally
used in cutting and welding, has the arc leaving the cathode, passing through but not
touching the torch nOzzle; and then striking the w01;kpiece (anode) to complete the
electrical circuit. The arc is stabilized by a strong vortex gas whirl, to position the arc
column well away from the nozzle wall
In the non-transferred arc method the arc is established between the electrode and
the torch nozzle. It is the method used for plasma arc metal spraying, a process that is
becoming increasingly used, particularly for producing surface coatings of refractory
material.
A number of gases can be used in plasma cutting - argon, nitrogen, hydrogen,
helium, air, oxygen and CO:!. In the dual flow torch it is usual to use a shield of nitrogen
with the outer sheath of air or oxygen. Tungsten has been used almost exclusively for
the electrode but recent developments involve the use of zirconium and copper.
Plasma arc cutting already holds an important place in the cutting of stainless
steel, aluminum and metals where conventional oxy-fuel cutting is not applicable. Recent
improvements in speed and quality of cut have made it economically competitive in many
applications of mild steel cutting.
The plasma arc cutting torch can be mounted in place of an oxy-cutting torch on
a shape cutting machine. Improved shape cutting machines are designed around the
capabilities of the plasma arc torch. Since tracing devices cannot follow around turns of
small radii at maximum cutting speegs, the cutting heads on the newer machines are
guided by numer:cal controls or reduced scale template followers.
103
Air Carbon-Arc and Plasma Arc Gouging
Compressed air carbon-arc, as the name implies, consists of melting the metal to be
gouged or cut with an electric arc and blowing away the molten metal with a high
velocity jet of compressed air parallel to the electrode. Because it does not depend on
oxidation, it works on metals which do not oxidize as readily as those which do. Equipment used is a torch which d.L.-ects a stream of air along the electrode and external to it.
The torch is connected to an arc welding machine and any ordinary compressed air
line delivering approximately 100 lbs. per sq. inch. Since exact pressure is not critical,
normally no regulator is necessary. The electrode used is a composition of carbon and
graphite and is usually copper clad to increase its life and provide a uniform groove, as
well as to reduce radiation heat. DCRP is used for most applications, but in some
materials DCSP is preferred. An electrode for alternating current is also available and
this, when used with either AC or DCSP, gives improved results on certain applications.
Figure 6.31 shows a manual arc-air torch - usually considered an all-purpose tool.
Figure 6.32 illustrates the principle of the arc-air process and Fig. 6.33 presents an
automatic arc-air unit.
Fig. 6.31--Manual air carbon-arc torch
.-;;
\ --~:
~I
current
~~
'
Fig. 6.32--Principle of air carbon-arc process
104
. . ,,
,.,
'~
.:: ...
/~
.':
.....
Fig. 6.33--Automatic arc-air gouging machine
Figure 6.34 shows a U groove prepared for welding with the semi-automatic unit.
~A.~~,.
t'f1-f.~
..,
"'.
Fig. 6.34 Plates prepared for welding by gouging with semi-automatic air carbon-arc process
j~l-------------------l-05---------------------
Fundamentals of ~fielding Technology
The following table may used as a guide for power required:

-----Electrode Siz~
Min. Amps
5/32
Max. Amps
,....
110
150
5/16
200
150
200
350
450
3116
%
300
550
~!.
400
800
,..
600
BOO
1000
1600
The process '"ill operate in all positions and all metals can be gouged or cut including
aluminum, cast iron. stainless steel, copper, etc.
Plasma arc gouging is very similar to the arc air process except the very high
speeds that are required for satisfactory results. Table 6.3 presents data for copper and
stainless steel gouging using nitrogen-hydrogen (85-15) mixture.
High travel speed requirements (particularly with stainless steel) limit the operation
to automatic (machine) gouging since the technique of manual gou.,oing is somewhat
difficult.
COMPARATIVE CUTTING SPEEDS
Plasma Arc
Metal
ipm
Carbon
".4-in..
*.m:
1.-in
200-300
100.180
5000
25
Steel
".4-in.
l20
*in.
50
20*
14
Stainless
Steel
Oxy-Fuel Gas
ipm
Thickness
Aluminum
l-in
40
].28
2-in.
]8
3-in..
4-in..
16
.,..,.
".4-in..
300
200
90
20
15
*-in.
l-in
~in.
3-in.
4-in.
*with powder addition
24
22
5-in.
g.
not used
not used
not used
not used
not used
12
not used
10
not used
Table 6.2
Comparative cutting speeds for carbon steel,

stainless steel and aluminum
106
.~
..
Basc Joints, Blueprint Reading & Preparation for Welding

Material and
Thickness
Arc
Current
<ampl
Arc
Voltage
Travel
Speed
tin/minl
Gas
Flow
(CU ft/h)
Nozzle
Diameter
Cin. l
50/60
120
3/16
Torch angles of 45/60.

Good clean gouges
75
120
3/16
Torch angle GO'. Too fast,

shallow narrow gro~we only
Remarks
'~
in. Copper
350-400
65/68
~z
in. Copper
380
65
~~
in. Copper
380
65
50
140
3/16
Torch angle 60'. Very

clean gouge
\4 in. Stainless Steel
400
71
150/200
110
3/16
Torch angle 45'. Too slowMolten in groove after

passage of torch
\4 in. Stainless Steel
400
71
270
110
3/16
Torch angle 45".

Good result
I% in. Stainless Steel
400
70
310
110
3/16
Torch angle 45".

Good result
in. Stainless Steel
400
70
270
110
3/16
Torch angle 45".

Good result
in. Stainless Steel
400
70
310
110
'l4
Torch angle 45".

Good result
400
70
240
110
'l4
Torch angle 45.

Good result
I;~
'
j'h
'h in. Stainless Steel .
Table 6.3
Operating conditions tor gouging copper and stainless steel
with plasma arc gouging torch
New Developments in Cutting

The Electron Beam and Laser ("Light .Aniplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation") are both processes with important potentialities for cutting. Their field of
usefulness is, however, still being evaluated and they are only mentioned so that the
student will know of their existence.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
,.
!;:
'
1. Recommended Joint Preparation for Fusion Welding of Steel- Report ITW-79-61

of Commission XV - "Fundamentals of Design and Fabrication in Welding" International Welding, Spring 1962, pp. 7~22s and British Welding .Journal, January
1962, pp. 13-28.
.
2. Mechanical Cutting; Arc and Flame Cutting and Gouging; Pipe ,Cutting and Beveling
-Welding Design and Fabrication, October 1960, pp. 57-72.
..
Plate Edge Preparation- Welding and Metal Fabrication, November 1954, pp. 402407.
Economic Aspects of Oxygen Cutting and Gouging - by L. L. Arundel, ibid. May
1957, pp. 183-186.
3. Flame Cutting Speeds J-Grooving of Heavy Plate- Welding Design and Fabrication,
January 1963, pp. 54-55.
4. Gas Welding and Cutting- ibid. July 1963, pp. 29-41.
5. Flame Cutting: The Old and the New- Welding Engineer, July 1962, pp. 41-45.
6. Single-Pass J-Grooving in Heavy Plate with an Oxy-Fuel Gas Flame- by C. B.
Milton, Welding Journal, March 1961, pp. 331-338.
7. The Application of Numerical Control to Oxygen Cutting - by N. J. Norrnando and
others, ibid. April 1963, pp. 285-293.
,~:1 _(
,. ---.
'
-'------------------1-07------------------

8. Electronic Tracing and Low Pressure Natural Gas Reduce Costs and Increase
Oxygen Cutting Speeds - by D. Luchin, _ibid. May 1963, p. 421.
by T. Mciver, British
9. Computer-Controlled Flame Cutting in Shipbuilding Welding Journal, October 1962, pp. 550-554.
Advanced Atttomatic Flame Cutting far Machinery Weldments- Airco, 11 pages.
Powde:r Cutting and Scmfing Process - By R. S. Babcock, Linde Co., 7 pages.
Stack-Cutting Speeds Production of Identical Parts- Linde Company, 9 pages.
10. Recent Metal-Removal Development with Compressed Air Carbon Arc Process
( ARCAIR)-by M. D. Stepath and others, Welding Journal, July 1959, pp. 755-759.
ConstrictetZ Tungsten-Arc Cutting of Aluminum - by G. W. Oyler and others, Linde
Company, 11 pages.
11. Inert-Gas Metal-Arc Cutting (MIG) - by R S. Babcock, Welding Journal, April
1955, pp. 309-315.
.
12. Plasma Torch Cutting - by G. A. Classon, Engineering Digest, December 1961,
pp. 20-24.
13. The Plasma Arc- A New Tool for Cutting, Welding, Melting and Shapipg- by
J. W. Ross, Canadian Welder, April, May and June 1963.
14. The Principles of Modern Arc Torch (Plasma Arc) - by R. 1\{. Gage, Welding
Journal, September 1959, pp. 959-962.
15. Plasma - A Substitute tor tke Oxy-Fuel Flame - by J. A. Browning, ibid. September 1959, pp. 870-875.
16.. Thermal-Art: Cutting - Process and EconomiCs '-- by :I. A. Browning, .ibid.
May 1962, pp. 453-456.
17. New Developments in Plasma Arc Cutting- by L. O'Brien and others, ibid. February 1963, pp. 107-111.
18. Wareh<ntSe Cuts Stainless with Plasma Flame- by E. Malcolm, Welding Design
ana Fabrication, May 1963, pp. 64-67.
19. Plasma Flame Cutting of Mild Steel seen as Competitive with Oxy-Fuel Pr0ces8 Welding Engineer, December 1960, pp. 33-36.
20. Plasma Arc Gouging of Stainless Steel and Copper-: by R. A. Cresswell, Welding
and Metal Fabrication, November 1962, pp. 434-437.
ARCAIR Torch, Instruction Man-ual--. Arcair Company.
. 21. American Welding Society Welding Handbook- Section Three.
22. Welding Encyclopedia.
23. High Speed Shape Cutting with Plasma- Welding :Journal, March 1964, pp.187-194.
24. The Duiil-Flow Plasma Torch,- by J. A. Browning, ibid, April1964, pp. 275-279.
25. Advances in Plasma Arc.- by R. L. O'Brien, R. :r. Wickham and W. P. Keane, ibid,
December 1964, pp. 1015-1021.
26. High Quality Plasma Arc Cutting and Piercing - by G. M. Skinner and R. J. Wick-.
ham - ibid, August 1967, pp. 657-664.
:.;
108
...
~-
.;:...!
GUIDES AND EXERCISES

MODULE 2
BASIC JOINTS, BLUEPRINT READING &
PREPARATION FOR WELDING
\\"
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'
BASIC JOINTS, BLUEPRINT READING
&
PREPARATION FOR WELDING
MODULE2
Guides & Exercises

To obtain maximum benefrt from this module we suggest that you follow this guide and
complete the exercises as indicated. It is important that you work through the text
methodically, ~udying each section thoroughly before moving on., The el!(ercises are
designed to give you an indication of whether you haVe learned the material and can move
on or whether you need to go back and study the section again.
Do the exercises honestly. They will not help you unless you take them .seriously. If you
get a question wrong go back through the text urrtil you understand where you have gone
wrong and know the correct answer.
The length of time required to complete the module will vary from studerrt to studerrt. Find
your own pa.ce. Do not rush. Remember you are trying to teach yourself something, not
v.in a race.
Some people like to underline sections when they read a text, We suggest that you use
caution if you do this. What you think is importarrt first time you read it may be different after
reading it three times. We suggest you read a section three times thoroughly before
highlighting anything.
. The last exercise is designed to give you an indication of whether you are ready to take the
WIC closed-book exams. The exercise questions are of a similar standard to the official
exams. Do not take the exam until you feel you are ready and you may wish to study
several Modules before taking the exams on each. The details of the examination
procedures are on a separate sheet.
If you have any difficulties with this Module do not hesitate to ask for help. You may find
you leam more by attending some of the seminars and you should also contact your local
WIC Chapter to see if they can be of assistance. Remember, if you fail the examination you
can always try again later.
G2
~..
MODULE 2
/'"
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...
Guide 1
Carefully read pages 2 to 8 and answer the following questions:
1.
Sketch the five basic joints:

a)
b)
c)
d}
e)
Butt joint
Comer joint
Tee joint
Lap joint
Edge joint
2.
What are the three basic welds?
3.
Sketch an edge flange weld.
4.
What is the definition of an "Edge Weld"?
Check your answers for accuracy. H any of your answers are wrong re-study the guide
subject matter until you understand it.
G3
~------
MODULE 2
Guide 2
Careful!y read pages 9 to 16 and answer the following questions:
1.
Sketch a double flare-bevel groove.
2.
A weld deposit resulting from a pass is known as a:

a)
b)
c)
d)
3.
Rootface
Spacer strip
Spotweld
Weldbead
Sketch an example of a single V-groove weld onto a backing strip.
Check your answers for accuracy. If any of your answers are wrong re-study the guide
G4
.... '
... <;'
..
~"~
MODULE 2
'
'
Guide 3
1.
True or False?
The thickness of an electrode coating can have some bearing on the size of the
groove angle.
2.
The module indicates symbols for weld processes other than manual shielded arc.
What is the full description of F.C.?
3.
The module indicates symbols for joint types under the method of. joint and weld
designations for prequalified joints.
What is the full description of T.C.?
11---.----..-G-5__,_
MODULE 2
/
. -.
~.-:;
'
Guide 4
a convex fillet weld.
1.
Sketch
2.
The shortest distance from the root of a fillet weld to its face is known as:
a)
b)
c)
3.
effective throat
actual throat
theoretical throat
Sketch a tee joint fillet welded in the flat positiOn.
G6
MODULE 2
Guide 5
1.
Positions of test plates for groove welds have been standardized and coded 1 G,
3G, 4G for the welder performance tests.
2~.
What is the full description for test position 2G?
2.
True or False?
CSA Standard W47 .1 1973 makes use of test plates which combine fillet welds and
groove welds.
3.
A person who perfonns a manual or semi-automatic welding operation is known as:

a)
b)
c)
welding operator
welder
welding technologist
Check your answers for accuracy. H any of your answers are wrong re-study the guide
G7
-MODULE 2
Guide 6
1.
Complete the following statement:

In the isometric drawing, the width, length and depth are laid off on incrrned fines
usually ..............0 to the horizontal.
2.
How many principal views are there in orthographic drawing?
a)
b)
c)
6
e) 7
d)
3.
What are the two general classes into which picture drawings are divided?
Check your answers for accuracy. H. any of your answers are wrong re-study the. guide
G8
MODULE 2
.1
Guide 7
1.
What type of drawing is the subject illustration?
a)
b)
d)
2.
IL
f---_-d
~~
J'
\
[.
I
I
Complete the subject sketch by inserting the cc...rrect description on the dotted line.
cJI
l'
mechanical drawing
picture drawing
isometric drawing
3.
.Complete the subject sketch by inserting the correct description on the dotted line.
@D
{B)
(A) Fust Angle
ISO Projection Symbcls
G9
MODULE 2
Guide 8
Carefully read 63 to 73 and answer the following questions:
1.
Complete the following sentence:

The sketch shows a bracket which requires an ............... view to show the exact
shape of one part.
.--- \nevv
Right Side
Front
2.
What are the three basic forms of edge preparation?
3.
What are the descriptions of the illustrated joint preparations?
+K
(a)
teo DOD<}
(c)
(b)
(d)
,-
subject matter until you understand it
G10
MODULE 2
Guide 9
1.
Name three methods listed in the module used for preparing plate edges for
welding.
2.
Considering the basic principle of oxygen cutting, what happens to steel which, at
red heat, has a jet of oxygen directed onto it?
3.
True or False?
Wrth a flam~ planer it does not matter how much plate is buckled since height of the
cutting head may be varied to follow the contour of the plate.
G11
MODULE 2
Guide 10
1.
When gas cutting a bevel setting the nozzle at an angle increases the metal to be
penetrated and necessitates a change in oxygen pressure and cutting speed.
What are these changes?
a)
b)
c)
2.
increase oxygen pressure, increase cutting speed

increase in oxygen pressure, decrease in cutting speed
decrease oxygen pressure, increase cutting $peed
What is the cause of the illustrated flame cutting fault?

a)
b)
c)
preheat flames too long

cutting speed too fast
cutting speed too slow
'
'
1
I
3.
Automatic guidance systems for shape cutting are of three general types. Name
one of th~se types.
Check your answers for accuraey. If any of your answers are wrong re-study the guide
subject matter until you understand it,
G12
'.
MODULE 2
Guide 11
1.
Can the master tapes for numerically controlled cutting machines be duplicated?
2.
What plasma cutting torch temperature can be obtained:

a)
b)
C)
d)
3.
,_,
10,000F
6,000F
60,000F
16,000F
True or False?
Stainless steel can be readily rut with the normal oxy-fuel gas process.
4.
What are the two basic methods of plasma torch operation?
G13
MODULE 2
ANSWERS
Guide 1
1.
2.
See Module 2, page 4, f~gure 3

Groove, fillet, plug
3.
4.
A weld in an edge joint
Guide 2
1.
2.
(d)
3.
Guide 3
1.
2.
3.
True
Flux-Cored Arc
Tor comer joint
G14
MODULE 2
ANSWERS continued
Guide 4
1.
2.
(b)
3.
Guide 5
1.
2.
Horizontal position
True
3.
(b)
Guide 6
1. 30
2. {d)
3.
Perspective and Isometric
G15
MODULE 2
ANSWERS continued
[!.il
Guide 7
1.
(a}
2.
Dimension line
3.
@D
EJ@
i
(B) Third angle
(A} FnstAngle
ISO Projection Symbols
Guide 8
1 . Auxilial)'
2. Square, Bevel, J-Profile

3.
f K t{)[] DO D<J
(a) Double bevel
{b) Double J
(c) Double Vee
(d) Double u
---G16
MODULE 2
ANSWERS continued
Guide 9
1.
2.
3.
(a) Mechanical cutting and machining

(b) Flame or gas cutting and gouging
(c) Arc and Plasma arc cutting and gouging
It oxidizes rapidly ("Bums")
True
Guide 10
1.
2.
3.
(b)
(C)
Those using (a) a template (b) a drawing (c) those controlled by numerical tape
Guide 11
1.
2.
3.
Yes
4~
Transferr~ and non::-transferred
(c)
False
,.
l
;
'
;
G17
MODULE 2
TEST
This test is designed to determine whether you are ready to attempt the formal
examination.
Complete the ANSWER SHEET and compare the results with the TEST KEY. If you have
a pass mark less than 70% you are advised to re-study the material.
1.
Select three common types of control systems for shape cutting:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
2.
Select three basic joints:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
3.
gantry, portable tractor, circle cutter

numerical tape, guided template roller, electronic tracer
tape, magnetic, photo
tracer, ceH, roller
pantograph, gantry, roller
edge, lap, fillet

tee, fillet, groove
comer, lap, edge
fillet, plug, groove
vee, square, double vee
'
What number of dimensions are required to evaluate a fillet weld's size:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
one
two
three
four
five
J
G18
,J.l
'i
MODULE 2
TEST continued
/n --;_
4.
What is the terminology used when cutting several plates at one time with the same
torch and the same shape?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
5.
stock cutting
bulk cutting
bank cutting
stack cutting
clamp cutting
Two common gases used for air cooled plasma arc cutting operations are:
(a) nitrogen and fluorine

(b) oxygen and steam
(c) hydrogen and chlorine

(d) C02 and chlorine
(e) C02 and nitrogen
6.
In producing a drawing for a scale of 1: 50, what would the distance represented by
a distance on the drawing of 6 inches be:
(a) 12 inches
(b) 240 inches
(c) 300 feet
(d) 50 inches
(e) 25 feet
7.
What is the CSA Standard W59-19n convention for drawing groove preparation
prior to welding:
(a) dotted lines
(b) dot-dash
(c) solid line
(d) part sorld- part dotted
(e) dash followed by two dots
'r f'-
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~-
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.
G19
MODULE 2
TEST continued
8.
In joining 1/2" plate to 1" plate in the fonn of a fillet weld. What min. size of fillet is
recommended:
(a) 1 inch
(b) 1/2 inch
(c) 5/8 inch
(d) 3/4 inch
(e) 7/8 inch
9.
Select two fuel gases used for oxy-fuel cutting:

(a)
(b}
(c)
(d)
(e)
1 0.
hydrogen and oxygen

propane and nitrogen
acetylene
acetylene and helium
natural gas and argon
and propane
Which of the following would not be considered as a type of weld:
(a) fillet
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
plug
groove
"tee
none of the above
G20
Canadian Welding Bureau

Answer Sheet - Module 2
Complete the "Answer Sheet" and compare the results with the "Test Key''. If you have a pass mark less
than 70%, you are advised to re-study the material.
Please circle only ONE letter corresponding to the answer you think is most correct.
ANSWERS
QUESTION
(@
(C)
A>
<CD
(a) to(
c
.
{b
c
(C)
10
_ff)!X
_(i)
e
..
..
. h to retest voun>eIf.
The answer key bel ow Is provided for your use in th e event th at you WIS
'
If.
QUESTION-
ANSWERS
10
'
G21
_._________________________________________________
Canadian Welding Bureau

Test Key- Module 2
Compare your answer sheet to this key.
ANSWERS
QUESTION
cw
'Q
Q
(d)
Q
Q
(b),
d'
G)
<4>
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9
.
10
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Basic Joints &amp; Blueprint Reading

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PART OF THE CWB CERTIFICATE PROGRAMS

All Rights Reserved 1996

BASIC JOINTS, BLUEPRINT READING & PREPARATION FOR WELDING

The basic joints used in welding.

The basic weld types.

Joints and wM nomenclature or terms.

The measurement of various kinds of fillet welds.

Positions with respect to welding.

Miscellaneous terms describing commonty used terms in welding and including

Fundamentals of Weldng Technology

Basic Joints, Bluepri'nt Reading & Preparation for Welding

No. You are thinking of one assembly which after

This answer is correct. The. three plates form two

No. You arc considering three plates which form

Perhaps, you are considering each side of the joint.

Fundamen.Uzls of Welding Technology

1.1 Fwe Basic Joints

]Jasic Joints, Blueprint Reading & Prepuation for Welding .

2.1 "l1uee Basic Welds

There are only three basic

Fundamentals of Welding Technology

Slot weld vacant at plug weld

Plug or rivet weld

Three Basic W~;lds

In preparation for the plug

Basic]oi:nts, Blueprint Reading & Preparati~n- for Welding

2.2 Edge Welds

Fundamentals of Welding Technology

"A weld made by projection welding."

Fig. 7: Projection Weld

Basic joints, Blueprint Reading & Preparation for Welding

Fig. 8: Seam Weld

Fig. 9: Spot Welds

3.1 Various Types of Groove Welds

~ bsA Standard W59-19771ists tnir

Double Flare-Bevel Groove

Double Flare-Vee Groove

Fundamentals of Welding Technology

3.2 Types of Welds Applicable to Various Join~

Basic joints, Blueprint Reading & Preparation for Welding

4. JOINTS AND WELD NOMENCLATURE OR TERMS

See preferred term "Bevel Angle".

Backing in the form of a ring, generally used in

Backing in the form of a strip.

Backing in the form of a weld.

The metal (material) to be welded, brazed,

See preferred term "Weld Bead".

An angular type of edge preparation.

The angle formed between the prepared edge of

A joint between two members alinged in approximately the same plane.

An erroneous term for a weld in a butt joint.

See preferred term "Backing Ring".

Complete Joint Penetration

Joint penetration in which the weld metal

Concave Root Surface

A root surface which is concave.

Convex Root Surface

A root surface which is convex.

The distance that fusion extends into the Base

The minimum distance from the root of the weld

Fundamentals of Welding Technology

The total included angle of the groove between

The geometric configuration of a groove.

The radius used to form the shape of a J or

Basic Joints & Blueprint Reading

Basic Joints & Blueprint Reading