Ultrasonic Testing

CourseLayout
Duration
:
9.5Days(Mon Fri)
Start
:
8:30am
CoffeeBreak
:
10:00 10:30am
Lunch
:
12:30 1:30pm
TeaBreak :
3:00 3:30pm
DayEnd
:
5:00pm
CourseObjective:
Totrainandprepareparticipantstoobtain
requiredskillandknowledgeinUltrasonicTestingandtomeetthe
examinationschemesrequirements.

NDT
MostcommonNDTmethods:
PenetrantTesting(PT)
MagneticParticleTesting(MT)

Mainlyusedfor
surfacetesting

EddyCurrentTesting(ET)
RadiographicTesting(RT)
UltrasonicTesting(UT)

Mainlyusedfor
InternalTesting

NDT
Whichmethodisthebest?
Dependsonmanyfactorsandconditions

BasicPrinciplesofUltrasonicTesting
Tounderstandandappreciatethe
capabilityandlimitationofUT

BasicPrinciplesofUltrasonicTesting
Soundistransmittedinthematerialtobetested
Thesoundreflectedbacktotheprobeis
displayedon
theFlawDetector

BasicPrinciplesofUltrasonicTesting
ThedistancethesoundtraveledcanbedisplayedontheFlawDetector
Thescreencanbecalibratedtogiveaccuratereadingsofthedistance
Signalfromthebackwall

Bottom/Backwall

BasicPrinciplesofUltrasonicTesting
ThepresenceofaDefectinthematerialshowsuponthescreenoftheflaw
detectorwithalessdistancethanthebottomofthematerial
TheBWEsignal
Defectsignal

Defect

0102030405060

60mm

Thedepthofthedefectcanbereadwithreferenceto
themarkeronthescreen

Thickness/depthmeasurement
Thecloser thereflectorto
thesurface,thesignalwill
bemoretotheleftofthe
screen

30

46

68

Thethicknessisreadfromthescreen

C
B
A

TheTHINNER thematerialthe
lessdistancethesoundtravel

UltrasonicTesting

PrinciplesofSound

Sound

Wavelength:
Thedistancerequiredtocompleteacycle
MeasuredinMeterormm

Frequency:
Thenumberofcyclesperunittime
MeasuredinHertz(Hz)orCyclespersecond(cps)

Velocity:
Howquickthesoundtravels
Distanceperunittime
Measuredinmeter/second(m/sec)

Propertiesofasoundwave
Soundcannottravelin
vacuum
Soundenergytobe
transmitted/transferred
fromoneparticleto
another

SOLID

LIQUID

GAS

Velocity

ThevelocityofsoundinaparticularmaterialisCONSTANT
ItistheproductofDENSITY andELASTICITY ofthematerial
ItwillNOTchangeiffrequencychanges
Onlythewavelengthchanges
Examples:
VCompressioninsteel
:5960m/s
VCompressioninwater
:1470m/s
VCompressioninair :330m/s

5MHz

STEEL

WATER

AIR

Velocity
Whatisthevelocitydifferenceinsteelcomparedwithinwater?
4times
Ifthefrequencyremainconstant,inwhatmaterialdoessound
hasthehighestvelocity,steel,water,orair?
Steel
Ifthefrequencyremainconstant,inwhatmaterialdoessound
hastheshortestwavelength,steel,water,orair?
Air
Remembertheformula
=v/f

ULTRASONICTESTING
VeryHighFrequency
5MHz

Glass
HighFrequency
5KHz
DRUMBEAT
LowFrequencySound
40Hz

Ultrasonic
Sound:mechanicalvibration

WhatisUltrasonic?
VeryHighFrequencysound above20KHz
20,000cps

AcousticSpectrum
Sonic/Audible
Human
16Hz 20kHz

Ultrasonic
>20kHz=20,000Hz

0101001K10K100K1M10M100m
UltrasonicTesting
0.5MHz 50MHz
Ultrasonic :Soundwithfrequencyabove20KHz

Frequency
Frequency :
Numberofcyclesper
second

1second
1cycleper1second=1
Hertz

1second
3cycleper1second=3
Hertz

1second
18cycleper1second=
18Hertz

THEHIGHERTHEFREQUENCYTHESMALLERTHEWAVELENGTH

Frequency
1Hz =
1cyclepersecond
1Kilohertz =
1KHz =
1000Hz
1Megahertz
=
1MHz
=1000000Hz

20KHz

20000Hz

5MHz

5000000Hz

Wavelength
Wavelengthisthedistancerequiredtocompleteacycle.
Soundwavesarethevibrationofparticlesinsolids,liquidsor
gases.
Particlesvibrateaboutameanposition.
wavelength
Displacement

wavelength

Onecycle

Thedistance
takento
completeone
cycle

Wavelength

Velocity

f
Frequency

Frequency&Wavelength

1MHz

5MHz

LONGEST

10MHz

25MHz
SMALLEST

=v/f

Whichprobehasthesmallestwavelength?
Whichprobehasthelongestwavelength?

Wavelengthisafunctionoffrequencyandvelocity.
Therefore:

or

f V

or

V f

5MHzcompressionwave
probeinsteel

5,900,000

1.18mm
5,000,000

 Whichofthefollowingcompressionalprobehasthe
highestsensitivity?
1MHz
2MHz
5MHz
10MHz

10MHz

Wavelengthandfrequency
Thehigherthefrequencythesmallerthewavelength
Thesmallerthewavelengththehigherthesensitivity
Sensitivity :
Thesmallestdetectable
flawbythesystemor
technique
InUTthesmallestdetectableflawis (halfthe

wavelength)

TheSoundBeam
DeadZone
NearZoneorFresnelZone
FarZoneorFraunhofer Zone

TheSoundBeam
NZ

FZ

Main
Beam

Intensity
varies
ExponentialDecay

Distance

Thesidelobeshasmulti
minutemainbeams
Twoidenticaldefectsmaygive
differentamplitudesofsignals

Near
Zone

SideLobes

Themainbeamorthecentre
beamhasthehighestintensityof
soundenergy
MainLobe

MainBeam

Anyreflectorhitbythemainbeam
willreflectthehighamountof
energy

SoundBeam
NearZone
Thickness
measurement
Detectionofdefects
Sizingoflargedefects
only

FarZone
Thickness
measurement
Defectdetection
Sizingofalldefects

Nearzone lengthassmall aspossible

NearZone
2

Near Zone

V

f
Near Zone

D2 f

4V

NearZone
Whatisthenearzonelengthofa5MHzcompression
probewithacrystaldiameterof10mminsteel?

D2 f
Near Zone
4V
2
10 5 , 000 , 000

4 5 , 920 , 000
21 . 1 mm

NearZone
2

Near Zone

D f

4V

Thebiggerthediameterthebiggerthenearzone
Thehigherthefrequencythebiggerthenearzone
Thelowerthevelocitythebiggerthenearzone

Shouldlargediametercrystalprobeshaveahighor
lowfrequency?

WhichoftheaboveprobeshasthelongestNearZone?
1MHz
1MHz

5MHz

5MHz

NearZone
2

Near Zone

D f

4V

Thebiggerthediameterthebiggerthenearzone
Thehigherthefrequencythebiggerthenearzone
Thelowerthevelocitythebiggerthenearzone

Shouldlargediametercrystalprobeshaveahighor
lowfrequency?

BeamSpread
Inthefarzonesoundpulsesspreadoutasthey
moveawayfromthecrystal

/2

K
KV
Sine
or
Df
2 D

BeamSpread

K
KV
Sine
or
Df
2 D
Edge,K=1.22
20dB,K=1.08
6dB,K=0.56
Beamaxisor
MainBeam

BeamSpread

K
KV
Sine
or
Df
2 D
Thebiggerthediameterthesmallerthebeam
spread
Thehigherthefrequencythesmallerthebeam
spread
Whichhasthelargerbeamspread,acompressionora
shearwaveprobe?

BeamSpread
Whatisthebeamspreadofa10mm,5MHz
compressionwaveprobeinsteel?

KV
Sine

Df
2
1 . 08 5920

5000 10
0 . 1278

7 . 35

WhichoftheaboveprobeshastheLargestBeamSpread?
1MHz
1MHz

5MHz

5MHz

BeamSpread

K
KV
Sine
or
Df
2 D
Thebiggerthediameterthesmallerthebeam
spread
Thehigherthefrequencythesmallerthebeam
spread
Whichhasthelargerbeamspread,acompressionora
shearwaveprobe?

Testingclosetosidewalls

UltrasonicTestingtechniques
PulseEcho
ThroughTransmission
TransmissionwithReflection

PulseEchoTechnique
Singleprobesendsandreceives
sound
Givesanindicationofdefect
depthanddimensions
Notfailsafe

DefectPosition
B

NoindicationfromdefectA(wrongorientation)

ThroughTransmissionTechnique
Transmittingand
receivingprobeson
oppositesidesofthe
specimen
Presenceofdefect
indicatedbyreduction
intransmissionsignal

Noindicationof
defectlocation
Failsafemethod

Tx

Rx

ThroughTransmissionTechnique
Advantages
Lessattenuation
Noproberinging
Nodeadzone
Orientationdoesnot
matter

Disadvantages
Defectnotlocated
Defectcantbe
identified
Verticaldefectsdont
show
Mustbeautomated
Needaccesstoboth
surfaces

TransmissionwithReflection
T

Alsoknownas:
TandemTechnique or
PitchandCatchTechnique

UltrasonicPulse
Ashortpulseofelectricityisappliedtoapiezo
electriccrystal
Thecrystalbeginstovibrationincreasesto
maximumamplitudeandthendecays
Maximum

10%of
Maximum

Pulselength

PulseLength
Thelongerthepulse,themorepenetrating the
sound
Theshorterthepulsethebetterthesensitivity
andresolution

Shortpulse,1or2cycles

Longpulse12cycles

IdealPulseLength

5cyclesforweldtesting

TheSoundBeam
DeadZone
NearZoneorFresnelZone
FarZoneorFraunhofer Zone

TheSoundBeam
NZ

FZ

Main
Beam

Intensity
varies
ExponentialDecay

Distance

Thesidelobeshasmulti
minutemainbeams
Twoidenticaldefectsmaygive
differentamplitudesofsignals

Near
Zone

SideLobes

Themainbeamorthecentre
beamhasthehighestintensityof
soundenergy
MainLobe

MainBeam

Anyreflectorhitbythemainbeam
willreflectthehighamountof
energy

SoundBeam
NearZone
Thickness
measurement
Detectionofdefects
Sizingoflargedefects
only

FarZone
Thickness
measurement
Defectdetection
Sizingofalldefects

Nearzonelengthassmall aspossible

NearZone
2

Near Zone

V

f
Near Zone

D2 f

4V

NearZone
Whatisthenearzonelengthofa5MHzcompression
probewithacrystaldiameterof10mminsteel?

D2 f
Near Zone
4V
2
10 5 , 000 , 000

4 5 , 920 , 000
21 . 1 mm

NearZone
2

Near Zone

D f

4V

Thebiggerthediameterthebiggerthenearzone
Thehigherthefrequencythebiggerthenearzone
Thelowerthevelocitythebiggerthenearzone

Shouldlargediametercrystalprobeshaveahighor
lowfrequency?

WhichoftheaboveprobeshasthelongestNearZone?
1MHz
1MHz

5MHz

5MHz

NearZone
2

Near Zone

D f

4V

Thebiggerthediameterthebiggerthenearzone
Thehigherthefrequencythebiggerthenearzone
Thelowerthevelocitythebiggerthenearzone

Shouldlargediametercrystalprobeshaveahighor
lowfrequency?

BeamSpread
Inthefarzonesoundpulsesspreadoutasthey
moveawayfromthecrystal

/2

K
KV
Sine
or
Df
2 D

BeamSpread

K
KV
Sine
or
Df
2 D
Edge,K=1.22
20dB,K=1.08
6dB,K=0.56
Beamaxisor
MainBeam

BeamSpread

K
KV
Sine
or
Df
2 D
Thebiggerthediameterthesmallerthebeam
spread
Thehigherthefrequencythesmallerthebeam
spread
Whichhasthelargerbeamspread,acompressionora
shearwaveprobe?

BeamSpread
Whatisthebeamspreadofa10mm,5MHz
compressionwaveprobeinsteel?

KV
Sine

Df
2
1 . 08 5920

5000 10
0 . 1278

7 . 35

WhichoftheaboveprobeshastheLargestBeamSpread?
1MHz
1MHz

5MHz

5MHz

BeamSpread

K
KV
Sine
or
Df
2 D
Thebiggerthediameterthesmallerthebeam
spread
Thehigherthefrequencythesmallerthebeam
spread
Whichhasthelargerbeamspread,acompressionora
shearwaveprobe?

Testingclosetosidewalls

SoundatanInterface
Soundwillbeeithertransmittedacrossor
reflectedback
Reflected

Interface

Transmitted

Howmuchisreflectedand
transmitteddependsuponthe
relativeacousticimpedanceofthe
2materials

ThePhenomenonofSound
REFLECTION
DIFFRACTION

LawofReflection
AngleofIncidence=AngleofReflection

60o

60o

Inclinedincidence(notat90o)
Incident

Transmitted
Thesoundisrefractedduetodifferencesinsound
velocityinthe2DIFFERENTmaterials

REFRACTION
Onlyoccurswhen:
Theincidentangleisotherthan0
30
Water

Steel

Water

Steel

Steel

Steel
Refracted

REFRACTION
Onlyoccurswhen:
Theincidentangleisotherthan0
TheTwoMaterialshasdifferentVELOCITIES

30

30

Steel

Water

Steel

Steel
65
30

NoRefraction

Refracted

SnellsLaw
Normal

Incident

Material2

Material1

Refracted

Sine I
Vel in Material 1

Sine R Vel in Material 2

SnellsLaw
C

Sine I Vel in Material1

Sine R Vel in Material 2

20

Perspex

Sine 20
2730

Sine 48.3 5960

Steel

0 . 4580 0 . 4580

48.3
C

SnellsLaw
C

Sine I Vel in Material1

Sine R Vel in Material 2

15

Sine 15 2730

Sine R 5960

Perspex
Steel
34.4
C

5960
SinR Sin 15
2730

SinR 0 .565
R 34 .4

SnellsLaw
C

20

Perspex
Steel
48.3
C

24
S

SnellsLaw
C

Whenanincidentbeamofsound
approachesaninterfaceoftwodifferent
materials:
REFRACTION occurs

Perspex
Steel

Theremaybemorethanonewaveform
transmittedintothesecondmaterial,
example:CompressionandShear

C
SS

Whenawaveformchangesinto
anotherwaveform:MODE
CHANGE

SnellsLaw
IftheangleofIncidentis
increasedtheangleof
refractionalsoincreases

Perspex
Steel

90

Uptoapointwherethe
CompressionWaveisat90
fromtheNormal
Thishappensatthe
FIRSTCRITICALANGLE

1stCriticalAngle
C 27.4

Compressionwaverefractedat90
degrees

33
S

2ndCriticalAngle
C

57

S(SurfaceWave)
90

Shearwaverefractedat90degrees
Shearwavebecomesasurfacewave

1st Critical Angle Calculation

Sine I
2730

Sine 90 5960

C 27.2

Perspex
C
Steel

Sin 90 1
2730
SinI
5960

SinI 0 .458
I 27 .26

2nd Critical Angle Calculation

C

Sine I
2730

Sine 90 3240

C
57.4
Perspex

Steel

Sin 90 1
2730
SinI
3240

SinI 0 .8425
I 57 .4

Beforethe1st.CriticalAngle:Thereare
bothCompressionandShearwavein
thesecondmaterial

1st.
C

2nd.

AttheFIRSTCRITICALANGLECompression
waverefractedat90
Shearwaveat33degreesinthematerial

90
Beyondthe2nd. Critical
Angle:Allwavesare
reflected outofthe
material.NO waveinthe
material.

SC

33

Between the1st.And2nd.
CriticalAngle:OnlySHEAR
waveinthematerial.
Compressionisreflectedoutof
thematerial.

Atthe2nd.CriticalAngle:Shear is
refractedto90 andbecome
SURFACE wave

Summary
Standard angle probes between 1st and
2nd critical angles (45,60,70)
Stated angle is refracted angle in steel
No angle probe under 35, and more
than 80: to avoid being 2 waves in the
same material.
OneDefectTwoEchoes
C
C
S

SnellsLaw
Calculatethe1stcriticalanglefora
perspex/copperinterface
VCompperspex :2730m/sec
VCompcopper:4700m/sec

2730
SinI
0 . 5808 35 . 5
4700

SoundGeneration
Hammers(Wheeltapers)
Magnetostrictive
Lasers
Piezoelectric

magnetostrictive

PiezoElectricEffect
Whenexposedtoanalternatingcurrentacrystal
expandsandcontracts
Converting electrical energy into mechanical

++

PiezoElectricMaterials
QUARTZ
Resistanttowear
Insolubleinwater
Resistsageing
Inefficientconverterof
energy
Needsarelativelyhigh
voltage
Veryrarelyusednowadays

LITHIUMSULPHATE
Efficientreceiver
Lowelectricalimpedance
Operatesonlowvoltage
Watersoluble
Lowmechanicalstrength
Useableonlyupto30C
Usedmainlyinmedical

PolarizedCrystals
Powdersheatedto
hightemperatures
Pressedintoshape
Cooledinverystrong
electricalfields

Examples
Bariumtitanate (BaTi O3)
Leadmetaniobate
(Pb Nb O6)
Leadzirconate titanate (Pb Ti
O3orPb Zr O3)

Mostoftheprobesforconventionalusageuse

PZT:LeadZirconate Titanate

Probes

Probes
Themostimportantpartofthe
probeisthecrystal
Thecrystalarecuttoaparticular
wayandthicknesstogivethe
intendedproperties
Mostoftheconventionalcrystal
areX cuttoproduce
Compressionwave
Y

Probes
Thefrequencyoftheprobedependsonthe
THICKNESS ofthecrystal
Formulaforfrequency:

Ff =V/2t
Where

Ff =theFundamentalfrequency
V=thevelocityinthecrystal
t=thethicknessofthecrystal
Fundamentalfrequencyisthefrequencyofthematerial(crystal)where
atthatfrequencythematerialwillvibrate.

Probes
TheThinner thecrystaltheHigher thefrequency
WhichofthefollowingshastheThinnestcrystal?
1MHzCompressionprobe
5MHzCompressionprobe
10MHzShearprobe
25MHzShearprobe

25MHzShear
Probe

Probe Design
CompressionProbe
Normalprobe
0

Electrical
connectors

Housing
Damping
Transducer

ProbeDesign
ShearProbe
Angleprobe
Backingmedium

Damping
Transducer
ProbeShoe

Perspexwedge

ProbeDesign
TwinCrystal
Transmitter

Separator/
Insulator

Receiver

Focusing
lens

Advantages
Canbefocused
Measurethinplate
Nearsurfaceresolution
Disadvantages
Difficult to use on
curved surfaces
Sizing small defects
Signal amplitude /
focal spot length

SoundIntensity
Comparingtheintensityof2signals

I 0 P0

I1 P1
Electricalpowerproportionaltothe
squareofthevoltageproduced
2

P0 (V0)
2
P1 (V1)

Hence

I0 (V0)
2
I1 (V1)

SoundIntensity
I0 (V0)2
2
I1 (V1)
Therefore

Willleadtolargeratios
2

I0
(V0)
Log..10 Log..10 2
I1
(V1)

I0
V0
Log..10 2Log..10 BELS
I1
V1
I0
V0
Log..10 20Log..10 dB
I1
V1

2signalsat20%and40%FSH.
WhatisthedifferencebetweenthemindBs?

H0
dB 20Log..10
H1
40
dB 20Log..10 20Log..102
20
dB 20 0.3010

dB 6dB

2signalsat10%and100%FSH.
WhatisthedifferencebetweenthemindBs?

H0
dB 20Log..10
H1
100
dB 20Log..10
20Log..1010
10
dB 20 1

dB 20dB

Amplituderatiosindecibels
2:1 =
4:1 =
5:1 =
10:1
100:1

6bB
12dB
14dB
=
20dB
=
40dB

Automated Inspections
Pulse Echo
Through Transmission
Transmission with Reflection
Contact scanning
Gap scanning
Immersion testing

GapScanning
Probeheldafixeddistanceabove
thesurface(1or2mm)
Couplantisfedintothegap

ImmersionTesting
Componentisplacedinawaterfilledtank
Itemisscannedwithaprobeatafixeddistance
abovethesurface

ImmersionTesting
Waterpath
distance

Frontsurface

Backsurface
Defect

Waterpathdistance

UltrasonicTesting
Sensitivity
Defectsizing
Scanningprocedures

Sensitivity
Theabilityofanultrasonicsystemtofindthe
smallestspecifieddefectatthemaximumtesting
range

Depends upon
Probe and flaw detector combination
Material properties
Probe frequency
Signal to noise ratio

MethodsofSettingSensitivity
Smallestdefectatmaximumtestrange
Backwallecho
Discequivalent
Grasslevels
Notches
SideDrilledHoles,DACCurves

Artificial/actualdefect

Example:Thedefectechoissetto
FSH(FullScreenHeight)

SizingMethods
6dBDrop
Forsizinglargeplanarreflectorsonly
Signal/echoreducedtohalftheheight
Example:
100%to50%
80%to40%
70%to35%
20%to10%
Centreofprobemarkedrepresentingtheedgeofdefect.

6dBDrop
Defect

BWE

Thebackwallechoreducedassomepartofthe
beamnowstrikingthedefect
TheechoofthedefecthasNOTyetmaximiseas
thewholebeamNotyetstrikingthedefect
PlanView

6dBDrop
Defect

Nowthewholebeamisonthedefect
Backwallechoisnowmaybereducedor
disappeared

PlanView

6dBDrop
Defect

BWE

Theprobeismovedbackuntiltheechois
reducedbyhalfofitsoriginalheight
Atthispointtheprobecentrebeamisdirectly
ontheedgeofthedefect
PlanView

Theprobeisthenremovedandthecentreis
marked,andrepeattosizethewholedefect

SizingMethod
MaximumAmplitudeTechnique
Forsizingmultifaceteddefect eg.crack
Notveryaccurate
Smallprobemovement

MaximumAmplitude

Multifaceteddefect:crack

Thewholeprobebeamisontheonthe
defect
Atthispoint,multipointofthedefectreflect
thesoundtotheprobe
Theecho(signal)showasafewpeaks

MaximumAmplitude

Multifaceteddefect:crack
Theprobeismovedoutofthe
defect,thesignaldisappeared
Iftheedgeofthebeamstrikethe
edgeofthedefect,averysmall
echoappears

Iftheprobeismovedintothedefect,
thesignalsheightincrease
Oneofthepeakmaximised
AtthispointtheMAINBEAMis
directlyattheedgeofthedefect

MaximumAmplitude

Remember:Thepeakwhichmaximiseddoesnot
havetobethetallestorthefirstone

Length

Theprobeistobemovedtotheotherend
ofthedefect
Thesignalswillflactuateasthebeamhitsthe
differentfacesofthedefects
Theprobeismovedbackintothedefectand
toobserveapeakofthesignalmaximises

Markthepointunderthe
centreoftheprobe
whichindicatestheedge
ofthedefect
Thelengthofthedefectis
measured

EqualizationTechnique

TheequalizationtechniquecanONLYbeusedifthe
defectishalfwaythethickness
Defect

BWE

Atthispointthewholebeamisonthe TheBWEisatitmaximum
backwall
Atthispointthewholebeamison
thedefect
Attheedgeofthedefect,halfof
thebeamisonthedefect,and
anotherhalfisonthebackwall

TheDefectechoisatit
maximum
Thedefectechoisatequal
heightasthebackwall
Thepointismarkedastheedgeofdefect

20dBDrop
Defect

BWE

20dBBeamprofile
10%

Whenthemainbeamisonthedefectthedefectsignalisatitmaximum
Iftheprobeismovedandthesignalisobserveduntilitisreducedto10%
(20dBDrop),theedgeofthebeamisontheedgeofthedefect
Repeattheaboveattheothersideofthedefect
UsingthepreconstructedBeamprofileandaplottingcard,thedefect
maybesized

ProductTechnology
Welding

AWeld:Definitions
Aunionbetween
Acontinuousdefect
piecesofmetalatfaces surroundedbyparent
renderedplasticor
material
liquidbyheat,pressure
NASA
orboth.
BS499

Welds
Anidealweldmustgiveastrongbondbetween
materialswiththeinterfacesdisappearing

Toachievethis
Smooth,flatormatchingsurfaces
Surfacesshallbefreefromcontaminants
Metalsshallbefreefromimpurities
Metalsshallhaveidenticalcrystallinestructures

Welding
A union between pieces of metal at faces
rendered plastic or liquid by heat,pressure or
both.
BS 499
Possible energy sources

Ultrasonics
Electron beam
Friction
Electric resistance
Electric arc

ElectricArcWelding
Electrode
Power
supply
Workpiece
Clamp(Earth)

ElectricArcWelding
Electricdischargeproducedbetweencathodeandanodeby
apotentialdifference(40to60volts)
Dischargeionisesairandproducesveelectronsand+ve
ions
Electronsimpactuponanode,ionsuponcathode
Impactofparticlesconvertskineticenergytoheat(7000o C)
andlight
Amperagecontrolsnumberofionsandelectrons,Voltage
controlstheirvelocity

ElectricArcWelding
ArcWeldingProcesses
Manualmetalarc
TungstenInertGas
MetalInertGas
SubmergedArc
Differences between them
Methods of shielding the arc
Consumable or Non-consumable electrode
Degree of automation

ZonesinFusionWelds
FusionZone

ZonesinFusionWelds
FusionZone
HeatAffectedZone

ZonesinFusionWelds
FusionZone
HeatAffectedZone
ParentMaterialorBaseMetal

JointDesign
Butt Weld
Corner
Joint

LapJoint

Edge Weld TJoint

ManualMetalArc(MMA)
Consumable
electrode
Fluxcoating
Arc
Evolvedgas
shield
Slag

Corewire

Weldmetal
Parentmetal

ManualMetalArcWelding
Shieldingprovidedby
decompositionofflux
covering
Electrodeconsumable
Manualprocess

Weldercontrols
Arclength
Angleofelectrode
Speedoftravel
Amperagesettings

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)

Gasnozzle
Fillerwire
Nonconsumable
tungsten
electrode
Gasshield
Weldmetal

Arc
Parentmetal

Metal Inert Gas (MIG)

Reelfeed

Gasnozzle

Consumable
electrode(fillerwire)

Gasshield
Weldmetal

Arc
Parentmetal

Submerged Arc
Reelfeed
Flux
retrieval

Consumable
electrode
Fluxfeed

Slag
Weldmetal
Parentmetal

Electroslag
Fillerwire
Watercooled
coppershoes

Molten flux
Weldmetal

WeldingDefects
Cracks

4CrackTypes
Solidificationcracks
Hydrogeninducedcracks
Lamellartearing
Reheatcracks

WeldingDefects
Cracks
ClassifiedbyShape
Longitudinal
Transverse
Branched
Chevron

Classified by Position
HAZ
Centreline
Crater
Fusion zone
Parent metal

WeldingDefects
Cracks
Solidification
Occursduringweldsolidificationprocess
Steelswithhighsulphurcontent(lowductilityat
elevatedtemperature)
Requireshightensilestress
Occurlongitudinallydowncentreofweld
egCratercracking

WeldingDefects
Cracks
HydrogenInduced
Requiressusceptiblegrainstructure,stressandhydrogen
Hydrogenentersviaweldingarc
Hydrogensource atmosphereorcontaminationof
preparationorelectrode
Moisturediffusesoutintoparentmetaloncooling
MostlikelyinHAZ

WeldingDefects
Cracks
LamellarTearing
Steplikeappearance
OccursinparentmaterialorHAZ
Onlyinrolleddirectionoftheparentmaterial
Associatedwithrestrainedjointssubjectedtothrough
thicknessstressesoncorners,teesandfillets
Requireshighsulphurornonmetallicinclusions

WeldingDefects
Cracks
ReHeatCracking
OccursmainlyinHAZoflowalloysteelsduringpostweld
heattreatmentorserviceatelevatedtemperatures
Occursinareasofhighstressandexistingdefects
Preventedbytoegrinding,eliminationofpoorprofile
materialselectionandcontrolledpostweldheat
treatment

WeldingDefects
Incompleterootpenetration

Causes
Toolargeorsmallarootgap
Arctoolong
Wrongpolarity
Electrodetoolargeforjointpreparation
Incorrectelectrodeangle
Toofastaspeedoftravelforcurrent

WeldingDefects
Rootconcavity

Causes
Root gap too large
Insufficient arc energy
Excessive back purge (TIG)

WeldingDefects
Lackoffusion

Causes
Contaminated weld preparation
Amperage too low
Amperage too high (welder increases speed of
travel)

WeldingDefects
Undercut

Causes
Excessive welding current
Welding speed too high
Incorrect electrode angle
Excessive weave
Electrode too large

WeldingDefects
IncompletelyFilledGroove

Causes
Insufficient weld metal deposited
Improper welding technique

WeldingDefects
Gaspores/Porosity

Causes
Excessive moisture in flux or preparation
Contaminated preparation
Low welding current
Arc length too long
Damaged electrode flux
Removal of gas shield

WeldingDefects
Inclusions Slag

Causes
Insufficient cleaning between passes
Contaminated weld preparation
Welding over irregular profile
Incorrect welding speed
Arc length too long

WeldingDefects
Inclusions Tungsten

Causes
Contamination of weld during TIG welding
process

WeldingDefects
BurnThrough

Causes
Excessive amperage during welding of root
Excessive root grinding
Improper welding technique

WeldingDefects
ArcStrikes

Spatter

Causes
Electrode straying onto
parent metal
Electrode holder with
poor insulation
Poor contact of earth
clamp

Causes
Excessive arc energy
Excessive arc length
Damp electrodes
Arc blow

NatureandOriginofDefects
Inherent
Processing
InService

HeatInducedDefects
Heattreatmentcracks
Grindingcracks
Frictioninducedcracks

InServiceCracks
Cyclicstress

Fatiguecracks
Stresscorrosioncracks
Hydrogeninducedcracks

Fatique
crack

Hydrogen

ProductTechnology
SteelProduction
Casting

WroughtProduction
Extrusion
Forging
Rolling

Defects

Inherent
Processing
Service

HeatTreatment

Welding