CONCLUSIONS Although the concept of genre has existed since Aristotle's Poetics, over the centuries it has been mostly used as a classification system for literary forms. However, researchers have made contributions to genre theories in the twentieth century as mentioned in Chapter Two. One of those most relevant to scientific texts is Swales’ (1990) Genre Analysis, which provided researchers with an insight and a new perspective to experiment with the genre theories. Thus, the Create A Research Space (CARS) model, presented by Swales, for writing introductions became a popular site of investigation with its application in different disciplines, This model, according to my knowledge, is the widely quoted and researched modet for writing research articles and has been applied by students, (eachers and researchers working in various disciplines for learning, teaching and research purposes. Since the research endeavors in the discipline of Computer science with reference to this century's one of the most popular genre, research article, are scarce, the present research work is an attempt to explore various rhetorical and linguistic patterns of this genre. The study was confined to the part-genre of Introduction and intensively analyzed with reference to CARS model (1994, 2004). The discussions were expanded with the help of the data retrieved through corpus- based techniques. Thus, the present dissertation is an attempt to emend in this model for the characterization of Introduction in the genre of research articles in the field of Computer science. As described earlier, CARS model is based on three moves. In Move 1, the authors justify their choice of phenomena for intensive study whereas, in Move 2, ‘the authors point out that the knowledge about the phenomena that they have chosen is incomplete’ (Lewin ef al, 2001), or defective in some way, The third Move is about the declaration of the investigation carried out and how it would fill the gap. At this point it is significant to report that for the present study, move analysis was done at discoursal level. Moves were seen as discourse units that convey communicative intent, rather than structural units such as the clause, sentence or other lexico- 215grammatical criteria. This approach is in sharp contrast to Antmover, the software designed by Lawrence Anthony that works at sentence level and considers structural units for the demarcation of moves. Despite the fact that the present work is heavily dependent on the computer and corpus-based techniques, we have a long way to go before machines can make decisions at discoursal level. I am in complete agreement with Swales” (forthcoming) new definition of ‘move’, mentioned briefly somewhere earlier as well: Move in genre analysis is a discoursal or rhetorical unit that performs a coherent communicative function in a written or spoken discourse. Although it has sometimes been aligned with a grammatical unit such as a sentence, utterance or paragraph (e.g. Crooks, 1986), it is better seen as flexible in terms of its linguistic realization. At one extreme, it can be realized by a clause; at the other by several sentences. It is a functional not a formal unit. (Swales, forthcoming) Dictates of the genre become embellished with more personal rhetorical agendas of the author as Lewin et al. (2001) opine. More than the numbers shown in Table 8.1 below, it was interesting to get some expected and some totally unexpected and surprising ways in which the authors of CS research articles had made use of these rhetorical moves while taking care of their personal agendas at the same time. For instance, Move 1, step 6 despite having 92.85 % occurrence rate did not exist as a separate step most of the time. It was embedded in Move 1, step a., Move 2, Move 3, step a., step c. and step d. Citations in fact can occur throughout the introduction ‘as a result, literature review statements are no longer always separable elements, in either placement or in function and so can no longer be automatically used as signals for independent moves as part of a move analysis’ (Swales, forthcoming}. Results in percentage of the application of CARS model (1994), on CS RAs Introductions are presented in Table 8.1 on the next page. 216Occurrence in SCSC Move One: Establishing a research territory a. by showing that the genera! research area is important, central, | $9.28 % interesting, problematic, or relevant in some way (optional) b. by introducing and reviewing items of previous research in the | 92.85 % area (obligatory) Move Two: Establishing a niche a, by indicating a gap 64% Move Three: Occupying the niche a. by oullining purpose or stating the nature of the present 98.21% research (obligatory) ’. by listing research questions or hypotheses (PISF) 32.14% ©. by announcing principal findings (PISF) 2% d. by Stating the value of the present research (PISF) 35.35% e. by indicating the structure of the RP (PISF) 85.71% Table.8.1. CARS model applied to CS RAs Introductions in SCS Corpus Secondly, gap statements are not merely an equivalent of ‘problem’ of the situation- problem-response model. Computer scientists use a variety of ways to establish gaps, from simple to complex, ftom creating a rationale to the extension of the previous work and from contrastive statements to reported gap statements. An important finding about these is their recurrence ranging between two to seven times in one introduction. Move 2 occurred 25.89 % in the first quarter, 29.46 % in the second quarter and 41.96 % in the third quarter of the Introductions, as shown in Chapter Six. So the cyclicity of Move 2 is not restricted to Move ! but also extends to Move 3. Next, Computer scientists perceive the ‘nature of the present research’ in a descriptive form much more than writing in ‘purposive’ form. Sometimes these descriptions tend to be fairly long and also include information about the method (s) and techniques (s) used. Descriptions of the methods can also include justifications for their use or comparison with others. 27The results of the present study showed the lowest percentage (32.14 %) of the occurrences of the listing research questions or hypotheses step in the SCS corpus, which, is a clear indication of the authors’ lack of interest and need to list questions. Instead of research questions or hypotheses, they use the word assumptions. However, the figure of the occurrences is not too low to make this step redundant from the model. Nevertheless, this step could be incorporated in step a. of Move 3 so that authors writing about the declaration of the present research may write about hypotheses/researcli questions/assumptions, implicitly or explicitly, if the need be, Another significant finding of the present study is the Computer scientists’ bold and clear announcements of their principal findings, which they prefer to call ‘contributions’ to the field, Moreover, they do not shy away from taking the credit of their work by writing how ‘novel’, ‘effective’, ‘efficient’ their work is. It seems like inviting a person to the podium te make a speech, twice; first, to ask him about his performance and secondly. to ask him to tell how good that performance was. In my opinion, both the purposes can be achieved in one appearance, Hence, goes the suggestion to combine the step of announcing principal findings and stating the value of the present research, the former as an obligatory step and latter as an optional part of this step, Lastly, outlining structure step, introduced, as an option in CARS model seems close to obligatory in Computer science. An adherence to a rather monotonous step does not come in the way of this road- mapping factor to assign it an obligatory status, Pedagogy though would require some inclusion of a section on stylistic variation. 218Suggested Model for CS RAs Introductions Thus based on the findings of this study as discussed in Chapters Five, Six and Seven; and the salient points discussed above, I would like to suggest a modified CARS model of writing Introductions of the research articles in Computer science. Move One: Establishing a research territory (citations required) by introducing the research area by showing its importance, centrality, relevance, challenging nature (obligatory) Move Two: Establishing a niche (citations possible) by indicating a gap (obligatory) Move Three: Occupying the niche (citations possible) a. by announcing the nature (purpose, methods, techniques) of the present research (obligatory). May include research questions/hypotheses/assumiptions b. by announcing principal findings (obligatory). May include value of the present research. c. by indicating the structure of the RA (obligatory) Figure. 8,1. Suggested CARS model for writing CS RAs Introduetions 219What's Coming Next? After the success of Genre Analysis, Swales (forthcoming) is ready to create some new vibrations in the world of genre. Whereas, Genre Analysis triggered numerous publications (research and pedagogy), on the other hand, in Swales’ (forthcoming) own words, ‘the very interest in genre in the allied fields of composition research, rhetorical studies, business and technical communication, applied discourse analysis, and English for specific purposes has at the same time, problematized the concept’ of genre. Thus, Research Genres, in simple words is a response to the problematizing genre concepts and along with other things presents the research article with a new perspective. Accordingly, the CARS model also undergoes a scrutiny and revision, and comes out polished with Swales’ ingenuity. “The ecological competition for research space’ metaphor, takes new shape; status of the ‘move’ is reconsidered; cyclical nature of Move 2 is granted acceptance, citations are relieved of the binding within a ‘step’. The new Move | and Move 2 look like this: toe — ee ee Move t Establishing a Territory (citations required) t via Topic generalizations of increasing specificity + dl - Move 2 Establishing a Niche (citations required) t Via [Possible Recycling of increasingly specific topics] tT Step 1 A Indicating a gap or 2 3 tT Step 1 B Adding to what is known Step 2 (optional) Presenting positive justification Figure. 8.2. Move | and Move 2 of revised CARS (forthcoming) Revised Move 3 (forthcoming) is given in the following section, 220Present Study and Revised CARS At this point it would be useful and relevant to compare and contrast the findings of the present study with the revised CARS model. Before doing that, I would like to add that M2, step 1B of this model, ‘Adding to what is known’ seems quite a generic statement and can easily be mistaken with M3, step a of announcing present research because announcement of the present research itself seems addition to what is known. The concept of moving from known — unknown may lead into two moves only [Move 1 + (move 2 and/or move 3)}. ‘The revised CARS model (Swales, forthcoming), ‘takes on board the potential ‘cycling’ or iteration of Move { and Move 2 sequences that many investigators have found to be prevalent, especially in longer introductions’. However, in CS RAs Introductions, this cyclicity extends to Move 3 also, so we may have patterns like: * Move 1 Move 2 Move 3 * Move 2 Movel — Move 3 * Move 1 Move 3~ Move 2 > Move 3 This gives a broader and flexible cycling to the writers of Computer Science articles, in comparison to revised CARS that involves only the first two options. One example of the third option of the cyclical nature of Move 2 is given here: Example: * For the most part, these efforts have been limited to improvements in efficiency and accuracy for time varying signals as well as geometrically produced images. (Move 2). We expand upon this body of work by adding our suboptimal fractal dimension estimator, which is extensible to any arbitrary L dimension space. Within this paper, however, we focus on texture images with a known fractal dimension... (Move 3), Although most commonly used fractal dimension approximation methods run very efficiently [2], [6], [10], [14], the actual 221estimates for these algorithms suffer from differing amounts of inaccuracies. (Move 2). Due to these inaccuracies, we decided to develop a new way of estimating the fractal dimension that is much closer to the definition of the box dimension than is the commonly implemented via the box counting algorithm. (Move 3). (INTR 13) Another example from another CS RA introduction is given here, Example: © The first two kinds of analyses, shape-ftom-brightness and reflectance-from- brightness, have been intensively studied using the shape from shading method [10], [12], (11), {24}, as well as through reflectance analysis research [13], [22], (71, (1), [15], (18), [30], (35). (Move 1). In contrast, relatively limited amounts of research have been conducted in the third area, illumination-from-brightness. (Move 2). .... In this study, we present a method for recovering an illumination distribution of a scene from image brightness observed on an odject surface in that scene..... (Move 3). However, shadows have been used for determining the 3D shapes and orientations of an object which casts shadows onto the scene [19], [16], [32], [3], while very few studies have focused on the ilfuminant information which shadows could provide. (Move 2), In our method, image brightness inside shadows is effectively used for providing distinct clues to estimate an illumination distribution. (Move 3) So the suggested (emended) model for writing Introductions in CS RAs, as shown, in Figure 8.1, caters for this flexibility of Move 2 between Move | and Move 3. ‘Move Three of Swales latest model (forthcoming) has seven steps as follows: 1. (obligatory) Announcing present research descriptively and/or purposively 2. (optional) Presenting RQs or hypotheses 3. (optional) Definition clarifications 4. (optional) Summarizing methods 5. (PISF**) Announcing principal outcomes 2226. (PISF) Stating the value of the present research 7. (PISF) Outlining structure of the paper *Steps 2-4 are not only optional but less fixed in their order of occurrence than the others ** Probable in some fields, but unlikely in others Figure, 8.3, Move 3 of revised CARS (forthcoming) Move Three, Step 1, 2, 5,6 and 7 are the same as in the (1994, 2004) model, except for steps 3 and 4, As was discussed in Chapter Five of this dissertation, Computer scientists use definitions and descriptions of the methods and CARS model was criticized for not catering for methodology. The revised CARS model (forthcoming) introduces two new steps ‘definition clarifications’ and summarizing methods’. ‘The present research has shown that Computer scientist talk a lot about their techniques and the methods applied and or designed; and for this purpose they make use of definitions and descriptions, However, it was also found that these do not stand on their own, instead they are embedded within moves and/or steps. Mostly, the authors use these devices for Move 1, a. and Move 3, step a & c. For example, definition in the following example is used for Move |, step a. Example: * AN ad hoc network is a class of wireless systems that consists of independent mobile nodes communicating with each other over wireless links, without any static infrastructure such as base station. (INTR 07) Similarly, summarization of the method in the Introduction may be a good idea for many disciplines such as linguistics, sociology and many other soft and hard sciences but in a discipline like Computer science, the purpose of the research itself could be development of a new method, design or a technique. In this case, the suggestion to summarize 223methods would seem inappropriate. Hence, eliminating the need to have definition clarifications and summarizing methods as separate steps. Example: « In this study, we present a method for recovering an illumination distribution of a scene from image brightness observed on an object surface in that area, (Move 3, a.). (INTR 15) © This paper studies a new query-answering method based on the inclusion exclusion principle and provides a systematic characterization and empirical evaluation of the performance ... (Move 3, a.). (INTR 59). © We have developed a method to generate random, and ad hoc network graphs for simulation purposes. Our results show that for small multicast group sizes, our core selection method can result in ...(Move 3, ¢.). (INTR 37). © In this paper, we present a simple and efficient heuristic method to address the MRIS problem, (Move 3, a + 4). (INTR 01). In consideration of the findings of this work, these two newly introduced steps in CARS have not been included in the emended model for Computer science introductions emerged from the findings of the current investigation. Moreover, if clarifications of definitions are to be accommodated in a separate step, we might soon have to create spaces for exemplifications, descriptions, comparisons and cause and effect relationships. These, in my opinion, are important text-types and should be included in the pedagogical guidelines, rather than the model itself. The pedagogical relevance of the present study is given in the following pages. 224PEDAGOGICAL RELEVANCE Introduction The pedagogical implications of rhetorical conventions of writing research articles introductions include many areas to be addressed. One of these is the genre awareness introduced in I of this chapter followed by a recommendation for an interdisciplinary approach to be adopted by EAP textbook writers. Corpus-based pedagogy can provide innovative ways to deal with language, relieves the teacher of the fallacy of being ‘know- all’ and leads students to self empowerment. This point has been made in III, while Section [V deals with the implications of the present study in ESP teaching. Then a detailed account of the linguistic patterns emerged from the present research, with pedagogical notes is given in Section V The following section deals with the writing skills needed by the Computer scientists. In the end, some sample exercises and activities are suggested. I. Genre Awareness An important pedagogical consideration for the university students of all disciplines, is to have an awareness of the norms, traditions and communicative purposes of the genre in which they intend working. An effective language learning strategy is ‘to become familiar with the genres of discourse, their conventional structure, and the norms of how and by whom they are used in the context of the surrounding community’ (Wennerstrom, 2003:10), However, over-prescription in the use of genre analytical tools in ESP teaching has many perils, as wamed by Dudley-Evans (1998: 9-10). However, ESP teaching informed by genre analysis research can explore rhetorical peculiarities of different areas and thus can facilitate the researchers’ access to the international scientific and technological debate, now a days massively disseminated in English (Motta-Roth ef al, 1998). 225An important factor in raising genre awareness is differentiation of various genres within the same field because usually for students it is easier to identify the differences across disciplines rather than recognizing differences amongst different genres of the same field. For instance, Posteguillo (1995) found distinct schematic structures and different rhetorical and linguistic choices, across genres when he studied various genres within the field of CS (research articles, popular articles, byte-type articles). Similarly, research articles and popular articles in medicine (Nwogu, 1990, 1991) and biology (Myers, 1990), have clear linguistic and rhetorical distinctions. It would be mere complacency if students or/and instructors thought that knowing and understanding the differences across important genres required within their discourse community was enough, as the distinctions among the part genres of the same genre also need to be learnt and taught to be able to be a proficient writer and speaker of any particular genre. For instance, Dudley-Evans (1995) showed that Swales CARS model did not fit well on the discussion sections of the research articles as it did on the introductions. IL. Interdisciplinary Approach in EAP Handbooks Scholars such as Swales (1981ab, 1983, 1984, 1987, 1990, forthcoming) and Dudley- Evans (1987, 1999) believe in generic difference awareness as an effective tool for practitioners and suggest its incorporation in teaching situations. Severa] handbooks have been written for teaching writing research articles such as Martin, (1989); Oshima and Hoghe, (1992); Gibaldi and Achtert, {988; Weissberg and Buker, (1990); Booth, (1993); ‘Swales and Feak, (1994, 2004), Disciplinary differences can ‘influence the teaching and learning of academic discourse within the university level academic programmes especially those which rely heavily on inter-disciplinary and muleidisciplinary perceptions of knowledge” Bhatia (1998:26). One example is of the undergraduate students who have to study other related courses as well, in the first couple of years (¢.g., Computer science students studying physics and 226mathematics). As was argued in the results and discussion chapters of this dissertation, Introductions in the research articles of Computer science are different in several ways from the Introductions of research articles in other fields such those analysed in Hyland corpus. Similarly, Lindeberg (2004:228) shows ‘important differences in disciplinary cultures’ Thus, it is contended that an awareness of interdisciplinary variations should also be raised in pedagogical books such as Swales and Feak (1994, 2004) and Weissberg, and Buker (1990), used for teaching various genres specially research articles so that students could identify differences in different conventions and understand what is different in their field and why. Ill. Corpus-based Pedagogy Corpus-based techniques can aid in the investigations of student writings by keeping a track of the changes/ development in the use of individual linguistic features. Corpus tools can be used to supplement published materials and provide leamers with opportunities to extend their understanding of academic discourse. A vivid example of this is the success story of a corpus-based course, entitled, ‘Exploring your own discourse world’, taught at the University of Michigan by Professor John Swales and David Lee. The classes were arranged in the computer classroom, where the software, WordSmith tools was installed. Access to Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English (MICASE), Hyland corpus of research articles and the British National Corpus was provided. After getting familiar with the use of the WordSmith tools, the students of this class took an active role as language analysts, with the help of the instructors. They tested out the claims made in standard textbooks and grammar books by searching and studying evidence in the three corpora provided to them. They also compared their personal writings turned into small individual corpora, with the professional writing (research papers) in their disciplines. Such activities not only stimulate learners’ interest but also build their confidence in their own abilities ‘to ‘discover’ truths about the structure of language, and to help raise learners’ consciousness not only about the structure of language but also about their own 227linguistic strengths and weaknesses’ (Riggenbach, 1999:47). Mair (2002:121) comments incisively about the student empowerment through corpus-based methods, ‘Corpora empower learners because they provide a means of independently corroborating or disconfirming native judgments, and of determining their scope in cases where two of them are in conflict” IV. Implications for ESP Teaching “Explicit knowledge of the configuration of genres as communicative events can be an asset in materia! writing and course design in that it can offer valuable insight about particular linguistic features that assume special importance in specific genres’ (Motta- Roth ef al, 2003:387). In ESP teaching we should consider how the writers represent the conventions of the discipline and within the discipline to the conventions of various genres. The present findings can help the prospective research article authors to understand the way introductions in Computer science research articles are written. If students become acquainted with the conventions of this part genre, their experiential knowledge already existing in their schemas will be activated. Kachru (1988) argues that the ESP profession can il! afford to ignore cultural and interpretative context if pragmatic success in communication has to be ensured and Bhatia (1993) also discusses the issue by giving examples of differences in the use of English in various nativized contexts. However, in my opinion, in a fairly tightly structured genre such as research article, especially in science, cultural differences remain in the background since the scientific knowledge is shared universally, has different terminology and its own conventions of writing. In addition, the authors of international publications tend to follow the norms of particular journals unconsciously and sometimes consciously molding and adapting their writing accordingly, in the competition to ‘create a research space’. 228a. Relevance to Students or Scholars? Judging on the bases of a corpus from highly reputable journals in the field of Computer science, one is likely to assume that the findings of the study may have immediate usefulness for scholars only and not for undergraduate students. In my opinion, senior scholars can experiment with the genre they are working in, with confidence and sometimes come up with innovative variations, which are accepted by the journal editors with less awe and criticism. In contrast, undergraduate and some graduate students need to have a model to follow and they have to make an effort to create a research space for their works. Thus a model and guidelines based on the findings from a corpus of research papers published in esteemed journals could be used as a useful pedagogical tool. Students can be helped in not only writing introductions but also in understanding the published introductions. Some exercises have been suggested in the last section of this chapter. Teachers may use eclectic approach and use what suits in their particular situations. Nevertheless, a huge amount of work awaits the materials designers. V. Linguistic Patterns Generic patterns commonly intertwined in academic discourse across disciplines are so complex that one needs a system of linguistic analysis which can account for the intricacies and at the same time can be handled easily by a language teacher with minimal training in linguistics (Bhatia, 1998). Students will benefit from the findings of the present study if they are made aware of not only rhetorical moves but also of the linguistic patterns associated with them, Corpus-based techniques, such as the use of WordSmith tools have offered a multitude of new ways of exploring language for learning and teaching purposes. The fotlowing linguistic patterns, dominant in the Introductions of the CS RAs, need pedagogical attention: 229a, Person Pronouns Use and avoidance of person pronouns has been discussed at length, in Chapter Four. Viewing written text as a communicative activity, use of the first person plural pronoun we plays an important role in articulating the authors voice in CS RAs. Unlike textbooks, where inclusive we is used to develop a relationship with the prospective readers; in research articles’ introductions, exclusive we, foregrounds the authors themselves. First person singular pronouns, I, me, my and third person, you, are rarely used, Heavy use of person pronoun we, makes it an important element to be included in the teaching of research article. At the same time, it assumes a pedagogically sensitive issue with the consideration how much of it is good and what makes it excessive. For general awareness, teacher may lead a discussion about the circumstances in which students would prefer the use or avoidance of person pronouns J, me, my, we and our Then they can be given sentences starting with the phrases such as In this paper .. In this paper we .. In this paper I .., This paper to discuss, choose and justify their preferences. b. Verbs The most dominant grammatical item in the SCS Corpus was the use of active and passive voice. The choice to exercise active and passive voice is determined by the use or avoidance of person pronoun as discussed above, and influences the kind of verbs to be used. 230A list of the passive and active verbs from the SCS Corpus is given in the Appendix B. One way to learn them is to compare them with the kind of verbs students use and to discuss what alternatives are available for a particular verb and which ones are better under particular circumstances. One example is of the ELI 630 corpus-based course taught at the university of Michigan where, one of the students gave a presentation about the comparative use of reporting verbs, using corpus of her own writing samples and professional writings. Exercises such as the following can be made based on the authentic introductions. Mark the following sentences as Active or Passive. Underline the active or passive Verbs accordingly. . According to various authors [10], [14], [18], software testing is a labor-intensive and expensive process, which may account for 50 percent of the total project cost. In order to improve on its effectiveness, tasting should be well planned and organized . In particular, the construction of test cases is an important aspect because it affects the scope and, hence, the quality of the process (2), [8], [1]. This inspired various researchers to develop test case construction methods. . Among them, Ostrand and Balcer [17] have developed the category-partition method (CPM). A category is defined as “a major property or characteristic of a parameter or an environment condition.” An example is the “Account Balance” in a typical accounting application. Such categories can easily be identified from the functional specification of a system. . Each category is partitioned into a set of choices, which represent “all the different kinds of values that are possible for the category.” 23110, Examples are “Account Balance _Q” and “Account Balance < 0.” 11. Then, all valid combinations of choices are generated as test frames. 12. Invalid combinations of choices are suppressed via various constraints. 13. Finally, test cases are constructed ftom the generated test frames. 14. Following up on the work of Ostrand and Balcer, several studies on CPM were conducted. 15. For instance, Amla and Ammann [1] and Ammann and Offutt [2] studied the viability of applying the method to Z specifications. 16, Offutt and Irvine [16] investigated the faultdetection effectiveness of CPM when applied to objectoriented programs. 17. Our study of CPM reveals the following problems: 18. All the constraints among choices must be defined manually. 19. This can be ineffective and prone to human errors in real-life situations where there are many such constraints, 20. There is no precise mechanism for checking for consistency among constraints. 21. This may affect the correctness and completeness of the test frames generated. 22. The generator for processing the test specification is meant to be run repeatedly, with additional constraints being imposed in each round, thereby reducing the number of test frames generated, unti) the software tester can afford to run the test cases generated from test frames [17]. 23, Such an approach can be avoided if resource constraints are considered during, rather than after, the test frame generation process. 24. To address these problems, we propose a choice relation framework to support CPM. 25. The rest of this paper is structured as follows: 26. Section 2 outlines the major steps of CPM. 23227, Section 3 is the core of the paper, proposing a choice relation framework for cPM. 28. Section 4 describes the work related to category-partition testing. 29. Finally, Section 5 concludes the paper. ce. Teaching n-grams Another stylistic pattern taught to the undergraduate students, especially non-natives is the use of prevailing three and four word clusters (n-grams). N-grams or collocations as discussed in Chapter Four, ‘are characteristic co-occurrence patterns of words’ (Bowker and Pearson 2002:32). In Stubbs (2004) words, ‘thinking of texts ... frequent phrases ... express relations which are essential for understanding connected discourse. So phrases such as ‘on the other hand’ should also be included in the course materials along with an explanation of their uses. In this case, whether it can be used without writing ‘on the first hand’. d. Concordances Linguistic indicators, both at the lexical and phrase level can be taught. Students can be sensitized to the phrases, expressions and lexical items to signal moves and steps so that they can write appropriate and effective introductions suitable to the research in which they are involved. In addition, they also need to be trained to be critical and conscious of these signals while reading texts, Concordances of phrases can be associated with certain rhetorical functions of the moves and steps such as: this paper with aims/goals/objectives/claims; welour/findings/results with claims, boosts and announcements of principal findings, effective/efficient/suecessful with value of the present research 233as has been shown and exemplified in Chapters 5, 6 & 7. The actual concordances can be used in the EAP/ESP classroom not only to show their rhetorical relationship with moves but also to discuss stylistic variations. Some useful phrases for the realization of moves are: Move One Ithas become a common phenomena ... There are many ... Recently there has been wide interest in In recent years ... s+ is a classic/ challenging problemy issue The well-known phenomenon/ technique/ method ... has been a favorite topic for/of ... --.. has great importance... «+. has been extensively studied/ researched/ investigated by ... «can be defined as ... . is well known .. A standard procedure/ method/ technique for ... Handling Previous Research (adapted from Swales, 1987) * Choice of reporting verb (describe, argue, claim, show etc.) © Cohesion and coherence in literature reporting 1. A further study that bears upon this question is... 2. Additional evidence in support of ... is provided by... 3. Somewhat different conclusions were reached by .. » Self-citations 1. Our technique developed [ J works best in... but 2. The present work is an extension of our work [ | which was limited to ... 234Move Two (adapted from Swales, 1987) © Contrastive connectors (however, nevertheless, in spite of, yet, unfortunately, rather than ete.) « Negative quantifiers (no, none of, few, little) Verbs of negative import (restricted to, lack, neglect, limited to, fail, overlook, neglect, inconclusive) © Indirect questions ([t is not yet clear whether ...) Move Three (announcing present research and RQs) © Demonstratives ( this/ current/ present research/ study/ work) * Switch to personal pronoun we (In this paper, we ...) © The aimy objective/goal of this research/ paper is/was ... Move Three (announcing principal findings and stating value) © Ourkey/ the actual/ main contribution of this work/paper is ... « Asaresult... « We present a simple and etficient/ effective system/ method ... © Our heuristic approach performs better in ... Move Three (outlining structure) » The rest/remainder of the/this paper is organized/structured as follows: e, Lexical Indicators The following lexical indicators, frequently used in the corpus and associated with different rhetorical moves also need a place in the teaching materials. These can be taught by giving concordance lists or by asking the students to search themselves from CS corpus, if facilities available. [t must be noted, that these indicators may not always be associated with the moves as mentioned above. There can be variations, For instance, use of ‘however’ is normally associated with Move 2, but in the fotlowing example it has been used for the explanation of the principal findings 235Example: «In some cases, however, the cost of the multicast tree obtained by using our core is lower than the cost of multicast tree obtained by using a graph median by up to 20 percent. (INTR 37) So, it will be useful if students are given practice of these lexical items with reference to their rhetorical purposes used commonly in the introductions, along with clarifying the delicate differences of other possible uses of these items. Move 1, step a. . important’ importance . significant/significance . recent/recently . challenging J 2. 3, 4 5. the development of 6. increased/ increasing 7. effective 8. considerable 9. attention 10. critical Move 2 . Conjuctions (however, while, but, nevertheless) Quantifiers and quasi-negatives (limited, little, few) . Negatives (no work, not been, none of) ene . Contrastive statements (although, as opposed to, rather than, with a few exceptions) Move 3, step a. - goal |. purpose . aim (s) Bene . objective (s) 236ee I DH a 3 & 10. research 11. present 12. report Move 3, step b. 13. assume/assumption 14. hypothesize Move 3, step c. 15. contribution 16. results 17. we have found 18. we have discovered 19. findings 20, we found Move 3, step d. efficient better . achieve . important . improved . effective . increased . rather than wer anrene . our findings 237Move 3, step e 10, deal 11, describe 12. discuss 13. present 14, define 15, provide 16. introduce 17. suggest 18. contain 19. construct VI. Writing Skills The present research has revealed two areas of writing that prevail the Introductions of CS RAs. So writing skills such as writing definitions and descriptions demand a high priority in the ESP teaching. a, Definitions Students should be taught that a formal definition is based upon a concise, logical pattern that includes enough information to make the concept clear, but within a minimum amount of space. In defining the first part of the definition should general and the details, should be left until later. Iz other words, it goes from its general class to its particular properties, qualities, uses etc. Definitions usually consist of three parts: © The term (object, method, technique, process etc.) to be defined ‘© The class of object or concept to which the term belongs «The differentiating characteristics that distinguish it from all others of its class 238Then a definition may be followed by an example or an explanation (examples from CS RAs Introductions are given in Chapter Seven). Useful phrases: © A/An.....is a/ an (general class word) + wh-word A computer is a machine which can be programmed to perform specific mathematical functions in the manner of a man. * A/an (general class word + wh-word) .... isknown as a/ an... A machine which can be programmed to perform specific mathematical functions in the manner of a man is known as a computer. The next step to knowing how to write a definition is to know when to write it. We have seen in the preceding chapters, that Computer scientists not only use them briefly for explaining a term but also for claiming centrality. The students should be taught to approach definitions according to their rhetorical purposes along with the technical ones. b. Descriptions The term description is often used for any discussion. However, in technical writing, it means an explanation of the physical aspects of things such as, color, size, weight, height, width, thickness, texture, materials of construction etc. Sometimes a description may be preceded by a definition or some background information, when the idea/ concept is new, or the author thinks that the readers may not be familiar with it. Computer scientists often have to write product specifications, descriptions of the design and features of a new or changed product, process, method or technique. This may be followed by an explanation of the different parts and their characteristics. For teaching writing descriptions, use of adjectives, symbols and graphics need to be taken care of by teachers. Just like writing definitions (as above) handling descriptions also needs thetorical considerations. Some sample exercises and activities are given in the next section. Teacher can adapt / exploit them according to their situation. 239VII. Some Sample Exercises and Activities a. Consciousness Raising Students are given three versions of an introduction and asked to decide which one is good and why. b. Comprehension Students are given an introduction from a CS research article and asked the following questions: A sample introduction is given at the end of this chapter. Teachers may prefer to use others, Questions * What do you think about the research area; is it 1. Interesting 2. Problematic . Challenging |. Relevant |. Well researched . New/ recent awn ¢ What do you think was missing in the research already carried out by other scholars? Do you find any problem jn the previous work? What lexical indicators are used to convey this? Can you use some alternatives? © Does the present research offer what was missing? How? * Skim the introduction and list the main findings. 240Is there an element of self-marketing in the introduction? Does the author (s) write anything about the value of his research? What words/phrases does he use? Identify the sentence that signals the beginning of ‘outlining structure’ step. Using different words, write a sentence, conveying the same meaning. Can you identify the statements in the introduction according to their function? Definition Description Contrast with the previous research. Which tense has been used most? Do you find sentences in the passive voice? Does the author use personal pronoun ‘we"? What do you think is the purpose and how is it achieved? Would you use it in your writing? c, Coherence and Cohesion Jumbled Introductions In this activity, students are given three moves of an introduction cut and pasted on three cards. They work in small groups and are asked to arrange them in the correct order. In another similar activity (but when they are confident enough to do the above), introduction can be jumbled up to sentence level. Students are asked, first, toplace the sentences under different move headings, next, under steps and lastly to decide if the sentences have coherence. Color- coding (adapted from Swales, 1984) Students are given the suggested CARS model along with some samples of introductions, Every move is assigned a different color. Student read and highlight each move with the color as they think is appropriate. Typically, three types of results would emerge: 1. The introduction fits 2. The introduction fits, but one of the three moves or any step is missing. 3, The introduction does not fit. Finally, the results are compared that generate a discussion about the different thetorical skills used by the authors of these introductions. d. Writing Introductions (adapted from Swales, 1984) Simulated library research cards are prepared with the help of a Computer scfentist/ informant, These contain title, main findings of published research and some background information including citations. With the help of these cards, students write introductions, in pairs or small groups according to the size of the class. 242‘conve et to aoopocte ‘8 prtort Knowledge ‘of the structure of interest which’ makes ther very. useful to capture: domain “dependent constraints. Typically, a deformable at’ characterizes athe desirabie ut of the sctiption: contains a ‘model contour smoothness and contiauity, “represented by” internal energy “functions, A deforihable contour has also a model that describes how the contour should’ be tied to the underlying i image, given by external énergy Ainctions. ‘An ‘optimization of the weighted sum ol these ‘energies one given image would result in a contour that has desirable baled a fieget aigeaties for the optimization. Teta problems: Such as convergence to local minima, difficulty in achieving numerical stability and accuracy, ‘and lack of flexibility in incotporating hard constraints forced the researchers to explore ther ways of optimization, While the internal energy definitions ‘are suitable for ‘optimizations based on gradient descent, external energies usually have large amounts of hoise, which makes gradient descent methods undesirable for some modalities. Application of dynamic programming to deformable contour Minlinization (6), [15] addressed some of these issues. This technique takes the advantage of loval definitions of internal and external energies to exhaustively test each possible parameter set of the ‘contour for at optima! result in polynomial running time. A coarsé-to-fine approach can make this method even faster with the expense of losing optimality. Variations of dynamic programming were used by many researchers including [27], (14l, (5), [37] for deformable contour cirimization. ‘This paper extends our peevious work (2), (3), (1] by ‘combining a number of methods into a unified framework that is applicable to real world ‘poblems. ‘The framework introduces several novel features to address many issues of the @efurnable contour ‘optimization. One of these novel features is a new method for forming coarse representations of the images for the coarse-to-fine optimization. We consider the formation of coarse image representations as an image analysis process 243‘Where! We” Bather infSrmiation about the i image areas Where the deformable Contour is sens ive. ‘his is : based on combining the information theory end the scale spaces in order to\maximize the flow of ‘extemal energy related information’ between the coarseand fine levels, By ising this. information i in later i Tice of a Sr ae the eee Bifommieatiy select a iat scale size, oF local coarseness, depending on ane deformable ‘contour extemal cerry advantage of bolt vecbnlies while avoiding their drawbacks by) “Using the image analysis ‘performed at the: ‘coarsé image: representation | stage. Dynamic | programming is used to, exhaustively test all contour positions, while gradient ae methods are used to spec up optimization i in areas with no local minima. Tn order to demonstrate the performance of this framework, ne constructed a deformable ‘contour model for the spatiotemporal analysis of contours that imposes constraints both in spatial and temporal dimensions. Imposing these constraints in energy optimization is f challenging task due to increased parameter space size, We show our framework’s sfficiency and effectiveness by performing energy optimization experiments of this spatiotemporal model on the synthetic and ceal world data, The rest of this peper is organized as follows: ‘Section 2 provides background information by formally ‘efining the deformable ‘models, ‘This section also provides the background information ‘and the notation dynariie programming method. Section 3 describes the general working principles our Framework Section 4 discusses how the coarse fepresentations of the images are prodaced by using a novel segmentation method. Section 5 introduces the optimization method that uses dynamic programming and gradient descent methods to obtain coarse positions of the contours. This section also discusses a contour processing mathod for better precision before the contour is passed to a finer level of optimization. Section 6 constructs a deformable contour optimization system that uses our framework iLIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS When you choose a field with which you do not have much familiarity in its subject matter, itis likely to produce difficulties for you, especially if the contents are technical in nature. Huckin explains the dilemma of the linguists: ‘Most of the studies ... despite .., insight on the part of the researchers, do not really succeed in capturing the insider’s view of the cultural manipulation involved in the use of genre. Too many of them are confined to textual analysis, with the analyst being forced to hazard mere guesses as to what the textual evidence means for those who actually use the genre in real life’ (Huckin 1997:75) Bhatia (1993) suggests that specialist informants can help in providing such an insight. There were two ways of overcoming the shortcoming mentioned by Huckin (1997), first, interviewing the authors of the articles under investigation and second, getting opinions from the subject specialists on the selected texts. The idea of interviews, although is very interesting, was not pursued because of practical reasons. One of the reasons was that I wanted to have a fairly sufficient number of interviewees instead of a few because opinions could vary to a great extent. It is also known that many authors are often unaware of their own rhetorical strategies (Chang, 2004). 245Nevertheless, the second use of the informants, getting opinions on the selected texts was tried, The original intention was to include a section on the structural development of the research articles in Computer science. For the said purpose, six graduate students of CS at the University of Michigan, one faculty member in a computer related field at a university in the United States, one visiting scholar from Korea, one involved in computer business and three graduate students in Pakistan. Unfortunately, in the absence of socio-rhetorical knowledge required for the purpose, they could not help much. So the section on the evolutionary development of the structure of research article was dropped. Posteguillo (personal communication) was lucky to have calleagues close-by who could comment and provide an insider's view. Besides, as it is a big project in itself spread over half a century’s publications, as the first article, I could trace back, was published in 1958. This in fact is an interesting area to be explored and I intend dealing with it elsewhere. 246REFERENCES Aijmer, K. and Altenberg, B. English corpus linguistics, London, Longman. (1991), Altenberg, B. 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A Very Brief History of Computer Science, The University of Waterloo * History of Computing web page at Virginia Tech © Computers from the Past to the Present (A lecture by Michelle Hoyle at the University of Regina)A Brief History of Computer Technology ¢ Past Notable Women of Computing ¢ The Machine That Changed the World « Historic Computer Images * Charles Babbage Institute, Center for the History of Information Processing « Turing Award Winners, 1966-1998 « The Retrocomputing Museum (old programs and programming languages) © The ENIAC Virtual Museum at the University of Pennsylvania (under construction) © COMMPUTERSEUM -- The Commercial Computing Museum (Waterloo, Ontario) © The Computer Museum (Boston, Massachusetts) © The Virtual Museum of Computing. © Museum of Obsolete Computers 267. ils of the History of Computin: Grace Murray Hopper Celebration of Women in Computin; Index for History of Computers History of the Electronic Computer Histoire de Informatique Theory of Computing Hall of Fame Frank Delaney's History of the Microcomputer 268Appendix One Titles and Codes of the CS RAs used in the corpus Codes Journals Titles of Articles INTR OL ToC Minimum Register Instruction Sequencing to Reduce Register Spills in Out-of-Order Issue Superscalar Architectures INTRO2 ToC Semantically Reliable Multicast: Definition, Implementation, and Performance Evaluation INTRO3 ToC ‘A Decoupled Predicator-Directed Stream Prefetching Architecture INTROS ToC Achieving NIRU with Montgomery Multiplication INTR 05 ToC ‘Adaptive Approaches to Relieving Broadcast Storms ina Wireless Multihop Mobile Ad Hoc Network INTR 06 Tot ‘A Mobile Agent Based Advanced Service Architecture for Wireless Internet Telephony: Design, Implementation and Evaluation TINTR 07 ToC Performance Enhancement of Ad Hoc Networks with Localized Route Repair INTR 08 ToC Modeling, Analysis and Self Management of Electronic Textiles INTRO9 ToC ‘An Algorithm-Based Error Detection Scheme for the Multigrid Method INTR 10 ToC A Systematic Method for Modifying March Tests for Bit-Oriented Memaries into Tests for Word- Oriented Memories INTR IT ToC On the Guaranteed Throughput of Multizone Disks | 269INTR 13 PAMI Suboptima! Minimum Cluster Volume Cover- Based Method for Measuring Fractal Dimension TINTR 14 PAME A Coatse-to-Fite Deformable Contour Optimization Framework INTR 15 FAM Mlumination from Shadows INTR 16 PAMI Design Considerations for Generic Grouping in Vision INTR 17 PAMI Kermel-Based Object Tracking INTR 18 PAMI Contour Grouping with Pzior Models INTR 19 PAMI Evidential Reasoning for Object Recognition INTR 20 PAMI A New Cluster Isolation Criterion Based on Dissimilarity Increments INTR 21 PAMI Online Palmprint Identification INTR 22 PAMI Face Detection and Tracking in a Video by Propagating Detection Probabilities TNTR23 PAMI Binary Partitioning, Perceptual Grouping, and Restoration with Semidefinite Programming INTR 25 SE A Model for Estimating the size of a Formal ‘Communication Protocol Specification and Its Implementation INTR 26 SE Synthesis of Behavioral Models from Scenarios INTR 27 SE ‘Test-Suite Reduction and Prioritization for Modified Condition/ Decision Coverage INTR 28 SE Empirical Analysis of CK Metrics for Object- Oriented Design Complexity: Implications for _{ Software Defects. INTR 29 SE Investigating the Defect Detection Effectiveness and Cost Benefit of Nominal Inspection Teams INTR 30 SE An Empirical Study of Speed and Communication in 270Globally Distributed Software Development INTR 31 SE ‘A Choice Relation Framework for Supporting Category-Partition Test case Generation INTR 32 SE The Development and Evaluation of Three Diverse Techniques for Object-Oriented Code Inspection INTR 33 SE Polymetric Views- A Lightweight Visual Approach to reverse Engineering INTR 34 SE Temporal Logic Query Checking: A Too! for Mode} Exploration INTR 35 SE A Simulation Study of the Model Evaluation Criterion MMRE INTR 37 PADS Adaptive Core Selection and Migration Method for Multicast Routing in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks INTR38 PADS ‘A Pipeline-Based Approach for Scheduling Video Processing Algorithms on NOW INTR 39 PADS, Interagent Communication and Synchronization Support in the DaAgent Mobite-Based Computing System INTR 40 PADS Request Redirection Algorithins for Distributed Web ! Systems INTR 41 PADS Real-Time Digital Signal processing of Phased. Array Radars INTR 42 PADS An Improved Duplication Strategy for Scheduling Precedence Constrained Graphs in Multiprocessor Systems NTR PADS Communication Adaptive Self-Stabilizing Group Membership Service INTR 44 PADS. r Deadloek-Free Dynamic Reconfiguration Schemes for Increased Network Dependability INTR 45 | PADS | Responsive Security for Stored Data 271INTR 46 PADS MYSS: An Active Storage Architecture INTR 47 PADS Refactoring Middleware with Aspects INTR 49 KDE Efficient mining of Intertransaction Association Rules FINTR SO KDE Effective Scheduling of Detached Rules in Active Databases INTR 51 KDE Determining Semantic Similarity among Entity Classes from Different Ontologies INTR 52 KDE Detecting and Representing Relevant Web Deltas in WHOWEDA INTR 53 KDE Comparing Data Streams Using Hamming norms (How to Zero In) INTR 54 KDE Clustering Data Streams; Theory and Practice INTR 55 KDE Effectively Finding relevant Web Pages from Linkage Information INTR 56 KDE Specifying and Enforcing Application-Level Web Security Policies INTR 57 KDE Inter base-KB: Integrating a knowledge Base System with a Multidatabase System for Data Warehousing INTR 58 KDE FOOD: An Intelligent Fuzzy Object Oriented Database Architecture INTR 59 KDE Beyond Independence: Probabilistic Models for Query Approximation on Binary Transaction Data INTR 60 KDE Dimensionality Reduction in Automatic knowledge Acquisition: A Simple Greedy Search Approach 272Appendix Two Verbs in Active and Passive Verbs Is + Verb ‘Are+ Verb Can + Verb We +Verb occurrences: Occurrences Occurrences Occurrences achieved 2 - 2 1 adapted - : T T added. - - 1 2 addressed - L L 5 adopt - - - 2 agree - : - 1 aimed 1 - - 2 allocated 1 - 1 - allowed 3 4 - - analyzed : i : > answered - - 1 - applied 6 2 5 2 approximated L - 1 - argue - - - 3 ask - - ~ 1 assigned - 1 - ~ associated 1 L ~ 3 assumed. 8 1 1 2 ‘avoided = ~ 7 7 based 17 7 1 - begin/began - - 3 believe - > ? bounded 1 - - broken, 2 - - - 273brought buffer built/building calibrated called care changed captured caused characterized chosen circumvented cited classified close collected combined | comment compared completed compile composed comprised compromised computed concatenated conceived concerned conclude conducted 274confined configured connected considered constrained constructed contained controlled converted coupled created dealt decided decoupled deemed defined delivered demonstrate derived described designed detached detailed detected. determined developed disabled discovered discretized discussed 21 275disrupted 2 > - | distinguished [= I I ~ distributed 1 - - - divided 1 - 1 - done 2 - - 3 dominated 1 - - - drawn - 3 - 1 dropped - ~ t - eliminated - - T - embedded - 1 ~ - emphasize : : T employed - 1 1 I enforced I - = - established 2 1 - - estimated - T t 2 evaluated ~ 2 > 2 examine - : - 3 executed - 3 - - expanded = - 1 1 expected 1 2 - 1 explained 1 - - 2 exploited I 1 t > explored T - | 4 expressed - | 2 - eiended ——T- 1 3 7 extracted - 1 1 2 faced 1 - - - facilitated 1 . : - fixed 1 * . 1 focused = - > 12 276followed formalize formed formulated forwarded found generated get given grouped guaranteed guessed guided handled identified illustrated implemented improved included incorporated increase incurred indexed induced influenced inform inherited integrated intended. interconnectedinterested intermingled interpreted intratransaction introduced investigated involved jammed judged Justify known, leave lifted like limited Jook lost made maintained managed mapped materialize meant measured mention merged met minimized misinterpreted modeled 278modified motivated named needed noted obscured observed obtained offered ordered organized outlined partitioned passed performed phrase picked pictured pose positioned postponed practiced predicted preferred presented preserved produced oO] propagated proposed proven 279provided put quantity raise randomized reached read receive recognize recovered reduced referred reflected regarded related relaxed reported Tepresented required reordered restrict retain retrieved return reverse review revisit rooted say search, 280scheduled seen selected sent shared shortened shown. simulate solved | specified spent squared started, stolen stored strongly structured study subjected subsumed suggest summarized superseded supported supposed suppressed tackle taken tailored target 281tested think tolerated transformed transmitted traversed treated triggered try understood updated used utilized validate verily visualized want wasted wired wish wom written, 282,