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Semiconductors
Introduction
The materials are classified on the basis of conductivity
and resistivity.
Semiconductors are the materials which has
conductivity, resistivity value in between conductor and
insulator .
The resistivity of semiconductor is in the order of 104 to
0.5 Ohm-metre.
It is not that, the resistivity alone decides whether a
substance is a semiconductor (or) not , because some
alloys have resistivity which are in the
range of
semiconductors resistivity. Hence there are some properties
like band gap which distinguishes the materials as
conductors, semiconductors
and insulators.
15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE 2
semi-conductor is a solid which has the energy band
similar to that of an insulator. It acts as an insulator at
absolute zero and as a conductor at high temperatures and
in the presence of impurities.
Semiconductors are materials whose electronic properties
are intermediate between those of metals and insulators.
These intermediate properties are determined by the
crystal structure, bonding characteristics and electronic energy
bands.
They are a group of materials having conductivities between
those of metals and insulators.
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(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
Intrinsic Semiconductors
In semiconductors and insulators, when an external
electric field is applied the conduction is not possible as there
is a forbidden gap, which is absent in metals.
In order to conduct, the electrons from the top of the
full valence band have to move into the conduction band, by
crossing the forbidden gap.
The field that needs to be applied to do this work will
be extremely large.
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In intrinsic semiconductors, the conduction is due to
the intrinsic processes (without the influence of impurities).
1
f(E) =
1 {exp[ E E F ) / k BT ]}
#
The fraction of electrons at energy E is equal to the
probability f(E). The number n of electrons promoted across the
gap,
n = N exp(Eg / 2kBT)
where N is the number of electrons available for excitation from
the top of the valence band.
Fermi level
The number of free electrons per unit volume in an intrinsic
semiconductor is
2
n 2
3/ 2
*
me kT
ex
p
EF Ec
kT
k T
h 2
2m h
EV E F
KT
. exp
2 me* k T
2
2
2
E Ec
exp F
2
kT
h
mhk
2
EF
exp
3
EC
Ev E F
2
m h exp
kT
KT
or
2 EF
kT
Ev EF
exp
kT
m h
*
me
Ev Ec
exp
kT
2 EF
3
log e exp Ev Ec
log e
m*
kT
2
kT
mh Ev Ec
2 EF
3
log e
m *
kT
2
kT
or Ef =
m h
3kT
log e
m*
4
e
E v E c
2
If we assume that,
Ev Ec
EF
*
m*
m
e
h
[ since loge1 = 0]
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
In an extrinsic semiconducting material, the charge
carriers originate from impurity atoms added to the original
material is called impurity [or] extrinsic semiconductor.
This Semiconductor obtained by doping TRIVALENT and
PENTAVALENT
impurities
in
a
TETRAVALENT
semiconductor. The electrical conductivity of
pure
semiconductors may be changed even with the addition
of few amount of impurities.
DOPING
The method of adding impurities to a pure
semiconductor is known as DOPING, and the impurity
added is called the doping agent(Ex-Ar,Sb,P,Ge and
Al).
The addition of impurity would increases the no.
of free electrons and holes in a semiconductor and
hence increases its conductivity.
SORTS OF SEMICONDUCTOR according to ADDITION
OF IMPURITIES
n-type semiconductor
p-type semiconductor
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N type semiconductor
When pentavalent impurity is added to the intrinsic
semiconductors, n type semi conductors are formed.
n - type semiconductor
At T = 0K
When small amounts of pentavalent impurity such as
phosphorous are added during crystal formation, the impurity
atoms lock into the crystal lattice[ see above Fig).
It is possible to calculate an orbit for the fifth electron
assuming that it revolves around the positively charged
phosphorus ion, in the same way as for the 1s electron around
the hydrogen nucleus.
The electron of the phosphorus atom is moving in the
electric field of the silicon crystal and not in free space, as is the
case in the hydrogen atom.
This brings in the dielectric constant of the crystal into the
orbital calculations, and the radius of the electron orbit here
turns out to be very large, about 80 , as against 0.5 for the
hydrogen orbit. Such a large orbit evidently means that the fifth
electron is almost free and is at an energy level close to the
conduction band.
At T > 0K
At T = 300K
Fermi energy
The Fermi energy for n type semiconductor is given by
EF
( Ec Ed )
kT
ln
2
2
Nd
2 me* kT
h2
At 0 K,
3/ 2
(Ec E d )
EF
2
Nd
2 m e * kT
h2
N d
kT
Ed Ec
ln
2
2
N x
3/ 2
Let
N x
kT
Ed Ec
ln
2
2
N d
3/ 2
2 m e * kT
Nx
P -Type Semiconductor
When trivalent impurity is added to intrinsic semiconductor, P
type semi conductors are formed.
Al has three electrons in the outer orbital. While substituting
for silicon in the crystal, it needs an extra- electron to
complete the tetrahedral arrangement of bonds around it.
The extra electron can come only from one of
the neighbouring silicon atoms, thereby creating a vacant
electron site (hole) on the silicon.
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p - type semiconductor
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At T = 0K
C o n d u c tio n b a n d
Eg
A c c e p to rs h a v e
a c c e p te d e le c tro n s
fro m v a le n c e b a n d
Ea
Ev
V a le n c e b a n d
(a) At T > 0K
(b) At T = 300K
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Fermi Energy
The Fermi energy for p type semiconductor is given by
kT
Ev Ea
ln
2
2
EF
At 0 K,
Na
2 m*h kT
2
2
EF
3/ 2
Ev Ea
2
EF
kT
Na
Ev E a
ln
2
2
2 2 mh* kT
h2
3/ 2
Ev Ea
where Ny = 2 2 mh 2 *
h
and therefore EF =E
kT
kT
2
ln
N y
N a
3/ 2
N y
Ea
kT
ln
2
2
N a
Na
Na