CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Distillation columns are one of the main units used for
separation processes in industry. The basic theory behind
them is very simple and relies on a mixture being made of
components of different boiling points. As a feed enters
the column and some fractions may vaporise and rise up
the tower. The vapour components will condense and leave
the column at different levels as the temperature
decreases up the tower. Based on a binary mixture, the
more volatile component will come out at the top of the
tower, and the less volatile component will leave at the
bottom as a liquid. The less volatile component will have
a higher boiling point so it will be a liquid in the
column.
Continuous distillation is used widely in the chemical
process industries where large quantities of liquids have
to be distilled. Such industries are the natural gas
processing, petrochemical production, coal tar
processing, liquor production, liquefied air separation,
hydrocarbon solvents production and similar industries,
but it finds its widest application in petroleum
refineries. In such refineries, the crude oil feedstock
is a very complex multicomponent mixture that must be
separated and yields of pure chemical compounds are not
expected, only groups of compounds within a relatively
small range of boiling points, which are called
fractions. These fractions are the origin of the term
fractional distillation or fractionation. It is often not
worthwhile separating the components in these fractions
any further based on product requirements and economics.
In continuous distillation, feed constantly is charged to
the column at a point between the top and bottom trays.
The section above the feed point rectifies the
more volatile component while the column section below
the feed point strips out the more volatile component
from the less volatile liquid.(Wikipedia, 2015)
.

1.1

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

To demonstrate the use of a continuous

distillation column
To investigate the steady state distillation of a
binary mixture
To generate the equilibrium data for a binary
mixture and obtain the refractive index data for
both overhead and bottom products.

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 Distillation: Description And Brief
History
Distillation
industry for
This is done
miscible and
components.

process is widely applied in the engineering

mass transfer and separation operations.
by vaporization of a liquid mixture of
volatile substances into individual

Today it is particularly well suited for high purity

separations since any degree of separation can be
obtained with a fixed energy consumption by increasing
the number of equilibrium stages.

2.2

FUNDAMENTALS

2.2.1 The Equilibrium Stage Concept

The equilibrium (theoretical) stage concept (see
Figure 2.1) is central in distillation.
Here we assume vapour-liquid equilibrium (VLE) on
each stage and that the liquid is sent to the stage
below and the vapour to the stage above. For some
trayed columns this may be a reasonable description
of the actual physics, but it is certainly not for a
packed column. Nevertheless, it is established that
calculations based on the equilibrium stage concept
(with the number of stages adjusted appropriately)
fits data from most real columns very well, even
packed columns.

One may refine the equilibrium stage concept, e.g.

by introducing back mixing or a Murphee efficiency
factor for the equilibrium, but these fixes have
often relatively little theoretical justification,
and are not used in this article.
For practical calculations, the critical step is
usually not the modelling of the stages, but to
obtain a good description of the VLE. In this area
there has been significant advances in the last 25
years, especially after the introduction of
equations of state for VLE prediction. However, here
we will use simpler VLE models (constant relative
volatility) which apply to relatively ideal
mixtures.

2.2.2 RAOULTS LAW

In a solution of two miscible liquids (A & B) the
partial pressure of component A (PA) in the
solution equals
the partial pressure of pure A (PAo) times its mole
fraction (XA)
Partial Pressure of A in solution
PA = (PAo) x (XA)

(2.1)

Partial Pressure of B in solution

PB = (PBo) x (XB)

(2.2)

When the total pressure (sum of the partial

pressures) is equal to or greater than the applied
pressure, normally Atmospheric Pressure (760 mm Hg),
the solution boils
Ptotal = PA

PB

PAo.XA

PBo.XB

(2.3)

If the sum of the two partial pressures of the two

compounds in a mixture is less than the applied
pressure, the mixture will not boil. The solution
must be heated until the combined vapor pressure
equals the applied pressure
Not all mixtures obey Raoults law. Some components
that have high solubility with each other form
azeotrope. An azeotrope is a mixture that has either
a higher or lower boiling point than the boiling
point of any of the pure components. This means that
when a mixture reaches an azeotrope, such as ethanol
and water at 95.6 % water, it behaves as a pure
substance.

2.2.3

THE BOILING POINT DIAGRAM

The boiling point diagram shows how the equilibrium

compositions of the components in a liquid mixture
vary with temperature at a fixed pressure. Consider
an example of a liquid mixture containing 2
components (A and B) - a binary mixture. This has
the following boiling point diagram. The boiling
point of A is that at which the mole fraction of A
is 1. The boiling point of B is that at which the
mole fraction

of A is 0. In this example, A is the more volatile

component and therefore has a lower boiling point

than B. The upper curve in the diagram is called the

dew-point curve while the lower one is called the
bubble-point curve.
The dew-point is the temperature at which the
saturated vapour starts to condense.
The bubble-point is the temperature at which the
liquid starts to boil.
The region above the dew-point curve shows the
equilibrium composition of the superheated vapour
while the region below the bubble-point curve shows
the equilibrium composition of the subcooled liquid.

Figure 2.2 Boiling Point Diagram

2.2.4 VAPOUR LIQUID EQUILIBRIA

Distillation columns are designed based on the
boiling point properties of the components in the
mixtures being separated. Thus the sizes,
particularly the height, of distillation columns are
determined by the vapour liquid equilibrium (VLE)
data for the mixtures.
CurvesConstant pressure VLE data is obtained from
boiling point diagrams. VLE data of binary mixtures
is often presented as a plot, as shown in the figure
on the right. The VLE plot expresses the bubblepoint and the dew-point of a binary mixture at
constant pressure. The curved line is called the
equilibrium line and describes the compositions of

the liquid and vapour in equilibrium at some fixed

pressure.

FIGURE 2.3 VLE Plot For a Binary Mixture

(Ideal System)
This particular VLE plot shows a binary mixture that
has a uniform vapour-liquid equilibrium that is
relatively easy to separate. There are other nonideal systems such as the azeotropic systems.

2.2.5 RELATIVE VOLATILITY

Separations of components by distillation process
depends on the differences in volatilities of
components that make up the solution to be
distilled.
The relative volatility indicates the ease or
difficulty of using distillation to separate the
more volatile components from the less volatile
components in a mixture.
The greater difference in their volatility, the
better is separation by heating (distillation).
Conversely if their volatility differ only slightly,
the separation by heating becomes difficult.
For a Binary mixture, the relative volatility of
compound A to Compound B is an indication of how
volatile compound A is, compared to compound B

(2.4)
Where;
Subscrips A and B indicates properties of compound A
and compound B respectively
X and y represents the mole fraction of in liquid and
vapour phases respectively

2.3

TYPES OF DISTILLATION

The various types of distillation are:

Simple Distillation
Molecular Distillation
Fractional Distillation
Vacuum Distillation
Extractive Distillation
Azeotropic Distillation
Flash Distillation
Batch Distillation
Continuous Distillation

2.3.1 SIMPLE DISTILLATION

This is a Single Vaporization/Condensation cycle of
a mixture that produces a distillate that is always
impure
Therefore, it is impossible to completely separate
the components in a mixture with Simple Distillation

Relatively pure substances can be obtained from a

mixture with Simple Distillation if the boiling
points of the components differ by a large amount
(>100oC)
If a small increment of the initial distillate is
separated and redistilled and this process is
repeated many times, effectively producing multiple
sequential Vaporization/ Condensation Cycles, an
increasingly pure solution can be attained.

FIGURE 2.4 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF SIMPLE DISTILLATION

2.3.2 MOLECULAR DISTILLATION

A special application of the simple distillation is
molecular distillation, known also as evaporative
distillation or short path distillation.
The mean free path of a molecule is defined as
the
average distance through which a molecule can move
without coming into collision with another. For
material that are regarded as non volatile under
ordinary
conditions of temperature and pressure
are generally removed by this by
increasing the
mean free path.
Molecular distillation process is characterized by
Very high vacuum, and the evaporating surface must
be close to the condensing surface.

The liquid area is usually large to avoid boiling

and evolution of the vapors is from surface only.
Some applications of molecular distillation are in
the Purification of oils and Separation of vitamins.

2.3.3 FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION

As the solution to be purified is heated, its
vapours rise to the fractionating column.
The Fractionating Column, of which there are many
types containing a variety of packing materials,
subjects the mixture to many
Vaporization/Condensation Cycles as the material
moves up the column toward the Distillation Head,
which is attached to the Condenser.
With each cycle within the column, the composition
of the vapor is progressively enriched in the lower
boiling liquid.
This process continues until most of the lower
boiling compound is removed from the original
mixture and condensed in the receiving flask.
Each component with different boiling points would
be separated at each different stage and condensed
to obtain a liquid.
At the bottom there would be highest melting point
components residue.
Example- Fractional distillation of petroleum.

FIGURE 2.4 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF FRACTIONAL

DISTILLATION

2.3.4 VACUUM DISTILLATION

Some compounds have very high boiling points. To
boil such compounds, it is often better to lower the
pressure at which such compounds are boiled instead
of increasing the temperature.
Once the pressure is lowered to the vapour pressure
of the compound (at the given temperature), boiling
and the rest of the distillation process can
commence.
This technique is known as vacuum distillation.
Example-Dimethyl sulfoxide usually boils at 189 C.
Under a vacuum, it distilles off into the receiver
at only 70 C

2.3.5 EXTRACTIVE DISTILLATION

Extractive distillation is defined as distillation
in the presence of a miscible, high boiling,
relatively non-volatile component, the solvent, that
forms no azeotrope with the other components in the
mixture.
The method of extractive distillation uses a
separation solvent, which is generally nonvolatile,
has a high boiling point and is miscible with the
mixture, but doesn't form an azeotropic mixture. The
solvent interacts differently with the components of
the mixture thereby causing their relative
volatilities to change.
The solvent must alter the relative volatility by a
wide enough margin for a successful result. The
quantity, cost and availability of the solvent
should be considered. The solvent should be easily
separable from the bottom product, and should not
react chemically with the components or the mixture,

or cause corrosion in the equipment. A classic

example is of aniline as suitable solvent.

2.3.6 AZEOTROPIC DISTILLATION

An azeotrope is a mixture of two or more liquids
(chemicals) in such a ratio that its composition
cannot be changed by simple distillation. This
occurs because, when an azeotrope is boiled, the
resulting vapor has the same ratio of constituents
as the original mixture.
Because their composition is unchanged by
distillation, azeotropes are also called constant
boiling mixtures.
Azeotropic distillation usually refers to the
specific technique of adding another component to
generate a new, lower-boiling azeotrope that is
heterogeneous (e.g. producing two, immiscible liquid
phases), such as the example below with the addition
of benzene to water and ethanol. In actual fact,
this practice of adding an entrainer which forms a
separate phase is a specific sub-set of (industrial)
azeotropic distillation methods, or combination
thereof. In some senses, adding an entrainer is
similar to extractive distillation.
Example - distillation of ethanol/water, using
normal distillation techniques, ethanol can only be
purified to approximately 96% . Some uses require a
higher percentage of alcohol, eg. when used as a
gasoline additive.

2.3.7 FLASH DISTILLATION

The Flash can be seen as a distillation with only
one equilibrium stage. The operation stops, when the
liquid and vapour streams reach the equilibrium
compositions defined by temperature and pressure,
and the two streams can easily be separated.

FIGURE 2.5 FLASH DISTILLATION

The incoming liquid is first heated and pressurised,

before being fed into the drum. Due to the large
pressure drop, the liquid evaporates very
quickly(hence "flash").
Usually, flash distillation cannot achieve a large
degree of separation, and is therefore employed as
an auxiliary operation to prepare streams for
further processing. In some cases however, like the
desalination of sea water, complete separation can
be achieved.
If only two components are present in the feed, the
ash is called binary, while more than two components
in the feed define a multicomponent flash.

2.3.8 BATCH DISTILLATION

Batch distillation refers to the use of distillation
in batches, meaning that a mixture is distilled to
separate it into its component fractions before the
distillation still is again charged with more
mixture and the process is repeated

Two liquids(A & B) are heated in a distillation

tower. The ratio between A and B in the vapour will
be different from the ratio in the liquid.
Now A will be more in the vapour phase and would be
separated and will be obtained back on condensation.
Also B be will be more in the retaining liquid.
Finally component A is distilled off and the
remaining component is enriched in B.
There is at least one volatile distillate fraction,
which has boiled and been separately captured as a
vapour condensed to a liquid.
There is always a residue, which is the least
volatile residue that has not been separately
captured as a condensed vapour.
In batch distillation, the composition of the source
material, the vapours of the distilling compounds
and the distillate change during the distillation.

FIGURE 2.6 BATCH DISTILLATION

2.3.9 CONTINUOUS DISTILLATION

This is a form of distillation, is an ongoing
separation in which a mixture is continuously
(without interruption) fed into the process and
separated fractions are removed continuously as
output streams as time passes during the operation.

A distillation produces at least two output

fractions. These fractions include at least one
volatile distillate fraction, which has boiled and
been separately captured as a vapor condensed to a
liquid, and practically always a bottoms (or
residuum) fraction, which is the least volatile
residue that has not been separately captured as a
condensed vapor.
In a continuous distillation, each of the fraction
streams is taken simultaneously throughout
operation; therefore, a separate exit point is
needed for each fraction. In practice when there are
multiple distillate fractions, each of the
distillate exit points are located at different
heights on a fractionating column.
The bottoms fraction can be taken from the bottom of
the distillation column or unit, but is often taken
from a reboiler connected to the bottom of the
column.

FIGURE 2.7 CONTINUOUS DISTILLATION

In a continuous distillation, the system is kept in

a steady state or approximate steady state. Steady
state means that quantities related to the process
do not change as time passes during operation. Such
constant quantities include feed input rate, output
stream rates, heating and cooling rates, reflux
ratio, and temperatures, pressures, and compositions
at every point (location). Unless the process is
disturbed due to changes in feed, heating, ambient
temperature, or condensing, steady state is normally
maintained.
Since a continuous distillation unit is fed
constantly with a feed mixture and not filled all at
once like a batch distillation, a continuous
distillation unit does not need a sizable
distillation pot, vessel, or reservoir for a batch
fill. Instead, the mixture can be fed directly into
the column, where the actual separation occurs. The
height of the feed point along the column can vary
on the situation and is designed so as to provide
optimal result.

2.4

CONTINUOUS DISTILLATION COLUMN TYPES

The continuous distillation column can be operated
as packed or plate type.

2.4.1 PACKED COLUMN

Packed columns are used for distillation, gas
absorption and liquid-liquid extraction.
The gas-liquid contact in a packed column is
continuous, not stage-wise, as in a plate column.
The liquid flows down in the column over a packing
surface and the vapor (or the gas) moves countercurrently, up the column. The performance of a
packed column is very dependent on the maintenance
of good liquid and gas distribution through the
packed bed, and this is an important consideration
in packed column design
Packings are passive devices that are designed to
increase the interfacial area for vapour-liquid

contact. The following pictures show 3 different

types of packings.

FIGURE 2.8 SOME TYPES OF PACKINGS USED IN

DISTILLATION COLUMN
These are some advantages of packed columns over
plate columns.
1. For corrosive liquids a packed column will
usually be cheaper than the equivalent plate
column.
2. The liquid hold-up is lower in a packed column
than in a plate column. This can be important
when the hold-up of toxic or flammable liquids
must be kept as small as possible for safety
reasons.
3. Packed columns are more suitable for handling
foaming systems.
4. The pressure drop can be lower in a packed column
than the equivalent plate column.
The packing types can be divided into two broad
classes: structured and random packings.
Earlier the random packings were more commonly used
in the industry (Raschig-, Pall- and
HyPack rings, and Berl- and Intallox saddles).

2.4.2 PLATE COLUMN

Plate contractors/ towers are vertical cylindrical
columns in which a vertical stack of trays or plates
are installed across the column height as shown in
Figure 7.1. The liquid enters at the top of the
column and flows across the tray and then through a
downcomer (cross-flow mode) to the next tray below.

The gas/vapor from the lower tray flows in the

upward direction through the opening/holes in the
tray to form a gas-liquid dispersion. In this way,
the mass transfer between the phases (gas/vaporliquid) takes place across the tray and through the
column in a stage-wise manner.

FIGURE 2.9 A typical tray in a distillation column.

A is the tray itself, B are the holes in the tray
that allow the vapor to pass through the tray, C and
D are the tubes that allow liquid to pass from one
tray to another. As the vapor moves up the column it
gets progressively cooler which allows some of the
mixture to condense and further concentrates the
vapor with the lightest component(s).

These are some advantages of plate columns over

packed columns;
1. Plate columns can be designed to handle a wider
range of liquid and gas flow rates than packed
columns.
2. The efficiency of a plate can be predicted more
accurately than the equivalent terms of packings
(HETP or HTU).
3. Packed columns are not suitable for very low
liquid flow rates, in such a case, the plate
column is the convenient choice, as they can
easily handle wide variations in flow rates.
4. They are lighter in weight. It is easier and
cheaper to install.
5. Maintenance cost is reduced due to the ease of
cleaning.

2.5

BASIC DISTILLATION EQUIPMENT AND

OPERATION

Distillation columns are made up of several components,

each of which is used either to tranfer heat energy or
enhance materail transfer. A typical distillation unit
contains several major components:
a vertical shell where the separation of liquid
components is carried out
column internals such as trays/plates and/or packings
which are used to enhance component separations
a reboiler to provide the necessary vaporisation for the
distillation process
a condenser to cool and condense the vapour leaving the
top of the column
a reflux drum to hold the condensed vapour from the top
of the column so that liquid (reflux) can be recycled
back to the column

The vertical shell houses the column internals and

together withthe condenser and reboiler, constitute a
distillation column (see figure 2.7)
The liquid mixture that is to be processed is known as
the feed and this is introduced usually somewhere near
the middle of the column to a tray known as the feed
tray. The feed tray divides the column into a top
(enriching or rectification) section and a bottom
(stripping) section. The feed flows down the column where
it is collected at the bottom in the reboiler.

Heat is supplied to the reboiler to generate vapor. The source of

heat input can be any suitable fluid, although in most chemical
plants this is normally steam. In refineries, the heating source may
be the output streams of other columns. The vapor raised in the
reboiler is re-introduced into the unit at the bottom of the column.
The liquid removed from the reboiler is known as the bottoms product
or simply, bottoms.

The vapour moves up the column, and as it exits the top of the unit,
it is cooled by a condenser. The condensed liquid is stored in a
holding vessel known as the reflux drum. Some of this liquid is
recycled back to the top of the column and this is called the reflux.
The condensed liquid that is removed from the system is known as the
distillate or top product.

2.6

BASIC EQUATIONS FOR CONTINUOUS

DISTILLATION OF BINARY SYSTEMS

Sorel (1899) first derived and applied the basic stage

equations to the analysis of binary systems. Figure 2.10a
shows the flows and compositions in the top part of a
column.
Taking the system boundary to include the stage n and the
condenser, gives the following
equations:

Rectification section

Stripping section

FIGURE 2.10 SECTIONS OF A DISTILLATION COLUMN

Where:
V is the molar flow rate of lighter component in
vapour phase
L is the molar flow rate of lighter component in
liquid phase
D is the molar flow rate of lighter component in the
distillate
Y is the vapour phase mole fraction of lighter
component
X is the liquid phase mole fraction
component

of lighter

N refers to the plate number

Combining equations 2.5 and 2.6 gives

(2.7)
An analogous equation for the stripping section is

(2.8)
Where:
V is the boil up rate
B is the molar flow rate of bottoms
X, y and n have retain their usual meanings

2.6.1 NUMBER OF PLATES REQUIRED IN A

DISTILLATION COLUMN
In order to develop a method for the design of
distillation units to give the desired
fractionation, it is necessary, in the first
instance, to develop an analytical approach which
enables the necessary number of trays to be
calculated. First the heat and material flows over
the trays, the condenser, and the reboiler must be
established. Thermodynamic data are required to
establish how much mass transfer is needed to
establish equilibrium between the streams leaving
each tray.
2.6.1.1

LEWIS-SOREL METHOD (EQUIMOLAR

OVERFLOW)

For most distillation problems a simplifying

assumption, first proposed by Lewis (1909), can be
made that eliminates the need to solve the stage
energy-balance equations. The molar liquid and
vapour flow rates are taken as constant in the
stripping and rectifying sections. This condition is
referred to as equimolar overflow: the molar vapour
and liquid flows from each stage are constant. This
will only be true where the component molar latent
heats of vaporisation are the same and, together
with the specific heats, are constant over the range
of temperature in the column; there is no
significant heat of mixing; and the heat losses are
negligible. These conditions are substantially true
for practical systems when the components form nearideal liquid mixtures.
If a unit is operating as shown in Figure 2.11, so
that a binary feed F is distilled to give
a top product D and a bottom product W, with xf ,
xd, and xw as the corresponding mole
fractions of the more volatile component, and the
vapour Vt rising from the top plate is
condensed, and part is run back as liquid at its
boiling point to the column as reflux, the

remainder being withdrawn as product, then a

material balance above plate n, indicated
by the loop I in Figure 2.11 gives:
Vn = Ln+1 +D

(2.9)

FIGURE 2.11 MATERIAL BALANCE AT TOP AND BOTTOM OF

COLUMN
Carrying out a mass balance for the more volatile
component in top part of the column, a straight line
equation is obtained

(2.10)
And for the bottom part of the column

(2.11)
This equation, which is similar to equation 2.10, gives
the corresponding relation between the compositions of
the vapour rising to a plate and the liquid on the plate,
for the section below the feed plate. These two equations
are the equations of the operating lines.

In order to calculate the change in composition from one

plate to the next, the equilibrium data are used to find
the composition of the vapour above the liquid, and the
enrichment line to calculate the composition of the
liquid on the next plate. This method may then be
repeated up the column, using equation 2.11 for sections
below the feed point, and equation 2.10 for sections
above the feed point.
2.6.1.2

McCABE METHOD

In 1925, McCabe and Thiele [5] published a graphical

method for combining the equilibrium curve with material
balance operating lines to obtain, for a binary-feed
mixture and selected column pressure, the number of
equilibrium stages and reflux required for a desired
separation of feed components.
The McCabe-Thiele Assumptions are;

Both components have equal and constant molar

enthalpies of vaporization (latent heats).

Sensible heat, CpT, is negligible compared to

latent heat.
Column is insulated (no heat loss on each stage).
Column pressure is constant (thermodynamics can be

done at a single pressure).

These are big assumptions, but allow for simple analysis,
since L and V are constant under these assumptions.
For the rectifying section, A material balance for the LK
over the envelope for the total condenser and stages 1 to
n is as follows, where y and x refer, respectively, to LK
vapor and liquid mole fractions.
(2.12)
Solving equation 2.13 for yn+1 gives the equation for the
rectifying section operating line:

(2.13)

FIGURE 2.12 MASS BALANCE FOR RECTIFYING SECTION

FIGURE 2.13 McCABE THIELE OPERATING LINE FOR

RECTIFYING SECTION

FIGURE 2.14 MASS BALANCE FOR STRIPPING SECTION

FIGURE 2.15 McCABE THIELE OPERATING LINE FOR

STRIPPING SECTION
The optimum feed location is normally determined by
the point of intersection of the rectifying section
operating line and the stripping section operating
line. The feed stage may be varied from one position
to another to suit certain distillation conditions.

2.7

REFRACTIVE INDICES OF BINARY LIQUID MIXTURES

Refractive index measurements in combination with

density, boiling point, melting point and other
analytical data are very useful industrially also for
common substances which include oils, waxes, sugar syrups
etc. Literature survey reveals that its general
applicability in chemical analysis and industry. Number
of mixing rules has been proposed in the literature for
the refractive index measurements. Some of them are not
suitable when there is a large change of volume on
mixing.

FIGURE 2.16 SKETCH OF REFRACTIVE INDEX VS MOLE FRACTION

PLOT FOR METHYLCYCLOHEXANE
A refractometer measures the extent to which light is
bent (i.e. refracted) when it moves from air into a
sample and is typically used to determine the index of
refraction (aka refractive index or n) of a liquid
sample.

The refractive index is a unitless

and 1.7000 for most compounds, and
to five digit precision. Since the
depends on both the temperature of
wavelength of light used these are
reporting the refractive index:

number, between 1.3000

is normally determined
index of refraction
the sample and the
both indicated when

The italicized n denotes refractive index, the

superscript indicates the temperature in degrees Celsius,
and the subscript denotes the wavelength of light (in k ]
this case the D indicates the sodium D line at 589 nm).

The refractive index is commonly determined as part of

the characterization of liquid samples, in much the same
way that melting points are routinely obtained to
characterize solid compounds. It is also commonly used
to:

Help identify or confirm the identity of a sample by

comparing its refractive index to known values.
Assess the purity of a sample by comparing its
refractive index to the value for the pure substance.
Determine the concentration of a solute in a solution
by comparing the solution's refractive index to a
standard curve.

2.8

OVERALL COLUMN EFFICIENCY

CHAPTER 10
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Perry, Robert H., and Don W. Green. Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook 7 th
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Robert E. Treybal, Mass Transfer Operations, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 3 rd ed. 1981.

Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 8 th ed. 1997.
R. K. Sinnott, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering: Chemical Engineering Design
(vol. 6), Butterworth-Heinemann, 3rd ed. 1999.
Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, McGraw-Hill Companies, 7 th ed. 1997.
Henry Z. Kister, Distillation Design, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1st ed. 1992.
King, C.J. (1980). Separation Processes (2nd ed.). McGraw Hill.
Kister, Henry Z. (1992). Distillation Design (1st ed.). McGraw-Hill.

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