DEVELOPING STUDENTS INTO INDEPENDENT THINKERS

Developing Students into Independent Thinkers and Learners Using Visible Thinking and
Writing Workshop
Elleigh Karel
Grand Valley State University

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Understanding is nearly synonymous with learning, because learning means the topic
learnt is understood and the learner is able to manipulate their understanding through
connections and extensions with other thoughts and subjects. These thoughts and connections in
the writing process make students understanding visible. The development of learning occurs
when someone acquires an understanding about a topic that they did not understand prior to the
learning process. Learning is considered, by most, to be the most important outcome of school
education. Ritchhart, Church, & Morrison (2011) identify that research indicates there are two
different types of learning: deep and surface. Surface learning focuses on memorization of
knowledge and facts, often through rote practices, whereas deep learning has a focus on
developing understanding through more active and constructive processes (p.7). Surface level
learning is unacceptable, because it will not develop a lasting understanding. Rather, school
education must strive for deep level learning to ensure that students are prepared for long-lasting
understanding. Deep level learning can be attained through opportunities for students to develop
their understanding through their thinking in the writing process of: observation, discussion,
writing, and revision/ reflection. Thus educators must provide an active and constructive
processes which means having the students thinking at the center of the learning process rather
than the educators. When students thinking is valued they are actively invested in the process of
building understanding, because it is their thinking that is being challenged and grown. Also,
students must be constructing their thinking into conversations and writings, so that their
thinking and understanding are made visible. If understanding is only temporary then it is not
learned, because if it was learned then students would be able to utilize that understanding for the
rest of their life. When educators do not provide opportunities for students thinking to be
emphasized, educators make it difficult for students to develop their intellectual skills, let alone

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any sense of inclination and motivation toward thinking and learning (Ritchhart, 2002, p.7).
Often times in current classrooms, educators monopolize the classroom with their talking and
writing while students mindlessly regurgitate the educators thinking. Ritchhart, Church,
Morrison (2011) identify that Classrooms are too often places of tell and practice. The teacher
tells the students what is important to know or do and then has them practice that skill or
knowledge. In such classrooms, little thinking is happening (p.9). With educators thinking
centered in the learning process (through their talking and writing) students are discouraged from
developing essential dispositional thinking skills. The process described above is teacher
centered and does not prioritize student centered thinking, which stunts students thinking at the
surface level.
These types of teaching actions tell students that school and learning are basically dreary
tasks The overriding message is this: do the work, get the grade, and move on.
Furthermore, students are told that teachers do not trust them to engage in the work of
learning on their ownThis is teaching for complacency, for orderliness, for dependence,
and for superficiality (Ritchhart, 2002, p.6).
Students do not genuinely learn when they are not actively constructing their thoughts and
understanding into visible compositions, like discussion and writing. Additionally, if educators
are the ones whose thinking and understanding are centered in the learning process, students are
not actively involved in developing dispositional thinking skills that guide students into
becoming independent learners.
Developing deep level, independent, and life-long learners is dependent on educators
who give students opportunities to think and develop dispositional thinking skills. Ritchhart

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(2002) warns that teachers spoon-feedingimpedes the development of students awareness of

opportunities for thinking (p.7). Educators need to be providing opportunities for students to
spend time critically thinking through topics presented in the classroom. However, many
educators are so preoccupied with test scores that they teach the test rather than for deep level
learning. Teaching specifically for standardized tests, typically, means that memorization skills
become the emphasis of education. Yet, when the subject matter is memorized then it is typically
forgotten shortly after, if not before, the test. Memorization does not produce enduring learning;
although knowing facts and figures is foundational it is not sufficient. Through emphasizing
memorization educators have subliminally taught students that deep level learning, genuine
understanding is non-essential. It can be argued, however; that these methods do not encourage
deep level learning. Rather they encourage surface level learning, because if it is rote then there
is no thinking involved in the process. Thinking is a precursor to understanding and
understanding a precursor to learning, so if educators are to encourage learning in the classroom
then they need to provide opportunities for students to be involved with and share their thinking.
Opportunities for students to develop dispositional thinking are evident in the standards
and expectations of schools. More recently, Byrnes and Dunbar (2014) support the notion of
deep level learning as they indicate that Critical analytic thinking (CAT) [a feature of
dispositional thinking] is regarded as an essential aspect of progress and knowledge growth in
any scholarly discipline (p.477). The ability to reason, solve problems, and apply knowledge
are all aspects of dispositional thinking that challenges students thinking in the learning process.
Dispositional thinking is when students are curious and desire to answer their questions to
develop understanding. Further reason to include dispositional thinking in the classroom is the
standards. Educators at the local, state, and national level understand how compelling

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dispositional thinking is to learning. Currently Michigan follows the Common Core standards for
English and Language Arts. Some of the general expectations of these standards are that:
Students establish a base of knowledge across a wide range of
subject matterThey refine and share their knowledge through
writing and speaking use relevant evidence when supporting
their own points in writing and speaking through reading and
listening- They evaluate other points of view critically and
constructively comprehend and evaluate complex texts across a
range of types and disciplines, and they can construct effective
arguments and convey intricate or multifaceted information they
become self-directed learners, effectively seeking out and using
resources to assist them( 2015)
Students are expected to develop knowledge through evaluating, discussing, and writing on
subject matter so that they develop into independent learners. Independent learners are capable of
ultimately composing writing that displays learning. Therefore, these standards indicate that
students need to be provided with opportunities in the classroom to think, because when students
are actively involved in mindful thinking they are taking responsibility for developing their
understanding. Mindful thinking is an aspect of dispositional thinking. Dispositional thinkings
aspect of curiosity causes people to intentionally pay attention to what they observe and to what
they are thinking. Further, dispositional thinking includes critical thinking, because critical
thinking is when the brain makes connections with what it has observed and prior knowledge to
build understanding of a concept.
For further understanding of dispositional thinking Peter Facione and others describe
critical thinking as a process of purposeful [or mindful] self-regulatory judgement that drives
problem-solving and making decisions (Petrosky, 1982, p.141). Petrosky (1982) describes
critical thinking as a self-regulated process that provides a mechanism for solving problems and
making decisions based on reasoning and logic (p.141). Self-regulated indicates that students

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need to be capable of these types of thinking independently, which can be made visible in the
writing process. Students need to develop into independent thinkers and independent learners,
because as adults they will not have an educator to think for them. Ibarreta and McLeod (2003)
agree that taking responsibility for learning is a core element of critical thinking and is a
precondition to understanding and knowledge development (p.136). Murphy, Rowe, Ramani,
and Silverman (2014) concur about critical thinkings development of understanding, as they
state: critical-analytic thinking[a] cognitive processing through which an individual or group
of individuals come to an examined understanding.. (p.563). When students are given
opportunities to critically think and develop understanding independently through the writing
process (without the educator telling them what to think) they are building their understanding:
they are involved in deep level learning. Research supports the importance and process of deep
level learning for students, due to thinking dispositions (an aspect of deep level learning) that
develop students into independent learners.
Problem Statement: One of educations biggest questions is how best to teach students.
To determine the most effective educational practices research has been done on childrens
development, capabilities, interests, culture, etc. Through research on the brains processing
researchers suggest that both hemispheres of the brain must be stimulated or correspond with one
another for learning to occur. Thus educators must consider practices/ pedagogies that emphasize
strategies and opportunities that challenge both hemispheres to process information for learning
to occur. These opportunities must include analyzing visuals and patters for the right hemisphere,
but then also connect the analysis of the visuals from the right hemisphere with the composition
capabilities of the left hemisphere. Considering the observations from the right hemisphere the
left hemisphere can synthesize the observations into a coherent thought through discussion.

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Discussion with other peers challenges the brain as it presents new ideas, observations,
perspectives, and patterns that challenge the left side of the brain to support their preexisting
thoughts and understanding. Further, through writing students stimulate both hemispheres as they
connect the observations from visuals and their discussion into writing that reflects the critical
thinking of the left hemisphere. Different than communicating through talking, writing
communicates only the words that are written, there are no hand gestures to further communicate
the speakers thoughts (Hatcher; et al., 1990). Writing is one of the supreme challenges, because
the author must critically choose the most relevant thoughts, fact, and words to clearly
communicate their thoughts and understanding. Finally, it is through revision and reflections that
students are challenged to critically think about if their thoughts reflect their observations and
understanding. If their written composition doesnt do so, students are challenged to consider
more connections and create further understanding between what was observed and how their
brain makes meaning of those connections. Through the process of observation, discussion,
writing, and reflection students are given opportunities to develop an understanding and learn
because both hemispheres are stimulated constantly through the process.

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Literature in Support of Developing Students into Independent Thinkers

Over forty years of continuous research on teaching and learning has found that,
regardless of the passing of time, teaching for understanding is the most effective pedagogy and
philosophy of education. To teach for understanding means that educators provide opportunities
for students to develop dispositional thinking behaviors. These behaviors, such as creative,
reflective and critical thinking (Ritchhart, 2002) are the product of mindful thinking, thinking
produced from detailed observations, consideration of different perspectives, and reflection on
prior knowledge. Such behaviors guide the development of a composition of students thoughts
and understanding through the form of writing. Having students make their thinking visible,
forces students to develop dispositional thinking behaviors. When students transfer their thoughts
into different structures like talking and writing they analyze their own thoughts, becoming
aware of their own thinking (being metacognitive) which encourages a deeper understanding of
what has been learned or needs further study.
Based on research on the importance of thinking, talking, writing, and revision in the
classroom, students need to be guided in the development of a set of skills and routines that
encourage dispositional thinking. Students also need time to digest their thinking, and display
their thinking and understanding in discussion, writing, and revision. Discussion, writing, and
revision provide opportunities for students to explore and interpret their thinking. The process
of understanding is integrally linked to our building explorations and interpretations (Ritchhart,
Church, & Morrison, 2011, 11). Through opportunities to think, talk, and write students will
learn because, understanding is not a precursor to application, analysis, evaluating, and creating
but a result of it (Ritchhart, Church, & Morrison, 2011, 7). Therefore, to develop students into
independent thinkers educators need to be providing opportunities for students to analyze,

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evaluate, connect with, etc. to develop dispositional behaviors which encourage understanding.
These authors continue listing five notions of learning, the first being: Learning is an active
process that entails getting personally involved, and thinking, talking, and writing personally
involves, develops, and prepares students (Ritchhart, Church, & Morrison, 2011, 262).
Additionally, through encouraging and identifying students thinking educators guide students to
develop metacognitive minds.
Metacognition, the ability to think about ones own thinking empowers students to
become independent thinkers who can effectively access situations and visuals (objects, graphs,
art work, literature, etc.) for themselves. Educational Psychologist J.B. Biggs stated To be
properly metacognitive, then, students have to be realistically aware of their own cognitive
resources in relation to the task demands, and then to plan, monitor, and control those resources
(Ritchhart, Church, & Morrison, 2011, 15). Further, By insisting that [students] classify ideas or
exemplify them, we are forcing them to rearrange or consciously manipulate the information
stored in their memories (Hays, et. all, 1983, 53). When students are constantly thinking about
and questioning their thinking they are developing understanding and practicing dispositional
thinking.
Importance of Developing Independent Thinkers
Since the ability to critically reason, think, and evaluate are essential skills that
prepare students to independently think for themselves, a necessary professional skill, schools
must provide opportunities for students to develop these dispositional thinking skills in the
classroom. School is a program that has been designed to develop childrens academic abilities.
Through attending school children are provided with experiences that are intended to encourage

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the learning of facts and skills. Ritchhart, Church, and Morrison (2011) argue that A quality
education is also about the development of the habits of mind and thinking dispositions that will
serve students as learners both in our own classrooms and in the future (29). Authors P. Karen
Murphy, Meredith L. Rowe, Geetha Ramani, and Rebecca Silverman reason that one of the most
important aspects of education is that students develop the ability to critically think about topics.
The U.S. Department of Education stated students who can think critically tend to get better
grades, are often better able to use reasoning in daily decisions (Petrosky, 1982, 141). Petrosky
(1982) affirms that education needs to teach reasoning to students. This is indicated in the
previously mentioned article as it says Experience with critical thinking techniques gives
humans the tools to analyze and evaluate competing claims and make an intelligent choice
among them (Hatcher, et. All, 1990, 13). Therefore, since one of educations purposes is to
prepare students for the intellectual work expected of them once they graduate from school
education needs to include settings and opportunities that promote thinking, especially analytic
thinking. These opportunities include observing facts, situations, literature, and other academic
subject matter so that students can effectively practice evaluating topics.
Brain Processing in Relation to Composition
To best understand how to educate students, it is essential to understand how the brains
functions effect students development of understanding. The brain is separated into two
hemispheres, the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere. Control of speech production occurs
in the left hemisphere, which perceives the world logically, critically, and sequentially (Hays,
et. all, 1983, 41). The right hemisphere, rather, is involved in intuitive, holistic patterning,
visual, spatial, musical apprehension (Hays, et. all, 1983, 41). Although the hemispheres serve
different functions in the processes of thinking it is imperative, that thinking crosses the

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hemisphere division so that critical, meaningful thinking occurs. Research on the brain identifies
that critical judgement (hemispheric activity more toward the left end of the thinking
continuum) affirms the choice of pattern (Hays, et. all, 1983, 15). This research identifies that
critical thinking (left hemisphere function) is the result of observing and interpreting patterns
(right hemisphere function.) Hays (1983) continues to directly identify the implications of this
brain research stating that, The whole process of composing [talking and writing], and more
specifically the stages of rhetorical invention, demonstrates the recursive quality of thinking that
is actualized by the interplay of right and left hemispheric activity (46).Rhetorical invention
(questioning and manipulating ones own thinking) is the product of curiosity and when curiosity
is recursive opportunities for the brain to observe visuals and then critically think about those
observations encourage understanding and learning. It is imperative that students are curious (a
characteristic of dispositional thinking), because curiosity keeps the brain constantly stimulated
as it searches for connections, new information, and understanding. Dispositional thinking (like
curiosity) invests students into wanting to understand and learn more, a characteristic that
encourages students to want to be independent thinkers and life-long learners.
Therefore, research implies that an education that provides opportunities for students to
think with both hemispheres will produce deeper understanding of concepts. To provide these
opportunities this author claims that students need to be comfortable with curiosity in the process
of composition. Educators need to be presenting information that challenges the curiosity of
students so that they utilize the right hemisphere to visually consider patterns and information
and then compose those thoughts into critical thinking using the left hemisphere. Carl Sagan
states that mere critical thinking, without creative and intuitive insights, without the search for
new patterns, is sterile and doomed. To solve complex problems requires the activity of both

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cerebral hemispheres (Hays, et. all, 1983, 47). Through utilizing both hemispheres of the
brain students will develop skills to critically think and compose through discussion and writing.
This ability will prepare students for their independent, adult lives since democratic citizens of
the United States need to and businesses are searching for individuals who possess advanced
analysis and communication skills (Petrosky, 1982, 140). These skills (products of dispositional
thinking) are necessary, because they encourage mindful thinking that desires understanding.
Adults who independently seek out understanding through considering different perspectives are
individuals who will be successful, because they value thinking.
Dispositions of Independent Thinkers
Students must develop thinking dispositions, so they are prepared for being
independent, mindful thinkers who value seeking understanding. Ritchhart and Perkins (2000)
indicate that mindfulness in the classroom is essential because it promotes increased creativity,
flexibility, and use of information, as well as memory and retention which leads to the
development of more self-directed learners (29). With self-directed (independent thinkers)
students will be capable of developing into life-long learners. Life-long learners are independent
thinkers, because independent thinkers are capable of and pursue learning because they
understand the importance of thinking and developing understanding. Further, independent
thinkers are mindful, because they understand that to develop understanding they need to be
mindful of facts, visuals, statistics, different perspectives, etc. Mindfulness encourages
individuals to consider and think about the topics and visuals around them. Mindfulness
encourages individuals to develop thinking dispositions. In Intellectual Character author Ron
Ritchhart indicates that dispositions are the goal rather than habits saying: Dispositional
behavior isnt automatic, though it does provide gentle nudging that helps bring out the

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behavior of students (Ritchhart, 2002, p. 20). Thinking dispositions differ from habits because
habits are the product of mindless and automatic responses (Ritchhart, 2002, p. 20).
Students must be engaged in thinking to learn, and habits discourage dispositional thinking.
Ritchhart (2002) presents thinking skills as dispositions that include being open-minded, curious,
metacognitive, seeking for truth and understanding, strategic, and skeptical (p.27). Author
Anthony R. Petrosky lists that the concept of critical thinking includes behavioral tendencies or
dispositions as well as cognitive skills these include the tendency to seek truth, to be openminded, to be analytical, to be orderly and systematic, and to be inquisitive (Petrosky, 1982, p.
141). Ritchhart and Perkins (2000) identify that there are three components of dispositions:
sensitivity, inclination, and ability. Sensitivity is an awareness of and alertness to occasions for
engaging in certain behavior. Inclination is the motivation or habit toward carrying out a
particular behavior. Ability is the capability of carrying out the behavior (Ritchhart, & Perkins,
2000, p. 30). Then Ritchhart continues explaining that different than current, common
educational practices thinking dispositions represent characteristics that animate, motivate, and
direct our abilities toward good and productive thinking and are recognized in the patterns of our
frequently exhibited, voluntary behavior (Ritchhart, 2002, p.21). Ritchharts claims indicate that
an education that requires students to automatically respond does not encourage students to
think, question, and consider different perspectives, strategies, or solutions. Although
automaticity is necessary for basic facts and abilities, educators need to provide learning
opportunities that develop the knowledge of those automatic facts through lessons that prioritize
thinking and the understanding of the reasoning of those facts. When educators are intentional
about providing opportunities for their students to think, students will develop behaviors that
reflect curiosity and increase the desire to learn. Mindful dispositions encourage student

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engagement, which challenges the mind to critically think, wonder, compose, develop
understanding, and learn.
When there is something important and worthwhile to think about and a reason to think
deeply, our students experience the kind of learning that has a lasting impact and
powerful influence not only in the short term but also in the long haul. They not only
learn: they learn how to learn (Ritchhart, Church, & Morrison, 2011, p.26).
Hatcher and other writers (1990) agree with Ritchharts claim that critical thinkers must
have certain dispositions that lead them to think critically, and that individuals must be both
able and inclined to [critically think when necessary] (Hatcher, et. all, 1990, p.50). Therefore,
education needs to develop students into individuals who independently motivate themselves to
utilize critical thinking skills without prompting. To develop those abilities educators need to
provide opportunities that encourage students to consider their surroundings, perspectives, and
aspects of their studies. Through that sensitivity, students will be given the opportunity to
develop a curious disposition that is interested in understanding and learning, because their own
thinking/ thoughts are valued, encouraged, and required. When students feel valued and
respected they will invest their thoughts into developing an understanding, and through the
repetition of recognizing students thoughts and understanding students will practice critical
thinking skills and develop thinking dispositions. Opportunities that encourage the development
of thinking dispositions and critical thinking skills follow a student- centered process.
Process for Developing Independent Thinkers
Through the process of discussing and writing about their observations, thoughts, and
connections students engage in thinking dispositions that promote understanding and learning.

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Throughout Making Thinking Visible the theme of a process to develop learning is prevalent.
Because the mind is designed to detect patterns and make interpretations, slowing it down to
fully notice and just describe can be extremely challenging, making the first step in the process:
observation (Ritchhart, Church, & Morrison, 2011, p.7). The process starts as students take time
to carefully observe a visual of some sort, which they then carry into a conversation with other
students. Like Making Thinking Visible, the ideas of Lucy McCormick Calkins The Art of
Teaching Writing emphasize the process of beginning with observations to direct students
thoughts into writing pieces. Writing is grown by noticing, wondering, remembering,
questioning, yearning (Calkins, 1994, p.4). Discussing with peers, the second step in the
process, is connected with thinking, because when children have to monitor whether they are
understood and clarify what they mean when they are misunderstood, they are forced to think
carefully [and critically] about what they are trying to say and how they are saying it (Murphy,
et. all, 2014, p.569). Moreover, critical discussions should be seen as opportunities for us to
discover our errors and progress toward the truth Hatcher, et. All, 1990, p.40). Discussions that
include different perspectives and questions challenge the mind to critically think about their
understanding. As humans seeking knowledge and understanding, we must learn either to think
for ourselves, if we do not others will think for us Hatcher, et. All, 1990, p.11). Furthermore,
Promoting Critical-Analytic Thinking in Children and Adolescents at Home and in School
indicates that when students reflect on their understanding to then develop into verbal statements
their thinking and understanding is expanded. The verbal discussion begins the expansion of
students thinking process, but it is the writing, the third step in the process, that makes the
students understanding visible.

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Author Anthony R. Petrosky writes that critical thinking almost always requires
extended discussions or writing (Petrosky, 1982, p.4). Writing not only communicates ideas
but also is a process by which ideas are clarified and corrected Hatcher, et. all, 1990, p.21).
Writing challenges students to think through how to concisely share their thoughts in one
coherent thought or argument. Therefore, educators need to:
teach children that their wondering and questions and curiosity are part of what it means
to write welleven though we rush themwe only halfway mean for them to hurry up,
that truly, we know they should be telling us to slow down, to look, listen, wait.
(Calkins, 1994, p.94).
Through effective scaffolding writing teaches students to clarify their ideas in their
sentences and to organize them in their papers, forcing them to confront what they think
as they develop the contents of their own memory structures (Hays, et. all, 1983, p.53).
In The Art of Teaching Writing the author indicates that writing is not a process of recording
details but making significance of them (Calkins, 1994, p.5).
Through students thinking and reflecting about what theyre writing they become
metacognitive learners. In the article Reasoning and Writing: An Introduction to Critical
Thinking the author indicates that the purpose of writing is to clarify our own thinking and
that the process of writing includes writing, revision, and editing, thus making the final step in
the process reflection that may lead to revision (Hatcher, et. all, 1990, p.21). Nicolini, Calkins,
Steven Storla, and the authors from Making Thinking Visible all agreed that when a process that
includes observation-discussion-writing (and reflection of ones writing) occurs students learn
more because critical thinking is utilized throughout the process.

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Storla (1993), like Mary B. Nicolini (2006), discusses his personal experiences with
observing the benefits of utilizing the previously mentioned process to develop students into
independent-learners. Storla identifies that his students initially observe a visual. Then students
discuss their observations and thoughts with peers. After the discussion students compose their
thoughts into written form and eventually reflect on their writing through revision. It is through
this information transfer that students practice critical thinking through discussion and writing
(Storla, 1993). Storla concludes that information transfer and problem solving activities
empower student writers to develop their critical thinking skills by transforming ideas using their
own cognition and writing.
Applebee (1984) suggested that writing improves thinking because it requires an
individual to make his or her ideas explicit and to evaluate and choose among tools
necessary for effective discourse Marzano (1991) suggested that writing used as a
means to restructure knowledge improves higher-order thinking (Petrosky, 1982, p.142).
Another well respected theorist on child development Jean Piaget stated that To
understand is to invent We learn as we build personally meaningful representations of what we
are coming to know (Calkins, 1994, p.487). Therefore, educators need to be providing students
with opportunities to invent through talking and writing because of the critical thinking skills
utilized in the process. In the brief article Making Thinking Visible: Writing in the Center the
author, director of a writing center, discusses the positive results of utilizing Making Thinking
Visible in her students writing. Nicolini is quick to identify that clear thinking is reflected in
clear writing... Writing makes thinking visible (Nicolini, 2006, p.66). The article continues to
identify that she has found that the writing process requires social interaction (talk) between
students and that writing only gets better through more writing. Therefore, if writing is a direct

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representation of thinking (and students need to be thinking to understand and learn) then
students need to be writing more to learn more. By taking time to observe, students take time to
think and practice critically sorting through their thoughts to eventually develop into writing.
This final act of writing/ thinking helps students to synthesize material for themselves, thereby
increasing its value (Calkins, 1994, p.486). When students are participating in this process they
are constantly making connections between both hemispheres. This hemisphere activity utilizes
thinking dispositions that support composition which produces understanding and learning.
Calkins (1994) states that through students writing educators are visually able to determine the
understanding (thus learning) of the students, because writing is the product of thinking,
understanding is the product of making thinking visible, and learning is the product of
understanding. Since the goal of education is for students to learn, a process that encourages
students thinking needs to be utilized.

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Research suggest that utilizing a process of observation, communication, writing, and

revision students will develop into life-long learners, because this process challenges and makes
students thinking and understanding visible. Now that dispositional thinking is the driving
theory that encourages deep level learning, it is important to recognize pragmatic ways to
enhance learning through a writing process in the classroom. Contrary to educational practice
that teach the test, researchers like: Ritchhart, Church, and Morrisons (2011) Visible Thinking
Routines and Lucy McCormick Calkins (1994) Writers Workshop prove to be best practice for
developing understanding and learning in the classroom, due to their process that encourages
students to think about subjects of study and then manipulate and compose their thoughts
through discussion, writing, and revision. Two pedagogies to be defined are Visible Thinking and
Writing Workshop.

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Making Thinking Visibles goal is to encourage students thinking, since they believe that
learning is a product of thinking (Ritchhart, Church, & Morrison, 2011, p.5). Therefore, they
have developed three sets of thinking routines: simple strategies for scaffolding thinking that
were designed to be woven into a teachers ongoing classroom practice( Ritchhart, Church, &
Morrison, 2011, p.xvii). Most of these routines include some, if not all, four steps of:
observation, discussion, writing, and revision. Students thinking is always at the center of the
routines. The three categories of the routines include: Introducing and Exploring, Synthesizing
and Organizing, and Digging Deeper (Ritchhart, Church, & Morrison, 2011, p.49). All of these
develop dispositional thinking, which is made visible through students writing. Introducing and
Exploring routines are utilized to encourage students curiosity and interest in the topic of study
(Ritchhart, Church, & Morrison, 2011). Synthesizing and Organizing routines guide students to
develop a deeper understanding of the topic of study (Ritchhart, Church, & Morrison, 2011).
Finally, Digging Deeper routines challenge students to consider the complexity of issues and
ideas (Ritchhart, Church, & Morrison, 2011, p.78).
An example of category one is: Chalk Talk, which conducts a conversation among
students through collecting students ideas, question, thoughts, etc. on one large paper (Ritchhart,
Church, & Morrison, 2011). Through this routine students consider their prior knowledge, then
gain multiple perspectives that promote critical thinking, compose their understanding through
writing, and reflect on their understanding as they read their and others writing.
An example of category two is: Generate-Sort-Connect-Elaborate: Concept Maps
(GSCE), which helps students activate their prior knowledge of a topic and then connect those
ideas [through discussion and writing] in a meaningful way [solidifying their] thinking and
understanding as well as reveal that thinking to others (Ritchhart, Church, & Morrison, 2011,

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p.125). This routine has students create a list of words and ideas associated with the topic, sort
their ideas according to how central or tangential they are, connect their ideas and explain
their connection, elaborate on a few important ideas, have students share their maps with each
other (Ritchhart, Church, & Morrison, 2011, p.126-127). Through this process students are
constantly critically accessing information and how to visually display their connections with
one another.
An example of category three is: What Makes You Say That? (WMYST), which helps
students identify the basis for their thinking by asking them to elaborate on the thinking that lies
behind their responses (Ritchhart, Church, & Morrison, 2011, p.165). This simple routine
encourages students to use evidential reasoning to justify their thoughts. Although these are only
three examples, all of the thinking routines challenge students to create meaning of information
presented to them through discussion, writing, and constant reflection and revision of their
understanding presented in their writing. This pedagogy consists of methods and practice of
teaching that provide students with opportunities to develop dispositional thinking, and in return
provide opportunities for deep level learning.
The second pedagogy comes from Lucy McCormick Calkins research which has
developed a pedagogy of writings importance (through Writing Workshop) that has become
world known and world respected. McCormick-Calkins (1994) argues that writing in the
classroom is one of the most, if not the most, important opportunities that educators can provide
their students with. McCormick-Calkins says,
The powerful thing about working with words is that we are really working with thoughts
Writing helps us develop our thinking because it allows us to revisit our first thoughtsWe can

DEVELOPING STUDENTS INTO INDEPENDENT THINKERS

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think about our thinking and use writing as a way to outgrow ourselves (McCormick-Calkins,
1994, p.222).
If educators are to create opportunities for students to critically think then educators need to be
providing a generous amount of time for students to digest their thinking through conversations
and writing. When students are constantly given sufficient time to think, discuss, and then write
they develop skills of synthesis and compositions. Writing/ thinking helps students to synthesize
material for themselves, thereby increasing its value (McCormick-Calkins, 1994, p.486). The
development of these skills simultaneously develops students into independent thinkers and
learners, because this process is centered on students thinking. McCormick-Calkins research
has found that utilizing a Writing Workshop helps provide students with necessary opportunities
to critically think and genuinely learn.
One of the most essential aspects of the Writing Workshop is time.
If students are going to become deeply invested in their writing, and if they are going to
live toward a piece of writing and let their ideas grow and gather momentum, if they are
going to draft and revise, sharing their texts with one another as they write, they need the
luxury of time (McCormick-Calkins, 1994, p.186).
Educators need to model to students the importance of thinking, of their (students) thinking, and
by giving students time to genuinely think through their thoughts and develop them through their
discussions and writing, educators model thinking as a priority. McCormick-Calkins Writing
Workshop, consists of five steps. She identifies that the structure of the workshop is not
important, but the workshop must have a simple, predictable structure.

DEVELOPING STUDENTS INTO INDEPENDENT THINKERS

23

The Writing Workshops steps include: a mini lesson, work time, peer conferring/
response groups, share sessions, and publication celebrations. Mini lessons are short lessons
where the educator presents instructions, strategies, or inspirations to the class. Through this time
the educator is encouraging students to be observant and think about what is being presented to
them. Work time, like it sounds, is the time when students work on their writing. Also, it is
through this time that the educator holds short, informal conferences with students. These
conversations are for the educator to ask questions of the writer that help the educator better
understand the writer. Through understanding the writer the educator will be able to gather the
students thoughts, understanding, questions, and concerns of their writing, so that they can
better determine how to best guide the student toward the thinking that produces understanding
and learning. Peer Conferences consist of student lead discussions about their writing and
thoughts about their writing. The group acts mostly as a sounding board (McCormick-Calkins,
1994, p.190). These groups are for students to grow their thinking and understanding by gaining
new perspectives and having others challenge the writers thinking and understanding. Like Peer
Conferences, Share Sessions are utilized for discussing writings in progress. Share sessions can
consist of a few writers read their drafts aloud with the class and then receiving comments from
their classmates. These sessions can also consist of a couple writers discussing with the class
their experience through the writing process, which creates opportunities for students to share
strategies and perspectives with the writers. Publication Celebrations held for writers to share
their finished writing with the class and celebrate the final product. These celebrations suggest to
students that their thoughts, which are shared in their writing, are valuable. Also, by sharing the
final products students are exposed to more perspectives and topics that encourage thinking.
Developing understanding and learning are recursive processes, because new ideas and

DEVELOPING STUDENTS INTO INDEPENDENT THINKERS

24

observations challenge the brain to critically think about how it supports or changes their
understanding of the concept. Similarly, writing is a recursive process. Through conferring with
research, observations, the educator, and fellow classmates students thinking is challenged with
different perspectives. Students thinking is further challenged as they compose their thoughts
into their writing. Then through revision students are challenged to think about how their
thoughts are presented, if some thinking is missing This leads back to critically thinking about
what they observed and how the writing presents that. Also, this leads back to critically thinking
about the discussions they had, and questioning if they need to further discuss their thinking
before returning back to composing those thoughts in writing.
Both Visible Thinking Routines and Writers Workshop prioritize the students thinking in
educational practices. These student-centered pedagogies encourage students to be mindful of
visible observations, their thinking, other students thinking/ perspective. They also prove how
the aspects can be composed into writing thus displaying the students level of understanding.
Visible Thinking begins with observation because students must be mindful of the subject or
object of study. Writing Workshop also begins with observations, because students are writing
about what they observe in life. Next in the process, students discuss with peers and/ or the
educator, which stimulates the connection between the left to right hemispheres of the brain.
Visible Thinking Routines provides students with a model that helps guide students to develop
dispositional thinking in their discussions and writing. Discussions provide students
opportunities to begin the sharing of their thoughts and understanding. Through their discussions
and writing students develop additional meaning and understanding as they are challenged to
support their thinking with reasoning and evidence formulated from their observations and prior
knowledge. Using reasoning and evidence causes students to consider different perspectives, so

DEVELOPING STUDENTS INTO INDEPENDENT THINKERS

25

that they can think about their own thinking, and how the different perspectives influences their
thoughts. Since Visible Thinkings foundation relies on evidence, students are required to support
their thinking and explain their understanding. Likewise, Writing Workshops format encourages
students to support their thinking with evidence during their discussions. Their discussions (in
peer conferences and share sessions) are essentially one of the first drafts to their writing, as they
think about their thinking (metacognition) and how to share their thinking with others. These
discussions further encourage dispositional thinking as students consider different perspectives,
and how those perspectives connect to make personal meaning and understanding. This elevates
the level of understanding.
Both of these process formats meet Common Core expectations as they utilize writing,
speaking, and evaluation of different perspectives to convey meaning and understanding. In
Visible Thinkings Chalk Talk students different thoughts and perspectives lead to further verbal
discussion with peers, writing, revision, and deep level learning. In Writing Workshop students
write and discuss with peers and the educator which identifies different perspectives that then
lead to the student reflecting on and revising their thinking and writing. The revision and
reflection step of the process is also known as developing understanding, because during this
step students are searching for truths, patterns, connections, and understanding that ultimately
creates deep level learning. This step creates deep level learning because as students are
considering and connecting different perspectives they are constantly stimulating and making
connections between both hemispheres of the brain.
These pedagogies not only both value the development of the independent learner
through critical thinking opportunities in discussion and writing. Visible Thinking provides
structures like WMYST to encourage students dispositional thinking. Further, since these

DEVELOPING STUDENTS INTO INDEPENDENT THINKERS

26

structures are routines students are developing a thinking behavior that is mindful, not an
automatic, mindless thinking behavior. Therefore, students become independent thinkers,
because they develop behaviors that require them to be metacognitive, ask themselves questions
that stretch their thinking and understanding without guidance. Writing Workshop develops
students into independent thinkers, because the student is the one composing their thoughts into
their writing. Although they are considering others perspectives during the mini lesson and
discussions, these steps challenge students thinking and model the importance of considering
different perspectives in the writing process and the process of developing deep level learning.
Visible Thinking Routines work well with Writing Workshops necessity of structure, as
the routines give the different stages of the workshop further structure. These structures provide
additional scaffolded lessons that enhance learning opportunities for students. During the mini
lesson educators can guide (or scaffold) students thinking by using Visible Thinking Routines.
Educators can encourage mindfulness and critical thinking by using an Introducing and
Exploring Routine before students begin composing their thoughts in conversations and writing.
These routines collect different thoughts and perspectives among students, which provides in
turn, students with an opportunity to think about evidence to support their thinking. When
students are personally involved in identifying and connecting their thinking with evidence they
are developing a firm foundation for deep level learning. Further, Synthesizing and Organizing
Routines can be used during the work time. These routines encourage students to think about
their thinking and how it can be composed into a meaningful representation of their
understanding. When students are creating meaning through connecting their thoughts they are
developing deep level learning. Finally, Digging Deeper Routines like WMYST can be used
during peer conferring and share sessions. By using these types of routines during the reflection/

DEVELOPING STUDENTS INTO INDEPENDENT THINKERS

27

revision process students will be challenged by their peers to provide further reasoning and
explanation of their thinking. WMYST is an informal, non-intimidating question that encourages
metacognition and ensures that students genuinely understand and achieve deep level learning.
When using this routine students have a useful strategy that elicits deep thinking, which
encourages effective, meaningful, and helpful conversations between peers.
These pedagogies, when unified, supply students with opportunities to think critically,
develop genuine understanding (deep level learning), and develop into independent learners.
Through their process and priority of centering learning around students thinking, these
pedagogies model to students the importance of thinking and deep level learning. Since students
thinking is at the center of the writing process, they will be actively constructing meaning rather
than recording and memorizing someone elses thinking/ understanding (surface level learning.)
When students are mindfully considering their thinking in the process of developing
understanding they avoid surface level learning and develop genuine, deep level learning. These
pedagogies model how to genuinely learn, which prepares students for successful futures. By
providing structured time when students observe, critically think, discuss, write, and reflect on
their thoughts educators scaffold opportunities for students to create meaning and understanding.

DEVELOPING STUDENTS INTO INDEPENDENT THINKERS

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