Abstract

The minority retention has been an important subject matter for several years in the higher
education field, as the importance of diversity has become recognized. Retention in higher
education is a multifaceted issue that only becomes more challenging when considering the
complexities of ethnicity. This literature seeks to identify (1) factors that contribute to low
retention rates among African Americans, (2) how finances, academic and social involvement
contributes to or inhibits the success students, (3) potential practices that could improve African
Americans ability to obtain a college degree as suggested by the literature.
Introduction
The mission of colleges and universities have evolved; not only do they seek to prepare their
students for future careers, but also to help them develop into well-rounded individuals. The
most important way this is accomplished is by creating opportunities for students to be exposed
to environments and individuals they may not have encountered otherwise. This is why diversity
has been a topic of conversation in higher education. Institutions provide a unique environment
where different cultures, socioeconomic statuses, values, etc. come together in a single physical
location and exist in unison. By recruiting students, faculty, and staff of diverse backgrounds,
they are able to give students the exposure that is necessary for them to fully develop. In higher
education it is crucial that institutions are able to not only recruit individuals from diverse
background, but also retain them. Diversity in institutions is not only for the benefit of those who
need exposure, but also so that deserving individuals of underrepresented populations have the
opportunity to pursue higher education. Providing a college education to growing numbers of
minority students is difficult for reasons that are historical, racial, and peculiar to institutions of
higher learning (Perez, 2012). We will explore some of these as we look at what contributes to
the low retention rate of ethnic minorities.
There are disproportionate number of ethnic minorities who are disadvantaged in areas
such as socioeconomic status and K-12 education (Perez, 2012; Jalomo, 2000). These
predispositions put students at a disadvantage before they begin their post-secondary education.
There are tools that have shown to be effective indicators in determining if students are affected
by these factors prior to them attending the university. The tools that have been most effective in
this include high school GPA, socioeconomic, standardized assessment scores (Lotkowski,
Robbins, & Noeth, 2004). Despite the improvement in the academic performance of minorities,
there remains a substantial gap between the academic preparation of white and minority students
(Perez, 2012). The majority of students who perform well on standardized test such as the SAT
come from high socioeconomic background while only 10% were from low socioeconomic
backgrounds (Jalomo, 2000).

When given adequate high school preparation and positive college experiences ethnicity does not
play a significant factor in retention (Chang, Sharkness, Huntado, & Newman, 2014).

Although low scores in these areas indicate a lack of preparedness of the individual this
in itself does not automatically mean that the student will not be retained, just as scoring high
does not automatically mean the student will be successful. Students who master course content
but fail to develop adequate academic self-confidence, academic goals, institutional
commitment, and social support and involvement may still be at risk of dropping out (Lotkowski,
Robbins, & Noeth, 2004). There are also non-academic factors that must be taken into account
when attempting to predict a student's retention. Many of these factors such as low academic
self-confidence are developed outside the institution and if not addressed, increase the likelihood
that the student will not be retained. Janes (1997) found that there was certain amount of mental
and emotional strength necessary for African Americans to persist through the nursing program.
As a result of obtaining a low high school GPA, low test scores, etc. students who are admitted
must take remedial courses. Severely inadequate student advising, lack of role models, and
racial bias contributing to "labeling" were listed among the primary reasons for decreased selfesteem (Janes, 1997). These are factors that contribute to this decreased self-esteem, in regards
to academics, which has a negative impact on retention rates of ethnic minorities (Chang,
Sharkness, Huntado, & Newman, 2014, Janes, 1997). Students are more likely to be retained if
they are able to effectively disassociate from norms constructed prior to college (Milem &
Berger, 1997). This allows them to develop new and more effective strategies that will lead to the
development of a positive academic self image.
With the cost of higher education being at an all time high and rising having the financial
means to support oneself is crucial for students. Even with the assistance of financial aid students
may not have enough to cover tuition and living expenses. If they are not able to receive
financial assistance from their family then they must work to cover the remainder of the
expenses. When they are required to work an excessive number of hours, the likelihood of
students not being retained in demanding fields, such as STEM fields increases (Chang,
Sharkness, Huntado, & Newman, 2014). Tinto (1987) suggest that financial stability is not an
important factor in a students ability to matriculate through the university Janes (1997) found
otherwise. The 8 participants of the study all supported the idea of financial aid being a major
contributing factor in their success; in fact they would not have pursued higher education without
it. This contradiction to Tinto (1987) shows that there are factors in retention that are specific to
ethnic minorities that were not considered in previous research.
It has been shown that all students perform better when they have a relationship with
their professors (Fischer, 200). This is especially for ethnic minorities because it counteracts
negative factors by helping students feel connected to a university that cares about them,
provides extra assistance to those struggling academically, and potentially provides a mentor.
As a part of Tintos retention model, students must disassociate from many norms and
conceptions developed prior to attending the institution and adopt those of the institution (Milem
& Berger, 1997). This is more difficult for ethnic minorities because it requires them to
relinquish a part of their identity. Being a part of underrepresented populations, ethnic minorities
behaviors, values, attitudes, etc. put them in conflict with incorporation. As a part of the

majority, many behaviors and beliefs are normalized and ethnic minorities are expected to adopt
these as their own. This applies to students for both academic and social integration; based on
their interactions and experiences at the institution they choose to either adapt or remain the
same (Milem & Berger, 1997; Fischer, 2007).
While adapting to new norms may have some benefits, it can cause conflict within ethnic
minority students. Social integration may be extremely difficult for ethnic minorities, who have
beliefs, attitudes, ideas, and behave in a way that is contradictory to what the institution deems
appropriate. Integration into the college environment is an emergent process that is largely a
function of formal and informal interactions students have on campus, in both academic and
social capacities (Fischer, 2007). Those who choose not to adapt will not feel connected to the
university and may feel that the university is not committed to them. Tintos discussions of
academic and social integration seem to be rooted chiefly in the degree to which students believe
they are apart of the academic and social systems of the college or university (Milem & Berger,
1997).
Current research suggest that the first year of college is crucial in improving retention
rates and it was with this in mind that the summer bridge programs were created, to help students
become academically resilient (Garcia & Paz, 2009; Kezar, 2001; referenced by Cabrera, Miner
& Milem, 2013). Initially it was created to help racial minorities, first generation college
students, and students from low socioeconomic backgrounds; although it is now open to all, they
continue to make up the majority of the participants (Cabrera, Miner & Milem, 2013). During
their time in the program they take college coursework, live in residence halls, and develop key
skills necessary to being successful their first year. Cabrera, Miner & Milem (2013) found that
this program has been successful in its goal of preparing underrepresented racial groups for their
first year.The results show that students who participated in this program (NSSP) had a higher
GPA and were more likely to be retained.
Mentoring programs are another method that many institutions have adopted in an effort
to improve retention rates. Previous research suggested that peer mentoring programs were
beneficial to mentees, (Good, 2000) found that they are also beneficial to the mentor.
Another unintentional side effect of the minority engineering
program was that 17
(almost 90%) of the mentors experienced and noted in their journals was the development of
personal skills- communication, confidence, and identity (Good, 2000). This shows that peer
mentoring programs could improve ethnic minority retention rates not only during the first year,
but also in following year by keeping student connected and accountable to one another. Again,
three predominant themes emerged within this particular area of growth: ease of social
interaction and communication, development of responsibility and leadership skills, and a sense
of self satisfaction and belonging (Good, 2000).
Current research shows that there are multiple factors that contribute to low retention
rates of ethnic minorities. The students background effects where they are mentally, emotionally,
and academically once they they arrive at the institution, however with adequate support they
have the ability to obtain their college degree. As we saw with Tintos theory some of the older
research done did not account for factors that specifically affect ethnic minorities such as the

overwhelming number of students who come from disadvantaged backgrounds. By conducting

studies that account for factors such as these an effect strategy can be developed to improve
retention rates. Programs that seek to bridge the gap caused by disadvantages along with
mentoring programs are just a few of the ways retention can be improved, however they are not
enough. In order to determine what other steps must be taken to account for factors such as
financial instability, poor academic self concepts, etc. more research must be done.