ConcentrationCamps:

WhatareConcentrationCamps?
https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/
whatarecamps.html
TheEnglishtermconcentrationcampiscommonlyusedtodescribeawidenumberof
placesofinternmentcreatedbyNaziGermany,whichservedavarietyoffunctionsand
werecalledbydifferentnames:laborcamps(Arbeitslager);transitcamps
(Durchgangslager);prisonerofwarcamps(Kriegsgefangenlager);concentration
camps(KonzentrationslagerKZ),anddeathcampsorkillingcenters,oftenreferredto
inNaziparlanceasexterminationcamps(Vernichtungslager).
Concentrationcampsunderwentaseriesofdevelopmentsovertimefrom1933to
1936,theywereusedforincarceratingpoliticaladversaries,tradeunionists,political
dissidents,communists,andothers.In1936,operationalresponsibilityforthecamps
wasconsolidatedundertheSSandthecampuniverseexpandedincrementally.In1941
to1942,themajorkillingcenterscameonline:Chelmno,AuschwitzBirkenau,
MajdanekaswellastheAktionReinhardcampsofBelzec,Sobibor,andTreblinka.A
seriesoflaborcampswerecreatedindirectresponsetotheimpactofthewarand
Germany'sgrowingneedforworkers.In1944to1945,theconcentrationcampswere
dismantledandevacuatedaheadoftheAlliedadvancesandanyremainingprisoners
werebroughtbacktoGermanywhichhadalreadybecomeJudenreinonfootinwhat
becameknownasdeathmarches.Thesemarcheseithertooktheprisonerstoother
campswithinGermanyorweresimplycontinuedendlesslyuntiltheJewsdiedorwere
liberatedbytheAllies.
ProtectiveCustodyofEnemiesoftheState
DuringthenightfollowingthedeclarationofastateofemergencyaftertheReichstag
fire(Feb.27,1933),therewasawaveofmassarrestsoftheCommunistopposition.
AftertheErmaechtigungsgesetz("EnablingAct")ofMarch23,1933,thenonNazi
politicalelite,composedoftradeunionmembers,socialists,andcivilpartymembers,
wasarrested,togetherwithwriters,journalists,andlawyers,whowereJewish,but
arrestedbecauseoftheiractivitiesallegedoractual.InJuly1933,thenumberof
protectivecustodydetaineesreached14,906inPrussiaand26,789inthewholeReich.
TheSA(StormTroops),the*SS,andthepoliceimprovisedabout50massdetention
camps.*Dachau,Oranienburg,Esterwegen,andSachsenburgwerethuscreated.The
worstcampofallwastheBerlinColumbiaHaus.Themethodsofarrest,kidnappings,
tortures,bribery,andblackmailofassociatescreatedchaosandarousedprotestin
newlyNazifiedGermany.Inresponsetopressurefromthejudiciary,anduponthe

adviceofthethenheadoftheGestapo,RudolfDiels,toHermann*Goering,mostof
theSAandSSWildeKZ("Wildconcentrationcamps")werebrokenup.Oranienburg,
Lichtenburg,andColumbiaHausremained,containingnomorethan1,000prisoners
each.LaterontherewaslessjudicialpressureandaconfidentanddominantNazi
regimebecamelessresponsivebutneverunresponsivetopublicopinion.Public
oppositiontotheregimewaslessforthcomingbecauseoffear,coercion,despairand
indifference.
ThereductioninconcentrationcampsduringtheearlyyearsoftheNaziregimewasno
indicationofanymovetoabolishthem;amongthenewvictimsoftheterrorwerethose
wholistenedtoforeignradiostations,rumormongers,Jehovah'sWitnesses
(Bibelforscher,in1935),andGermanmalehomosexuals.Therewasnoincarcerationof
lesbiansqualesbians.Jehovah'sWitnessesweretheonly"voluntaryvictims"of
Nazism.TheyrefusedtoregisterintheWehrmachtortoswearallegiancetothestate.
Thewords"HeilHitler"neverpassedtheirlips.TheirallegiancewastoJehovahand
nottothestate.Jehovah'sWitnessescouldbefreedfromconcentrationcampsifthey
signedasimpledocumentrenouncingtheirfaithandswearingtoceasetheirreligious
activities.Fewsuccumbedtothistemptation,evenattheriskofendlessinternmentand
conditionsthatmightleadtodeath.TherewasabasictensioninGermanpolicyand
amongGermanpolicymakerstowardthemalehomosexualpopulation.Thefunctionof
theirincarcerationvariedbetweenpunishmentandreeducation.
UnderthecommandofHimmler,whoonApril20,1934,tookoverdirectionofthe
BerlinGestapo,theSSgainedtotalcontroloftheconcentrationcamps,andthe
judiciarywaspreventedfrominterveningintheGestapo'sdomain.Smallconcentration
campswerebrokenup,andtheirprisonerstransferredtolargercamps,suchasDachau
(whichwasenlarged),*Sachsenhausen(establishedinSeptember1936),and
*Buchenwald(establishedinAugust1937).Whenthenumberofconcentrationcamp
detaineesdroppedtoabout8,000inlate1937,itwasaugmentedbythedispatchof
criminaloffendersandpersonsdefinedas"asocial."InApril1938ordinaryprisoners
underpreventivedetentionweretransferredfromprisonstoconcentrationcamps,
which,inadditiontotheiroriginalfunction,thenbecameStaatlicheBesserungsund
Arbeitslager("StateImprovementandLaborCamps").Ataboutthesametime,Jews
quaJews(notasCommunists,Socialists,etc.)wereinternedinconcentrationcampsfor
thefirsttime.
TheGermanstategavelegalsanctiontoarbitraryimprisonmentbytheNotverordnung
desReichspraesidentenzumSchutzvonVolkundStaat(Feb.28,1933),whichserved
asabasefor"protectivecustody"byauthorizingtheunlimiteddetentionofpersons
suspectedofhostilitytotheregime.Theregulationrequiringawrittenprotective
custodywarrant(Schutzhaftbefehl)wasintroducedonApril1216,1934,inorderto
placatethejudiciary,whostilldemandedthatthelegalityofeacharrestbeexamined.A
clausepostulatedonJan.25,1938,extendedprotectivecustodytopersonswhose
conductendangeredthesecurityofthenationandthestatefordetentionsolelyinthe

concentrationcamps.InanorderofFeb.10,1936,Heinrich*Himmlerinvestedthe
*Gestapoauthoritytomakearrestsandinvestigateallactivitieshostiletothestate
withintheReich.HealsodecreedthattheGestapo'sorderswerenotsubjectto
investigationbycourtsoflawandhandedovertheadministrationoftheconcentration
campstotheGestapo.Theprotectivecustodywarrantwaspresentedtothedetainees,if
atall,onlyaftertheirarrest.Theywerefirstsenttoprisonandtorturedforlongperiods.
Thedetaineewasthenforcedtosignthewarrantthatwassenttotheconcentration
campashisdispatchnote.
Thenumberofpoliticaldetainees(Marxists,antiNazis,andJews)roseafterthe
annexationsofAustriainMarchandApril1938andSudetenlandinOctoberand
November1938(see*Czechoslovakia).Overcrowdinginthecampsgrewworse,
especiallyafterthearrestthroughouttheReichofabout30,000Jewishmenaged16
60aftertheNovemberpogromof1938knownas*Kristallnacht.Thetotalnumberof
detaineesrosethatyearfrom24,000to60,000.In1939theinternmentofindividual
JewsfortheslightestviolationoftheSchikanengesetzgebungirksomespecial
legislationbegan.JewsconvictedforRassenschande(violationofracepurity),those
Jewswhoremainedmarriedto"Aryans",wereoftenputintointernmentcampsafter
havingservedtheirsentence.ButpriortoWorldWarII,Jewscouldbereleasedfrom
thecampsiftheycouldprovethattheyhadachancetoleaveGermany,andin1939the
releaseofJewspossessingemigrationpapers,whopaidexorbitantransoms,resultedin
amarkeddropinthenumberofJewishinternees.Manyhistoriansarguethat
Germany'sgoalatthispointwastheforcedemigrationoftheJews,nottheirmurder,
andthispolicyisviewedasevidencefortheirargument.Withtheoutbreakofwar,the
totalnumberofdetaineesroseto25,000(includingthoseinthewomen'scampof
*Ravensbrueck,setupinMay1939inplaceofLichtenburg).
WorldWarII
WorldWarIIwroughtchangesintheconcentrationcampsystem.Therewasan
increaseinthenumberofprisoners,extensionofthenetworkofconcentrationcampsin
andoutsideGermany,andanalterationinthecamps'function.Thesecurityfunction
(i.e.,protectivecustody)wassubordinatedtotheeconomicexploitationofdetainees
andmassmurder,especiallyasthewarprogressedandGermanplannersunderstood
thatanimmediatevictorywouldnotbeforthcomingandtheyhadtoplanforan
extendedconflict.Undertherenewedsecuritypretext,tentimesasmanypolitical
prisonerswerearrestedintheReichashadbeenarrestedintheyears193536.Inthe
occupiedcountries,thousandsof"opponents"weredetainedinlocalconcentration
campswhilespecialgroupswere"transferred"invastnumberstoconcentrationcamps
withintheReich.FromtheoutbreakofwaruntilMarch1942,thenumberofdetainees
rosefrom25,000to100,000andin1944thenumberreached1,000,000;onlybetween
5and10%ofthemwereGermannationals.
Latein1939theconcentrationcamporganizationinGermanywasauthorizedtosetup
about100concentrationcampsofalltypes,includingInternierungslager(detentionor

internmentcamps)andAustauschlager(exchangecamps).Tothesewereadded
*Auschwitz(May1940),Gusen(May1940),andGrossRosen(Aug.1940).Thatyear,
aseriesofJewishandnonJewishlaborcampswasestablished,togetherwithtransit
camps(Durchgangslager),aspartofHimmler's"transferandresettlement"plan
designedtogetJewsoutofGermanyandGermany'ssphereofinfluenceandmove
themeastwardtoGermanoccupiedterritories.InMay1941*Natzweilerwassetup,
followedbyNiederhagen(May1940),*Majdanek(November1940),Stutthof
(November1940),andArbeitsdorf(April1942).Inearly1942therewasfurther
expansion,whentheexterminationcampsweresetupinPoland.Therateatwhich
campswereestablishedvariedbutdidnotdecline.Evenaslateas1944Sonderlager
("specialcamps")wereestablishedforHungarianJewsinAustriaontheborderswith
CzechoslovakiaandHungary.
Euthanasia
InOctober1939,Hitlersignedanorderempoweringhispersonalphysicianandthe
chiefoftheFuehrerChancellorytoputtodeaththoseconsideredunsuitedtolive.He
backdatedittoSeptember1,1939,thedayWorldWarIIbegan,togiveitthe
appearanceofawartimemeasure.InHitler'sdirective:
ReichleaderPhilipBouhlerandDr.Brandtarechargedwithresponsibilityfor
expandingtheauthorityofphysicians,tobedesignatedbyname,totheendthat
patientsconsideredincurableaccordingtothebestavailablehumanjudgmentoftheir
stateofhealth,canbegrantedamercykilling.
Whatfollowedwasthesocalledeuthanasiaprogram,inwhichGermanmen,women,
andchildrenwhowerephysicallydisabled,mentallyretarded,oremotionallydisturbed
weresystematicallykilled.
Withinafewmonths,theT4program(namedforBerlinChancelloryTiergarten4,
whichdirectedit)involvedvirtuallytheentireGermanpsychiatriccommunity.Anew
bureaucracy,headedbyphysicians,wasestablishedwithamandateto"takeexecutive
measuresagainstthosedefinedas'unworthyofliving.'"
Patientswhomitwasdecidedtokillweretransportedtosixkillingcenters:Hartheim,
Sonnenstein,Grafeneck,Bernburg,Hadamar,andBrandenburg.Themembersofthe
SSinchargeofthetransportsdonnedwhitecoatstokeepupthecharadeofamedical
procedure.Thesecampswerefertilegroundforthetrainingofstaffthatlatterserved
the"FinalSolution"themassmurderofJewsinthe"AktionReinhard"camps,both
inleadershipcapacitiesandinsecondaryandtertiarypositions.Italsowasusedto
masterkillingbygas.
Thefirstkillingswerebystarvation.Theninjectionsoflethaldosesofsedativeswere
used.Childrenwereeasily"puttosleep."Butgassingsoonbecamethepreferred
methodofkilling.Fifteento20peoplewerekilledinachamberdisguisedasashower.

Chemistsprovidedthelethalgas,andphysicianssupervisedtheprocess.Afterwards,
blacksmokebillowedfromthechimneysasthebodieswereburnedinadjacent
crematoria.Itwasatechniquethatwaslaterusedtokillmillionsnothundredsor
thousands.
PrisonLabor
In1938,theSSbegantoexploitprisonlaborinitsDEST(DeutscheErdund
SteinwerkeGmbH)enterprise(seeOSTI),incoordinationwithAlbertSpeer,theman
responsiblefortheNaziconstructionprogramforrebuildingBerlinandNuremberg.
ThispolicydeterminedthesitesfornewconcentrationcampsFlossenbuerg,a
punishmentcamp,andMauthausen,establishedinmid1938.Thewareffortreinforced
thefunctionofthecampsasasourceofmanpowerforforcedlabor.UnderOswald
Pohl,theconcentrationcampsbecamecentersfortheexploitationoftheinmates.
AccordingtoGermancalculations,thefeefor11hours(bydayornight)ofprisoner
laborwas6RM(=$1).Thefeesfromprisonerlabor,totalinghundredsofmillionsof
marks,wereoneoftheSS'sprincipalsourcesofincome.TheSSincurred
inconsequentialexpensesfortheprisoner'supkeep,amountingtonomorethan0.70
RMdailyforfoodanddepreciationinclothing.Takingintoaccounttheaveragelife
spanofaslavelaborer(about9months)andtheplunderofthecorpseforfurtherprofit,
thetotalincometotheSSforeachprisoneraveraged1,631RM.Thisexcluded
industrialexploitationofcorpsesandpropertyconfiscatedbeforeinternment.
Privatesuppliersofmilitaryequipment,suchasI.G.Farben,Krupp,Thyssen,Flick,
Siemens,andmanyothersusedtheconcentrationcampsbecauseofthecheaplaborand
maximumexploitationafforded,sothatprisonersconstituted40%oftheindustries'
laborforce.Workingconditionsinprivateenterprises,worsethanthoseinthe
concentrationcampsthemselves,werethedirectcauseofahighdeathrate.Inthe
Bunawerke(artificialrubberfactory)belongingtoI.G.FarbenatMonowitznear
Auschwitz,themanpowerturnoverwas300%peryear.Theemployerswerenot
authorizedtometeoutpunishment,butwiththeaidoftheKapostheyinstitutedso
brutalasystemofpunishmentsthattheSSsometimesintervenedontheprisoners'
behalf.Approximately250,000concentrationcampprisonerswereemployedinprivate
industry,whileabout170,000wereutilizedbytheReichMinistryofMunitionsand
WarProduction.Thedeathrateintheconcentrationcamps(60%in1942and80%
thereafter)appearedexcessiveeventotheInspectionAuthority,who,forfearofa
depletionofamanpowerreserve,wereorderedtoabsorbnewprisonersandlowerthe
deathrate.
Thedesiretoexploittheprisonerswasindirecttensiontothekillingprogram(the
"FinalSolution").Thisoppositionresultedinacontinualbattlebetweentheemployers,
theSSWirtschaftsundVerwaltungshauptamt("EconomicandAdministrativeMain
Office",WVHA)andtheReichssicherheitshauptamt,RSHA,whowereresponsiblefor
theexterminationpolicy.Theformerwantedworkers;thelatterdeadJews.Thescenes
oftheseconflictswerethoseconcentrationcampsinwhichmassextermination

facilitieshadbeeninstalled,suchasAuschwitz,whereSSofficersandSSdoctors
sortedoutthetransports,sendingtheweak(includingchildren)totheirdeathsandthe
ablebodiedtowork.Thelatterbecamecampprisonersandwereregistered
accordingly.Theywerekeptaliveforaslongastheycouldwork.Realityhadcreateda
sortofcompromise;theconditionsofemploymentofprisonershelpedtokillthemand
servedmerelyasanextensionoflifeuntiltheycompletelycollapsedandweresentas
refusetothecrematories.Theseconcentrationcampsthusbecamelargescale
exterminationcenterswhereintheendJewishslavelaborwasregardedasa
consumablerawmaterialtobediscardedintheprocessofmanufactureandrecycled
intothewareconomy.
TheCampsandthe"FinalSolution"
ThekillingofJewsbeganinJune1941astheEinsatzkommando("mobilekilling
units"),whichaccompaniedtheGermanarmyinvadingtheSovietUnion,wentinto
towns,villages,andcitiesandkilledJews,Sovietkommisars,andgypsies,onebyone,
bulletbybullet.Thissystemofsendingmobilekillerstostationaryvictimswasslow,
public,andhorrifying,however,evenfortheSS.Thusbylate1941thesystemwas
reversed.Thevictimsweremademobiletheyweresentbytrainfromghettosand
citiestostationarykillingcenters,wheremassmurdercouldbeeffectedinanassembly
lineprocesswitheconomiesofscaleandpersonnel.Sovietprisonersofwaroften
Ukrainiansstaffedthecamps,prisonlaborwasemployedtobuildandrunthecamps,
andafewGermanscouldoverseetheentireoperation,mostespeciallythekilling.
FromDecember1941,Jewshadbeengassedintrucksatthe*Chelmnoextermination
campatapacethatdidnotsatisfythoseresponsibleforcarryingoutthesolutiontothe
"JewishQuestion."AftertheWannsee*Conference(1942),whichwasconvenedto
smooththecooperationtowardliquidationoftheJews,theestablishmentofnewkilling
centers,mainlyonGermanoccupiedPolishsoil,washastened.Thefirsttousegas
chamberswasOdilo*Globocnik,chiefoftheSSandPoliceForcein*Lublin,whoset
upaJewishlaborcampin1940intheLublindistrict.Helatertransformedthiscamp
intoakillingcenter.AtChelmno,situatedinGermanoccupiedPoland,gassingby
carbonmonoxidefumesintroducedfromexhaustpipesintohermeticallysealedtrucks
wasemployed.ItwasalsousedinYugoslavia.Theuseoftruckswasfacilitatedby
localmechanics,whoimprovisedbyreconfiguringexistingvehiclesandeven
strengthenedtherearaxlestopreventtheirbreakdownasthevictimspushedtotherear.
Mobilegasvans,whichcoulddealwithalimitednumberofvictims,1,0002,000a
day,hadmanydisadvantagesandweresupersededin1942bytheuseofstationary
gassinginstallations.Asecondmethodwasthatofgaschambers,disguisedasshower
roomfacilities,withshowerroomnoticesinvariouslanguages.Atfirstthegasused
wasdieselexhaustfumes,andthevictimsoftenwaitedoutsideforhoursinlongqueues
becausethemotorhadbrokendown.AtAuschwitzZyklonB,adisinfectantprovided
byI.G.Farben,firstemployedtodestroyinsects,wasused.Itseemsthatbureaucratic
rivalriesbetweencampcommandantspreventeditsuniversaluse.

Between1942and1943Jewsweregassedin*Belzec,*Treblinka,and*Sobibor.
Near*Vilna,*Riga,*Minsk,*Kovno,and*Lvov,thereweresmallerkillingcenters
whereJewswereexecutedbyfiringsquads.Thelargeconcentrationcampsbecame
deathcamps,e.g.,Majdanek,andthelargestofall,Auschwitz,whichattheheightof
theexterminationprogramaccountedformorethan10,000victimsperday.Adolf
EichmanngaveprioritytothemurderofPolishJewsandthoseexpelledfromthe
Reich,sinceintheircasetheproblemoftransportwasnilandparticularlybecause
Hans*Frank,governoroftheGeneralGouvernement,wasurgingthathisareabe
"cleansed"ofJews,whosenumberheoverestimatedat3,500,000.Thusinearly1942
theevacuationofthePolishghettosbeganinanoperationdeceptivelytermed
Umsiedlung("resettlement"),theevacueesbeingsenttokillingcenters.Theliquidation
oftheJewryoftheGeneralGouvernement,organizedbyGlobocnik,wastermed
AktionReinhardinmemoryof*Heydrich,whohadbeenassassinatedinJune1942.
Whentheoperationended(October1943),manyJewishlaborcampsstillremained,
butallofthemwereturnedintoconcentrationcampsin1944.
ThedeportationsfromtherestofEuropetotheexterminationcamps(including
transportsfromconcentrationcamps)beganinMarchandApril1942andcontinued
untillate1944.Thepaceofthekillingwasrelatedtotheavailabilityoftransportsand
manydeportationsandsubsequentgassingoccurredafteritwasclearthatGermany
wouldlosethewar.ItdidnotwanttolosethewaragainsttheJews.Atfirst,thoseable
toworkwerebroughtbecausetheconstructionoftheexterminationcampshadyetto
becompleted.BelzecwasoperationalbetweenFebruaryandDecember1942;killings
hadceasedbeforethenewyearbegan.Itsmissionwascomplete.TheJewsofGalicia
weredead.Allthatremainedin1943wastoexhumethedead,burntheirbodiesto
destroyallevidenceofthecrime,andtoplowthecampunder.Followingtherebellion
atTreblinka(August1943)andatSobibor(October1943)andtheadvanceofthe
Sovietarmy,thesetwocampswereabolished,andthekillingmovedwestwardto
Auschwitz,whichonlyinthesummerof1944becamethemostlethalofthedeath
camps,andStutthof.ThegassingofJewscontinueduntilNovember1944,whenitwas
haltedonHimmler'sorders,perhapstokeepsomeJewsalivewhocouldbeusedas
barterforpeacewiththeWest.
From1941crematoriawerebuiltinseveralconcentrationcampstosolvetheproblem
ofbodydisposal.Inafewdeathcamps,thecrematoriawasanallpurposefacility
completewithitsowngaschamberandundressingroom.Prisonerswouldbeentered
intothebuilding,forcedtoundress,instructedtorememberwheretheyhadlefttheir
clothes,aspartoftheefforttodeceivethem,andthenforcedintogaschambers
disguisedasshowers.Men,women,andchildrenwereundressedtogether,killed
together.Becauseofthelargenumbersofcorpses,theywerenotalldissectedbefore
cremation,butneverthelesstheSelektionprovidedthephysiciansinGerman
universitieswith"specimens"forstudyandforcollection.TheSonderkommando
("specialsquad")ofprisonerswhoworkedinthecrematoriawereroutinelymurdered
andreplacedbynewsquads,inordertopreventtheleakingofinformation.Afterall,

theywerethemostdangerousofvictims.Muchtothesurpriseofhistoriansandalsoof
theSS,severalSonderkommandosurvivedtobearwitnesstowhathadhappened.
Campsofaspecialtypeweresetuplatein1941forthesolepurposeofthe
exterminationof"undesirablepopulations."Thesewerefromthefirstequippedwith
gaschambersandcrematoriaanddifferedfromconcentrationandlaborcampsand
fromthosecampswithacombinedprogramofconcentrationandmurder.
Traintransporttothecampwasoftenincrowdedcattlecarswithmerelyabucketfor
sanitation.Conditionswereprimitiveandcrampedanduponreachingtheirdestination
thenewarrivalsmistakenlythoughttheyhadsurvivedtheworst.Attheentranceto
eachofthedeathcampsthereceptionareathedeadwereremovedfromthetrains
andthelivingdividedaccordingtotheirabilitytowalk.Thoseabletowalkweresent
on,peopleunabletowalkweretakenaway.Thosewhocouldwalkthenfacedthefirst
Selektion.AnSSofficerpointedtotheleftortotheright.Elderlypeople,pregnant
women,youngchildren,andtheinfirmwereimmediatelycondemnedtodeath.
Segregatedbysex,theysurrenderedtheirvaluablesandremovedtheirclothesbefore
enteringthegaschambers.
AtAuschwitz,thoseselectedforworkwereregisteredandbrandedandsheared.Their
hairwasshavedandtheirarmstattooedwithanumber.Uniformswereissued.Their
ordealasinmateswasjustbeginning.Theywouldfaceadditional"selections"inthe
future.Theofficerinchargeofthe"selection"wasaphysician.His"expertopinion"
wasrequiredtodeterminewhowouldliveandwhowoulddie.Themostinfamousof
allofthem,Dr.Josef*Mengele,whoalsooversawsomeofthecruelestquasimedical
experimentsconductedoninmates,wasoftentobefoundattherampinBirkenau.At
otherdeathcamps,noselectionwasneeded;arrivingJewswereallsenttotheirdeath.
ThosemarkedforSelektionandafteritwereforcedtoruntothe"showers"tothe
accompanimentofabandplayingmusic.Between700800menandwomen,elderly
people,andchildrenwerecrammedintoachambermeasuring25squaremeters(225
sq.ft).CertaintaskswererestrictedtotheGermans;theyaloneemptiedtheZyklonB
intothechamberthroughslitsintheroof;thegassingtookabout20minutes,
dependingonthenumberofpersonsinthechamberandthenthegashadtobe
evacuatedfromthechamber.Theyalonepronouncedthedead,dead.
Terribleshriekscouldbeheardfromthehermeticallysealedchamberwhenthose
insidebegantosuffocateandtheirlungsburst.OneSonderkommandofromAuschwitz
recalled,"Peoplecalledoneanotherbyname.Motherscalledtheirchildren,children,
theirmothersandfathers.SometimeswecouldhearSh'maYisrael."HearOhIsrael,the
LordisourGod,theLordisOne,thetraditionallinerecitedbyJewsatdeath.Rudolph
Reder,oneoftwosurvivorsofBelzecandtheonlyonetobearwitnesssaid:"Only
whenIheardchildrencalling:'Mommy.Haven'tIbeengood?It'sdark.'Myheart
wouldbreak.Laterwestoppedhavingfeelings."

Someofthevictimsunderstoodwhatwasabouttohappen.Othersweredeceivedtothe
veryend.Whenthedoorswerereopened,theSonderkommandoenteredtotakeoutthe
corpses.Ifanyonewasleftalive,hewasbeatentodeath.Thecontortedandentangled
bodieswereseparated,bodycavitieswereinspectedforpossiblevaluables,andafter
ringsandgoldteethwereremovedandhairwasshorn,theywerepiledintensfor
inspectionandthentakenandburned.Later,furnacesandcrematingpitswere
constructed.Astherateofexterminationincreased,heapsofashesaccumulatedbythe
pits,whosesmokewasvisiblefromfaraway.Thedistinctsmellofburningflesh
permeatedthearea.Theeconomicexploitationofthecorpsesinvolvedtheextractionof
tonsofgoldteethandrings,whichweresenttotheReichsbankandcreditedtotheSS
account;thehairandboneswereemployedinindustry;theasheswereusedas
fertilizer;andtheclothesweresenttoothercampsafterfumigation.Thereisno
credibleevidencethatbodyfatwasusedforsoap.
Themurderratewassointensethatatthebeginningof1942eightoutoftenofthe
JewswhoweretodieintheHolocaustwerestillalive.Fourteenmonthslater,the
figurewasreversed,80%oftheJewswerealreadydead.Therateofextermination,
whichwassubjecttotherateoftransports,tookitstollonthecommunicationssystem
justwhenthearmywasinneedofit,andtheexterminationofmanpowerundermined
thewareffort.
"Medical"Experiments
Pseudomedicalexperimentswerecarriedoutinanumberofcamps.PriortoWorld
WarIIgovernmentsroutinelyusedvulnerablepopulationsforexperimentation,but
Germanphysiciansoperatedwithoutlimitsandwithroutinedisregardforthehumanity
ofthoseuponwhomtheyexperimented.EvenbeforeWorldWarIIinternedJewshad
beenusedforpseudobiological"raceresearch."UponHimmler'sinitiative,unlimited
suppliesoflivemenandwomenwereputatthedisposaloftheSSmedical
organizationforthepurposeof"medical"experimentsinthecampsandoutside.Under
theprogramofthebiologicaldestructionofthe"inferiorraces",ViktorBrack,whohad
alsobeenoneoftheheadsoftheEuthanasiaProgram,waschargedin1941with
developingaquicksystemofsterilizingbetween2,000,000and3,000,000Jewswho
werefitforwork.Thelogicwassimple:ifJewscouldbesterilized,thentheimposition
ofthe"FinalSolution"wouldtakebutagenerationastherewouldbenodangeroftheir
reproducingandperpetuatingtheJewishpeople.Intheinterim,theGermanpeople
couldenjoythebenefitsoftheirlabor.TheBracksystem,employedinAuschwitzby
HorstSchumann,consistedoftheirradiationofthereproductiveorgansofmenand
women.AnothersystemwasalsotestedinAuschwitzbyKarlClauberg,who,during
thegynecologicalexaminationofwomen,injectedthemwithmatter,whichburnedout
thewomb.GerhardMadausandErnstKochworkedonthedevelopmentofanherbal
meansofsterilization,usingCaladiumseguinum;Gypsieswereusedasguineapigs.
AugustHirtworkedonshrinkingskullsforhiscollectionattheanatomicalinstituteat
Strasbourg,forthepurposesof"racialresearch."The"specimens"wereputtodeathat
Natzweiler.Uponordersreceivedfromtheairforce,experimentssubjectinghumansto

conditionsofhighpressureandfreezingwereheldatDachau,toinvestigatethe
possibilitiesofthesurvivalofpilots.Inthenameof"medicalresearch",humanswere
infectedwithcontagiousdiseasesandepidemics,inordertotryoutnewdrugsand
poisons.TheSSdoctorsalsoamputatedbonesandcutmusclesfortransplantation
purposes;theyremovedinternalorgansandintroducedcancerintohumanbodies.
Thosevictimswhodidnotdieimmediatelywerelefttoperishfromneglectandagony.
Someofthemsurvived,crippledormaimedforlife.
InNovember1943,Dr.JosefMengelebecamethechiefphysicianofBirkenau.
Mengelewantedto"prove"thesuperiorityoftheNordicrace.Hisfirstexperiments
wereperformedongypsychildrensuppliedtohimfromthesocalledkindergarten.
Beforelongheexpandedhisinteresttotwins,dwarfs,andpersonswithabnormalities.
Mengelesubjectedhisexperimentalgrouptoallpossiblemedicalanalysesthatcould
beperformedwhilethevictimswerealive.Thetestsheperformedwerepainful,
exhausting,andtraumaticforthefrightenedandhungrychildrenwhomadeupthebulk
hissubjects.
Thetwinsandthecrippledpersonsdesignatedassubjectsofexperimentswere
photographed,theirjawsandteethcastinplastermolds,fingerprintsweretakenfrom
handsandlegs.OnMengele'sinstructions,aninmatepaintermadecomparative
drawingsoftheshapesofheads,auricles,noses,mouths,hands,andlegsofthetwins.
Whentheresearchwascompletedsomesubjectswerekilledbyphenolinjectionsand
theirorganswereautopsiedandanalyzed.Scientificallyinterestinganatomical
specimenswerepreservedandshippedouttotheInstituteinBerlinDahlemforfurther
research.
OnthedayheleftAuschwitz,January17,1945,Mengeletookwithhimthe
documentationofhisexperiments.Hestillimaginedthattheywouldbringhim
scientifichonor.
StructureandAdministration
OnJuly7,1934,HimmlerappointedTheodorEickeinspectorofconcentrationcamps
andFuehreroftheSSWachverbaende("guards").Afanatic,brutalNaziandefficient
organizer,Eickedeterminedtheuniformpatternoftheconcentrationcamps,fixedtheir
locations,andheadedtheirinspectionauthorityuntilhistransfertothefrontin
November1939.Theeconomicadministration,includingthefinancingandequipping
oftheSSDeathHeadUnit,membersofwhichservedasguards,washandledbyPohl.
AsaresultofconflictsbetweentheGestapoandSS,adivisionoftaskswasmade:the
GestapomadearrestsandtheSSactuallyranthecamps.This,however,didnotprevent
thestrugglebetweenthevariousauthoritiesandtheresultingtangleofbureaucracy,
whichkepttheprisonersfromknowingwhichofficedecidedtheirfate.Thedifferent
typesofconcentrationcampswereclassifiedintothreecategoriesinaccordancewith

theseverityoftheirdetentionconditions.Inpracticethevariouscampsresembledone
anotherintheirinhumanity.Dachauservedasthemodelcamp,whereguardsand
commandantsweretrained.Eickecreatedacombinationofconcentrationcampand
laborcampbyexploitingtheprisonersforprofitandtofinancethecampsthemselves.
Thegateofthecampwasaonestoryconstructioninthecenterofwhichstoodatower
withaclockandasearchlight.Thegateusuallyboreamotto,suchas"Arbeitmacht
frei"("Labormakesfree").Theparadeground(Appellplatz)stretchedfromthegateto
thewoodenhutswheretheprisonerswerehoused.Thestructureofthecommandwas
fixedin1936andincluded
(a)theKommandantur,comprisingtheKommandant,whoheldauthorityoverthe
headsofdivisions;
(b)thePoliticalDepartment,anautonomousauthorityintheGestapo,responsiblefor
thefilecardsoftheprisonersand,from1943,incommandofexecutions(itconfirmed
thelistsofJewschosenthroughSelektion("selection")fordeathinthegaschambers);
(c)theSchutzhaftlager("protectivecustody"camp),undercommandofthe
Schutzhaftlagerfuehrer,whoseBlockfuehrerwereresponsiblefororderanddiscipline
intheprisoners'quarters(therewerealsoArbeitsdienstfuehrer,responsibleforthe
divisionoflabor,andtheKommandofuehrer,wholedthelabordetachments);
(d)theadministration,whichdealtwithadministration,internalaffairs,andeconomy
(ConcentrationcampsthatabsorbedtransportsofJewshadaspecialstafftoclassify
theirgoodsandsendthemontotheHauptversorgungslagerinAuschwitz.);
(e)Lagerarzt,theSSphysician.
GuarddutieswerecarriedoutmostlybytheSSDeathHeadUnits.In1944,1,000,000
prisonerswerekeptby45,000guards,ofwhom35,000wereSSmenand10,000were
armyornavymenornonGermanauxiliaries.Theguardswereallowedtheunstinted
useofweaponsagainstescapeesorrebels,andifaprisonerescapedtheguardwas
tried,whileguardswhokilledescapeeswererewarded.
Theprisonerswereclassifiedasfollows:politicalprisoners,includingsmugglersand
deserters(aftertheoutbreakofwartheseincludedallnonGermans);membersof
"inferiorraces",Jewsandgypsies,andcriminals;asocials,suchastramps,drunkards,
andthoseguiltyofnegligenceatwork.Homosexualsconstitutedaspecialgroup.Each
groupworeadistinctivebadge,anumber,andatrianglecoloredaccordingtothe
differentcategories.TheJewsworeanadditionalyellowtriangle,invertedunderthe
first,thusformingaStarofDavid.Atalaterstage,insomeconcentrationcampsthe
prisoner'snumberwastattooedonhisarm.

Theprisoners'administration,whosestructureresembledthatoftheconcentration
campcommand,cooperatedwiththeSS,andthisstructureresultedindualsupervision
oftheprisoners.Sadistsanddisturbedpersonsinanadministrativepostcouldbrutalize
theirfellows.Theprisoners'administrationwasheadedbyaLageraeltester("camp
elder"),appointedbythecampcommandant.Eachblockofprisoners'dwellingshada
Blockaeltester,assistedbyStubendienste("roomorderlies"),whowereresponsiblefor
maintainingorderandforthedistributionoffood.Theworkdetachmentswereheaded
byKapos,worksupervisorsresponsibletotheSSKommandofuehrerandassistedbya
Vorarbeiter("foreman").Thesepostsweregenerallygiventocriminaloffenders,who
oftenexceededtheSSintheirbrutality,eitherfromsadismorfromfearoftheSS.The
Kaposspiedontheirfellowprisonersandingratiatedthemselveswiththeirmasters,but
theirhopesofsurvivalthroughoppressionoftheirfellowmenfailed,astheytoo
usuallyfellvictimtothemachinationsoftheSS.Inhardlabordetachmentsaprisoner
couldescapethepunishmentsmetedoutbytheKaposandremainaliveonlybybribing
them.TheKaposcreatedaregimeofcorruptionandblackmail,whichgavethemalife
ofcomfortandeaseaslongastheyheldtheirposts.
Theprisoners,whoreachedthecampsinastateofhungerandexhaustion,wereforced
tohandovertheremainderoftheirpersonalpropertyandinreturnreceivedasetof
clothing,whichincludedanavyandwhitestripedshirt,aspoon,abowl,andacup.
Theywereallottedspaceinthetiersofwoodenbunksinhutscontainingthreeorfour
timesthenumberofpersonsforwhichthestructureswereoriginallyintended.The
prisoners'dailyliferesembledtheoutsideworldonlyinthenamesgiventoeveryday
objects.Horrificrealitieswereoftenhiddenunderacceptedwordsas"food","work",
"medicine",and"neutral"wordssuchasSonderbehandlung("specialtreatment",i.e.,
execution)Selektion(theselectionofthosetobesenttotheirdeath),orDesinfektion
(i.e.,gassing).Theprisoners'dietborderedonstarvationanddeterioratedfurtherduring
thewaryears.Theterriblehungerdidmorethananythingelsetodestroythehuman
imageandevenreducedsometocannibalism.Theextremelypoorconditionsofhealth
andhygieneandthelackofwateralsoaidedthespreadofdiseaseandepidemics,
especiallytyphusandspottedfever.Thecampdoctorandhisprisonerassistantoften
causedorhasteneddeaththroughneglect,mistreatment,orlethalinjections.
EndoftheCamps
AstheRussiansadvancedfromtheeastandtheBritishandAmericansfromthewest,
Himmlerorderedtheemergencyevacuationofprisonersfromcampsintheoccupied
territories.Nomeansoftransportationwasavailablefortheevacuation,andinearly
1945mostoftheprisonersweredraggedbythethousandsinlongdeathmarches
lastingseveraldaysincoldandrainandwithoutequipmentorfood.TheGerman
prisonersweregivenweaponstohelptheSS.Exhaustion,starvation,thirst,andthe
killingofescapeesandtheweakaccountedforhundredsofthousandsofvictims.The
localpopulations,whohadbeenincitedagainsttheprisoners,attackedthemand
refusedsanctuarytothosewhoescaped.Atthereceptioncamps,massesofthenew
arrivalsdiedofstarvationandovercrowding,whichhastenedthespreadofepidemics

suchastyphusandspottedfever.Theevacuationoperationcostthelivesofabout
250,000prisoners,manyofthemJews.
Theconcentrationandexterminationcampsconstitutedaterrifyingexampleofthe"new
order"whichtheNaziswerepreparingforthewholeworld,usingterrorandthe
impersonalmurderofmillionsofanonymousvictimstoturn"ideology"intoreality.The
murderitselfwastheendprocessofthedestructionofthevictims'identityandtheir
ethicalpersonalities.Thesplittingofgroupsintoindividuals,andindividualsintoatoms
reducedmostoftheprisonersintomereshadowsofmen;somebecamehungryanimals
fightingfortheirexistenceattheexpenseoftheirneighbor'slives;othersbecame
*"muselmann,"thewalkingdeadwhohadlostthewilltolive.Nevertheless,there
wereprisoners,manyofthemJews,whohadtheenergyandtheabilitytoorganize
revolts(asatTreblinkaandSobibor)andtrytoescape,individuallyoringroups(e.g.,
fromAuschwitz),butonlyasmallpercentagesucceeded.WhentheReichcrumbledthere
wasnoonetogivetheordertoexterminate.TheSSfled,draggingtheremnantsofthe
prisonerswiththemwestwardforextermination,inthehopesofdestroyingallremainsof
theircrime.Only500,000concentrationcampprisonersandthosedestinedfor
exterminationremainedalive,mostofthemphysicallycrippledandmentallybroken.
Thesesurvivingremnants,togetherwithmanydocumentswhichauthorizedthereignof
terror,borewitnesstothehorrorsofthephenomenon.Exactdataarelacking,butthereis
ageneralconsensusthatatAuschwitz1.11.3millionpeopleweregassed,9outof10of
themJews;atTreblinkabetween750,000and870,000Jewswerekilled;atBelzecsome
500,000Jewsweremurdered;atChelmnosome150,000Jewsweregassed;atSobiborat
least206,000Jewsweremurdered;atMajdaneksome170,000.Thetotalmayexceed
2,750,000inthekillingcentersalone.