Chapter 06

Lecture and
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Chapter 6-Skeletal System

Functions
1. Support
2. Protect
3. Movement
4. Storage
5. Blood cell production

Components of Skeletal System

Bone

Cartilage:
reduce friction and model for bone formation

Tendons:
attach bone to muscle

Ligaments:
attach bone to bone

Background Information
Bones, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments are
connective tissues.
Proteoglycans:
- large polysaccharides attached to proteins
- part of ground substance
- store water

 Bones extracellular matrix is collagen and

minerals (flexible and able to bear weight)
Cartilages extracellular matrix is collagen and
proteoglycans (good shock absorber)
Tendons and ligaments extracellular matrix is
collagen (very tough)

Classification of Bones
Based on shape:
long, short, flat, irregular
Type of bone tissue:
compact and spongy (cancellous)

Bone Shapes
Long:
- Ex. Femur, tibia, fibula
Short:
Ex. Carpals, tarsals,
phlanges

Flat:
Ex. Ribs, sternum, skull

Irregular:
Ex. Vertebrae and facial

Long Bone Structures

Diaphysis:
shaft
compact bone
tissue (on outside)
Epiphysis:
ends
spongy bone tissue
Articular cartilage:
- covers epiphyses
- reduces friction

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Articular cartilage
Epiphysis
Epiphyseal plates
in juveniles

Spongy bone
Compact bone
Medullary cavity (contains
red marrow in juveniles and
yellow marrow in adults)

Diaphysis

Periosteum
Endosteum

Young bone
(a)

 Epiphyseal plate:
site of growth
between diaphysis
and epiphysis

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Articular cartilage
Epiphysis

Epiphyseal lines
in adults
Spongy bone
Compact bone

Medullary cavity:
center of diaphysis
red or yellow
marrow

Medullary cavity (contains

red marrow in juveniles and
yellow marrow in adults)

Diaphysis

Periosteum
Endosteum

Adult bone
(b)

 Periosteum:
membrane around
bones outer surface

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Articular cartilage
Epiphysis
Epiphyseal plates
in juveniles

Spongy bone

Endosteum:
membrane that lines
medullary cavity

Compact bone
Medullary cavity (contains
red marrow in juveniles and
yellow marrow in adults)

Diaphysis

Periosteum
Endosteum

Young bone
(a)

10

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Articular cartilage
Epiphysis
Epiphyseal plates
in juveniles
Epiphyseal lines
in adults
Spongy bone
Compact bone
Medullary cavity (contains
red marrow in juveniles and
yellow marrow in adults)

Diaphysis

Diaphysis

Periosteum
Endosteum

Young bone
Adult bone
(a)

(b)

Osteons
(haversian systems)

Endosteum

Inner
layer
Periosteum
Outer
layer

Compact bone

Central canals
Spongy bone
with trabeculae

Connecting vessels

11

Medullary
cavity

(c)

Adult bone

Compact Bone Tissue

Location:
outer part of diaphysis (long
bones) and thinner surfaces
of other bones

Osteon:
- structural unit of compact
bone
- includes lamella, lacunae,
canaliculus, central canal,
osteocytes

Lamella:
rings of bone matrix

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Osteons
(haversian systems)
Endosteum

Inner
layer
Periosteum
Outer
layer
Compact bone

Central canals
Spongy bone
with trabeculae

Connecting vessels
Medullary
cavity
(c)

Adult bone

12

 Lacunae:
spaces between lamella
Canaliculus:
- tiny canals
- transport nutrients and
remove waste

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Osteons
(haversian systems)
Endosteum

Inner
layer
Periosteum
Outer
layer
Compact bone

Central canals

Central canal:
- center of osteon
- contains blood vessels

Spongy bone
with trabeculae

Connecting vessels
Medullary
cavity
(c)

Adult bone

13

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Osteon

Concentric rings
of lamellae
Central canal

Osteon

Lamellae on
surface of bone
Lamellae
between osteons
Periosteum
Blood vessel within
the periosteum
Blood vessels
connecting to
a central canal
Blood vessels
within a central
(Haversian) canal
Canaliculi

LM 400x

(a)

Canaliculi
Lacunae

(b)
Blood vessel
connecting to
a central canal
between osteons
a: Trent Stephens

Osteocytes in
lacunae

Spongy Bone Tissue

Cancellous bone
Location: epiphyses of long bones and center of other bones
Trabeculae: interconnecting rods, spaces contain marrow
No osteons

15

Bone Cells
Osteocytes:
maintain bone matrix
Osteoblasts:
build bone
Osteoclasts:
carve bone
16

Bone Formation
Ossification:
process of bone formation (occurs in utero)
Osteoblasts role:
- build bone
- after an osteoblast becomes surrounded by bone
matrix it becomes an osteocyte

17

 Ossification center:
where bone formation begins
Primary ossification center:
- where bone 1st begins to appear
- forms diaphyses
Secondary ossification center:
forms epiphyses
18

Intramembranous Ossification
Bone formation within connective tissue
membranes
Osteoblasts build bone
Ex. Skull bones

19

Endochondral Ossification
Bone formation inside cartilage
Cartilage models are replaced by bone
Ex. All bones (except skull)

21

Steps in Endochondral Ossification

1. Chondroblasts build a cartilage model, the
chrondroblasts become chondrocytes.
2. Cartilage model calcifies (hardens).
3. Osteoblasts invade calcified cartilage and a
primary ossification center forms diaphysis.
4. Secondary ossification centers form epiphysis.
5. Original cartilage model is almost completely
ossified and remaining cartilage is articular
cartilage.
22

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Femur
Patella
Epiphysis
Epiphyseal
plate
Diaphysis
(a)
Length of bone
increases.

1
Epiphyseal
plate

Chondrocytes
divide and enlarge.

2
3
Calcified cartilage
is replaced by bone.

Bone of
diaphysis
(b)

Epiphyseal side

1 New cartilage is
produced on
Thickness of
the epiphyseal side
epiphyseal
of the plate as the
plate remains
chondrocytes divide
unchanged.
and form stacks
of cells.
2 Chondrocytes
mature and
Bone is
enlarge.
added to
diaphysis.
3 Matrix is calcified,
and chondrocytes
die.
4 The cartilage on
the diaphyseal side
of the plate is
replaced by bone.

3
4
LM 400x

Diaphyseal side
(c)

(a): Ed Reschke/Peter Arnold, Inc./ Photolibrary.com; (c): Bio-Photo Assocs/Photo Researchers, Inc.

24

Bone Growth
Infancy and youth:
- long bones lengthen at epiphyseal plate
- long bones widen by adding more lamella
End of bone growth (in length):
epiphyseal plate is replaced by an epiphyseal line

25

Figure
6.2b

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Bone Remodeling
What is it?
- removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and
deposition of new bone by osteoblasts
- occurs in all bones
- responsible for changes in bone shape, bone
repair, adjustment of bone to stress, and
calcium ion regulation
28

Bone Repair
1. Broken bone causes bleeding and a blood clot
forms.
2. Callus forms which is a fibrous network between
2 fragments.
3. Cartilage model forms first then, osteoblasts
enter the callus and form cancellous bone this
continues for 4-6 weeks after injury.
4. Cancellous bone is slowly remodeled to form
compact and cancellous bone.
29

Bone and Calcium Homeostasis

Bone is a major storage site for calcium
Movement of calcium in and out of bone helps
determine blood levels of calcium
Calcium moves into bone as osteoblasts build
new bone
Calcium move out of bone as osteoclasts break
down bone
Calcium homeostasis is maintained by
parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin
31

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Decreased
blood Ca2+

Increased
blood Ca2+

Posterior aspect
of thyroid gland

Kidney

Parathyroid
glands

1 Decreased blood Ca2+ stimulates PTH

secretion from parathyroid glands.

Thyroid gland

2 PTH stimulates osteoclasts to break down

bone and release Ca2+ into the blood.
3 In the kidneys, PTH increases Ca 2+
reabsorption from the urine. PTH also
stimulates active Vitamin D formation.

PTH
2
Stimulates
osteoclasts

Vitamin D

Bone
Osteoclasts
promote Ca2+
Ca2+
uptake from
bone.

Calcitonin
6
Inhibits
osteoclasts

4 Vitamin D promotes Ca2+ absorption from

the small intestine into the blood.
5 Increased blood Ca2+ stimulates calcitonin
secretion from the thyroid gland.
6 Calcitonin inhibits osteoclasts, which
allows for enhanced osteoblast uptake of
Ca2+ from the blood to deposit into bone.

Osteoblasts promote
Ca2+ deposition in bone.

Small intestine
Ca2+

Blood

Hematopoietic Tissue
What is it?
tissue that makes blood cells
Red marrow:
location of blood forming cells
Yellow marrow:
mostly fat
33

 Location of hematopoietic tissue in newborns:

most bones (red marrow)

Location of hematopoietic tissue in adults:

- red is replaced with yellow marrow
- red marrow is mainly in epiphyses of femur
and humerus

34

Bone Anatomy

Foramen:
- hole
- Ex. Foramen magnum
Fossa:
- depression
- Ex. Glenoid fossa
Process:
- projection
- Ex. Mastoid process

35

 Condyle:
- smooth, rounded end
- Ex. Occipital condyle
Meatus:
- canal-like passageway
- Ex. External auditory meatus
Tubercle:
- lump of bone
- Ex. Greater tubercle
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37

Axial Skeleton
Mastoid process:
attached to neck muscles
External auditory meatus:
ear canal
Nasolacrimal canal:
- canal between nasal cavity and eye
- conducts tears
38

 Styloid process:
attachment site for tongue
Mandibular fossa:
depression where lower jaw and skull
meet
Glenoid fossa:
where humerus meets scapula
39

 Hard palate:
roof of mouth

Foramen magnum:
hole where spinal cord joins brainstem

40

 Zygomatic:
cheek bone
Mandible:
lower jaw
Maxilla:
upper jaw
41

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Incisive fossa
Maxilla
Palatine process of maxillary bone
Horizontal plate of palatine bone

Inferior orbital fissure

Zygomatic bone
Sphenoid bone

Vomer

Foramen ovale
Foramen spinosum

Styloid process
Mandibular fossa

External auditory canal

Jugular foramen

Carotid canal

Occipital condyle

Mastoid process

Foramen magnum

Temporal bone

Occipital bone

Nuchal lines

Inferior view

45

Hard
palate

Vertebral Column

7 cervical vertebra
12 thoracic vertebra
5 lumbar vertebra
1 sacrum
1 coccyx
Atlas:
- 1st vertebra
- holds head
Axis:
- 2nd vertebra
- rotates head
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Functions of Vertebral Column

Support
Protect spinal cord
Movement

50

Thoracic Cage
Protects vital organs
12 pair of ribs
Sternum:
breastbone
True ribs:
attach directly to sternum by cartilage
False ribs:
attach indirectly to sternum by cartilage
Floating ribs:
not attached to sternum

51

Pectoral Girdle
Scapula:
shoulder blade
Clavicle:
collar bone

53

Upper Limb Bones

Humerus:
upper limb
Ulna:
forearm
Radius:
forearm
Carpals:
wrist
Metacarpals:
hand

55

Pelvic Girdle
Where lower limbs attach to body
Pelvis:
includes pelvic girdle and coccyx
Ischium:
inferior and posterior region
Ilium:
most superior region
Acetabulum:
hip socket (joint)

60

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Iliac crest
Articular surface
(area of
articulation
with sacrum)

Ilium
Iliac fossa

Pelvic brim

Greater
sciatic notch

Acetabulum

Ischium

Greater
sciatic notch

Pubis

Ischial spine

Ischial spine
Ischium

Pubic symphysis
Obturator foramen

Ischial tuberosity
(a)

Lateral view

(b)

Medial view

64

Lower Limb Bones

Femur:
thigh
Patella:
knee cap
Tibia:
large lower leg
Fibula:
small lower leg
65

 Tarsals:
ankle
Metatarsals:
foot
Phalanges:
toes and fingers

66

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Head

Head

Greater trochanter

Greater trochanter

Neck

Neck
Lesser trochanter

Linea aspera

Body (shaft) of femur

Medial
epicondyle
Lateral epicondyle
Intercondylar fossa

Lateral epicondyle

Patellar groove
(a)

(b)

Lateral condyle

Medial
condyle
Anterior view

Posterior view

Anterior
surface

68
Anterior view

71

Articulations
What are they?
where 2 bones come together (joint)
Synarthrosis:
- nonmovable joint
- Ex. skull
Amphiarthrosis:
- slightly movable joint
- Ex. Between vertebrae
Diarthrosis:
- freely movable joint
- Ex. knee, elbow, wrist

72

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Parietal
bone
Frontal
bone

Squamous
suture

Coronal
suture

Occipital
bone
Lambdoid
suture
Mastoid (posterolateral)
fontanel

Sphenoidal
(anterolateral)
fontanel
Temporal bone

(a)

Lateral view

Frontal bones
(not yet fused
into a single
bone)

Frontal
(anterior)
fontanel

Parietal
bone

Sagittal
suture

Occipital
(posterior)
fontanel

Occipital
bone
(b)

Superior view

73

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Bone

Synovial membrane
Blood vessel
Nerve

Fibrous part of joint

capsule

Joint
capsule

Bursa

Joint cavity (filled

with synovial fluid)
Articular
cartilage

Tendon
sheath
Tendon

Outer layer

Bone

Inner layer

Periosteum

74

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Class and Example
of Joint

Structures Joined

Movement

Plane
Acromioclavicular
Carpometacarpal

Acromion process of
scapula and clavicle
Carpals and metacarpals
25

Slight
Multiple axes as
a group
Slight
Slight
Slight
Slight
Slight

Costovertebral
Intercarpal
Intermetatarsal
Intertarsal
Intervertebral

Ribs and vertebrae

Between carpal bones
Between metatarsal bones
Between tarsal bones
Between articular processes of
adjacent vertebrae

Sacroiliac

Between sacrum and coxal bone

(complex joint with several
planes and synchondroses)

Slight

Tarsometatarsal

Tarsal bones and metatarsal

bones

Slight

Carpal and metacarpal

of thumb
Between carpal bones
Manubrium of sternum
and clavicle

Two axes

Hinge
Cubital (elbow)
Knee
Interphalangeal
Talocrural (ankle)

Humerus, ulna, and radius

Femur and tibia
Between phalanges
Talus, tibia, and fibula

One axis
One axis
One axis
Multiple axes;
one predominates

Pivot
Medial atlantoaxial
Proximal radioulnar
Distal radioulnar

Atlas and axis

Radius and ulna
Radius and ulna

Rotation
Rotation
Rotation

Ball-and-Socket
Coxal (hip)
Humeral (shoulder)

Coxal bone and femur

Scapula and humerus

Multiple axes
Multiple axes

Two axes
Two axes

Metatarsophalangeal (ball of foot)

Atlas and occipital bone

Metacarpal bones and
phalanges
Metatarsal bones and
phalanges

Radiocarpal (wrist)
Temporomandibular

Radius and carpal bones

Mandible and temporal bone

Multiple axes
Multiple axes;
one predominates

Plane

Saddle
Carpometacarpal
pollicis
Intercarpal
Sternoclavicular

Slight
Slight

Saddle

Hinge

Pivot

Ball-and-socket

Ellipsoid
Atlantooccipital
Metacarpophalangeal (knuckles)

Ellipsoid

Two axes

75

Types of Movement

Flexion: bending
Extension: straightening
Abduction: movement away from midline
Adduction: movement toward the midline
Pronation: rotation of the forearm with palms
down
Supination: rotation of the forearm with palms up
Rotation: movement of a structure about the long
axis
76

Effects of Aging on the Skeletal

System and Joints
1. Decrease Collagen Production
2. Loss of Bone Density
3. Degenerative Changes

79

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80