Académique Documents
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EUROCODES
Background and Applications
Part 1. Introduction
1.1 TYPES AND SHAPES
1.2 COLDFORMING TECHNIQUES
1.3 BEHAVIOURAL FEATURES
1.4 TYPES OF LIGHT-WEIGHT STRUCTURES
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Background and Applications
Part 1.
Introduction
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Background and Applications
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Background and Applications
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1st generation
2nd generation
3rd generation
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2.
Folding
Prof.
Raffaele Lan
dolfo - Unive
rsity of
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Background and Applications
1.3
BEHAVIOURAL FEATURES
The feature 2. gives rise to local buckling phenomena, which penalise the
load-bearing capacity.
As a consequence, structural analysis and design of thin-walled CF elements is
generally complicated by the effects arising from the above features, which do
not affect the structural response of more simple and compact sections.
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1.3
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BEHAVIOURAL FEATURES
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Industrial building
Housing
Temporary structures
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Part 2.
Design of aluminium
CF structures according to EC9
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2.1.1 FOREWORD
The European code for the design of aluminium structures, Eurocode 9, provides
in Part 1.1 (EN 1999-1-1) general rules for local buckling resistance. In addition,
Part 1.4 (prEN 1993-1-4) provides supplementary rules for CF sheeting.
EN 1999-1-1
EN 1999-1-4
February 2007
November 2006
Stage 34
2006
2006
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2.1.2 CONTENT
Part 1.1 EN 1999 1-1
1 General
2 Basis of design
3 Materials
4 Durability
5 Structural analysis
6.1.5
6 Ultimate limit states for members Local buckling
resistance
7 Serviceability limit states
8 Design of joints
ANNEX A [normative]Reliability Differentiation
ANNEX B [normative]Equivalent t-stub in tension
ANNEX C [informative]Materials selection
ANNEX D [informative]Corrosion and surface
protection
ANNEX E [informative]Analytical models for stress
strain relationship
ANNEX F [informative]Behaviour of cross-sections
beyond the elastic limit
ANNEX G [informative]Rotation capacity
ANNEX H [informative]Plastic hinge method for
continuous beams
ANNEX I [informative]Lateral torsional buckling of
beams and torsional or torsional-flexural buckling of
compressed members
ANNEX J [informative]Properties of cross sections
ANNEX K [informative]Shear lag effects in
member design
ANNEX L [informative]Classification of joints
ANNEX M [informative]Adhesive bonded
connections
1 Introduction
2 Basis of design
3 Materials
4 Durability
5 Structural analysis
6 Ultimate limit states for members
7 Serviceability limit states
8 Joint with mechanical fasteners
ANNEX A [normative]Testing procedures
ANNEX B [informative]Durability of fasteners
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Local buckling
Mpl
3
Mel
1
M
Class 1 cross-sections are those which can form a plastic hinge with the rotation capacity
required from plastic analysis without reduction of the resistance
Class 2 cross-sections are those which can develop their plastic moment resistance, but have
limited rotation capacity because of local buckling
Class 3 cross-sections are those in which the stress in the extreme compression fibre of the
steel member assuming an elastic distribution of stresses can reach the yield strength,
but local buckling is liable to prevent development of the plastic moment resistance
Class 4 cross-sections are those in which local buckling will occur before the attainment of
yield stress in one or more parts of the cross-section
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SO (Symmetrical Outstand)
UO (Unsymmetrical Outstand)
RI (Reiforced Internal)
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=b/t
=0,40 b/t
= b/t
in which:
b
t
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(1 -1)
(<-1)
Where is the ratio of the stresses at the edges of the plate under consideration
related to the maximum compressive stress.
stress gradient
coefficient
vs
coefficient
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Local buckling
Distortional buckling
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b
t
where:
depends on b/t and c/t rations (c is the lip depth or rib depth)
b) Uniform compression, non-standard reinforcement
The reinforcement is replaced by an equivalent rib or lip equal in thickness to
the part. The value of c for the equivalent rib or lip is chosen so that the
second moment of area of the reinforcement about the mid-plane of the plate
is equal to that of the non-standard reinforcement about the same plane.
Prof. Raffaele Landolfo - University of Naples Federico II
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b
= cr0
cr t
where
cr is the elastic critical stress for the reinforced part assuming
simply supported edges
cr0 is the elastic critical stress for the unreinforced part
assuming simply supported edges.
d) Stress gradient
In the case of stress gradient cr and cr0 are relate to the stress at the more
heavily compressed edge of the part
Mode 2
=b/t is calculated separately for each sub-part
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- beam
- strut
Elements in beams
1
class 1
1 < 2
class 2
2 < 3
3 <
Elements in struts
2
class 1
or
class 2
class 3
2 < 3
class 3
class 4
3 <
class 4
= 250 / f 0
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Local buckling
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The analysis of the stability of plate elements can be performed following two
different levels:
1. Linear theory
2. Nonlinear theory
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length L
width b
w
uniform thickness t
N
Nonlinear
behaviour
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According to the linear theory, the behaviour of a perfectly elastic material in the field
of small deformations is examined
According to the non-linear theory, the behaviour of plates in post-buckling range is
analysed, taking into account both geometrical and mechanical nonlinearities, together
with the presence of geometrical and mechanical imperfections
N
Ultimate load
(ideal)
N Ncr
Ultimate load
(actual)
Nu N > Ncr
Ultimate load (Nu) evaluation
Critical load
without imperfections
with imperfections
The methods based on the linear theory lead to the evaluation of the critical load (Euler load), but
they are not valid for a correct estimate of the ultimate load, which can be calculated exclusively
by means of a nonlinear analysis
Prof. Raffaele Landolfo - University of Naples Federico II
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cr =
k 2 E
2E
= 2
2
p
b
12 1 2
t
12 1 2 b
p =
k
t
where:
p
E
L
b
t
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k= 6.97
k= 4.00
k= 1.28
k= 0.43
Design codes generally suggest to use the k coefficients corresponding to simple support or to free conditions
Prof. Raffaele Landolfo - University of Naples Federico II
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Plate support
max
max
Plate support
Gross cross-section
Effective section
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cr , beff
k E t
=
12 1 2 beff
2
= max
k E t
fy =
12 1 2 beff
= E
2
with
1 = E / f y
k 2 E t
2E
=
= 2
2
12 1 b
p
2
cr
with
12 1 2 b
p =
k
t
beff
b
Nu
cr
1
=
= 1 =
Ny
fy
p p
Prof. Raffaele Landolfo - University of Naples Federico II
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beff
b
Nu
cr
1
=
= 1 =
Ny
fy
p p
beff
b
N cr cr
=
Ny
fy
1
=
p
= 1
p2
Euler formula
Winter modified the equation obtained by Von Karman for taking into account
geometrical and mechanical imperfections on the base of a large series of tests on CF
steel beams:
Winters equation
1 0.22
=
1
b
p
p
beff
The Winters expression is currently used in the EC3-Part 1.3, in the AISI Specification and in
other national Codes for the design of CF thin-walled steel members
Prof. Raffaele Landolfo - University of Naples Federico II
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beff
b
1 0.22
1
p
p
beff
b
beff
b
p2
p =
fy
cr
Comparison between equations of Winter, of Von Karman and the critical curve of Euler
Prof. Raffaele Landolfo - University of Naples Federico II
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In addition, the particular hardening features of the aluminium alloys can play
a significant role, mainly in the post-critical behaviour of plate elements which
the section is made of.
Steel
Aluminium alloy
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= + 0
f
E
where:
E
n
fe0
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= + 0.002
E
f
0.2
0
f0 = f0.2
n=8
n=40
f 0 .2
log 0.5
n=
f 0.1 10
log
f 0 .2
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cr = cr ,e
where:
cr
is the normalised
inelastic buckling stress
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1/ (Euler)
2
7
0.8
n=8
3
0.8
5
6
0.6
cr
n=32
1/ 2 (Euler)
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.5
Heat-treated materials
1.5
0.2
0.5
1.5
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Non heat-treated
heat-treated materials
materials
Non
Heat-treated
Heat-treated materials
materials
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=0
=0.11
=0.22
(no imperfections)
(mean imperfections)
(high imperfections)
Prof. Raffaele Landolfo - University of Naples Federico II
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= (1 / ) (1 2 / )
where:
1 and 2 are numerical coefficients given together the limit value of the
normalised slenderness 0 which corresponds to =1
Curve
1.00
0.22
0.673
0.88
0.22
0.440
0.76
0.19
0.380
For the first curve, such relationship is coincident with the Winter formulation, which is assumed in
the American and European codes on cold-formed steel sections for determining the effective width
ratio.
For the other ones, a similar structure is kept, practically by assuming appropriate equivalent
reduction factors in the Winter formulation. This approach has been used as a basis for
checking slender sections in the final version of Eurocode 9.
Prof. Raffaele Landolfo - University of Naples Federico II
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Effective width
Reduced stress
Effective thickness
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c = 1.0
if
c =
C2
C1
/ ( / ) 2
if
> 3
Class A: Heat-treated
Class B: Non heat-treated
Prof. Raffaele Landolfo - University of Naples Federico II
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Relationship between c and / for outstands, internal parts and round tubes
Class A: Heat-treated
Class B: Non heat-treated
Prof. Raffaele Landolfo - University of Naples Federico II
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Structural Class I
Structural Class II
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2.3.2 MATERIAL
Properties
5)
Characteristic values of 0,2% proof strength fo, ultimate tensile strength, fu, elongation A50, for sheet and strip for
tempers with fo > 165 N/mm2 and thickness between 0,5 and 6 mm
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Otherwise
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Notional widths of plane cross section parts bp allowing for corner radii
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Notional widths of plane cross section parts bp allowing for corner radii
Prof. Raffaele Landolfo - University of Naples Federico II
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t eff = t
where
is a reduction factor based on the
largest compressive stress com,Ed acting
in the element when the resistance of
the cross-section is reached.
When com,Ed = f0/M1, Part 1.4 of
Eurocode 9 suggests to evaluate the
reduction factor by means of the
following expressions:
=1.0 if p lim
p =
f0
cr
(10.22/ p )
p
bp 12 (1 2 ) f 0
bp
=
1
.
052
t
t
2 E k
f0
E k
lim
0,517
0,90
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ALUMINIUM
PLATES
0,50
1,00
1,50
2,00
2,50
3,00
1,20
C
D
1,00
ALUMINIUM
SHEETING
0,80
0,60
0,40
0,20
0,00
0,00
0,50
1,00
1,50
2,00
2,50
3,00
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= 1.0
if p ,red lim
(1 0.22 / p ,red )
=
if p ,red > lim
p ,red
p.red = p
com, Ed
f0 / M1
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STEP 1
Obtain an initial effective cross-section for
the stiffener to calculate the cross-section
area As using effective thickness
determined by assuming that the stiffener
is longitudinally supported and that
com,Ed = fo/M1
STEP 2
Use another effective cross-section of the
stiffener to calculate the effective second
moment of inertia in order to determine
the reduction factor for distortional
buckling, allowing for the effects of the
continuous spring restraint
STEP 3
Optionally iterate to refine the value of the
reduction factor for buckling of the stiffener
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N t , Rd =
Ag f 0
M1
but N t , Rd Fnet , Rd
where:
Ag
f0
Fnet,Rd
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Nc,Rd =
Aeff f0
M1
where:
If the centroid of the effective cross-section does not coincide with the centroid of the gross
cross-section, the shift eN of the centroidal axes shall be taken into account, considering the
effect of combined compression and bending.
Prof. Raffaele Landolfo - University of Naples Federico II
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N c , Rd =
Ag f 0
M1
where:
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M c , Rd =
where:
Weff f 0
M1
modulus
f0 is the 0.2% proof strength
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M c , Rd =
Wel f 0
M1
where:
f0
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Vb , Rd =
hw
t f bV
sin
M1
where:
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w = 0.346
sw
t
f0 / E
s
w = 0.346 d
t
5.34 f 0 / k E 0.346
2.10 I s
k = 5.34 +
t s d
sp
t
f0 / E
1/ 3
where:
Is
sd
sp
sw
is the second moment of area of the individual longitudinal stiffener about the axis aa
is the total developed slant height of the web
is the slant height of the largest plane element in the web
is the slant height of the web between the midpoints of the corners
Prof. Raffaele Landolfo - University of Naples Federico II
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M y , Ed
N Ed
+
1
N t , Rd M cy , Rd ,ten
where:
Nt,Rd
is the design resistance of a cross-section for uniform tension;
Mcy,Rd,ten is the design moment resistance of a cross-section for maximum tensile
stress if subject only to moment about the y - y axes.
M y , Ed
M cy , Rd ,com
N Ed
1
N t , Rd
where:
Mcy,Rd,com is the moment resistance of the maximum compressive stress in a crosssection that is subject to moment only
Prof. Raffaele Landolfo - University of Naples Federico II
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M y , Ed + M y , Ed
N Ed
+
1
N c , Rd
M cy , Rd ,com
where:
NcRd
is the design resistance of a cross-section for uniform compression;
Mcy,Rd,ten is the moment resistance maximum compressive stress in a cross-section
that is subject to moment only
The additional moments due to the shifts of the centroidal axes shall be taken into account.
M y , Ed + M y , Ed
M cy , Rd ,ten
N Ed
1
N c , Rd
where:
Mcy,Rd,ten is the design moment resistance of a cross-section for maximum tensile
stress if subject only to moment about the y - y axes.
Prof. Raffaele Landolfo - University of Naples Federico II
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M y , Ed
N Ed
+
N Rd M y , Rd
M f , Rd
+ 1
M pl , Rd
2VEd
1 1
VW , Rd
where:
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N b , Rd =
where:
Aeff f 0
M1
obtained in function of the relative slenderness for the relevant buckling mode
and of the imperfection factors and:
+ 2 + 2
but
= 0.5 [ 1 + ( 0 ) + 2 ]
Prof. Raffaele Landolfo - University of Naples Federico II
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Flexural buckling
=
1
Aeff
Ag
in which:
= L/i
1 = E / f 0.2
with:
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M
+ M y , Ed
N Ed
+ y , Ed
1
y f 0x Aeff / M 1 f 0Weff , y , com / M 1
where:
x =
1
y + (1 y ) sin xs / lc
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CONCLUSIONS
In the Eurocode 9, Part 1.1 (EN 1999-1-1) provides all the calculation methods
dealing with slender section (class 4), which cover thin-walled aluminium
sections. More specific provisions for cold-formed thin-walled sheeting are given
in Part 1.4 (EN 1999-1-4).
The framing of the Eurocode 9 Part 1.4 is similar to that of the Eurocode 3 Part
1.1. and some specific issues are treated in a similar way (i.e. influence of
rounded corners, effectiveness of the restraint provided by the stiffeners).
NEW
INNOVATIVE ISSUES
The local buckling effect in the CF thin-gauge members is taken into account
by means of a calculation method based on the effective thickness concept.
Three specific buckling curves proposed by Landolfo and Mazzolani for
aluminium slender sections are given in Part 1.1.
Prof. Raffaele Landolfo - University of Naples Federico II
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