ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

UNIT I P-N JUNCTION DIODE AND RECTIFIERS:

Quantative theory of P-N Junction, P-N Junction as Diode, Diode Equation, Volt-Ampere
Characteristics, Temperature Dependence of VI Characteristic, Transition and Diffusion
Capacitances, Diode Equivalent Circuits, Breakdown Mechanisms in Semiconductor Diodes,
Zener Diode Characteristics, Principle of Operation and Characteristics of Tunnel Diode,
Schottky Barrier Diode.
The P-N Junction as a Rectifier, Half wave Rectifier, Full wave Rectifier, Bridge Rectifier,
Harmonic Components in a Rectifier Circuit, Inductor Filters, Capacitor Filters, L-Section
Filters, -Section Filters, Comparison of Filters, Voltage Regulation Using Zener Diode,
SCR.
UNIT II-BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR AND FIELD EFFECT
TRANSISTOR:
The Junction Transistor, Transistor Current Components, Transistor Construction, BJT
Operation, BJT Symbol, Transistor as an Amplifier, Common Base, Common Emitter and
Common Collector Configurations, Limits of Operation, BJT Specifications.
The Junction Field Effect Transistor (Construction, Principle of Operation, Symbol), Pinch
Off Voltage Volt Ampere Characteristics, The JFET Small Signal Model, MOSFET
(Construction, Principle of Operation, Symbol) MOSFET Characteristics In Enhancement
and Depletion Modes.
UNIT III-TRANSISTOR BIASING AND STABILIZATION:
Operating Point, The DC and AC Load Lines, Need For Biasing, Fixed Bias, Collector
Feedback Bias, Emitter Feedback Bias, Collector Emitter Feedback Bias, Voltage Divider
Bias, Bias Stability, Stabilization Factors, Stabilization Against Variation In V BE and , Bias
Compensation Using Diodes and Transistors. Thermal Runway, Thermal Stability, Biasing
FET.
UNIT IV-BJT AND FET AMPLIFIERS:
BJT Hybrid Model, Determination of h-Parameters From Transistor Characteristics, Analysis
of A Transistor Amplifier Circuit Using h-Parameters, Comparison of CB, CE And CC
Amplifier Configurations.FET Common Source Amplifier, Common Drain Amplifier,
Generalized FET Amplifier, FET, As Voltage Variable Resistor, Comparison of BJT And
FET, The Uni Junction Transistor
UNIT V: FEED BACK AMPLIFIERS AND OSCILLATORS:
Concepts of feedback. Claffication of feedback amplifiers, General characteristics of negative
feedback amplifiers, Effect of Feedback on Amplifier characteristics, Simple problems.
OSCILLATORS: Condition for oscillations. RC and LC type oscillators, Crystal oscillators,
Frequency and amplitude stability of oscillators, Generalized analysis of LC oscillators,
Quartz (Hartley, Colpitts), RC-phase shift and Wien-bridge oscillators.
TEXT BOOKS:
1.

Millmans Electronic Devices and Circuits J. Millman, C.C.Halkias, and Satyabrata Jit Tata
McGraw Hill, 2nd Ed., 2007.
2. Electronic Devices and Circuits R.L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky, Pearson/Prentice
Hall,9th Edition,2006.
3. Introduction to Electronic Devices and Circuits- Rober T. Paynter PE.

4.

Electronics Devices and Circuits A. P. Godse Technical Publications.

REFERENCE BOOKS:

1.

Electronic Devices and Circuits T.F. Bogart Jr., J.S.Beasley and G.Rico, Pearson Education,
6th edition, 2004.
2. Principles of Electronic Circuits S.G.Burns and P.R.Bond, Galgotia Publications, 2nd Edn..,
1998.
3. Microelectronics Millman and Grabel, Tata McGraw Hill, 1988.
4.
Electronic Devices and Circuits Dr. K. Lal Kishore, B.S.

1. THEORY OF P-N JUNCTION

Take an intrinsic Silicon or Germanium crystal.

If donor ( n-type ) impurities are diffused from one point and acceptors impurities
from the other, a p-n junction is formed.
The donor atoms will donate electrons.
So they loose electrons and become positively charged.
Similarly, acceptor atoms accept an electron, and become negatively charged.
Therefore in the p-n junction on the p-side, holes and negative ions are and on the nside free electrons and positive ions are shown in fig.
To start with, there are only p-type carriers to the left of the junction and only n-type
carriers to the right of the junction.
But because of the concentration gradient across the junction, holes are in large
number on the left side and they diffuse from left side to right side.
Similarly electrons will diffuse to the right side because of concentration gradient.

Fig 1. Potential distribution in p-n junction diode

Because of the displacement of these charges, electric field will appear across the
junction.
Since p-side looses holes, negative field exists near the junction towards left.
Since n-side looses electrons, positive electric field exists on the n side.
But at a particular stage the negative field on p-side becomes large enough to prevent
the flow of electrons from n-side.

Positive charge on n-side becomes large enough to prevent the movement of holes
from the p-side.
The charge distribution is as shown in Fig.1 ( b).
The charge density far away from the junction is zero, since before all the holes from
p-side move to n-side, the barrier potential is developed.
Acceptor atoms near the junction have lost the holes.
But for this they would have been electrically neutral.
Now these holes have combined with free electrons and disappeared leaving the
acceptor atom negative.
Donor atoms on n-side have lost free electrons.
These free electrons have combined with holes and disappeared.
So the region near the junction is depleted of mobile charges.
This is called depletion region, space charge region or transition region.
The thickness of this region will be of the order of few microns.
The electric field intensity near the junction is shown in Fig.1 ( c).
This curve is the integral of the density function .

P-N JUNCTIONS AS A DIODE

A p-n junction shown above forms a semiconductor device called DIODE

Its symbol
is
A is anode and K is cathode.
It has two
leads or electrodes and hence the name Diode

Biasing

p-n junction with no external bias.

In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of charge in

any one direction for a semiconductor diode is zero.

Forward-Bias Condition (VD >0 V)

A forward-bias or on condition is established by applying the positive
potential to the p-type material and the negative potential to the n-type
material as shown in below Fig.
The application of a forward-bias potential VD will pressure electrons in the
n-type material and holes in the p-type material to recombine with the ions
near the boundary and reduce the width of the depletion region.
The reduction in the width of the depletion region has resulted in a heavy
majority flow across the junction.
An electron of the n-type material now sees a reduced barrier at the
junction due to the reduced depletion region and a strong attraction for the
positive potential applied to the p-type material.

As the applied bias increases in magnitude the depletion region will continue
to decrease in width until a flood of electrons can pass through the junction,
resulting in an exponential rise in current

Reverse-Bias Condition (VD 0 V)

Reverse-biased p-n junction.

A reverse-bias or off condition is established by applying the positive

terminal is connected to the n-type material and the negative terminal is
connected to the p-type material.
The number of uncovered positive ions in the depletion region of the n-type
material will increase due to the large number of free electrons drawn to the
positive potential of the applied voltage.
For similar reasons, the number of uncovered negative ions will increase in
the p-type material. The net effect, therefore, is a widening of the depletion
region.
This widening of the depletion region will establish too great a barrier for the
majority carriers to overcome, effectively reducing the majority carrier flow to
zero.
The current that exists under reverse-bias conditions is called the reverse
saturation current and is represented by I0

BAND STRUCTURE OF AN OPEN CIRCUIT p-n JUNCTION

When p-type and n-type semiconductors are brought into intimate contact pn junction is formed.
Then the Fermi level must be constant throughout the specimen. If it is not so,
electrons on one side will have higher energy than on the other side.
So the transfer of energy from higher energy electrons to lower energy
electrons will take place till fermi level on both sides comes to the same level.
But we have already seen that in n-type semiconductors, EF is close to
conduction band Ecn and it is close to valence band edge Evp on p-side.
So the conduction band edge of n-type semiconductor cannot be at the same
level as that of
p-type semiconductor Hence, as shown, the energy
band diagram for a p-n junction is where a shift in energy levels Eo is
indicated.
EG
EF
Eo
Een
Ecp
Evn
Evp

= Energy gap in eV
= Fermi energy level
= Contact difference of potential
= Conduction Band energy level on the n-side.
= Conduction Band energy level on the p-side.
= Valence Band energy level on the n-side.
= Valence Band energy level on the p-side.

If a central line EG/2 is taken, the shift in energy levels is the difference between the two central lines E G/2
of the two semiconductors

This energy E0 represents the potential energy barrier for electrons. The contact difference of potential

The current components in a p-n junction diode

When a forward bias is applied to the diode, holes are injected into the n-side and
electrons to the p-side.
The number of this injected carriers decreases exponentially with distance from the
junction.
Since the diffusion current of minority carriers is proportional to the number of
carriers, the minority carriers current decreases exponentially, with distance.
There are two minority currents, one due to electrons in the p-region Inp, and due to
holes in the n-region Ipn.
As these currents vary with distance, they are represented as Ipn(x).
Electrons crossing from n to p will constitute current in the same direction as holes
crossing from p to n. Therefore, the total current at the junction where x = 0 is I=
Ipn(O) + Inp(O)
The total current remains the same. The decrease in Ipn is compensated by increase in
Inp on the p-side.
In a forward biased p-n junction diode, at the edge of the diode on p-side, the current
is hole current (majority carriers are holes).
This current decreases at the junction as the junction approaches and at a point away
from the junction, on the n-side, hole current is practically zero.
LAW OF THE JUNCTION

Ppo = Thermal Equilibrium Hole Concentration on p-side

Pno = Thermal equilibrium Hole concentration on n-side
Ppo = Pno eVO/VT

(1)

where V 0 is the Electrostatics Barrier Potential that exists on both sides of the Junction. But
the thermal equilibrium hole concentration on the p-side where
Ppo = Pn (0) = e(Vo -V)/VT

.(2)

Pn (0) = Hole concentration on n-side near the junction

V = Applied forward bias voltage.
This relationship is called Boltzman's Relationship.
Equating (1) and (2).

Therefore, the total hole concentration in 'n' region at the junction varies with applied forward
bias voltage V as given by the above expression.
This is called the Law of the Junction.

Similarly the electron current due to the diffusion of electrons from n-side to p-side is
obtained from the above equation itself, by interchanging n and p.

The total diode current is the sum of Ipn (0) and Inp(0)

In this analysis we have neglected charge generation and recombination. Only the
current that results as a result of the diffusion of the carriers owing to the applied
voltage is considered.
For Germanium, the current due to thermal generation of carriers and recombination
can be neglected. But for Silicon it cannot be neglected.
So the expression for current is modified as

where = 2 for small currents and = 1 forM large currents.

VT = Volt equivalent of Temperature
VT =
If temperature T is 3000K then
VT = 26mv
VOLT-AMPERE CHARACTERISTICS OF A P-N JUNCTION DIODE
For a p-n junction the current I is related with V is given by

A positive value of I means that current flows from the p to the n side. The diode is forwardbiased if V is positive, indicating that the p side of the junction is posigive with respect to the
n-side. The symbol is unity for geminium and approximately 2 for silicon at rated current

V-I Characteristics of p-n junction diode.

CUT IN VOLTAGE V

In the case of Silicon and Germanium, diodes there is a Cut In or knee voltage below which
the current is negligible. It's magnitude is 0.1V to 0.3V for Germanium and 0.3V0.7V for
Silicon

Forward characteristics of a diode.

DIODE RESISTANCE
The static resistance (R) of a diode is defined as the ratio of of the diode. Static resistance
varies widely with V and I. The dynamic resistance or incremental resistance is defined as the
reciprocal of the slope of the Volt-Ampere Characteristic

. This is also not a constant but

depends upon V and I.

SPACE CHARGE OR TRANSITION CAPACITANCE CT
When a reverse bias is applied to a p-n junction diode, electrons from the p-side will move to
the n-side and vice versa. When electrons cross the junction into the n-region, and hole away
from the junction, negative charge is developed on the p-side and similarly positive charge on
the n-side. Before reverse bias is applied, because of concentration gradient, there is some
space charge region. Its thickness increases with reverse bias. So space charge Q increases as
reverse bias voltage increases.

Where |dQ| is the magnitude of charge increase due to voltage dV. It is to be noted that there is negative
charge on the p-side and positive charge on n-side. But we must consider only its magnitude.

Therefore, if the voltage dV is changing in time dt, then a current will result, given by

This current exists for A.C. only. For D.C. Voltage is not changing with time. For D.C. capacitance is open
circuit.

DIFFUSION CAPACITANCE, CD

Diode Equivalent Circuit Models

There are three types of breakdown mechanisms in semiconductor devices.

1. Avalanche Breakdown 2. Zener Breakdown 3. Thermal Breakdown

Avalanche Breakdown
When there is no bias applied to the diode, there are certain number of thermally
generated carriers.
When bias is applied, electrons and holes acquire sufficient energy from the applied
potential to produce new carriers by removing valence electrons from their bonds.
These thermally generated carriers acquire additional energy from the applied bias.
They strike the lattice and impart some energy to the valence electrons.
So the valence electrons will break away from their parent atom and become free
carriers.
Newly generated additional carriers acquire more energy from the potential (since
bias is applied).
So they again strike the lattice and create more number of free electrons and holes.
This process goes on as long as bias is increased and the number of free carriers gets
multiplied.
This is known as avalanche multiplication, Since the number of carriers is large, the
current flowing through the diode which is proportional to free carriers also increases
and when this current is large, avalanche breakdown will occur.
Zener Breakdown
Now if the electric field is very strong to disrupt or break the covalent bonds, there
will be sudden increase in the number of free carriers and hence large current and
consequent breakdown.
Even if thermally generated carriers do not have sufficient energy to break the
covalent bonds, the electric field is very high, then covalent bonds are directly broken.
This is Zener Breakdown.
A junction having narrow depletion layer and hence high field intensity will have
zener breakdown effect. (= 106 V /m).
If the doping concentration is high, the depletion region is narrow and will have high
field intensity, to cause Zener breakdown.
Thermal Breakdown
If a diode is biased and the bias voltage is well within the breakdown voltage at room
temperature, there will be certain amount of current which is less than the breakdown
current.
Now keeping the bias voltage as it is, if the temperature is increased, due to the
thermal energy, more number of carriers will be produced and finally breakdown will
occur. This is Thermal Breakdown.
ZENER DIODE

This is a p-n junction device, in which zener breakdown mechanism dominates. Zener diode
is always used in Reverse Bias.
Its constructional features are:
1. Doping concentration is heavy on p and n regions of the diode, compared to normal
p-n junction diode.
2. Due to heavy doping, depletion region width is narrow.
3. Due to narrow depletion region width, electric field intensity E =V/D

When the Zener diode is reverse biased, the current flowing is only the reverse
saturation current 10 which is constant like in a reverse biased diode.
At V = Vz due to high electric field (V Z /W), Zener breakdown occurs. Covalent
bonds are broken and suddenly the number of free electrons increases.
So Iz increases sharply and V z remains constant, since, Iz increases through Zener
resistance Rz decreases.
So the product V z = Rz. Iz almost remains constant.
If the input voltage is decreasea, the Zener diode regains its original structure. (But if
Vi. is increased much beyond Vz electrical breakdown of the device will occur. The
device looses Its semiconducting properties and may become a short circuit or open
circuit. This is what is meant by device breakdown. )

Applications
1. In Voltage Regulator Circuits
2. In Clipping and Clamping Circuits
3. In Wave Shaping Circuits.

THE TUNNEL DIODE

In an ordinary p-n junction diode the doping concentration of impurity atoms is 1 in 108.
With this doping, the depletion layer width, which constitutes barrier potential is 5 J.l V. If the
concentration of the impurity atoms is increased to say 1 in 1 03( This corresponds to
impurity density of ~ 1019 1m3), the characteristics of the diode will completely change.
Such a diode is called Tunnel Diode. This was found by Esaki in 1958.
TUNNELING PHENOMENON
Barrier Potential VB :

 So, the width of the junction barrier varies inversely as the square root of impurity
concentration.
Therefore as NA increases W decreases. Therefore, in tunnel diodes, by increasing
NA, W can be reduced from 5. to 0.01.
According to classical mechanics, a particle must possess the potential which is at
least equal to, or greater than, the barrier potential, to move from one side to the other.
When the barrier width is so thin as 0.01 , according to Schrodinge equation, there is
much probability that an electron will penetrate when a forward bias is applied to the
diode, so that potential barrier decreases below E0 .
The n-side levels must shift upward with respect to those on the p-side.
So there are occupied states in the conduction band of the n material, which are at the
same energy level as allowed empty states in the valence band of the p-side.
Hence electrons will tunnel from the n-side to the p-side giving rise to forward
current.
As the forward bias is increased further, the number of electrons on n-side which
occupy the same energy level as that vacant energy state existing on p-side, also
increases.
So more number of electrons tunnel through the barrier to empty states on the left side
giving rise to peak current Ip.
If still more forward bias is applied, the energy level of the electrons on the n-side
increases, but the empty states existing on the p-side, reduces.
So the tunneling current decreases.
In addition to the Quantum Mechanical Tunneling Current, there is regular pnjunction injection current also.
The magnitude of this current is considerable only beyond a certain value of forward
bias voltage. Therefore, the current again starts beyond Vv

V - I Characteristics of a Tunnel diode.

Ip = Peak current
Iv = Valley current
VF = Peak forward voltage
Vp = Peak voltage

(a)
Symbol
of

Tunnel
Diode
( b ) Equivalent Circuit

For small forward voltage (ie., Vp =50mV for Ge), forward resistance is small =

5ohms and so current is large.

At the Peak Current Ip, corresponding to voltage V P, dI/dV is zero.
If V is beyond Vp, the current decreases.
So the diode exhibits Negative Resistance Characteristics between Ip and Iv called
the Valley Current. The voltage at which the forward current again equals Iv is called
as peak forward voltage VF. Beyond this voltage, the current increases rapidly. Typical
values of a tunnel diode are:
Vp = 50 mv
Vv =350 mv
Ip = 10 rnA,
Negative resistance Rn = -30n.
Series Ohmic resistance Rs = 1ohm.

The series inductance Ls depends upon the lead length and the geometry of the diode
package. Ls =5 nH.

Junction capacitance C= 20 pF.

Advantages:
1. Low Cost
2. Low Noise
3. Simplicity
4. High Speed
5. Low Input Power
6. Environmental Immunity.
Disadvantages:
1. Low output voltage swings, even for small voltage, while the current goes to large values.
So the swing is limited.
2. Circuit design difficulty, since it is a two terminal device and there is no isolation between
input and output.
Applications:
1. As a high frequency oscillator (GHz)
2. As a fast switching device. Switching time is in nano-seconds. Since tunneling is a
quantum mechanical phenomenon, there is no time lag between the application of voltage and
consequent current variation. So it can be used for high frequencies.
VARACTOR DIODE

Barrier of transition capacitance CT varies with the value of reverse bias voltage. The larger
the reverse voltage, the larger the W.

Symbol of varactor diode

So CT of a p-n junction diode varies with the applied reverse bias voltage. Diodes made especially for that
particular property of variable capacitance with bias are called Varactors, Varicaps or Voltacaps. These
are used in LC Oscillator Circuits.

RECTIFIERS
Rectifier converts sinusoidal signal to unidirectional flow and not pure D.C.
Rectifier is a circuit which offers low resistance to the current in one direction and
high resistance in the opposite direction.
Filter converts unidirectional flow into pure D.C.
If the input to the rectifier is a pure sinusoidal wave, the average value of such a wave
is zero, since the positive half cycle and negative half cycle are exactly equal.

AC input waveform
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

Half wave rectifier circuit

A.C input is normally the A.C. main supply.

Since the voltage is 230V, and such a high voltage cannot be applied to the
semiconductor diode, step down transformer should be used.
Output voltage is taken across the load resistor RL .
Since the peak value of A.C. signal is much larger than V we neglect V for
analysis.

Half wave rectifier output

IDC the average value is

Half wave rectifier output

Numerator denominator Divided by RL

Then

VDC =

since

% regulation
The variation of D.C output voltage as a function of D.C load current is called 'regulation'.

RMS current

RIPPLE FACTOR

Efficiency =

Transformer Utilization factor

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

During the negative half cycle, the diode will not conduct. Therefore, the current I through the circuit is
zero. So the voltage across the diode is not zero but the voltage of the secondary of the transformer V will
appear across the diode

The waveform across the diode is

In

the above circuits the diode is being subjected to a maximum voltage of V m. It occurs when the diode is

not conducting. Hence it is called the Peak Inverse Voltage ( PIV )

DISADVANTAGES OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

1. High Ripple Factor (1.21)

2. Low ratio of rectification (0.406)
3. Low TUF ( 0.287 )

Full Wave Rectifier

Since half wave rectifier circuit has poor ripple factor, for ripple voltage is greater than DC voltage, it
cannot be used. So now analyze a full wave rectifier circuit.

Ripple factor

Peak inverse voltage