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NewDirectionsintheSociologyofArt
[GivenattheESAcolloqueinParis,April2003]
Itscustomarytocallfornewdirectionsinthestudyofthisorthat,asthoughtheold
directionshadfailedus,asthoughwewerestuckandnotgettinganywhere.Inthiscase,I
dontacceptthatpremise.Wehaveanumberofolddirectionsthatseemveryserviceableto
me,stillcapableoforientingpeopletowardexcellentpiecesofresearch.Nevertheless,the
convenersofthiscolloquewantedNewDirectionsandIlldomybesttopleasethem.
SoIllproposeanewdirection,whichisageneticapproachtothesociologicalstudyofart
worksandartworlds.Suchanapproachencompassestwosortsofresearch.Thefirstisthe
study,upstream,ofhowsomeartisticphenomenonawork,astyle,agenre,anentireart
worldcomesintobeing,stepbystepallthethingsthataredone,intheordertheyaredone
bythepeoplewhodothem,inthecourseoftheobjectofstudy(whichIllfromnowonspeak
ofasawork,thisbeingunderstoodasencompassingthevarietyofthingsIjustmentioned)
comingtobewhatitis.Isuggested,inArtWorlds,thatitisinterestingtothinkaboutthis
partofaworkshistory,fromthepointofviewoftheartist,asediting(inthesensethat
photographersgivethatwordandidea),lookingatallthedecisions,consciousand
otherwise,thattheartistmakesthatmakethework(orgenre,etc.,Iwontrepeatthisfrom
nowon)whatitis.Inthecaseofmultiartistworks,wherenooneisquitesure,orwhereit
isntagreed,whotheartistisyouwouldnaturallystudythedecisionsoftheseveralpeople
orgroupsinvolvedandhowdisputesamongthemaresettled.Inthecaseofagenreora
style,youwouldincludeallthepeoplewhoseworkandideascontributedtothat
development,includingamongthem,naturally,theaestheticiansandhistorianswhogavea
collectionoftendenciessuchanameandpedigree.
Ontheotherhand,movingdownstreamfromthework,youwouldstudyitscontinuing
history,whathappenedtoitafterwhateverdateyoudecideisappropriatetoconsiderit
done,forwhichanextendedversionofthetechniqueoftracingaprovenanceisanapt
metaphor.Thatis,afteritisdone,whathappenstoit?
Afewpreliminaryremarks.Firstofall,Idontproposethatthisisauniqueandoriginalidea.
Farfromit.Ihavemadeuseoftheideasandresearchesofmanyothersinarrivingatthis
position,aswillbecomeclear,andhavealreadysaidmanyofthesethingsmyself.
But,thoughthereisnothingnewunderthesun,itisoftenhelpfultoputideasintoa
provisionalframeworkthatindicatestheirrelationshipsandsimilarities.Wecanthenprofit
fromthenoveljuxtapositionssystematiccomparisonconfrontsuswith,usingthemtosee
processesandphenomenaweareordinarilytooaccustomedtonotice,andtolearnfrom
themaboutnewdimensionsofthethingsweareinterestedin.
Asecondpoint.Itisnotobviouswhereupstreamstopsanddownstreambegins.Thehistory
ofanyworkorstyleorgenrestartswhere?Whereverwechoosetobeginwecanalways
findsomethingthatcamebeforethatisrelevanttothestorywearegoingtotell,andthereis
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somethingthatcamestilllaterthatcouldequallywellberegardedasanappropriatestarting
point.Wecan,ofcourse,regardthepresentminuteastheplacewherethedownstream
stopsforanalyticpurpose.Thisisnottocounseldespairbutsimplytorecognizethatthe
choiceisarbitrary,dictatedbyourquestionsandtheavailabledataandtime,butnotby
anythinginherentintheeventswearestudying.(Thisislikethequestionofperiodizationin
history.)
Whatcantheoutcomeofthisexercisereasonablybeexpectedtobe?Idontthinkitwill
producestartlingnewresultsoranewGrandTheoryofArtandSociety.WhatIhopefor,
rather,istosuggestsometypicaltrajectories,typicalstageswemayfindinourinvestigation
ofanewempiricalareanotalawabouthowgenresnecessarilydevelopfromanauthentic
expressionofsomethingtoacommercializedversionofit,forinstance,butthedescription
ofhowthatsortofprocessworkswhenandwhereitoccurs.
Upstream
Startingwiththematerialtobeanalyzed,wecanlookbackatthestepsthatproducedit.A
goodwaytodothisistothinkofeverythingthathappenstothework,andisthen
incorporatedintoit,asachoicesomebody(orsomebodies)made,eventhoughoften
enoughthechoiceisnotconsciousanddeliberatebutinsteadtheuseofamaterialor
techniqueorideathatissoconventionalastobealmostunconscious(ifIcanusethat
wordwithoutanyheavypsychologicalovertonescreepingin).
Itisaxiomatic,inthesociologicalstudyofworkprocesses,thatthemostfruitfulmoments
forthesociologistarethosewheretheparticipantsdisagree,quarrel,fight.Becauseatthese
momentssomeagreement,whetheritexistedinfactorwasonlyhopedfor,hasbroken
down.Whenpeoplesaytoeachother,IexpectedyoutodoX[beabletoplaythenotesmy
scorecallsforor,alternatively,towritenotesIcanplay]anunderlyingexpectationon
whichinteractionhadbeensosecurelypremisedthatitdidnotcomeupfordiscussion,and
whichhadverylikelybeenunconscious,isrevealedforouranalysis.
Wheredosuchmomentsofconflicttypicallyoccur?Theyoftenariseatthesocialmargin
betweentwogroupsforinstance,intheinteractionofprofessionalsofvariouskindsinthe
productionofartworks:betweensuppliersofmaterialsandartists,betweenartistsandlay
people,betweenartistsandpeoplewhodealwiththefinancesoftheartisticenterprise.
Whatischaracteristichereisthateachsuchgroupbringstotheencounteranestablishedset
ofideasabouthowthingsaretobedone,whogivestheorders,howthemoneyisdivided
anddistributed,andsoonaboutallthethingsthatparticipantsinajointartenterprise
expectofoneanother.
Foreachsuchmargin,whereconflictispossibleandevenlikely,wecansupposethatthere
arecharacteristicpatternsoffightingandresolutionandthattherewilloftenbean
historicalprocessbywhichafightturnsintoasetofcustomaryproceduresthatwilllastfor
awhile.Sowecanlookfortheprocessthatwilleventuallyproduceacustomarysolutionto
thecurrentfightsoverthedivisionofincomefromanartworkthathavebeenengendered
bytheriseofcomputersandtheirassociatedpractices:marketingviatheinternet,
widespreadabilitytoeasilycopyworks,ortheissueofsamplingmusicalworkstocreate
newones.Justasearlierquarrelsproducedasetofarrangementsaboutcopyrights,
royalties,droitsd'auteur,etc.
SuchanareaisinitselftremendouslycomplicatedandIwillonlyreferheretothewonderful
workofRichardCaves,theeconomist,whohasbroughtthefullarmamentofeconomic
theorytobearfruitfullyonavarietyofproblemsthatarisehere,aswellastoPierreMichel
Mengersanalysesofthelabormarketforartists.

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Downstream
WecanbeginwithLatourswellknownremark:thefateofwhatwesayandmakeisinlater
usershands.(ScienceinAction,p.29)Heistalkingaboutscientificfacts,buttheremarkis
equallyapplicabletoworksofart.Oncewepassthepointwehavechosenasthepivot
betweenupstreamanddownstreamacommonandgoodplacetoputthatpointiswhenthe
workleavesthehandsoftheoneconventionallyidentifiedasthecreatorwecanchoosea
laterpointastheotherendofthetrajectorywewanttostudy.Andthenwecandoan
extendedversionofwhatarthistoriansdowhentheyconstructaprovenanceforapainting.
Theytrytoaccountforthepictureswhereaboutsatalltimes,toshowanunbrokenchainof
ownershipandphysicalpossession:whogotitfromwhounderwhatcircumstances.

IbecameawareofthisasapossibletechniqueforsocialscientistswhenIcameacrossHans
HaackesinventiveuseofittoshowhowapaintingbyManethadmovedthroughanumber
ofowners,includingsomewelltodoandscholarlyJewishfamilies,eventuallytobe

purchasedbytheFriendsoftheCologneArtMuseum,whosechairmanhadbeenahighly
placedNaziduringthoseyears.Haackedidnotdothistoestablishtheauthenticityofthe
painting,whichistheusualaimofanarthistoriansprovenance.Heusedthetechniqueas
partofhislargerprojectofshowingthemorallyshakygroundonwhichthefinancialwell
beingofmajorartworldinstitutionsrested.
WecangeneralizeHaackesprocedurealittlebysuggestingitasamethodforstudyingthe
financialbasesofartworldinstitutions:checkingoutthehistoryofownershipofobjects,
lookingforthekeymomentsatwhichtheobjectchangedhands,atwhichwemightexpect
shiftsinvaluationsandaestheticjudgmentswillshowthemselvesveryclearly.
Anothertypicalsequenceoccursinthedevelopmentofcertaingenres,withashiftin
audiencesandinanassociatedmoraljudgmentofthework.HereIrefertothekindof
researchdonebyRichardPetersonandDavidGrazianontheproblemoftheauthenticity,in
adifferentsensethanthearthistorical,ofsomekindsoffolkmusics,countryand
WesternmusicinPetersonscase,andbluesinGrazians.Herethemusicisthoughttobe
theauthenticreflectionorproductofawayoflifethatisethnicallydistinctorsomehow
closelyrelatedtothelifeconditionsofthepeoplewhoplayit,singit,dancetoit,listentoit.
Partofthepleasurethemusicproducesistheaudiencesknowledgethatitisthereal
thing,unaffectedbycommercialpressures,arealwindowintoanotherwayoflife.But,
becausepeoplewhodonotlivethatlifewanttoseethisrealthing,itbecomespossibleto
sellittothem.
Andsoaprocessbeginsinwhichmusicians,singers,andcomposersbegintocreateversions
oftheoriginallyauthenticmusicforanaudiencewhichonlyknowsofitthroughrecordings.
IntheparadoxicalcasestudiedbyGrazian,peoplecomefromallovertheworldtohear
authenticChicagoblues.Theyknowwhatthatisbecausetheyhavetherecordingsthey
bought.AndtheycometoChicagoinsearchofwhatisontheirrecords,playedbyrealblues
musiciansinrealbluesclubs,inwhichalltheothercustomersaretherealpeopleofwhose
livesthismusicwastheauthenticexpression.Asyoucanimagine,thisleadstotheclubs
beingfilledwithsuchseekersfromallovertheworld,drivingthepeoplewhoformerlywent
thereout,andboringthemusiciansbyinsistingthattheyplayexactlywhatisonthe
recordingsthatbroughtthemthere.Andtheclubisthusnolongerauthenticandnolonger
ofinteresttothepeoplewhohavethusdestroyedit.Asimilarprocesshasoccurredwith
respecttoauthenticAfricanart,authenticpreColumbianart,andwithrespecttomany
otherkindsofart.
Athirdtypicaldownstreammomentoccurswhenanobjectisdisposedof.Lastingisoften
acriterionofgreatartbut,moreprosaically,lastinginaphysicalsenseisacontingencythat
affectsallworks.Whethersomethinglastsphysically,andthereforeaestheticallyaswell,

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dependsonagreatnumberofchoicesmadebyawidevarietyofpeople.Firstofall,artwork
isoftendestroyed.Perhapsasaresultofpoliticaldecisions:examplesabound,suchasthe
destructionofchurchesandtheirassociatedartworksinEnglandorSpainatvarioustimes,
orinAfghanistannotlongago.RayBradburymadetheproblemvividinFahrenheit
451withtheburningofbooksandtheirsalvationthroughpeoplewhomemorizedthem
Beyondthat,thereistheunavoidableprocessofstorage.Allofushavefacedthemoment
whenitbecamenecessarytogetridofthings,tomakechoicesofwhichbooksorrecordings
tokeepwhenwemove,forinstance.Itsaproblemthatconfrontsmuseumsandlibraries.
Eithertheykeepgrowingforevertoaccommodatetheendlessnumberofnewthingsorthey
deaccessionsomethingstomakeroomforthenew.Thisisaplacewheretherearesurely
momentswhentheestablishedwaysofdoingthatbecomeuncomfortableandcausetrouble,
aswhenmuseumsarediscoveredtohavegottenridofthingsthatweregiventothemtobe
heldintrustforever,butwhicharenolongerthoughttobeasgoodastheyoncewere
thought.Worseyetwhen,assooftenhappens,fiftyorahundredyearslater,tastesand
judgmentshavingshiftedagain,whathadbeengottenridofisnowjustwhatiswanted.
Akeyrolecanbeplayedhere,asGladysandKurtLangshowed,bykeyplayerswhobecome
entrepreneursdevotedtokeepingthework,thememory,andthereputationofanartist
alive.Intheircase,itwasthewivesofagenerationofEnglishetcherswhodidthejob,
preservingthework,persuadingrepositoriestoacceptit,andpublicizingitwhenpossible.
Similarly,revivalsofthereputationofaworkorartistorgenreareusuallytheresultof
someonedecidingtorevivetheiteminquestion.Itisnotamatterofqualityfinallyshowing
through,butratherofanenterprisingconductororplayerorpublisherordirectororcritic
orcuratordecidingtorevivesomething,forwhateverreasonsseempertinent.
Moregenerally,themovementofreputationsgoesonrelentlessly,down,backupagain,
backdown,,asNatalieHeinichhasshowninthecaseofvanGoghandBarbaraHerrnstein
SmithhasdescribedforShakespearessonnets(wecanalsomentionFrancisHaskells
RediscoveriesinArt).
Finally....
WhatIhavesuggestedhereisnotreallyanewdirection.Butwhatmightbenewaboutitis
thatImeantoemployrelentlessly,andwithoutexception,ananalyticperspectivethatis
processualandthattakesintoaccountalltheplayersinthedramaofart.
Byprocessual,Imean,first,thateverythinginthesocialworld,andartisnoexception,
changesconstantly.Materialthingschangephysically:theydeteriorate,aredestroyed,are
redone.Worksthatareperformedaresubjecttomultipleinterpretations,occurindifferent
venues,arerewrittenbytheirauthorsorothers.Sowecanttalkaboutaworkofartasa
stablething.Thereisawrittenscore,perhaps,thatwecancallRavelsTombeaude
Couperinthougheventherewehavetospecifywhetherwemeanthesixpianopiecesor
thefourhescoredfororchestrabutitwillnotbethesamepieceperformedbydifferent
pianists,andwillnotsoundthesameindifferentconcerthallsnoronrecordingsplayedon
differentequipment.Weneverthelesscananddotalkaboutthisworkasthoughitwerea
stablething.Butonlybecauseweagree,moreorlessimplicitly,toignorethesedifferences.
Otherwisewewouldhavetospecifywhichperformanceoftheworkbywhichpianiston
whichpianorecordedhow....
Anotherwaytoputthisistorecognize,assuggestedearlier,thatthechoiceofthepoint
fromwhichwereckonupstreamanddownstreamisarbitrary.
Processualalsorefersus,asIsuggestedearlier,totheideaofchoice,asexpressedinthe
termeditingwhichIhaveborrowedfromphotographicpracticethechoicesmade,inthe
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caseofamusicalwork,forinstance,ofversions,tempi,interpretationofexpressivemarks,
andsoon.Butthatisonlythebeginningofaverylonglist,whosecontentshave,inevery
case,tobediscoveredempirically.
Thinkingabouteditingleadstothesecondpoint,thelargenumberandvarietyofpeople
involvedinaworkshistory.ThisisapointIhavearguedatlengthinArtWorlds.Illonly
remindyouhereofthelistofcreditsattheendofafilm.Thatlistisconventionalinfilm,but
similarlistsarenotconventionalinotherarts,thoughtheycouldofcoursebemade.The
choiceofwho,amongallthepeoplewhomightbeincludedinsuchalist,shouldbeincluded
issomewhatarbitrary.somewhatbecauseclearlysomeoftheactorsaremoreinfluential
thanothers.But,ontheotherhand,itsimportanttorecognizethatthisisamultiplicative
kindoffunction.Everyoneisimportantascanberecognizedwhenanyoneoftheactors
doesnotdotheirjobasexpected.Theneveryonehastoadjusttothatabsenceandthework
willbedifferentthanitwouldhavebeenhadeveryonedonetheexpected.
ThesearethingsthatIthinkmostsociologistsofartwouldsayOfcourse!to.Butthereisa
differencebetweenOfcourseandstrictlyfollowingtheguidelinesthatissuefromthis
position.Followingthemstrictlymightbe,finally,aNewDirection.

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