THE ULTIMATE LIT HUM STUDY GUIDE

COMPILED BY RYAN MANDELBAUM

The Iliad
By Homer
(Books I XII)
Plot Summary
The Iliad picks up at the end of the Trojan War a ten-year long war fought between the
Achaeans (Greek) and the Trojans. Chryses, the priest of Apollo, pleads with the
Achaeans to return to him his daughter who they captured in battle. When the Achaeans
refuse, Apollo plagues the Achaeans. Agamemnon, leader of the Achaeans, finally
gives up the daughter in order to end the plague, but only after he is fairly compensated
by taking the girl previously given to Achilles. Achilles, the greatest Achaean warrior, is
dishonored and insulted by the unfair exchange, and resorts to withdrawing from the war
in order to punish the Achaeans. To further hinder the Achaeans in battle, Achilles also
attempts to seek out help from Zeus, by asking his own mother, the goddess named
Thetis, to persuade him. Without support from Achilles or Zeus, the Achaeans face
difficult challenges against the powerful Trojan army.
The Achaeans meet the Trojans and a duel between Menelaus and Paris ensues to
try and settle the war for good. The gods intervene and the duel is left unresolved.
Fighting continues back and forth between the two sides. Both sides agree to have a day
of peace to bury their dead, and strengthen their defenses. Afterwards, the fighting
continues for a few days, and the Trojans, with the help of the gods, begin to take the lead
in the war. The Achaeans unite and recall that Troy is destined to fall. Agamemnon,
fearing the Trojans victory, offers Achilles great wealth if he rejoins the war, but
Achilles refuses. The Achaeans send spies across the Trojan border, who encounter one
of their enemies. They threaten him to gain information about the Trojans, which they use
to launch several successful attacks. The next day the Trojans attack the Achaeans camp,
breaking through the walls of the camp and forcing the troops all the way back to their
ships.
Major Themes
Honor
-Achilles is so dishonored when Agamemnon takes Briseis from him, that he withdraws
from the war (Book I). Later, when Agamemnon attempts to win Achilles back by
offering him gifts, Achilles denies, claiming that There was no gratitude given for
fighting incessantly forever against your enemies. Fate is the same for the man who holds
back, the same if he fights hard" (Book IX: 316). This shows Achilles de-glorifying war
because he chooses to stay home and live a long and happy life, rather than return to the
battlefield and die honorably.
-As Paris and Menelaus get ready to fight, Paris begins to show signs of fear and
cowardice. His brother Hector mocks him, and Paris is moved to fight, but he soon
escapes from the field. Paris is looked down upon, in contrast with his brother, who is a
great Trojan warrior and a well-respected leader.

- Nestor upholds honor in war by giving uplifting speeches to the Achaeans. In book VII
he preaches about the glory of victory to his troops, convincing them to step forward, and
fight Hector. Again, in Book IX, while Agamemnon has lost hope and is ready to head
back home, Nestor brings reassurance to the troops through a sense of glory, and the
troops spirits are again raised.
The Shield
The shield which Hephaestus welds together for Achilles is described in
great detail in Book 18 (you may want to look this chapter over). The elaborate designs
on shield depict not only the war, but also life outside of the war (ie dancing, children,
and harvest). The shield emphasizes both peacetime and wartime to show that life exists
outside of war, and that war is not all which matters.
Burial Homer gives great importance to burial rituals:
both armies engage in a day of peace to bury their dead (Book VII)
when Patroclus dies, Achilles refuses to eat to morn his death, and he is given
proper burial (Book XIX and XXIII)
when Hector dies, Priam goes to the Achaean camp to claim his body and grant
him proper burial (Book XXIV)
Structure
The Iliad is divided into three 8-book units and each unit begin with a decision
made by Achilles, and end with one made by Zeus.
Book I mimics events which occur in Book XXIV, Book II mimics Book XXIII,
and Book III mimics Book XXII, etc, etc.
The Iliad is intended to be an enormously long poem, in order to reflect the
magnitude of its greatness.
Plot Summary
Book 13 - With Zeus backing the Trojans, the Achaeans have now been forced as far
back as their ships. Zeus now takes his attention away from the battle and Poseidon takes
advantage of this. In the form of Calchas, he rekindles the Achaeans
spirit. Consequently, the Achaeans drive Hector back but Hector wounds Poseidons
grandson and so Poseidon imbues Idomeneus with super strength. Hector continues the
assault, but having lost some of their soldiers, the Trojans lose confidence. Polydamas
persuades Hector to fall back and regroup. Hector tries to do so, but most of his front line
is dead. Great Ajax then insults Hector and he has an eagle flying on his right, a good
omen for the Achaeans.
Book 14 The Achaeans analyze their situation and again Agamemnon suggests
retreating. Odysseus calls him a coward and Diomedes rallies the troops
together. Meanwhile, away from the battlefield, Hera tricks Aphrodite to give her a
breast band with the power of love and longing and then by promising Sleep one of her
daughters, she tricks Zeus. When Zeus sees Hera wearing the band he is immediately
seduced and has sex with her. Sleep then makes Zeus fall asleep and allows Hera to tell
Poseidon to help the Achaeans while Zeus is asleep. The Achaeans, with new help,
charge the Trojans. Great Ajax knocks over and injures Hector with a boulder forcing
him back to the city. Without Hector the Trojans are forced back easily into the city.
Book 15 - Zeus wakes up and sees the turmoil. Hera tries to direct the blame on
Poseidon but Zeus promises that he will continue to help Trojans but has no personal
interest in the war. He also knows that Troy is still fated to fall. Zeus then has Iris stop

Poseidon from helping Achaeans and orders Apollo to help Trojans. Hector again
charges and again progresses all the way to Achaean ships. Teucer who had killed many
Trojans that day breaks his bow (because of Zeus) and is stopped from killing further.
Book 16 - Patroclus begs Achilles to fight or at least let him wear his armor. Achilles
still refuses to fight but agrees to let him wear armor. With Patroclus wearing Achilles
armor, the battle turns again in favor of Achaeans. Patroclus goes on a killing spree and
even kills Zeus son Sarpedon. Zeus decides to kill Patroclus after he has slain the
Trojans more. Zeus imbues Hector with cowardice and he leads the Trojan
retreat. Patroclus chases the Achaeans up to the Trojan gates. Apollo finally persuades
Hector to stand up to Patroclus but Patroclus spears Hectors charioteer though and in the
frenzy to get the charioteers armor, Apollo wounds Patroclus before Hector finishes him
off.
Book 17 A fight breaks out over Patroclus body in order to take the armor. In the end
it is Hector who gets it. Zeus continues to support the Trojans, but not wholeheartedly. He allows the Achaeans to take away Patroclus body.
Book 18 News of Patroclus death makes Achilles decide to rejoin war. He is
convinced by Iris to make an appearance on the battlefield. His mere appearance makes
the Trojans retreat in fear. That night, Hector decides foolhardily to continue with the
assault, despite advice from Polydamus. The other soldiers all agree with Hector because
Athena has robbed them of their wits. Hephaestus also makes Achilles a new
armor. Night falls for first time since book 10 marking Achilles entry into the war.
Book 19 Achilles upon getting new armor rejoins the battle. He reconciles with
Agamemnon, who returns Briseis. Achilles wants to waste no time and wishes to join the
fight immediately but he is persuaded to let the army eat. He, however, vows to not eat
until Hector is slain. Zeus pities him and has Athena fill his stomach with food. Achilles
then blames the horses for leaving Patroclus body behind, but horses respond by telling
him that there was divinity at work.
Book 20 Zeus fearing that Troy will fall before its fated time, allows the gods to
intervene. At first the gods hurry down, but eventually they decide to let the soldiers
fight for themselves. Apollo encourages Aeneas to fight Achilles. They begin dueling
and as Achilles is about to kill Aeneas, Poseidon saves him. Hector then also wants a
piece of Achilles but is told to wait by Apollo until Achilles comes to him. However,
Hector is too anxious and challenges Achilles. He fights poorly and Apollo saves him
from defeat.
Book 21 Achilles continues to slaughter the Trojans and each time he kills someone, he
tosses the body into the river Xanthus. The river god protests because the bodies are
clogging up the river so Achilles agrees to stop throwing them into the river but he does
not slow up on the killing. The River god, witnessing the onslaught, pities the Trojans
and asks Apollo to help them. Achilles hears the plea and attacks the god. The River
God takes him downstream and almost kills him but from Hephaestus saves him by
setting fire to a nearby floodplain and boiling the river. The gods now begin to
argue. Athena defeats Ares and Aphrodite, while Poseidon challenges Apollo. Apollo
refuses to fight over mere mortals and when Artemis tries to encourage Apollo to fight,
Hera overhears her and pounces on her.
Book 22 - Priam sees the carnage and opens the city gates so soldiers can come in. Hector
remains only soldier left outside. Despite Priams pleading Hector refuses to come inside

as he feels ashamed of giving the order to charge the Achaeans. As a result, Hector and
Achilles finally meet. Hector flees at first. Zeus considers saving him but Hera
persuades him not to. She claims Hectors time has come. Athena appears in front of
Hector as one of his allies and convinces him to fight Achilles. They exchange spear
throws but both miss. When Hector turns to his ally, his ally has disappeared and he
realizes he has been tricked. In a final, desperate bid for glory he charges
Achilles. Hector is wearing Achilles old armor and Achilles knowing its weak points,
times a spear throw that goes through Hectors neck. While dying, Hector pleads to be
returned to the Trojans but Achilles lets him get ravaged by dogs and birds.
Book 23 - Achilles holds Patroclus funeral the next day and then holds some
ceremonious games in his honor. However, a chariot race which Diomedes wins with the
help of Athena, spurs trouble. Achilles wants to give Antilochus 2nd place prize to the
last place finisher because Athena has robbed him. The men get into a huge argument
but they eventually reconcile.
Book 24 - Achilles continues to abuse Hectors body, though Apollo prevents it from
being damaged and staves of dogs and birds from feeding off it. Apollo persuades Zeus
that Achilles must let Hectors body be ransomed. Priam goes into the Achaean camp
and begs for Hectors body. Achilles finally agrees and takes the treasures offered by
Priam in exchange. Priam leaves with Hectors body and a funeral is held. Achilles
finally realizes that he is soon to die and that his father will soon suffer the pain being
suffered by Priam. This finally melts his rage.
Character Analysis
Achaeans
Achilles Hero of Achaean army, but to modern reader he is not so heroic. His refusal to
fight is initially warranted but after Agamemmnons plea, his refusal is childish and
stubborn. In a certain way he is the villain because many Achaeans die due to his refusal
to fight. His supremacy as a warrior is unchallenged, despite his strong divine
backing. Anger and Pride are his weaknesses. He prays Achaeans lose because of insult
delivered by Agamemnon. Despite these 2 flaws, he is otherwise a great gentleman as
shown by the way he treats his friends when they come to persuade him to rejoin the war.
Agamemnon Leader, also short tempered like Achilles. He insults Achilles and orders
him to give up Briseis. He takes the least risks in battle but expects the greatest share of
the loot. He is cunning and untrusting as shown when he tests his armys loyalty in Book
2. After reconciling with Achilles, he does not admit to his own fault but blames it on
fate and the gods. His rage is based on selfishness and thus the reader does not feel
sympathy for him in the same way they do for Achilles. He lacks certain kingly
qualities. He panics when faced with confusion and twice he suggests fleeing. Odysseus,
Nestor and Diomedes guide him and rally his troops when he is in despair. His despair is
brought about by his concern for the lives of his troops though.
Odysseus A crafty, resourceful, daring, and merciless man. While not the smartest, he
makes the most of his qualities. He is the opposite of Achilles in that he does not let his
passions cloud his judgment. Achilles, Hector, and Agamemnon are flawed
geniuses. Odysseus is an unflawed regular guy driven by his desire to go home and see
bring order to his household. He is not the noblest nor stateliest but he is the only one
that survives to go home.
Aias Greatest warrior after Achilles. Always fights unaided by gods. Best soldier

especially when on defense.

Diomedes The youngest of the Achaean commanders, Diomedes is bold and sometimes
proves impetuous. After Achilles withdraws from combat, Athena inspires Diomedes
with such courage that he actually wounds two gods, Aphrodite and Ares.
Great Ajax - An Achaean commander, Great Ajax is the second mightiest Achaean
warrior after Achilles. His extraordinary size and strength help him to wound Hector
twice by hitting him with boulders. He often fights alongside Little Ajax, and the pair is
frequently referred to as the "Aeantes."
Nestor King of Pylos and the oldest Achaean commander. Although age has taken
much of Nestor's physical strength, he still has left a great deal of wisdom. He often acts
as an advisor to the military commanders, especially Agamemnon. Nestor and Odysseus
are the Achaeans' most deft and persuasive orators.
Menelaus King of Sparta and the younger brother of Agamemnon. While it is the
abduction of his wife, Helen that sparks the War, Menelaus proves quieter, less imposing,
and less arrogant than Agamemnon. Though he has a brave heart, Menelaus is not
among the mightiest Achaean warriors.
Trojans
Hector Leader of the army. He is overrated as a warrior but still greatly feared. He
kills many Achaeans but only one significant warrior, Patroclus but this is when Patroclus
is already down. He is given divine support from Apollo and Zeus. Hes a big family
man who loves his wife, children, and brother (Paris). He remembers his duty to the
army is foremost and in the end he chooses to die in battle than live with his family. The
tragedy is he is killed fighting a needless war and fights only because of his sense of duty.
Priam King of Troy and husband to Hecuba, Priam is the father of fifty Trojan warriors,
including Hector and Paris. Although too old to fight, he has earned the respect of both
the Trojans and the Achaeans by virtue of his levelheaded, wise, and benevolent rule. He
treats Helen kindly, even though he laments the war that her beauty has sparked.
Paris A son of Priam and Hecuba and brother of Hector. Paris's abduction of the
beautiful Helen, wife of Menelaus, sparked the Trojan War. Paris is self-centered and
often unmanly. He fights effectively with a bow and arrow but lacks the spirit for
battle. He prefers to be at home making love to Helen while others fight for him. This
earns him a great deal of disrespect.
Apollo A son of Zeus and twin brother of the goddess Artemis, Apollo is god of the arts
and archery. He supports the Trojans and often intervenes in the war on their behalf.
Close Reading
Book 4 a Homeric simile.
This passage describes full-scale war for the first time in the Iliad. The passage compares
the two armies to fast flowing rivers, heading towards each other. When the two armies
meet, the clash of their armor and the war cries are so loud that they can be heard far
away, just as the shepherd can hear the crashing rivers. The rivers are carrying so much
energy that they have forced a new course and discarded the original route. The
streambed is described as hollow (4.454) with only the white-water generated from the
collisions falling back into the original rivers course. The image of two armies traveling
towards each other, eroding away the battlefield, just as the river has done, is forged into
the readers mind. The white-water could symbolize the recoil of the two armies
colliding or even slain soldiers being tossed up and aside. In addition, the white-water

generated by the two rivers cannot be traced back to either river. Homer is making the
statement that even though there are two armies, once a soldier dies and his armor is
stripped, there is no distinction between a Greek and a Trojan body. The shepherd is a
somewhat ambiguous character. In the Iliad the main focus is on the leaders and
gods. There are very few references to those who live in and around Troy who are not
involved with the war. The shepherd may represent these common people. The use of
the word thunder (4.455) suggests that the shepherd does not know what the noise is
nor where it is coming from. The reader also gets the impression that the shepherd
doesnt really care much about the noise either because there is no mention of him later
on. This is perhaps a rare insight into civilian life around Troy and that people are
generally indifferent to the conflict
Comparisons to other Texts

Odysseus can be compared to himself in the Odyssey. In both he is shown to be

very smart and a good speaker, but in the Odyssey his arrogance is exposed in the land of
the Cyclopes and he is constantly being aided by most of the gods.

Agamemnon can be compared to himself in Orestia.

Achilles can be compared to Medea in that they share the same reaction when their
pride is wounded. They are both overcome by an uncontrollable rage and neither are
willing to make compromises until they have exacted some form of revenge.

Hector and Medea make similar choices. Hector chooses to die with honor on the
battlefield and lose his family. Medea chooses to lose her family in order to exact
revenge and get her pride back.
The Odyssey
by Homer
Plot Summary
The Odyssey takes place a decade after the citadel of Troy is sacked. It focuses on
the journey of Odysseus from Troy to his island of Ithaca. While away, his wife Penelope
is being courted by a crowd of unruly suitors who are literally eating the family out of
house and home. She wards them off by having them wait for her to finish weaving a
blanket for Odysseus father, but she unravels it every night. Telemachus, Odysseus only
son who he has not seen since he left for the war, is the only one left to guard the fort.
Young and inexperienced, he is really no challenge to the suitors.
The story actually begins with the Telemachia (story of Telemachus). Deeply
bothered by the disrespect of the crowd in his house, and commanded by Athena,
Telemachus sets off to find word about his fathers whereabouts and health. Penelope is
kept in the dark of the whole but the suitors learn of his journey and conspire to kill him
on his way back home so that they may marry his mother and take his household. With
Athenas protection the entire time, Telemachus travels to the homes of Nestor and
Menelaus. The former does not have much information to offer, but the latter tells what
he has learned from the Old Man of the Sea about Odysseus and then lets Telemachus
return home.
Book five introduces Odysseus when Hermes is sent to release Odysseus from

Calypsos island. Odysseus builds a raft and travels to the land of the Phaiakians. En
route, his ship is smashed by Poseidon, who is angry with him for hurting Polyphemos.
He arrives at the island and is taken in by Nausikaa, who is under the influence of
Athena. He enters the city and ends up at the knees of King Alkinoos. They feast and
play games in which Odysseus excels and are later sung to by a singer. The songs are
about Odysseus and the War and they cause him to weep. Eventually, he reveals his
identity and tells the story of his long journey from Troy to their island. In order, he tells
them of the Kikonians, lotus eaters, Cyclops, Aiolos, Laistrygones, Circe, Hades, Sirens
(after a return to Circe), Skylla and Charybdis, island of Helios, and then Kalypso. They
then offer him a high place in the city, and the hand of Nausikaa, but instead he asks for
safe passage back to Ithaca. They drop him off on the island with his gifts as he sleeps.
On their way back, Poseidon turns the Phaiakian ship to stone, for he is angered at the
safe return of Odysseus.
Athena shrouds Odysseus in cloud so that he will not be bothered while he sleeps.
She disguises herself as a young boy and eventually reveals to him the truth about where
he is and the situation in Ithaca. She disguises him as an old beggar and tells him to stay
with his swineherd for a while. There, Odysseus tests the swineherds loyalty and is
briefed of the situation in Ithaca. Telemachus arrives and when they are alone together,
Odysseus reveals himself to his son. The two begin plotting an attack on the suitors and
Odysseus returns to his home still disguised as a beggar. He spends time amongst the
suitors, testing the loyalty of his wife and his servants. After Penelope arranges for
marriage games to take place, the suitors return home and in their absence, Odysseus and
his son hide all the weapons. Before the games, Odysseus servant Eurikleia recognizes
him by his scar. On the day of the games, none of the suitors can string the bow and
Odysseus is granted a try. After stringing it and shooting an arrow through the ax-loops,
he begins to attack the suitors with his son. With the help of Athena, they kill each suitor
and then Odysseus cleans the house before he allows Penelope to enter. She initially does
not believe it is he, but after he speaks of the bedroom he built, she is convinced of his
identity. Odysseus visits Laertes, his father where he is welcomed warmly. While there,
the relatives of the suitors attack Odysseus family but after a battle with Laertes,
Odysseus, and Telemachus, Athena tells them all not to fight.
Major characters
Odysseus is the protagonist of the Odyssey. He is known across the world for his wisdom
and intelligence. He holds favor in the heat of Athena, but is hated by Poseidon. Though
he is wise and clever, he is very flawed and he allows his pride and hasty judgment to
make him do unwise things, such as taunt Polyphemos. He begins his journey from Troy
with a ship full of men but ends up alone by the end. He is a war hero but he also has a
place in peace. He is responsible for building his bedroom, particularly structured around
a large tree.
Penelope is the wife of Odysseus. She is known repeatedly as circumspect, hinting that
her character complements that of her husband quite well. She remains in tears and in
retreat for a good part of the text, but she also demonstrates a clever side and strength of
conviction in warding off the suitors. She remains faithful to Odysseus.

Telemachus is Odysseus only son. He is an adult, but has no battle experience and is not
capable of resisting the many suitors alone. There are times when he gets bold and makes
great threats, insults, and speeches, and others when he feels a bit scared. Athena helps
him as well, so that the final plan may be accomplished.
Athena is the most active goddess in this tale. She supports Odysseus and his family the
entire time. She transforms people and gives strength, protection and advice.
Antinous and the suitors are living off of Odysseus riches and preying on Penelope.
They are completely violating all the rules of hospitality established elsewhere in the text.
Antinous is the most hostile and bold of the suitors and Odysseus kills him first.
Eurycleia was nurse to both Odysseus and Telemachus and she is faithful to the family
when other servants are not. Her recognition of Odysseus scar sheds light on the life of
the young Odysseus.
Eumaios is Odysseus loyal swineherd, while Philoetius is the loyal cowherd. They
rejoice at the return of their master and help secure his victory. Melanthius, however, is
the goatherd who chooses sides with the suitors and is therefore brutally mutilated.
Laertes is Odysseus aged father who lives on a farm in Ithaca. He is in severe decline
until the return of his son.
Islands (order of fabula)
The Kikonians inhabit the first island that Odysseus reaches after Ilion. He sacks their
city and takes their possessions, but his men get drunk and feast, while the surviving
Kikonians went to recruit others and attack them. The Achaians had to retreat.
The Lotus Eaters offer Odysseus men some lotus to eat, which causes them to lose sight
of their nostos (homecoming), and makes them wish to stay with the lotus eaters.
The Cyclops land is plentiful in resources. Here Odysseus intrudes upon the home of
Polyphemos expecting gifts, only to be trapped and have some of his crewmembers
eaten. To escape, Odysseus creates a plan to poke out the eye of the Cyclops. After this is
accomplished, he tells the Cyclops that his name is Nobody, so when Polyphemos cries
out to the other inhabitants of the island, he will tell them that Nobody has hurt him. The
men escape under some sheep. After they are in the water, an overly proud Odysseus
taunts Polyphemos and reveals his true identity. For this, Polyphemos curses him and
asks his father, Poseidon, to avenge him.
The Aiolian island is kind to the travelers, and gives Odysseus a skin filled with the
winds. While sailing, his men get jealous of him and open his bag while he is sleeping.
After unleashing all the winds, they wind up back at the island, but are refused further
help.

The Laistrygones is a land of giants. Odysseus sends men in the city to see what type of
people they are. While in the palace, one man is eaten while the other two run back to the
ship. The entire town chases after them and kills many of his men.
In Circes island, Odysseus first sends men in to see who in habits the place. When they
arrive at Circes home, they are all turned into swine who escapes to tell the story.
Hermes tells Odysseus how to transform his men back into humans. He wins over Circe
and becomes her lover and the witch turns his men back to humans and shows them
hospitality. She tells the men that in order to get home they must first travel to the city of
the Kimmerian people, or the land of the dead.
At the land of the dead, Odysseus encounters the spirit of Elpenor, one of his crew who
fell of a roof at Circes island. They converse and then, in front of a pool of blood, he
waits for Teiresias, the blind prophet, to tell him how to get back home. Teiresias tells
him what he must do and then he talks to his mother, who died waiting for his return. She
tells him about what is happening in Ithaca. He then sees the daughters and wives of
many men, Agamemnons, Achilleus, Ajax and the heroes in torment, such as Tantalos,
Sisyphos, and Hercules.
The island of the Sirens is one from which no man has returned. Anyone who hears their
song is enchanted to their land and dies there. For this reason, Odysseus has his men jam
their ears with beeswax. He, howeverproud man that he isdesires to hear the song
himself. Therefore he has his men tie him to a pole and when he asks to be released, they
only tighten the ropes.
Skylla is a monster with multiple heads. No ship passes without losing some of its men.
She lives high up in a cave and eats six of the men.
At the island of Thrinakia, the men are told that if they do not eat the cattle, they will
have a safe passage. Odysseus falls asleep and the men begin to feast. This deeply angers
Hyperion who smashes the ship and drowns them all.
Charybdis swallows and spits the ocean up. Odysseus escapes by holding onto a tree
branch.
Kalypso is a beautiful goddess who lives on Ogygia. She is more beautiful than Penelope,
but Odysseus still chooses his wife and home over immortality as Kalypsos lover. She
takes care of him and sleeps with him every night for nine years until Hermes arrives to
tell her that Odysseus must be set free.
The Phaiakians are closer to the gods than humans and are the best sailors in the known
world. They are somewhat inhuman because they have never known war. They listen to
war stories with a somewhat voyeuristic approach but do not truly understand the nature
of human failings.

Major Themes
1. Judging
The Odyssey is an epic about interpretation as well as action. Odysseus judges each place
differently. Each time he lands on an island he must figure out what kind of people live
there. The reader must also judge.
Odysseus thinks that he is traveling around to see who is a good host when in fact he is
being judged as a good guest and in many cases is found lacking
Odysseus judges places by his own standards in an almost Herodotus way. The Cyclops
are uncivilized because they are unlike him and the giants are beastly because they do not
welcome him. As his journey progresses he has to learn to judge more carefully, if for no
other reason but his own safety.
2. Sujet/Fabula
The order we experience Odysseus journey home is very different from the order in
which it takes place for Odysseus.
The sujet starts with Kalypso because this is the point when he chooses mortality and
makes the ultimate decision to return home. It also begins when he is alone (after he has
lost all of his men). So we begin the story at its most difficult point (the temptation of
Kalypso). The flashback begins with the Phaiakians because storytelling must occur with
humans.
3. Peacetime
The Odyssey reveals the social climate of peacetime as well as what is possible in times
of peace.
Hospitality is possible in a time of peace because you can invite strangers into your
home and they are expected to be good. While wartime is based on compensation,
peacetime is based on reciprocity and hospitality is the fundamental expression of the
rules of reciprocity. The suitors in Odysseus home do not follow the rules of hospitality.
Odysseus cries when he hears the song of the Iliad. The crying and emotion repressed in
war can be expressed in peacetime. After the war, warriors need to hear their story again
so that they may experience it emotionally. In peacetime, you can cry.
In peace you can be clean and be concerned with bathing, bedding, games and also
craftsmanship. Odysseus bed is a representation of the glorious things people can make
during peacetime. Odysseus is not just the sacker of cities but also the maker of beds
4. Storytelling
This is the most essential human interaction and it must occur between humans. For this
reason, Odysseus story does not begin until he is with the Phaiakians. Storytelling is
expected of all guests. It is the exchange for hospitality. Storytelling is also a mark of
civilization as well as intimacy and when Odysseus returns home he and Penelope tell
each other stories when they make love.
Storytelling is also a way in which The Odyssey is intentionally framed and mediated.
Odysseus storytelling is filtered and it is important to remember that everything in his
account is in quotation marks. This becomes very important during his account of the
Cyclops when Odysseus is revealed as an unreliable storyteller. He is inconsistent about
the nature of the Cyclops and their ways of life.

- He says the Cyclops are without community, help from gods or civilization when in fact
the Cyclops live within communities and are descended from the gods and take great
cares with such domesticities as cheese making and goat herding.
Stories should be of things you know. In the case of the Phaiakians, they do not cry
during the stories of the war because they do not know war.
Close Reading (5.55-65; 81-4; 92-4)
This is the introduction of Odysseus and also the setting in which Odysseus must make
his most important decision. By this point in the Odysseus story he has lived and slept
with Kalypso for nine years. The reader sees the scene as it unfolds before Hermes.
Kalypsos cave is surrounded by a seductive nature. The cave in lines 5.57-5.65 is
described as pleasing, sweet, warm and satisfying on all sensory levels. Kalypso attempts
to seduce him into staying not only by making her cave pleasing but also by creating the
domesticity Odysseus so misses. There is fire, singing and even weaving but the
domesticity of Kalypsos cave is too good to be true. In this passage, Odysseus is sitting
alone on the beach crying. Ultimately, Odysseus tells Kalypso he would prefer the less
pretty and mortal Penelope to a life of immortality with the perfect goddess. Odysseus
recognizes something trivial in the never-ending existence he is offered. Odysseus is
given the choice of immortality but he denies it because he wants to complete his story
and because he wants a human ending.
Comparisons to other texts
Homecoming (nostos)
It is very important in The Odyssey to have an appropriate homecoming. Odysseus is
faced with many alternative fates.
-He could return home and be denied his nostos like Agamemnon who, upon returning,
was killed by his wife.
-He could die before he gets home and be denied his nostos
-Or he could live with Kalypso forever and never complete his journey
Choice of Achilles vs. choice of Odysseus
Achilles has to choose between love at home or honor in the battlefield while Odysseus
must choose between immortality with Kalypso or honor at home when he returns. Both
men choose honor.
Weaving in The Iliad vs. The Odyssey
Helen represents the plot with her weaving but Penelope changes the plot with her
weaving and unweaving.
Chronology
The Iliad is told almost entirely in order and in The Odyssey, everything is told out of
order.
Judging by inversion
On the island of the Cyclops, Odysseus judges by inversion just as Herodotus often does
in The Histories.

The Histories by Herodotus

Selection # 1 Book 1, Chapters 1-140; Book 2 chs. 1-5;chs. 33-51, chs.112-120; Book3
chs.17-38
Plot Summary
Herodotus starts his story with Candaules, the king of Lydia, who was so proud of
his wifes beauty, that he made his bodyguard Gyges hide in his bedroom so that he can
see his wife naked. The queen saw Gyges and made him kill the king and seize the throne
in order to revenge the impropriety of the act. Thats how Gyges became the king of
Lydia and a prophecy by the oracle was made that the murder would be revenged in
Gyges fifth generation. Then Herodotus goes on to tell some memorable achievements
of Ardys, Sadyattes and Alyattes which are the heirs of Gyges. Croesus (the fifth
generation) overrun the Aiatic Greeks and established the Lydian empire. This is when
the Athenian philosopher Solon visited him. When Croesus asks him who is the happiest
person Solon knows (thinking he will say Croesus) Solon tells him that a truly happy
person must have a happy death and only then can he be considered truly happy since life
is a chance and happiness is temporary. After that Croesus accepts in his home and
cleanses Adrastus who later goes on to kill Croesus son Atys by accident making Croesus
prophetic dream come true. Later on Croesus is mislead by an oracle message and he
goes on to attack Cyrus and the Persians. Cyrus manages to win the war and takes
Croesus prisoner. In this way the killing of Candaules was revenged in the fifth
generation. Then Herodotus goes on to explaining how Cyrus came to power. His
grandfather Astyages had a dream that his daughter urinated that it swamped the whole
Asia. Thus he decided to kill her son Cyrus. Through some accidents the child was not
killed and later on, this was found out so Astyages sent Cyrus to Persia. When he grew up
he conquered Astyages and Medes fulfilling the dream. After finishing Cyrus story
Herodotus goes on to describe the Persian customs. Cyrus was succeeded by Cambyses
who attacked Egypt and Ethiopia. The Herodotus describes Egyptian customs (who do
everything opposite to the Greeks) and Ethiopian customs. Cambyses sent spies to
Ethiopia and later on he becomes a mad man and starts the expedition to Ethipia. On the
way to Ethiopia the soldiers are starving so they turn to cannibalism after which they
head home.
Analysis of Major Characters:
Gyges with his seizing of the throne Herodotus starts the explanation of the war. Gyges
is blindly following the orders of his king and this is his main flaw. He kills the king and
thus five generations later Croesus loses his throne in order to achieve the cycle of
revenge. Candaules, whom Gyges kills is a representation of hubris he thinks his wife is
so pretty and in order to show off with her he comes up with the plan that Gyges must see
her naked. This is only one of many incidents of hubris in the Greek texts (compare with
Agamemnon mainly)
Croesus he is in general a good king but he becomes too confident in himself which is
evident in his conversation with Solon over happiness. He thinks himself to be the
happiest person in the world. This is again a form of hubris but it is not as heavily
punished as Candaules (why?) Croesus wants to kill his grandson Cyrus because of his
dream. Still, Cyrus fulfills the dream which once again shows that destiny cannot be
overturned. Croesus realizes the wisdom of Solon and how fleeting happiness is.
Solon he appears for a very short time setting some very important themes in the

Histories (mentioned below). He is an Athenian philosopher who goes to visit Croesus.

Cyrus -Cyrus spent his childhood in a poor family but he demonstrated his kingly blood
even in the games with the other children. He conquers Croesus but keeps him in his
palace and takes care of him. Cyrus is the one who brings great glory to the Persians. The
first instance when a childs character gains that much attention and still it is not fully
developed but serves the larger story of the text.
Cambyses He starts out to be a king who wants to attack Egypt and Ethiopia but later
goes mad and kills his sister and his brother. He also offends the Egyptians but this is
again contributed to his madness. Herodotus speaks in Book 3, ch. 38 about the
importance of custom and that Cambyses couldnt have possible outraged Apis and all
customs of the Egyptians if he was not mad which is again a kind of deductive logic since
for him customs are so important that only a mad man would transcend them.
Major Themes:
Purpose of the Histories: The Histories opens with a promise by Herodotus to describe all
marvelous acts both by Barbarians and by Greeks. He wants to give an account of why
they fought and examine the causes of these wars, so for him it is not only important that
we describe what happened in order to preserve the memories but to also understand the
causes and analyze the events. Herodotus describes multiple causes of the war and he
doesnt favor one over the other because he believes that causes are immensely
complicated and there are always many reasons why something happened.
What is knowledge: Herodotus says that he knows everything he writes because he asked
people and these people were not eye-witnesses but their word is taken for the pure truth.
Also, Herodotus deducts a lot of information. Also, Herodotus deducts his knowledge of
the other barbarian[1] cultures because he thinks that the further they are from Greece,
they would do more things in the opposite ways. He believes that the world is symmetric.
For Herodotus extremity in the customs of other cultures is worth describing. Thus, he
does not describe things that the barbarians do in the same way as Greeks. Herodotus is
different than Odysseus since he does not judge the other cultures but he is genuinely
interested in their customs. He does not hold an ethno-centric view.
Cycle of Revenge: We may call it God, faith, destiny or just cyclical structures but in the
Histories things happen because they had to. In a sense there is some very strict order of
the world where everything is interconnected. Thus, if Gyges kills the king five
generations later Croesus has to lose his kingdom. This feeling of order is reemphasized
through the numerous omens and dreams. People try to escape their destiny but they can
never do that (Cyrus vs. Croesus)
Temporal happiness: from the very beginning Herodotus says that For most of those
which were great once are small today; and those which used to be small are great.(p.5)
This is the main wisdom of Solon when he visits Croesus and tells him that if he is happy
today it is luck but not happiness.
Oracles: Herodotus is very skeptical of religion and the oracles and he questions them
often in the Histories. This is a great major difference from the Odyssey and the Iliad of
Homer. There are no gods in the Histories but there are dreams and omens which are
thought to be credible by all.
Close Reading Exercise:
Book 2; 34 This is a great example of Herodotus deductive extraction of knowledge.
He does not know anything about Nile but he beliefs it should be in the middle of Africa

and must be the longest river since in Europe the Danube (the longest river) crosses
Europe through the middle. Also he says that Nile should be the same length as the
Danube since the world for Herodotus is very symmetric, i.e. if Europe has a long river
passing in the middle than Africa should also have a long river passing through the
middle.
Points of contact:
The Iliad and the Odyssey and how Homers account is different than Herodotus. How is
Thucydides different in his History of the Peloponnesian war?
Why do Homer, Herodotus and Thucydides write their historical accounts? What is
important to them? (to preserve, to analyze, to glorify?)
The role of Gods in this text vs. the Gods in the Homeric epics
Knowledge in the Histories and knowledge in Agamemnon and Oedipus the king
Dreams in the Homeric hymns, in other Greek texts vs. dreams in the Bible
The Oresteia
By: Aeschylus
Plot Summary
The Oresteia is composed of three plays: Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers, and The
Eumenides.
Agamemnon begins with the sudden presence of a beacon light that signals the victory of
the Atreidae in Troy. The chorus, the elder men that did not go to war, enters the stage
and summarizes the cause of the Trojan War as well as Agamemnons decision to
slaughter his daughter, Iphigeneia, for the sake of the war. In the midst of the chorus
speech, the Herald brings news that confirms the Achaean success and praises
Agamemnon for his valiance and greatness. Agamemnon returns home with Cassandra, a
captured girl from the war who is seen as a barbarian. While Agamemnon and
Clytaemestra are in the house, Cassandra cries to the chorus that she will die alongside
Agamemnon. Cassandra, cursed by Apollo to know the future but have no one ever
believe her, prophesizes of the death of Agamemnon and the return of Orestes in
vengeance. Cassandra enters the house, and Agamemnon cries offstage that he has been
stabbed. The doors of the palace open and the audience sees Clytaemestra standing over
the dead bodies of Agamemnon and Cassandra. Clytaemestra reveals that she killed
Agamemnon in revenge for her daughter and for punishment of his infidelity. Aegisthus
enters and states that that he has avenged the sins of Atreus in feeding the father of
Aegisthus his own children. Clytaemestra and Aegisthus are in power, while the chorus
begs for the return of Orestes to purify the house of Atreidae.
The Libation Bearers opens with the return of Orestes to witness the chorus, black veiled
women from the house, and Electra bearing libations to pour over the grave of
Agamemnon. Electra finds a lock of hair that matches her own that Orestes in sign of
grief had laid for all the dead. She begins to pray of his return, and Orestes reveals
himself to them. They rejoice and Electra claims that her mother had wrongly buried her
father in the absence of his citizens, and Orestes tells of the oracle from Apollo that he
will punish his fathers murderers. The chorus relates a dream of Clytaemestra that she

had suckled a snake and the serpent drew in blood. Orestes and Pylades devise a plan to
enter the house disguised as an outlander. Orestes enters as a messenger with the news
that Orestes has died and questions his parents what they would like to do with his
body. Clytaemestra and Aegisthus both feign remorse over his death. Aegisthus would
like to speak to the messenger alone to question him, and Orestes kills him in the room
offstage. Orestes catches Clytaemestra speak words of affection over the death of
Aegisthus, and takes her into the room to kill. The doors of the palace open, as Orestes
stands over the bodies of Clytaemestra and Aegisthus. Nevertheless, Orestes grieves for
the death of his line, and how his victory is soiled. He claims himself an outcast and
leaves.
The Eumenides begins when a priestess of Apollo, the Pythia, sees the temple of Apollo
with Orestes, blood dripping from his hands and sword, surrounded by black and
repulsive creatures. Apollo tells Orestes to go to the citadel of Pallas Athene so that she
can judge the case and clear him of his affliction. The ghost of Clytaemestra appears to
waken the Furies and sends them to hunt down Orestes. Apollo rids the Furies from his
home, and decides to provide help in the trial. The setting switches to Athens where
Orestes is embracing the statue of Athene awaiting his trial. The Furies find him and
claim that they will seek revenge for the murder of his mother. Athene asks Orestes to
answer their claim, and he responds that he shall accept whatever fate that is
decided. Athene claims that the case is too large even for her to analyze, and calls upon
twelve of her finest citizens to judge justly. The trial is held and Apollo speaks on behalf
of Orestes against the Furies. Athene claims that she has no mother and is always for the
male in case of marriage. She casts her vote for Orestes in the case of a tie. When the
ballots have been cast, there are an equal number on both sides, and Orestes is
saved. The Furies feel they have been dishonored in the face of the new gods, and
Athene appeases them with the power to straighten the lives of the citizens of
Athens. The Furies become the Eumenides.
Analysis of Major Characters
Agamemnon Agamemnon is the king of Argos, and brother of Menelaus. When the
play begins, Agamemnon is not present because he is away fighting the Trojan War.
Agamemnon and the men of Argos have been in Troy fighting for the last ten years. The
people of Argos are angry with him because the war has lasted for such a long time, and
so many young men have died. When Agamemnon returns to Argos, he brings
Cassandra, the daughter of Priam, home with him.
Agamemnon is a character with immense hubris, and he displays this hubris when he
walks on the purple robes that Clytaemestra laid down for him (63-64). This hubris is one
of the reasons why Agamemnons death must occur. Another reason for Agamemnons
death is fate because his death is completing the blood cycle that began when his father
fed Thyestes his sons. His death also is revenge for his sacrifice of his own daughter,
Iphigeneia.
Clyatemestra Clytaemestra is the wife of Agamemnon, and Queen of Argos. When the
play opens, she seems to be a wife very concerned about her husbands well being and
his safe return home. While he has been fighting, however, she has found a new lover,
Aegisthus. Clytaemestra is portrayed with strong male qualities because she has had to

rule Argos for the last ten years. Her manliness is also present when she murders
Agamemnon instead of Aegisthus. She is consumed with anger at Agamemnon for his
sacrifice of Iphigenia. She views her murder of him as an act of fate that had to be
fulfilled.
Aegisthus - The lover of Clytaemestra. He wants revenge on Agamemnon for the murder
of his two brothers. However, a weakness of character is apparent when it is Clytaemestra
that performs the killing instead of he.
Cassandra Cassandra is a woman brought to Argos from the war by Agamemnon.
Apollo has given her the power to foretell prophecy, however, she is cursed for no one
can understand her prophecies. When Clytaemestra takes Agamemnon into the house and
kills him, Cassandra speaks of his death, as well as of the cycle of revenge that is present.
However, her warnings are unrecognizable and are not understood. Clytaemestra then
murders her as well.
Chorus from Agamemnon - The chorus is composed of Argive elders. They are critical of
Agamemnon for the lengthy war and high death toll. Consequently, they are not
completely sympathetic to him. However, they disapprove of the murder of Agamemnon
and cry for their actions to be punished.
Orestes Orestes is the son of Clytaemestra and Agamemnon. In The Libation Bearers,
he slays his mother to avenge his fathers death. Apollo leads on his desire for revenge.
There are many similarities between Orestes and Clytaemestra. Both kill a family
member out of revenge, and their methods on stage are very similar.
Chorus from The Libation Bearers The chorus is composed of a group of servant
women from the house of Agamemnon. They clearly have sympathy for Electra and
Orestes. Along with Electra, they are the first to discover the return of Orestes. The
women aid in Orestes plan.
Electra Electra is the daughter of Agamemnon and Clytaemestra, and the sister of
Orestes. While her mother and Aegisthus rule, she lives in the palace as a virtual
slave. Electra has immense sympathy for her father, and repeatedly fails to notice his
own shortcomings. She strongly supports her brother, for he is the only person that she
has.
The Furies (Chorus from The Eumenides) The role of the chorus in society is to punish
murderers. The Furies represent the older generation of gods in Greek
culture. Throughout the story, there is a contrast between this older generation and the
new. The ghost of Clytaemestra calls them to punish Orestes for the matricide he
committed. They are angry with Apollo for his support of Orestes. They believe that the
relationship between mother and son is stronger than husband and wife. At the end, they
are renamed the Eumenides, which has a more neutral connotation, and they are given a
real position in Athens where they can oversee the lives of the people.
Athene - Orestes escapes to Athens, so that Athene can clear him of his guilt. She calls
twelve men to decide the outcome of Orestes fate. Athene ultimately casts the deciding
vote that declares Orestes innocent. Athene ends the blood curse on the house of Atreus
and the cycles of revenge. She represents the new generation of gods, and the new order.
She is an opposition to the Furies, who are the old order of gods. Her decision celebrates
an era of democracy and reliance on the justice system.

Major Themes
1. Seeing
The drama of a play is immediate and simultaneously occurs to the audience and the
characters in the play. Therefore, in this play, knowledge is obtained directly through
seeing the action that takes place.
(The doors of the palace open, disclosing the bodies of Agamemnon and
Cassandra, with Clytaemestra standing over them.)
Stage directions: After Line 1371
Why is the murder not seen? Why must the murderer stand over the dead
characters? Why does the audience only see that image?
1. When the palace doors open, the audience sees the Clytaemestra standing over the
bodies at the same time as the rest of the kingdom. The actual action of the murder is
hidden from sight because it is more significant that the murderer is standing over the
body of the king and his mistress. The sight shows that power is now in the hands of
Clytaemestra.
2. The sight of the Agamemnons dead body would shock the audience. The body of a
dead king is a powerful symbol of the overturn of social stability.
3. The same palace doors are opened to the audience when Orestes stands over the
bodies of Clytaemestra and Aegisthus. The audience sees the cycle of revenge and the
prophecy being fulfilled.
Seeing and failing to see

The lights in the beginning of Agamemnon are beacons that signal the victory of
the Argives in Troy. As the light travels from one point to the next, the audience and the
characters understand the overthrow of Ilium.

Agamemnon tramples upon the robes. It is an action reserved only for the gods, but
due to pride, he steps upon them.

Orestes returns to the palace disguised as an outlander. As a person exiled from his
home, those people closest to him cannot recognize him and see his return.

The Pythia, Apollos priestess, cannot bear the sight of Orestes, his hands and
sword covered in blood, surrounded by the disgusting Furies. It is a sight that relates is
terrible to see.
The Oresteia creates a catharsis and serves as a social function to engage the emotions of
pity and fear. Although the concept of a dead king is difficult to imagine, the audience
can identify with the characters on stage simply through the way the action is presented
on stage. Instead of seeing the murder occur, the audience sees the palace doors open
with Clytaemestra over the bodies much like the rest of the kingdom would see
it. Therefore, the play proves to cause an even more effective unsettling feeling.
Nevertheless, seeing is just one form of the discovery of information:
1.
Prophecy Cassandra speaks of the fate of Agamemnon and the return of Orestes.
2.
Suffering Stories from the characters that involve pain from surrounding forces.
3.
Report The Herlad informs both the audience and the characters that the Argives
have been victorious in Troy and that Agamemnon is due home shortly.
4.
Patterns Cycles of Revenge, repetitive imagery, and metonymy trace action
throughout the play. One object or piece of figurative language is used to convey a

recurrent action.
2. Web/Net Imagery In Agamemnon, there are many uses of imagery that refer to webs
or nets. The meaning of this imagery changes with each different character that uses it. In
one instance, Agamemnon uses the word "web" when really he is referring to the purple
robes that Clytaemestra has laid on the ground for him. His odd word choice somewhat
foreshadows his own death for only gods perform this action. When Clytaemestra uses
the net imagery, it is twice in reference to fishing that signifies her murder of
Agamemnon as something that is a necessity and life sustaining.
Examples:

The Chorus: (355-60) (1047-9) AG In this quote, the chorus uses net imagery to
depict the sacking of Troy. They later use it to explain the fate of Cassandra.

Clytaemestra: (866-8) (1373-5) (1381-3) AG In these passages, Clytaemestra

comments on rumors she heard about Agamemnons death while at war. When saying
this, she foreshadows her murder of him. She also describes her need to murder
Agamemnon.

Agamemnon: (944-9) AG Agamemnon uses "webs" to mean the robe that

Clytaemestra has put on the ground for him. His word choice is ironic.

Cassandra: (1125-8) AG Cassandra is trying to tell the chorus what is about to

happen, but of course they cannot understand her. The web that she describes is much
like the Clytaemestra and Agamemnons web that she is caught in.

Aegisthus: (1580-2) AG Aegisthus uses "nets" to refer to the cycle of revenge that
is caused by the curse of the house of Atreus.
3. Old/New Order The Eumenides centers around the division between the old order of
gods and the new order. The roles of Athene and Apollo represent the new order and The
Furies are the old. The trial of Orestes embodies the conflict between the two sides:
Throughout the texts, there exist binary references that contrast the two orders of
gods. The natural represents the older generation, while society signifies the new. The
idea of femininity and masculinity are separated between the two orders. The old order
appears to be that which is uncivilized or dark, while the new generation is the product of
civilization and is seen as the light.
4. Revenge versus Justice
There are two forces that are at conflict in the motives of the characters. Equally, while
Clytaemestra and Aegisthus are punished for their actions, Orestes is found to be free of
punishment for his actions. The two abstract ideals are explored in contrast to each other
in each story.
Why is Clytaemestra punished for killing Agamemnon, but Orestes not punished
for killing his own mother?

The motive of revenge cannot be deemed right or wrong in the stories. Revenge is
an action of loyalty and a protection of ones beliefs. Aegisthus aided the killing of
Agamemnon in response to Atreus feeding his father his own children.

Justice is not necessarily right or wrong, but it is guided because it seeks

right. Although it may not follow morality or equality, it searches for a balance within

disorder.

In The Eumenides, justice prevails to save Orestes from death. The story is a
support for the system of liberal democracy and celebrates the power of the court
system. There is no better judge or law than that of the divine Athene.
Close Readings
Lines 1371-1392 (Agamemnon)

Clytaemestra has just committed the murder of Agamemnon and is explaining to

the chorus how she killed the king. She relates that it was not an act that was new in her
mind, but was pondered deep in time (1378). She is like a hunter in this passage and is
describing how she caught her prey. It is this feature of hunter that gives Clytaemestra
masculine qualities throughout the play. She shares, as fishermen cast their huge
circling nets, I spread deadly abundance of rich robes, and caught him fast (13823). There is a prevalent image of pain and death in the passage, but the picture is blurred
when the scattering of blood accounts for a growth and renewal of life. Within death,
Clytaemestra is glad as garden stand among the showers of God in glory at the birthtime
of the buds (1391-2). The passage is important because it helps to explain the vicious
nature of Clytaemestra and her masculine description. The prevalent net imagery is also
used to bind Agamemnon. The same nets or robes that he ironically stepped upon in
glory are the weapons for his destruction.
Lines 179-713 (The Eumenides)

In this passage, Apollo is commanding the Furies to leave his sanctuary. This is
where the struggle between the two types of gods begins. The very graphic descriptions
of bodily punishment and harm depict the focus of the Furies. There is also a focus on
blood in this passage. These numerous mentions of blood point to the importance of the
bloodline, blood cycles, and the literal blood from mother to son. In this passage the idea
of pollution of the blood is introduced. This was the Greeks feeling about culpability.
Comparisons to Other Texts

Husband/wife relationship: Clytaemestra and Agamemnon are involved in a web

of infidelity and end up destroying each other in the end. Penelope and Odysseus have
the opposite relationship where Penelope practices complete fidelity in the face of her
suitors at home.

Cycles of Revenge:
In the Iliad, a cycle of revenge begins with the destruction of Patroklos, where Achilleus,
must take revenge on Hektor for the loss of his friend.

Nostos (Homecoming):
Odysseus receives a long-awaited homecoming after years of hardship at
sea. Agamemnon received an inversed nostos. Agamemnon returns home quickly, only
to face the most dishonorable end of his glory.

Ethnography:
Cassandra is viewed much like the characters in Histories and The Odyssey. Those
individuals that are not from Greece and far from known civilization are viewed

completely as foreigners. Cassandra is seen by Clytaemestra and a Greek perspective as

a barbarian.

Hubris:
Characters that believe they can bypass the laws of their natural surroundings. Xerxes
believed he could punish the land and sea, while Agamemnon stepped upon the robes, an
action reserved for the gods. Both are punished for their actions.
Oedipus study guide
Plot Summary
The play begins with a plague that has stricken Thebes. Seeking an oracle at
Delphi, Thebes and its king, Oedipus, are told the plague will end when the murderer of
the former king, Laius, is caught and expelled. Teirasias, the blind prophet of Apollo, is
summoned to reveal who the murderer is. Under questioning he tries to refuse to answer
Oedipus; after Oedipus accuses him of being the murderer, Teirasias reveals that Oedipus
is in fact the murderer. Oedipus flies into a rage and accuses his brother-in-law Creon of
concocting a scheme through which to seize the throne. Creon protests that he is
innocent of these charges, and to prove it explains that he and Jocasta (Creons sister,
Oedipus wife, Laius window) are as happy as they could conceivably be and thus he has
no motive to be king. Jocasta intercedes on Creons behalf, attesting to his
innocence. Jocasta and Oedipus talk and compare stories of the dead kings
murder. Gradually, prophesies come together. Jocasta explains that her and Laius son
was prophesied to kill Laius. Laius pierced the babys ankles and told others to leave
him out to die. Oedipus tells how, when he was a young man, it was prophesied he
would kill his father and lie with his mother, causing him to run away from his parents,
Polybus and Merope of Corinth. While fleeing, Oedipus met and killed a rude old man
and the better part of his entourage at a crossroads. A messenger comes to tell Oedipus
and Jocasta that Polybus is dead, which initially brings them great joy because clearly
Oedipus didnt kill him, thus rendering the prophesy false. However, their joy is short
lived because the messenger also reveals that Polybus is not Oedipus blood father;
Oedipus was saved from being left out to die, and his ankles were pierced. Oedipus,
being characteristically slow on the uptake, thinks that the messengers story just means
he is of plebian rather than royal blood, even while Jocasta panics as she realizes the
truth. A herdsman comes and reluctantly reveals that baby Oedipus was sent off to die,
only to be saved by Polybus. After this revelation the audience learns that Jocasta has
killed herself. When Oedipus discovers her, he gouges out his eyes with her gold
chased brooches, attempting to ease the pain of seeing and realizing his crime and his
guilt. Oedipus prepares to go into exhile and asks Creon, the new king, to please take
care of his daughters, Antigone and Ismene. After bidding his daughters a tearful
farewell, Oedipus leaves.
Analysis of Major Characters
Oedipus: Powerful king of Thebes renowned for saving the city from the Sphinx. An
exemplar of Freudian theory, he takes on the role of a paternal figure early in the
play. He greets the townspeople numerous times as children (lines 1 and 57). He has a
fiery temper and is quick to fly into rages. This tendency towards quick and decisive

action does, however, have its good side when he is a king; he can anticipate his subjects
needs by sending Creon to the oracle at the plays beginning. He is also the last person in
this play to understand anything; not only the audience but nearly every other character
understands that he murdered Laius and caused the plague on Thebes long before
Oedipus himself understands. Nearly until Jocasta kills herself, Oedipus is constantly in
action, threatening, calling, and commanding in a frenetic (perhaps unconscious) attempt
to race his fate.
Creon: Oedipus brother-in-law and uncle, he is honest and loyal to what he sees as the
ultimate interest of Thebes. He seeks the help of oracles and prophets and, while he
makes no move to alleviate the pain of Oedipus final fate, he did send his daughters to
say goodbye, which comforted Oedipus.
Jocasta: The sister of Creon, wife and mother of Oedipus, and widow of Laius. She
stands by Oedipus throughout in the best ways she knows how. At first she joins him in
trying to prove the prophecies false. Then, when she realizes the truth before Oedipus,
she triesin a notably maternal gestureto protect him from the truth by attempting in
vain to stop him from searching for the truth.
Laius: The murdered former king of Thebes and husband of Jocasta. He attempts, like
nearly everyone else, to avoid their fate, and fails miserably. At a crossroads, hes killed
by Oedipus, the son he tried unsuccessfully to have killed.
Teiresias: The blind oracle who reluctantlyand only when accused of being Laius
murdererreveals to Oedipus that he is the polluter of Thebes. The irony is that while
Teiresias doesnt have literal sight he has metaphorical sight.
Minor characters: Chorus of Old Men of Thebes, Priest, First Messenger, Second
Messenger, Herdsman
Non-speaking characters: Polybus, Merope, Ismene, Antigone
Major Themes
Dont try to escape your fate. In this play pretty much everybody tried, to their eventual
doom. Laius and Jocasta tried to kill their child to avoid a prophesy, Oedipus tried to run
away from his fate. Fate still caught up with them, seemingly because they tried to avoid
it (i.e. Oedipus wouldnt have killed an old man on the crossroads is he hadnt been
running away from Polybus and Merope). This is a play about fate, not free will.
Sight. Theres the great irony that Teirasias, who is literally blind, is the one who
actually sees, while Oedipus is metaphorically blind. He blinds himself at the plays end,
so that he will never see the crime I have committed or had done upon me! Dark eyes,
now in the days to come look on forbidden faces, do not recognize those whom you long
for (lines 1271-4). Vision is symbolic of knowledge.
Guilt and the irrelevance of intention. Intentionality is not a factor in considering guilt;
Oedipus has no conscious knowledge that is committing parricide and incest, but because
he committed the acts, he is equally guilty as someone who had full conscious
knowledge.

Aristotles definition of tragedy

Terms:
Hamartia: keeps character from doing what they should; tragic flaw (Greek: to
err)
Peripeteia: change of fortune (Greek: to change suddenly)
Anagnoresis: moment of recognition (Greek: recognition)
Main ideas:
A tragedy follows a trajectory of linear events that begin in the middle of the
action. The protagonist, at the tragedys beginning, has a high status and generally seems
to be in a great position in life. The tragedy essentially explains and chronicles his
fall. The tragedy should ideally climax with anagoresis. Oedipus perfectly embodies this
definition of tragedy.
From Aristotles Poetics, translated by Gerald Else:
Tragedyis a process of imitating an action which has serious implications, is
complete, and possesses magnitude; by means of language which has been made
sensuously attractive, with each of its varieties found separately in the parts; enacted by
the persons themselves and not presented through narrative; though a course of pity and
fear completing the purification of tragic acts which have those emotional
characteristics.
Comparisons to Other Texts
Speech acts
Speech acts are actions fulfilled simply through speaking. Cursing, for instance, is
a big speech act. Compare Gods creation of the world in Genesis and the power of
Jesus Word in John with the power of speech acts in Oedipus.
Sight and knowledge
Really seeing and really knowing whats going on isnt necessarily such a great
thing. In Oedipus knowing his own guilt and realizing what hes done brings him
torment and exile. In Genesis, Adam and Eve get expelled from Eden for eating the
apple and Lotts wife gets turned into a pillar of salt for looking back.
Structure of the city
In Oedipus, the citizens of Thebes are remarkably involved, and the play begins
with Oedipus addressing them. They seem to play more of an active role in their own
fate than the nameless and faceless Trojans that live behind the wall in the Iliad. Also,
the violence and threat that Troy faces comes from an invasion outside its walls, while
the pollution that threatens Thebes comes from within.
Mothers
Jocastas role in Oedipus is a pawn of fate. She is not a character taking action, but
riding along with those who are making action. As a mother she neither orders nor stops
baby Oedipus death sentence nor does she appear to be any less passive as a wife. While
Demeter is active in trying to rescue Persephone, Clytenmnestra avenges the death of her
daughter, and Medea is responsible for the death of her children, Jocasta emerges as
perhaps the most passive figure of the group.
Other prophesies about the danger posed by family members.
In The Histories, fears about the danger posed by children come not from oracles

but from dreams. Astyages dreamt first that his daughter Mandane urinated so much that
it swamped Asia, and then that vines grew from her genitals and spread all over Asia. An
interpreter decided that this was indicative of a threat posed to Astyages by Mandanes
child, Cyrus, and Astyages ordered the death of his grandson. Like in Oedipus, the
compassion of strangers botches this and Cyrus did indeed live to fulfill the prophesy
(pages 49-50).
History of the Peloponnesian War
Thucydides
Plot Summary
The Peloponnesian War was fought between Athens and Sparta. The war was mostly a
demonstration and challenge of power between the two Hellenic forces. The tension
between the two nations spawned from conflicts over shipping, trade and colonial
expansion. The result of these conflicts was a twenty-seven year war in Northern Greece.
This account of the war details the disastrous conflict that led to the downfall of the
Athenian empire.
Characters

Athens (and its allies)

Takeover of its allies - dont care about the internal politics of the other countriesrules
allies through global imperialismpost politics
Athens liked to be innovative and to change, they were a liberal society, which
continually changed their model of society and philosophized about their culture. >
Athens cared a lot about the physical structure of their society and culturethis says a lot
about the way that they view themselves.
They had a lot more money than Sparta.
The laws were more revisable depending on who could convince the will of the
mass. > The mass, there is almost no majority.

Spartans (and its allies)

Controls their allies, but works with themtheir allies were controlled politically instead
of economically.
Spartans were a conservative and traditional power.
Spartans were the first to have laws free from tyranny and kept those laws
Not democracy nor tyranny (may feel safer in Sparta because of the consistency of
law)
*Similarities viewing alliances as a superstructure
Major Themes
Speeches - the decline in the quality of the speeches represent the quality of Athens.

Dispute over Corcyra (1.31-43) Corcyra and Corinth are on the verge of war, both
go to Athens to present why they should be supported instead of the other. Corcyra
speaks first. They speak of being the neutral victims, and ways which they can help
Athens by being allies. Corinth responds by saying that they are not innocent victims, and
with point out that they have a peace treaty with Athens that will be broken if they
become allies of Corcyra. Abstract: Both sides present a case, second case clearly

responds to the points of the first.

Debate at Sparta (1.66-78) Many of Spartas allies send delegates to Sparta, and
delegates of Athens were there on business. The speeches given are by Corinth and
Athens. Corinth says that Sparta needs to prepare as much as Athens does for war.
Athens responds by saying that they are not to be blamed for the state of affairs, that if
Sparta were in their position they would have done the same. Abstract: Second case not a
direct response to the first, but a defense by point out different aspects. All speakers are
in first person plural, speech coming from a group of people.
(1.80-87) When the speeches are done, Spartans ask all others to leave and have an
internal debate. King and an ephor (congressmen type position) give speech. King
presents the point that they should not go to war since they are not adequately prepared to
fight Athens, as Athens has many more resources. Ephor says that he did not understand
the Athenians speech, and that Athens was too proud and already acting aggressively, so
they should go to war. Abstract: Second is not a response of the first. First uses
everything Corinth said above to reach different conclusion, second does the same to
Athens speech. Speeches are in first person singular.

Speech given by the Spartan King (2.11) - Given to the generals right before they
depart for battle with Athens. Warning them to not be too cautious because Athens has
the ability to defend herself. Abstract: Not a debate, instead a warning to Spartan allies
that if they want to win not to underestimate the greatness of Athens.

The funeral oration (2.34-46) Details given in close reading. Abstract: Not a
debate. Saying the greatness of Athens.

Policy of Pericles (2.60-64) After plague, Athenian assembly questions if they

should have gone to war. Pericles (general who had voted for war) defends himself and
says they should expect great disasters because of their greatness. Abstract: Not a debate.
But Athens is no longer great because of the plague. Plague is the turning point, the
beginning of the end.

Speech of the Mytlenians (3.9-14) Mytlene was an ally of Athens that revolted.
They went to Sparta to ask to be taken into their alliance. Their point was that Athens
really used their allies as slaves, and thus were being treated unfairly and wanted to end
their affiliation with Athens. Sparta takes them. Abstract: Not a debate. It claims to show
how awful Athens is to its allies.

The Mytlenian Debates (3.37-48) Athens debating on whether they should kill all
of the Mytlenians for revolting. First speaker says that killing them would give them what
they deserved and it would deter future rebels. Says that the Mytlenians were not badly
treated. Also that if they wait too long to punish, that feelings of anger will lessen, and
they will not receive proper punishment. Second speaker begins by attacking the first
speaker personally. He also says that acting in haste and anger will only bring ruin to
Athens because they will have to follow the precedent and it will be extremely costly to
put kill rebels because they will hold out for as long as possible. Abstract: Debate. Really
shows how awful Athens can be to its allies (although second speaker won, and so a
second mission was sent to stop the first, which was ordered to kill everyone).

The Melian Dialogue (4. 85-114) Melos was a colony of Sparta. Athens made an
expedition to the island, and instead of destroying it immediately, representatives went
and spoke. Instead of being allowed to speak in front of the people, they had to speak
before a small governing group. Athens wants Melos to follow Athens self-interest, but

it was not to Melos self interest. Melos did not give in. Athens blockaded them in
completely. Abstract: This is the end of the downfall of speeches as it is not a speech at
all; it is a dialogue to the point that it is written as a play. It is this point that represents
the downfall of Athens.
Close Reading
Pericles Funeral Oration (book 2. 34-46)
Pericles Funeral Oration is one of the key passages of the book. The form of the oration
is as important as they content discussed. Pericles begins his speech by addressing the
form and purpose of a funeral oration, he discusses his personal disagreement with its
traditional implications, but decides that as a tribute to the men who died, he will
continue to speak, but only after acknowledging his feelings that the fact the mere actions
of a funeral are honor enough for any man. He goes on to say that he feels men can only
listen to the praises of other men for so long, and that is why he has decided to speak
about greater forms of honor that applied to the men who had died and to the people
listening to him speak. The first group of people he praises is the ancestors of the
Athenian people because they created the Empire of Athens. He then goes on to praise
their just and premiere government. He discusses the ways in which he feels Athens
stands apart from its peers, as an empire full of people who know how to abide by law
and also know how to celebrate. He praises the people of Athens for creating a
courageous and loyal military, superior to all others they fight and for their ability to fight
their own fight. He praises the characteristics of men in Athens, their rationality and
deliberateness in battle, in addition to understanding their priorities and not flaunting
extravagance in their lives. He goes on to say that it is because of all these reasons that
Athens will be remembered. Their legacy will live on through what they have left behind
at every battle, what has been traded in every exchange, in what kindness has been on in
every gift and that any man who tries to record this through his own estimation of the
facts would fall short. It is here that his speech shifts focus toward the soldiers, although
not describing them individually, he does describe individual characteristics of the whole
that he feels should be represented by the Athenian people. He describes their honor and
spirit and asks that the people of Athens adopt that same energy and aim it against their
enemies. Towards the end of his speech he consoles the families who have lost loved
ones, but tells them that their soldiers died with pride and honor, and that honor is the one
thing one will always have and never looses. Finally Pericles makes a comparison
between the women that these men have loved and Athens. Athens is seen here as the
ultimate perfect woman, one any person should be willing to die for.
The plague is described in the section of the story right after the funeral oration.
Thucydides narrates himself into this section more than he did in the previous one. He
acknowledges this by saying that although he himself did not experience the plague; he
wants to record it if it should ever happen again. Initially in the section he describes the
symptoms of the disease in great length and discusses the ways in which peoples bodies
reacted to the disease. He does not however address particular cases of sickness, but
rather sticks to a general overview of those affected. The plague marked a time of great
migration from the country in to the city of Athens and this migration also coincided with
the unraveling of the city. Lawlessness and civil unrest were rampant, men were dying

inside Athens and outside land was being laid to waste. There is an oracle towards the
end of this section that the Athenians interpreted as a description of their situation ad at
the same time an oracle was sent to the Spartans telling them to go to war. An important
note is that although this was the goriest part of the book, a war story, the plague took
place when no actual fighting was going on between the Spartans and the Athenians.
Comparison

The two passages are connected through opposition. They are recounted side by
side because they symbolize a complete reversal of fortune > peripeteia

In the funeral oration he is constructing an honorable and courageous view of death

and in the plague death is this awful experience that is deconstructing the honor and
structure of the city.

In the plague, he describes how the plague destroyed everything that they had
honored in the oration. > Example culture is disrupted in the plague and was very
important in the funeral oration, as well as honor.

The funeral oration is the one surviving account of Athenian democracy (from a
supporting viewpoint) and the bulk of the images from the plague are about lawlessness
and disregard for order.
Points of Contact
1. Reversal of Fortune: connections to Oedipus, Medea and the Bacchae. Peripeteia,
the idea that there can be a complete change of fortune in one moment. This is seen in the
plague in Thucydides, in Medea, the peripeteia happened before the play actually began
and in the Bacchae it is when Pantheuss mother realizes what she has done (actually
killed her son.)
2. Oracles: they happen and they matter. They also happen in Oedipus. You get the
idea.
3. HONOR there are several points of contact between the idea of honor in
Thucydides and in other texts such as the Iliad. Honor is mentioned in other texts,
however, as two stories about war, the connection is strongest here. However, in
Thucydides honor is only mentioned on a citywide or non-individual basis. In the Iliad
fallen soldiers are individually talked about in accordance to their honor.
Lysistrata
By: Aristophanes
Summary:
Lysistrata gathers the women of Athens and Sparta in the front of the Akropolis for
the purpose of formulating a plan to help stop the war between Athens and
Sparta. Lysistrata asks the women if they would like their husbands to return to them
from the war, and the women at first, claim that they would do just about anything to get
their husbands back. Then, Lysistrata proposes her plan, to stop sexual activity with
their husbands. The women, after hearing this, back down and hesitate to concur to such
an act, except Lampito. Soon, however, with the help of Lysistratas persuasive

arguments, the women consent to her plan. Lysistrata has arranged the seizure of the
Akropolis, the Athenian treasury, so no money will go toward the war effort. Kleonike
proposes that the women swear on a cup of wine, that they wontdilute it with water,
and the women agree to swear to the plan (366). After all the women swear, the women
enter the Akropolis. The elder Athenian men march to the Akropolis carrying firepots
with the purpose of burning down the gates of the seized building. The elder women
encounter the Koryphaios of Men at the gates, and the women pour water all over the
men, putting out their fire. At this moment, the Commissioner of Public Safety arrives to
try to settle the dispute. Before the Commissioner and the other men are able to break
open the gates with a crowbar, Lysistrata comes out of the Akropolis. Archers attempt to
arrest Lysistrata, but all four of the archers that the Commissioner sent forth fail with the
help of the other women. After the archers are scared off, Lysistrata begins to tell the
Commissioner that the women will stop the war. Then Lysistrata places her veil on the
Commissioners head and the other women help dress him up as a woman and then beat
him off the stage. Then the Chorus of Women and the Chorus of Men display a sexual
battle, which results in both the men and women naked. The women soon become filled
with desire for sex and make excuses to Lysistrata as to why they have to leave. Then,
Kinesias, with his son, arrives at the Akropolis gates, in erection and considerable plain
(419). He tries to woo his wife, Myrrhine, into returning home to her beloved son who
needs her care. Myrrhine pretends she will have sex with her husband, who insists on do
on the ground outside the Akropolis. Myrrhine, all the while delays intercourse, making
Kinesias very frustrated. Then she leaves her husband on the ground for good since he
would not agree to vote for peace, as she wished. A Spartan herald arrives, bringing
news of the Spartans suffering due to the womens refusal of sex. He and the
Commissioner agree to settle a treaty for the war, bringing their respective delegations to
the scene. Lysistrata emerges from the Akropolis with a naked girl, Peace, whose body
would be used to map out the portions of the land each side received in the treaty. After
the Athenians and Spartans agree to the terms, order is restored in Greece and the poepel
resume sexual activity.
Major Characters:
Lysistrata: She is the Athenian who formulated the plan to seize the Akropolis and to
thwart the sexual activity between the women and their husbands in order to stop the
war. Her actions portray her as very manly, as she controls most of the action in the
play.
Kleonike: The neighbor of Lysistrata, she acts very feminine, unlike Lysistrata.
Myrrhine: She is the wife of Kinesias. Later in the play, Kinesias comes to the Akropolis
with their son. Myrrhine leads her husband on, as she agrees to have sex with him, but
she finally denies him. This scene highlights her strength in this play, being able to stand
up to her husband and command him.
Lampito: She is the beautiful woman from Sparta who is first to agree with Lysistrata
scheme. Her actions, along with Lysistratas, depict her as a feminist.
Commissioner: Although he is supposed to be a strong enforcer according to his title, he
and the other policemen are very cowardly when they tried to arrest Lysistrata and the
other women. This woman-like characteristic that he displays is only highlighted when

Lysistrata dresses him up as a woman.

Kineisas: He is the husband of Myrrhine. In attempt to get his wife back, he goes to the
Akropolis, suffering from the pain of an erection.
Peace: She is the beautiful handmaid of Lysistrata whose naked body the men use at the
end of the play to divide the land when formulating an agreement to end the war.
Central Topics/Themes/Questions:

Power
The women in Lysistrata have power at home, with control over the sex and
household money [Lysistrata: We budget the household accounts (391)] and seize
control over the state, as they detained the Akropolis in attempt to withhold the money
from the war effort.
Domestic
Political
Sexual
do
do
withhold
force
no force
female
male
Purpose of
Domains: maintenance
expansion
(The women want to stop expansion
and go back to maintenance of the home)
family
state
individual/couple

Sex :
-Importance of sex is for social order. When the women abstain from sex, there is chaos
in the society. When they begin having sex again, the men are back at home, the war
ends, and the chaos stops.
-The women want their husbands home from the war so they can have sex with them, but
at the same time, they are practicing abstinence so their husbands will stop the war. This
is very inconsistent.

Heterosexuality
Throughout the play, there is a free floating erotic energy, until the end of the play, when
the only sexual connections are shared between husband and wife.

Reunification
What should be kept together is separated by war in this play. Husband and wife are
separated, as the men have to fight in the war. The division in Greece, between its two
major cities, Athens and Sparta, is only elevated by the war. The marital bed becomes
the reunification of Greece, as peace is restored after the males are denied sex.
Connections to other texts:
Sex:
In this text, the purpose of sex is pleasure, which is unlike other texts. In other texts, such
as Hymn to Demeter and Genesis, the purpose of sex was for reproduction. However, in
Symposium, sex is also for pleasure.

Sexuality:
This text can be viewed as a text about heterosexuality, whereas Symposium focuses a lot
on homosexuality, as the men express their love for each other. Alcibiades expressed his
love for Socrates in his speech
Power:
Symposium has the same theme that love or sex is power, or rather the withholding is
power over those who want it. Socrates is like the women in Lysistrata, as he withheld
love from those who wanted it.
Just as in The Baccae, the a man is dresses up like a woman. In The Baccae, Pentheus
disguises himself as a woman in order to spy on the actions of the drunken women. In
Lysistrata, Lysistrata drapes her veil on the commissioner, making him look like a
woman.
As in The Iliad, a warrior sees his wife and son. In The Iliad, Hektor has a moment
outside battle with his wife and his son. The difference between this and the encounter
between Myrrhine and her husband and son is that the warrior brings the son as bait, to
draw his wife out of the Akropolis to have sex with him.
Close Reading:
Lysistrata:
But when the swallows, in flight from the
hoopoes, have flocked to a hole
on high, and stoutly eschew their
accustomed perch on the pole,
yea, then shall Thunderer Zeus to
their suffring establish a stop,
by making the lower the upper
But should these swallows, indulging their
lust for the perch, lose heart,
dissolve their flocks in winged dissension,
and singly depart
the sacred stronghold, breaking the
bands that bind them togetherthen know them as lewd, the pervertedest
birds that ever wore feather. (414)
This is the prophecy of the wars fate that Lysistrata read to women. This inversion is
like what Jesus had done consistently in Luke, as he made the poor rich and the blind
see. means that the women, who were thought to be below men in the society, would be
raised above men when they seized the Akropolis (414). This inversion is like what Jesus
had done consistently in Luke, as he made the poor rich and the blind see. The swallows
here represent the women of Greece.

Comparison between Homer (The Iliad), Herodotus, and Thucydides.

Homer
Herodotus
Reason for writing:
Memorializing glory of
Memorializing
individual warriors (to please
collective cultural
readers)
glory (to please
readers)
What he is doing:
Recognizing inevitability
Social criticism
(possibly a criticism of
inequality)
Focus:
Individuals/culture (no
Cultures
distinction)
Method:
Invention
Journalism
(Stories to entertain)

Thucydides
Analyzing the causes of
war (not memorializing)
(not to please)
Social criticism
Political Systems of the
cultures
Academic criticism
(Instruction/ information)

Blame:

One cause

Multi-cause

Chain of events

Possible modes of
identification:

Speaks of individuals
(Achaeans and Trojans)

Speaks of foreign
countries in relation
to Greek

Speaks of only Greek, and

they are very divided, but
mostly into two major
groups: Athens (and allies)
vs. Sparta (and allies)

Symposium Study Guide

Chapter Summary:
Introductory Dialogue
The Symposium opens with an unnamed man asking Apollodorus, to recount the
story of the symposium too him. Apollodorus agrees, but explains that he is telling the
story, which in turn he was told by Aristodemus who attended the party. Apollodorus
then tells how the dinner proceeded, and how after the eating was done the men decided
to send away the flute-girl and have a discussion on the subject of love. Apollodorus also
apologizes because he cannot remember all the speeches and cannot even remember all
that Aristodemus told him.
This idea that the story we are about to receive is much removed from the original
source is somewhat related to the Theory of Forms, in that there are several levels

between the present discussion and the truth. The absence of the flute-girl, which might
carry some sexual connotation, makes the room now completely male, and thus increases
the focus on homosexual love in the following speeches.
The Speech of Phaedrus
Phaedrus speech depicts Love as an ancient god born out of Chaos. He explains, I
cannot say what greater good there is for a young boy than a gentle lover, or for a lover
than a boy to love. There is a certain guidance each person needs for his whole life, if he
is to live well; and nothing imparts this guidance not high kinship, not public honor, not
wealth nothing imparts this guidance as well as Love, (178C-D). This passage
captures the essence of Phaedrus speech. He believes that Love is a great teacher; it
educates the youth and promotes virtue among men. Phaedrus bases his argument in
Homeric myth and literature. He cites several well known stories and extracts his points
from there. It is important to realize that this speech does not address Love so much as it
addresses the effects of Love. Phaedrus concludes his speech, Love isthe most
powerful in helping men gain virtue and blessedness, (180B).
The Speech of Pausanias
Pausanias begins his speech by drawing a distinction between Heavenly Love and
Common Love. Pausanias believes that Common Love is the lesser of the two forms
because it is equally directed at women and boys, and because it pertains more to the
physical body and not to the mind. Heavenly love is a bond between a man and an
adolescent boy, and as Pausanias describes it, Loves value to the city as a whole and to
the citizens is immeasurable, for he compels the lover and his loved one alike to make
virtue their central concern, (185B-C). Pausanias is just like Phaedrus in that he explains
the effects of love, and more specifically focuses on how love relates to virtue. However,
where Phaedrus grounded his argument in literature, Pausanias grounds his argument in
his knowledge of Greek culture and social expectations.
The Speech of Eryximachus
Eryximachus opens his speech by continuing to develop the idea of a dichotomy in
love. Eryximachus takes it in another direction and tries to expand the idea to account for
the harmony which exists in nature between asymmetrical objects. Eryximachus explains
that love comes from the music of two gods and acts like gravity, as a constant force in
this world. Eryximachus speech is different from the first two because he tries to broaden
the scope of what love is responsible for. He states, Such is the power of Love - so
varied and great that in all cases it might be called absolute. Yet even so it is far greater
when Love is directed, in temperance and justice, toward the good, whether in heaven or
on earth: happiness and good fortune, the bonds of human society, concord with the gods
above all these are among his gifts, (188D). Eryximachus scope is wide, and he
constantly changes his metaphors in order to appear convincing, so that in the end his
comes off as pompus and distinctly unconvincing.

The Speech of Aristophanes

With Aristophanes speech there exists a clear departure from the first three
speeches. Aristophanes tells a myth about three species of human that inhabited the earth
and then were divided by Zeus to become the humans, which inhabit the world today.
This myth introduces the origins of love and acknowledges the idea of love as desire.
Aristophanes intention is to describe human nature. Although his myth is fictional, his
description is insightful. Aristophanes says, Now, since their natural form had been cut
in two, each one longed for its own other half, (191A). This is where Aristophanes
places the moment in which longing or desire was born. Because of the split humans
no longer have their other half and they now desire something, which they are missing.
Socrates returns to this idea of desiring what you do not have when he questions
Agathon. Aristophanes then goes on to conclude his speech by expounding male/male
relationships as the ideal relationship.
The Speech of Agathon
Agathons speech stands in contrast to every speech preceding it, but is a useful
foil for Socrates speech, which will follow. Agathon declares that he is not going to
discuss the effects of love, but instead focus on the character of the god himself. He
grants every possible accolade to love, and his speech becomes grossly exaggerated, and
unfounded in logic. His speech is highly rhetorical and so it seems fitting that it should be
the playwright who composes a speech that is so dramatic. He does not contribute much
to the definition of love.
Socrates Questions Agathon
Socrates accuses Agathon of sophistry in his speech about love. Not only, says
Socrates, does he talk about the objects of love, rather than love itself, he attributes
beautiful characteristics to love with no regard for the truth of his assertions. Socrates,
for his speech, begins by questioning Agathon and thus begins constructing an
argument. Socrates leads Agathon to the initial conclusion that one must love something,
specifically something that one does not already have; something which one desires. To
love what one has, in terms of Socrates argument, is to desire what one has in the present
to be what one has in the future. Socrates concludes the argument by refuting Agathons
point that love is beautiful; if it is true that love desires what it does not have, but that one
loves beauty, then love itself cannot be beautiful.
Diotima Questions Socrates / the Speech of Diotima
Diotimas questioning of Socrates, as told by Socrates, complicates the subjectivity
of the story by a third degree (Apollodorus-Socrates-Diotima); it is also the most
philosophically important speech in the book. While Agathon had described the objects
of love, Socrates (Diotimas) speech is concerned with describing love itself. Diotima
claims that love is not a great immortal god, nor a mortal; love is a spirit that exists in

between these extremes, one that dies and is reborn intermittently.

The theme of love as a medium is further developed as the chapter progresses; love is
never without resources, nor is he rich, he is in between ugliness and beauty, and he is
neither ignorant nor wise. Love desires what it does not have; as such, love desires
beauty and wisdom. Diotima goes on to state that the lover of good and beautiful things
loves them because he wishes them to become his own; this progression from one
opposite to another constitutes happiness.
Reproduction in this passage functions as the method by which lovers can attain
immortality; the method by which they can keep the things they love in the future. There
are two types of reproduction, though: pregnancy of the body and pregnancy of the soul,
yielding offspring and creative works respectively. Those that are pregnant in body are
those that love women, but those that are pregnant in soul look for a different immortal
beauty.
Alcibiades Entrance
Socrates speech comes to a conclusion with a drunken crowd of revelers knocking
on the door. Alcibiades, drunk, shouts up to the group, and he is let in. Alcibiades wears
a crown of ivy and violets on his head. He intends to give to the crown to Agathon, but it
blinds him as he enters, possibly symbolizing how Alcibiades, a politician, is blinded by
his prominent social position. When Alcibiades realizes that Socrates is there, he is
surprised and taken back. Eventually, Alcibiades is roped into giving a speech of his own
about love.
The Speech of Alcibiades
Alcibiades speaks in praise of Socrates. He begins by describing Socrates as a man
who could care less about physical beauty or riches, but a man who has incredible riches
inside. Alcibiades goes on to describe his relationship with Socrates; he had thought that
Socrates wanted to be his lover, which was acceptable to him because although Socrates
was ugly, Alcibiades knew he would learn a lot from such a relationship. Over time,
Alcibiades sets up a number of meetings designed to bring him and Socrates together,
such as wrestling and a private visit at Alcibiades mansion, but Socrates never responds
to these seemingly obvious provocations. Alcibiades becomes confused, eventually
realizing that it is not Socrates who is in love with him, but he who is obsessed with
Socrates. Socrates speaks to this, and explains his actions, when he says, You
(Alcibiades) seem to me to want more than your proper share: you offer me the merest
appearance of beauty, and in return you want the thing itself This is consistent with
Diotimas hierarchy of love, which prioritizes the form Beauty, which belongs to the
realm of the abstract, over physical beauty. Thus, Socrates theorizes that it would have
been an unfair relationship; Socrates has no use for Alcibiades physical beauty having
already attained the greater metaphysical Beauty that Alcibiades really desires. The last
parts of Alcibiades speech goes on to describe Socrates actions when they served
together in battle.

Final Dialogue
Socrates accuses Alcibiades of being in love with him, and trying to separate him
and Agathon. Suddenly, a boisterous, drunk crowd comes in and people beginning
drinking out of order (chaos). Socrates stays up philosophizing all night with Agathon
and Aristophanes; when they fall asleep, he leaves and goes directly to the Lyceum.
Themes:
The Theory of the Form:
The Socrates/Diotima speeches hint at the form, Beauty, as the ultimate desire of
the lover pregnant in soul. The idea of the Form separates the world into the realm of the
physical and the realm of the ideal, the imperfect and perfect correspondingly. To attain
Beauty, one must first love imperfect things, such as a single boy, and abstract further
from there, from many boys, to all boys, to all bodies, and on. In this way, love works in
the Socrates/Diotima speech as a progression between opposites. The lover moves from
mortality to immortality, ugliness to beauty, and ignorance to wisdom. The goal of this
progression is the Form; as Diotima says, love is desiring what one does not have.
Socrates:
Socrates is the embodiment of Diotimas lover. Love is described as never having
anything himself; neither wisdom nor beauty. Socrates, described ugly in the text, also
never claims to be wise; in this way Socrates matches the description. Furthermore,
Socrates desires what he does not have, devoting his life to the attainment of wisdom and
beauty. Alcibiades speech in praise of Socrates is also consistent with this description.
Genesis Study Guide
for Literature Humanities: Professor Claybaugh
I. Chapter-by-Chapter Plot Summary:
1,2: Creation A and B
3: Adam and Eve eat from the Tree of Knowledge. God evicts them from Eden even
though he said he would kill them.
4: Cain and Abel are born. Cain kills his brother and God curses him. Eve gives birth to
Seth.
6: The Lord regrets creating man because of mans violence and corruption. He vows to
destroy all humanity but to spare Noah.
7-8: Noah enters the ark. The flood comes and goes in forty days. Noah builds an altar to
god.
9: God blesses Noah, forges a covenant with Noah, symbolized by the rainbow. While
Noah gets drunk and is seen by his son Ham, who he later curses.
11: People attempt to build the Tower of Babel.
12: Abram leaves his homeland at the bequest of God, who forges a covenant with him.
13: Abram leaves Egypt. He and Lot split up, and Abram moves to Hebron.

14-15: Lot is taken captive and Abram saves him. God promises Abram an heir.
16: Hagar, Sarais maid, gives birth to Ishmael, Abrams first son.
17: God forms another covenant with Abram and changes his name to Abraham. Sarais
name is changed to Sarah. The birth of Isaac is promised. Abraham circumcises himself
and his household.
18: The birth of Isaac is predicted by three men (angels) who are on the way to destroy
Sodom.
19: A mob surrounds Lots house, where the angels are staying. The angels save Lot and
Sodom is destroyed. Lots wife is turned into a pillar of salt, and he sleeps with his
daughters.
20: While in Gerar, Sarah is taken by the King. He is punished, but gives gifts to
Abraham.
21: Isaac is born. Sarah kicks out Hagar and Ishmael. Abraham forges a covenant with
Abimelech.
22: Abraham is tested by God, who asks him to sacrifice Isaac.
23: Sarah dies. Abraham chooses to buy a cave for her burial rather than receive it as a
gift.
24: Abraham sends his servant to find Isaac a wife from Abrahams own people; Rebekah
is chosen.
25: Abrahams second wife; his death. Ishmaels children and his death. Jacob and Esau
are born.
26: Isaac moves to the land of King Abimelech. He has problems with locals over wells
and leaves.
27: Jacob deceives Isaac with the help of his mother and takes Esaus blessing.
28: Jacob leaves for Labans house. He dreams about the ladder.
29: Jacob marries Leah and Rachel. He only wants Rachel. Leah has four sons. Rachel is
barren.
30: Leah bears more children. Finally, Rachel gives birth to Joseph. Jacob wishes to
return home.
31: Laban chases Jacob. Jacob curses the thief of Labans idols (Rachel); the men form a
covenant.
32: Esau and a party of four hundred people come to greet Jacob who has split his party
into two camps out of fear of his brother. Jacob wrestles with the angels and his name is
changed to Israel.
33: Jacob and Esau reunite warmly.
34: Dinah is taken and raped by a local prince. His father tries to negotiate a marriage
with Jacob. Simeon and Levi destroy the entire city.
35: God moves Jacob to Beth-El. Isaac dies, as does Rachel.
36: Esau and Jacob cannot inhabit the same land. Esau moves away with his large family.
37: Joseph is in constant conflict with his brothers who are annoyed with his dreams and
attitude. When away from their home, they throw him into a pit and later sell him to a
band of Ishmaelites.
38: The story of Judahs sons and Tamar, and of Judah and Tamar
39-45: The stories of Joseph in Egypt. He is thrown into jail by his master, and then
becomes the viceroy of Egypt after interpreting Pharaohs dreams. He makes peace with
his brothers and his entire family comes down to live in Egypt. Jacob dies.

II. Major Characters:

Adam: The first being. His name and the word man are used interchangeably in the text
because they are the same in Hebrew. He eats from the Tree of Knowledge because of
his wife and is forever expelled from the Garden of Eden.
Eve: The first woman: created from the flesh of Adam. She is manipulated by the serpent
into eating from the tree. This story, which involves a tremendous act of Hubris, can be
compared to the moment when Clytaemnestra tells Agamemnon to step on the crimson
robes: both women are responsible for the downfall of their husbands and they are both
significantly manipulated by an outside male figure.
Noah: The only righteous man in his generation. He is commanded to build and ark
and is saved from the flood. Afterwards, god promises him that he will never again flood
the earth, forming a covenant that is symbolized by the rainbow.
Abraham (also known as Abram): Is constantly being tested by god, who forms many
covenants with him. As Zoe mentioned in class it causes one to wonder why god seems
to be going back on his word again and again by constantly re-promising the land to
Abraham and his descendants.
Lot: Abrahams nephew, and a frequent thorn-in-his-side. He is saved from the
destruction of Sodom. Lot, while drunk, sleeps with his daughters.
Isaac: Abrahams son and heir through Sarah. Husband of Rebekah and father of Jacob
and Esau. Mistakenly blesses Jacob with Esaus blessing.
Jacob (also known as Israel): Isaacs second son. He steals the birthright from his brother
and also takes his blessing. His name is changed twice: first by the angel who he wrestles
with before encountering Esau, and second by the Lord.
Joseph: Jacobs favorite son. He is sold into slavery by his brothers, but eventually
becomes the viceroy of Egypt. He is very skilled at interpreting dreams.
III. Minor Characters:
Sarah (also known as Sarai): Abrahams first wife and mother of Isaac.
Hagar: Sarahs maid; given to Abraham as a wife. Mother of Ishamel.
Rebekah: Isaacs wife. Mother of Jacob and Esau. She helps Jacob obtain Esaus rightful
blessing.
Esau: Firstborn son of Isaac. Is tricked out of his birthright, but eventually forgives his
brother.
Laban: Father of Rachel and Leah; Jacobs employer for a long time; deals dishonestly
with him.
Rachel: Jacobs favorite wife. Mother of Joseph and Benjamin.
Leah: Jacobs first wife. Mother of six of his children.
Dinah: Jacobs only daughter. She is capture by a local prince and raped.
Simeon and Levi: Two of Jacobs sons. They destroy the city of the prince who raped
their sister.
V. Important Concepts
Covenants: Covenants play an extremely significant role in Genesis. People use
covenants to forge alliances and God uses them to make promises and/or to appease
nervous followers. Covenants take two forms: the verbal, which is merely a promise
(usually by god), and the physical, which can be anything from a monument erected from

stones to a circumcision. Jacob and Laban make a covenant for the sake of peace (31).
God makes a covenant with Noah and symbolizes it with a rainbow. Repeated covenants
between god and Abraham make Abrahams people the chosen people. Isaac is promised
a great nation. God uses covenants to test Noah (flood), Abraham (sacrificing Isaac), and
Jacob (moving his family to build a tribute). The really unique importance of covenants
can best be understood through the story of Dinah (34).
Sexuality: In Genesis, sexuality is something to be ashamed of. Gaining knowledge is
equated with gaining sexual humility when Adam and Eve become ashamed of their
nakedness.
Sexual Ethics: Sex is appropriate and goes unpunished by god and the community when
families of those involved have formally approved it or when those having sex are doing
so with the intent of carrying on a family line. The rape of Dinah shows that Genesis is
not tolerant of sexual acts that do not have formal and communal consent. Schehem is
also punished because he isnt circumcised. The marking of circumcision is only seen
when a man is about to have sex, which shows that a persons membership and
association with a particular group is important even in the most intimate times. In
contrast, Tamar is not punished because she deserved impregnation and Lots daughters
are not punished because they only seduced him in order to carry on the family line and.
Onan, however, is punished because he wasted what could have become life and the
Sodomites wanted to have sex that would not lead to reproduction, so God destroyed
them.
Childbirth: God has direct control over conception. The ability to have children causes
contempt (Sarah and Hagar). Having children ensures that the family line will continue so
investing in an area of land or in a city becomes worthwhile. God gives fetuses to women
to balance uneven relationships. Since Rachel and Jacob hate Leah, God opens Leahs
womb and leaves Rachel Barren. God gave Leah three sons to compel Jacob to need
Leah. After the sisters maids bore Jacob children and Leah had more children, God
finally opens Rachels womb. Rachel has a second son and dies after the hard labor.
VI. Comparisons With Other Texts
Eating fruit: Adam, Eve, and Persephone all become aware of their sexuality from eating
fruit. The fruit also marks a separation between parent and child where God is the parent
figure in Genesis. With the attainment of sexual knowledge, the characters from both
texts step into adulthood. They remove responsibility for their actions from themselves.
Eve attributes responsibility to the serpent and Persephone blames Hades. This way, their
deeds were reactions to a temptation, and not premeditated intentions. Persephone is tied
to Hades by eating, but Adam and Eve are exiled.
Dreams: In the Iliad, Agamemnon is sent a dream of victory but he loses.
Dreams in the bible are portents of truth. Josephs two dreams about bushels of wheat
bowing to him and stars and the moon bowing to him are signs that his brothers will be
subordinate to him. The pharaohs dreams about seven skinny cows and seven fat cows,
and seven ears of full corn and seven ears of thin corn correctly predicted dreams that
his brothers bushels of wheat bow down even years of plenty followed by seven years of
famine.
Punishments: The entire city of Thebes suffers because Oedipus killed Laius. Similarly,
God would have punished Abimelechs entire kingdom if he had sex with Sarah. Things

happen to the nation on behalf of an individual.

Virginity: Virginity is valuable and important in Hymn to Demeter and Genesis.
Burial: Proper burial is important in Genesis (Sarah) and in the Odyssey.
Gift vs. Exchange: Any gift that Jacob gives to Esau is Esau getting back what was his in
the first place. Abraham insists on paying for the cave for Sarah because he wants the
land to belong to him forever. This is comparable to gifting and exchanging in the
Odyssey, and the Iliad.
Curses: Clytaemnestra curses her son. Iphigenia is gagged so that she can not curse
Agamemnon. Jacob says whoever took Labans idols will be cursed.
Sacrifices: When Noah leaves the ark he sacrifices animals to god and Abraham
sacrifices a ram when God says he can spare Issac. Sacrifices are important in the Iliad,
Odyssey and Hymn to Demeter.
Homosexuality: Sodom is destroyed in part because of its evil homosexual practices, but
in the Symposium, homosexuality is more virtuous.
VII. Two Creation Stories Close-Reading
Differences between the two creations stories exemplify the multiple authorships in the
Bible. The importance of beginnings is emphasized by having two distinct descriptions of
them.
Creation A
1. The first creation story has a high level of generality. God starts by creating very
abstract categories and moves to more specific categories. (lightday and nightliving
creaturesman) Creation A illustrates the imposition of order on chaos. The process
follows a certain order. The most basic units are established first and then built upon to
make higher and more complicated units. The beauty of the order of creation is
celebrated.
2. The replicated use of parallel structures makes any deviation from the parallel structure
stand out. For example, the use of and it was good verses and it was so. Each new
day starts with And then God said, until the paragraph where god creates man, which
starts, Then god said. After God created man, the text returns to using, And then God
said.
3. An emphasis is placed on the fertility of humans and how they should be fruitful and
multiply.
Creation B
1. Starts en medias res
2. The repeated use of and causes horizontal movement. Nothing is subordinate to
anything else. the LORD God formed man of dust from the groundAnd out of the
ground the LORD God made to grow every tree. The creation of man and plants are
explained in very similar terms where man is not explicitly superior to plants.
3. The two adjectives used in the main section detailing creation (2:5-10) are pleasant,
and good. The LORD God made to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight and
good for food. Aesthetics are mentioned before food, which is essential for survival, but
Adam and Eve become aware of their bodies as visual spectacles after they eat the fruit.
4. Since woman is created as a companion for man, the emotional ties between men and

women are explained.

Family Tree
Adam (Eve)
--------------------Cain Seth Abel
--------------------(Many generations)
--------------------Noah
--------------------Ham Shem Japheth
--------------------(Many generations)
--------------------Abram-(Sarai)
--------------------Ishmael Isaac- (Rebekah)
--------------------Esau Jacob(Leah and Rachel: Labans daughters, Bilhah, Zilpah:
maids.)
-----------------------------------------------------Reuben,
Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulon, Dan, Naftali,
Gad, Asher, Joseph, Benjamin, and Dinah.
Bold indicates the husband of the women in the
parenthesis and the father of the children listed in the
next generation.
---------- the dashed lines separate generations.
Creation A
vs.
Creation B
Plural God
Singular God
God
the LORD God
Man made last. Everything made for man Man created first.
Created in 6 days
Created in one day
Speech acts then rests
Growing and making
God is distant and all powerful
God is humanlike
All things come from Gods speech acts. All things come from the earth.
Women and men equal.
Women are subordinate to man.

Job Study Guide

Summary of Text
There are two stories in Job- the framing story which is 2.5 chapters long, and the
interior story, which is written in poetry and is 40 books long. The beginning prose
introduces Job as a blameless and upright man who was very prosperous. God
converses with Satan, and brags about Jobs goodness. Satan then challenges God to test
Job. God does indeed test Job and in one day four messengers come to Job reporting that
his fields, livestock, servants, and children have all been burned or perished. In response
to this Job still praises God, which causes Satan to request another test. This time God
afflicts Job himself. Jobs friends, Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar come to mourn with him
and the poetry section of the text begins. Job begins to speak after seven days and a
situation similar to that in The Symposium ensues with each of the men speaking several
times on the subject of suffering (chapter 3-31). The men tell stories and Job questions
God and the reasons for suffering. Job, who has faith in the legal system, speaks of
meeting with God and putting him on trial. Zophar leaves before the third round of
speeches and is replaced by Elihu, who is very young. Job pays no attention to the speech
that Elihu makes. Job rests his case in chapter 31 and the Theophany, or seeing of God,
takes place from 38-42. Job questions God although differently than he had practiced
earlier, and God questions Job to prove that Job knows nothing. Job admits to Gods
unlimited power and repents in dust and ashes (42:6). The prose then returns for the last
half of chapter 42, when He returnes to Job his health and two fold his previous fortune
Historical background
The bible deals with knowledge of suffering and Gods role. Not much is know about Job
except that is was written between the 9th and 11th centuries B.C. The authors are not
known however it is thought that the prose was written well before the poetry. For one of
the first time the subject of individual responsibility is brought into question as opposed
to the group responsibility that was assumed earlier.
Analysis of Main characters
Job- Job is a God fearing man who God blessed with good fortune because of his
goodness. Job remains faithful during the first course of punishments and then starts to
question suffering as the text progresses. Through the conversations, Job wants to put
God on trial because Job has faith in the legal system and wants a reason for why he is
suffering.
Job is a representation of mankind in totality here as he suffers even after believing
in God. Humans, as Job does, want to have reasons for their suffering and pain. Yet
through this search for understanding in the end the only thing Job understands is the
power of God and that there is no justification for his actions.
God- In this text, God tends to be condescending especially compared to Genesis. He
asks Job who he is to question his power. God tests Job only to appease Satan and will

provide no explanation to Job as to why he made him suffer. Instead God is sarcastic and
put Job back in his place. When Job questions God and essentially put him on trial, God
proves that he is above the legal process and above anything human. Because of his
power and absoluteness he does not need to answer questions from a human.
Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar- Jobs three friends serve as a forum for suffering and Gods
ways to be discussed. Eliphaz know from experience and tries to give advice via that
pathway whereas Zophar knows because of the divine. And so, a balance is being stuck
as they lament over why God would make them suffer. Their stories become increasingly
more unreasonable as the text progresses.
Satan- Satan is not bad as we think of him to be bad, but rather the representation of the
opposite of God. Satan is also a heavenly being and therefore can talk to God. Satan
persuades God to test Job and to see if Job is good because he actually believes in God or
because he has been prosperous.
Major Themes
Understanding SufferingHumans have trouble understanding why the God that loves them and created them
allows them to suffer. The move to individual responsibility comes into play in this text
and Job questions why he, who is a faithful man, is being punished while his neighbor,
who is a sinful man, is being rewarded. Job thinks that the legal system is the answer to
his problems because the legal system is a way of questioning the party who has done
wrong and finding out why they did this thing. However God appears and Job does not
follow through with his plans of interrogating God. Instead God interrogates Job and
shows Job that not everything is suppose to make sense. Some things, such as God, are
above reason and do not need reason to perform/ carry out a task and he even says that
his power is beyond divine justice and humans should not expect justification.
This tension is amplified for the reader, as he knows that God is only punishing Job
because Satan challenged him.

1:1 Job believes blindly and is faithful

3 Job curses the day that he was born

9 Job was to contend with God and bring him to trial

10 Job is dissatisfied with God and questions why humans were made

3-31 the four men question why suffering exists and why God inflicts it

God comes and uses rhetorical questions to prove that Job and humans are not
worthy of questioning God

God emphasizes that he is far above courts of law and he does not have to justify
what he does to humans
God does say that while humans are nothing compared to him, they are still important to
him.
Human Shortcomings
Another main theme and one that ties in closely with the previous one is that of
human shortcomings. Beginning with Job praying for the sin of his children it is known

that humans are not perfect and they do not worship perfectly. Job then falls by cursing
his own birth and then when God comes further along, Job realizes that speech is an
imperfect way of believing, even though God had to show himself and speak to Job for
Jobs faith to be restored. Sight is a much more powerful way of knowing and seeing God
is to realize all that you dont know. Job has this epiphany and realizes the complete
awesomeness of God in comparison to himself, while Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar are
stuck on the physical magnitude of God. Job understands that because he is human he
cannot fully comprehend all that is God and all that God does.
Close Reading
Chapter 28-31- This speech of questioning delivered by Job is central to the humans
confusion concerning God. Job compares humans to gems and metals that are removed
from the earth and darkness, or unknowing in the case of the humans, to be polished into
bright silver or knowing of the glory of God. He shows all that man can do and know in
comparison to animals in 28:7-11. Job knows that man can accomplish much on his own
and is able to know much.
In 28:12 Job addresses what he does not know. He asks the source of wisdom and
how it, unlike silver, cannot be found just by looking. The value of wisdom is that above
any earthly product and Job says that God is the only one who knows how to obtain it.
The fear of the lord is wisdom. Job goes on to explain that he had the fear of God and that
everything he did was for the Lord but now he is made fun of and has been humbled by
God.
This speech highlights why Job, and men in general, are baffled by the act of God
and are confused about the way to wisdom. Job was innocent, always fearing God, and
yet God turned on him and struck him down. This behavior is troubling to the humans
who do not understand how the Lord works. The main argument of Job lies in this speech
and the unrest of humans is found in his words. God speaks in response to this speech
saying that Job has no right to have any of these questions.
Connections to other texts
Like The Symposium, this is a discussion of something abstract by several people with
differing opinions.
Odyssey- Job has had bad and good so he knows what good is. This is a more extreme
example than the one found in the Odyssey
41.11- related to Genesis and the covenant that Abraham has with God. The conflict
between exchange versus giving and how since Adam everything is an exchange rather
than a gift. Also exchange in Hymn to Demeter
The Gospels of
Luke and John
As Explained by: Gaby Avila-Bront, Alex Epstein, and Geo Karapetyan
Plot Summary

Luke
The Archangel Gabriel visits Zechariah, who was a priest, while he was serving and tells
him that his old wife Elizabeth is to give birth to a son whose name is to be John, who
would be filled with the Holy Spirit and prepare the nation for the Lord. Yet, due to his
lack of faith, Gabriel makes Zechariah mute until the birth of John. Six months later the
angel goes to a virgin named Mary who is engaged to a man named Joseph and tells her
that the Holy Spirit would impregnate her with a son whom she would call Jesus, who
would be the Son of the Most High and have an everlasting kingdom. In Bethlehem,
Jesus is born in a manger, and angels tell shepherds of His birth.
When Jesus is twelve, his family travels to Jerusalem for Passover. When they leave,
Mary and Joseph think that Jesus is with their relatives, but they cannot find him. They
return to Jerusalem and find him in the Temple. Many years later, John begins teaching
and baptizing and telling of He who is to come (Christ). Eventually, Jesus is baptized
and his lineage is traced back to Adam. Jesus then goes into the wilderness and eats
nothing for forty days and is tempted by the devil who mocks and taunts him for being
the Son of God.
Jesus then begins to collect disciples to follow him, eventually finding twelve main me
and later, seventy others. During Jesus ministries, he heals many illnesses including
blindness, leprosy, and withered hands, and he cures people filled with
demons. Moreover, he resurrects numerous individuals and also pardons the sins of
many. All of this is done through faith. The Pharisees, however, constantly try to find
flaws in Jesus actions, yet Jesus always finds a way out of their traps.
Jesus tells numerous parables throughout the text; some of the major ones include: the
parable of the brides waiting for the bridegroom; the parable of a man who throws a party
and invites poor people to it; the parable of the lost sheep; of the prodigal son; and the
one of a man who plants a vine in his home and is killed by the servants who tend it year
after year.
Some major events and interactions during Jesus ministry include:
Jesus Christ is in a boat with his disciples and falls asleep while there is a storm
and He reassures the disciples that nobody would perish because of their faith.
He feeds the multitudes by multiplying the two fish and five loaves of bread that a
young boy supplies him with.
A rich man asks Jesus Christ what he has to do to achieve eternal life, and Jesus
Christ tells him to obey the commandments and give away all of his fortune, which the
man admits that he cannot do. To this, Jesus Christ says that it is easier for a camel to
walk through the eye of a needle than a rich man to enter heaven.
He tells the citizens to give Caesar whatever belongs to him (taxes)
Upon entry into Jerusalem, Jesus Christ prophesizes the end of the world, where one
would see Jerusalem surrounded by armies and for those who have faith not to lose it
because they will be saved. He then eats for the last time with his disciples: he gives

them unleavened bread and wine, and washes their feet to show them brotherly love.
That night, Jesus Christ is arrested and put on trial by his enemies, the religious leaders of
Israel. He is turned in by his astray follower, Judas, who sells the secret of his
location. Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of the area, finds Jesus not guilty, but Pilate
knows that he must crucify him in order to keep peace amongst the nation of Israel. Jesus
is crucified and buried and then is resurrected on the third day following his death. He
appears to his disciples a few days later.
John
John begins with a explanation of the origin of Jesus Christ with respect to God (In the
beginning was the Word and the Word was with God). A description of the birth of
John the Baptist is provided as well. The text then skips some thirty odd years to the
main part of Jesus ministry.
The first thing Jesus does in the text is to turn water into wine at a wedding upon the
request of his mother. Later, he scolds the worshippers at the Temple because they are
selling in the House of God. He heals many individuals through faith; some examples
include: curing blindness and the resurrection of Lazarus.
Jesus is followed by people because they ate to their fill with him, but he tells them not to
seek perishable bread, but everlasting bread from his Father. Also, on numerous
occasions Jesus tells his disciples that he will be leaving soon and that one of them would
betray him, however, they can never understand what he means by this. Eventually,
while teaching in the Temple, some ask him to stop speaking in riddles and tell them who
he truly is. Once he does, some believe his story while others do not. Still, some Jews
continue to ask him who he is, and he tells them that by now they are so sinful that they
no longer have the same Father as he does.
After more healings, Jesus eats his last supper with his disciples. There are few major
differences in description when comparing this version to the one in Luke. The few
changes include that Jesus reassures his disciples that even after his death he will still be
with them. He then washes their feet, prophesizes that Peter will abandon him that night
before the cock would crow three times, and sends Judas on his way to do his evil deed.
Jesus is arrested and when the soldiers come, Judas identifies him by kissing him on the
cheek. Peter then cuts the ear of one of the high priests slaves. Later that night, Peter
denies being one of Christs disciples three times, fulfilling Jesus prophecy.
Jesus is then put on trial and mocked for claiming to be the king of the Jews. Soldiers
gambled for his robe which was without seam, thus fulfilling one of Isaiahs
prophecies. On His cross was written Here Lies the King of the Jews.
Mary Magdalene returns to the tomb that following Monday and finds that the stone had
been removed from the opening of the tomb. She calls Peter and they find the linen in
which Jesus Christs body had been wrapped in a corner of the tomb. Mary stands

weeping outside the tomb and she see a figure which is Christ. He tells her not to touch
her for [He] had not yet ascended to the Father. Later that day, he visits the Apostles
who are in hiding for fear of the Jews. One of the Apostles, Thomas, is missing and
when told that Jesus Christ had visited them, did not believe it was true. Jesus comes
later on to prove to Thomas that he had indeed risen from the dead. He then reveals
himself to the disciples again by telling them where to cast their nets when they are
fishing.
Analysis of Characters
Jesus His name means Lord, save, and is also called Christ, which means anointed
one and refers to his role as the Messiah, or Savior. As described in the Gospels, Jesus is
the Son of God the very human incarnation of God both God and human. He is
sinless, has divine knowledge, and is able to overcome death and return to visit his
followers. The central character of the entire New Testament, the Gospels tell of his
ministry, death, and miraculous resurrection from the dead. Both Luke and John follow
Jesus life, telling of the miracles he performs. John refers to him as The true light that
enlightens every man (John 1:9)
John the Baptist son of the elderly Jewish parents Elizabeth and Zechariah, who were of
a priestly family. Because his mother was previously barren, his birth was miraculous.
When an angel told his father about his birth, he was prophesied to drink no wine nor
strong drink,turn many of the sons of Israel to the Lord their God,go before him in
the spirit and power of Elijah,turn the hearts of the fathers to the children, and the
disobedient to the wisdom of the just, to make ready for the Lord a people
prepared (Luke 1:15-17). His mission was to prepare the people for the coming of the
Messiah by baptizing people with water.
Mary The mother of Jesus, she is impregnated by God, the Holy Spirit, while betrothed
to Joseph, and still a virgin. It is the angel Gabriel who announces her pregnancy to her,
and she accepts the will of God. She is one of the few women at the crucifixion and
burial of her Son.
Joseph The husband of the Virgin Mary, and therefore the human representation of a
father to Jesus.
Elizabeth - the mother of John the Baptist, daughter of Aaron, and wife of Zechariah.
She was barren until she became pregnant with her son. She is also a relative of the
Virgin Mary, making John the Baptist a relative of Jesus.
Zechariah the husband of Elizabeth, and the father of John the Baptist. On the occasion
of Zechariahs duty of burning incense in the temple at Jerusalem, an angel appeared to
him, informing him that his prayers had been heard, and that his barren wife would bear a
son.

Judas Iscariot One of the first of the twelve disciples, and was personally called by
Jesus. In following with Jesus prediction, Judas betrays Jesus for money, to the chief
priests and captains (Luke 22:4) after the Last Supper, and therefore is the cause of
Jesus crucifixion.
The Twelve Disciples The first twelve Disciples of Christ were: Simon Peter, Andrew,
John, James, Levi, Philip, Bartholomew/Nathanael, Thomas, James the son of Alphaeus,
Thaddeus, Simon the Cananean, and Judas Iscariot. In the Gospel of John, however, the
disciple preveiously referred to as Bartholomew is now called Nathanael. Christ appears
to all of the disciples with the exception of Judas Iscariot the man who betrayed Jesus.
In the Gospel of John, Christ appears to them twice for all except Thomas, who, because
of his initial doubt, was absent for the first appearance.
Pharisees and Scribes The Pharisees were one of the major Jewish groups during Jesus
lifetime. They had political power and would read the Hebrew Scriptures with strict
literalism and legalism. Throughout each of the gospels, they are hostile towards Christ,
constantly testing his character and knowledge of law, as they feared that he might
challenge their laws. The Scribes were experts in the law and interpretation of the
scriptures, and were very likely the legal counselors to the Pharisees. They were also
against the mission of Christ, and were amongst those who plotted Christs murder.
Pilate The roman Governor at the time of Jesus death. Although he declares Jesus
innocent of any crime, he is pressured into allowing the crucifixion, sentencing Christ to
death.
Mary Magdalene One of the woman followers of Jesus, and is one of the women who
sees the crucifixion and burial of Christ, and who goes to the tomb on the third day after
his death to attend to the body. In the Gospel of Luke, Christ removes evil spirits from
her, while in the Gospel of John, she is the first person to whom Christ appears once
resurrected.
Lazarus John tells the story of his resurrection as the seventh and last miracle that
Jesus performs in his gospel. In this miracle, Jesus raises Lazarus, the brother of Mary
and Martha, after being dead for four days. John interprets the significance of Lazarus
story from a statement that Jesus makes: I am the resurrection and the life; he who
believes in me, though he die, yet shall he live, and whoever lives and believes in me
shall never die (John 11:25-26). Lazarus, a friend of Jesus, is typical of all human beings
with the presence of the Spirit of God, one is no longer dead, but instead partakes of the
(spiritual) life that is eternal.
Angel Gabriel An archangel of God a messenger who announces the future births of
both Jesus and John the Baptist.
Joseph of Arimathea The follower of Christ who secretly asks Pilate for the permission
to take the dead body of Jesus for a proper Jewish burial. He removes Jesus from the
cross, covers his body in the traditional ointments and linens, and buries him in an empty

tomb.
Major Themes
Luke
1) Inversion (Chaismus)
Much of the structure in Luke is presented in the inversion style, which emphasizes the
change in status between the world and the afterlife. Jesus, the son of God, is brought to
earth to live among the lowliest individuals rather than in luxury and comfort. This
inversion allows for the concentration on the afterlife rather than on the worldly: those
who are poor now become rich after death, and vice versa.
Major examples include:
1) 3:5 Every valley shall be filled, and every mountain and hill shall be brought
low Jesus is quoting Isaiahs prophecy and begins the pattern of inversion
2) 6:20-26 Jesus preaches to the disciples that those who are poor will reap in heaven,
while those who have plenty now shall hunger later
3) 12:3 Jesus speaks to his disciples: Whatever you have said in the dark shall be
heard in the light, and what you have whispered in private rooms shall be proclaimed
upon the housetops.
4) 16:19-31 Jesus tells the story of Lazarus and the rich man, in which the poor and
sick Lazarus becomes comforted in heaven, while the rich man suffers in Hades
5) 17:33 Jesus speaks the disciples about gaining everlasting life: Whoever seeks to
gain his life will lose it, but whoever loses his life will preserve it.
This technique of inversion is present in all three levels of Luke: the structural form of
the sentence, in the parables and miracles, and finally, in the general theology of
Christianity (Jesus comes to save the sinners and not the rich). At the same time,
however, it is important to note that some of the inversions have no counterparts: in many
of the miracles, the blind or the mute are given the ability to see or speak, respectively,
and yet, there is no foilno one is made blind literally. Yet, spiritually, those who have
no faith in Jesus (and thus cannot reap the benefits of his powers) are blind to his works
and his divinity.
2) Faith
Faith is of primary consideration in Luke rather than the idea of obedience, which is
found in Genesis. While the two may appear to be equivalent, no physical action is
necessary to prove ones faithonly spiritual and emotional responses are
considered. The idea of faith is prevalent throughout the text, particularly in the context
of the miracles and the parables, where the faithful are blessed and the faithless criticized.
Major examples:
1) 8:43-48 While passing through a city, Jesus is mobbed by people and a sick
woman touches Jesus clothes so that she may be healed. Jesus stops and demands to
know who touched him. The woman professes her faith, and Jesus responds, Daughter,
your faith has made you well; go in peace.
2) 19:35-43 Once again, Jesus heals a blind man because he claimed his faith in
Jesus.
3) Numerous parables deal almost exclusively with the idea of faith to God and the

rewards that follow (The Faithful Steward in 12:42-8 and the Prodigal Son in 15:11-32
are key).
In the midst of all this faith, there are instances of faithlessness: the actions of the
disciples are good instances. For example, the disciples are never truly convinced of
Jesus divinity; they continually question him, and even when he has risen again, some
still do not believeand yet, they are chosen by Jesus to continue his
work. Furthermore, Peter refuses to acknowledge his relationship to Jesus after Jesus is
captured. Although this was predicted by Jesus, Peters faithlessness should still be
noted.
John
1) Afterlife
The idea of life after death is of main concern in John, as it was in Luke, as well. Jesus
comes to earth in the interest of saving souls and offering eternal life (3:16 and
12:47). This is the essence of Jesus ministries, and therefore Johns account of Jesus
life. While Jesus travels, he often speaks that those connected with the world will not
cannot reap the benefits of the afterlife:
1) 8:23-4 Jesus speaks in the temple: You are from below, I am from above; you are
of this world, I am not of this world. This idea connects with Jesus sayings that it is
only through him that man can come to heaven (14:6).
2) 12:20 In a parable about a seed, Jesus says, He who loves his life loses it, and he
who hates his life in this world will keep it for eternal life.
3) 17:9 Jesus prays to God: I am not praying for the world but for those whom thou
hast given me. By not praying/speaking for the world, and those associated with it,
Jesus excludes them from the possibility of a blessed afterlife.
Yet, then the question remains as to how does one actually leave the world, become
favored by Jesus, and live fruitfully in the afterlife. Jesus speaks of worship (4:22-23),
faith by following (8:12), and obedience in the form of love (14:23) as the keys to a
blessed eternal life.
2) Stasis/The Essence of Existence
John is a text that is very stationary in terms of syntax. Rather than incorporating verbs
of action and describing the progress of events, ideas and individuals are described only
in the context that is relevant to the text. For example, the narrative begins by describing
the creation of the world and incorporating Jesus into the creation (something Genesis
does not do). The text then skips directly to the start of Jesus ministry, skipping thirty
years in his life to the part that is of main interest. Therefore, there is no idea of
becoming in John, only existence in the present is valued.
Also, as was previously discussed in class, the opening lines of the text (1:1-5) reflect the
stasis nature of the text: verb usage is limited to stationary words such as was and
has. This is rather odd for a text that is describing the creation of the entire world,
which should theoretically be full of action and moving events. Instead, the text
expresses this creation with minimal action: In the beginning was the Word, and the
Word was with God, and the Word was God. All things came into being through him
(1:1-3).

Quick Notes of Comparison between the Gospels

1) Parable v. Metaphor
Luke relies more heavily on the parable style (Jesus tells a story that is related his mission
on earth) to convey his message to the public, whereas John uses the metaphor (Jesus is
the Word [1:14], the bread of life [6:35], the good shepherd [10:14], and the true
vine [15:1] throughout the text.).
2) Presence of Jesus
Jesus is frequently present in Luke, while in John Jesus is constantly going away form the
masses and spending time alone. For example, in John 7:10 Jesus leaves his disciples
and [goes] up, not publicly, but in private. Also, in John, Jesus speaks much less
frequently than in Luke.
3) The Human and Divine Sides of Jesus
Luke: Jesus is in theory a biological descendant of God (while Jesus has no relation to
Joseph, Luke incorporates a long listing of descendents) and is born of Mary. In the
divine sense, he is metaphorically associated as the Son of God.
John: Physically, Jesus is the manifestation of the Word into flesh (1:14), with no direct
ties to the earth or Mary as his mother (oddly enough however, Mary is referred to on
numerous occasions as Jesus mother19:25 is an example). On a spiritual level, Jesus is
divine as the true Son of God, no questions asked.
Close Reading
Luke
Luke, 6:20-46
The passage from chapters 20 to 46 describes the kingdom of Christ, and what it means
to reach it. Christ delineates that suffering in this world will be rewarded in the next (the
next being an everlasting kingdom). In chapters 20 to 26, he classifies people into
categories which will rejoice on the day of judgment (i.e. those who are hungry,
persecuted unjustly and not consoled), and which will be led to demise on that day (i.e.
the rich, the satiated and those who live in luxury). In the following chapters (27-46)
Jesus tells his followers how to live their lives, with the new commandment he has
given them (this commandment being to love one another and forgive those who do us
wrong), and to live their lives without passing judgment on others and giving as much as
they can and with all their hearts.
This passage encompasses the chiasmus of the Gospel according to Luke. Here, as
before, there is an emphasis on the switching of roles that occurs as a result not of
acquired wealth, but of deeds done in ones lifetime. The inner self is brought into
light, a concept that governs much of Jesus teachings. It is a self which must be in
contact with God, and which must have faith in the power that God has to redeem and to
make good what begins as bad: Blessed are you that weep now, for you shall laugh
(Luke, 6:21). The chiasmus (or reversal of roles which have opposite endpoints but
cross paths on their ways there) of this passage maps out what is now and what will
happen. It reinforces the duality of life and how the afterlife is something completely

different and unknown to the rules of man; for example, Jesus does not have to prove to
the Pharisees anything and does not wash himself before dining with them. It is though
this inversion that Jesus brings to light in his new way of living. In fact, this inversion
becomes more of a way to dissolve the past and start anew with his followers than it is an
addition onto the old rules. On the final day of judgment, there will be more chiasmus
and during this time, they will be made literal. In the end of this passage, readers become
aware that it is a persons faith which lifts them to an eternal life.
John
And the Word became flesh and dwelt among us, full of grace and truth; we have beheld
his glory, glory as of the only Son from the Father, (John bore witness to him, and cried,
This was he of whom I said, He who comes after me ranks before me, for he was before
me.) And from his fullness have we all received, grace upon grace. For the law was
given through Moses; grace and truth came through Jesus Christ. No one has ever seen
God; the only Son, who is in the bosom of the Father, he has made him known. (John
1:14-18)
The passage in verses14-18 explains the significance of Christs appearance on Earth. As
Johns primary mission in writing his gospel was to prove the existence of Jesus as the
Son of God, Jesus deity is constantly emphasized. John describes metaphorically how
God became human in the body of Jesus, and the good characteristics that he embodies.
Johns reaffirmation of Jesus as the Son of God is used as further proof of his existence.
The structure used in the sentences is characterized by its use of repetition of sentence
content by the rearranging its context. Johns heavy reliance on the words used
emphasizes his own belief in the extreme significance of Jesus words. Throughout the
text, we know that John uses Jesus words as a tool for the gaining of followers the
Word is the Spirit of God, and it is permeated through the body of Christ and through his
Words to the people who become his followers. These Words show the glory and grace
of God. And because no one has ever seen God, Jesus uses his words and therefore
has made him known.
Some Quick Comparisons to Other Texts
Luke
1) Jesus and Dionysus In both texts, the leaders of groups are trying to persuade
people to follow them and worship them. In Luke, however, those who follow Jesus are
rewarded spiritually and in the afterlife. Dionysus promises only physical rewards.
2) Family Relationships Jesus tells many to leave their families (9:60-62) for no one
who puts his hand to the plow and looks back is fit for the kingdom of God. In Genesis,
however, the major theme that carries the text is generations and the importance of
biological families. Luke, on the other hand, deals exclusively with the bond between
individuals and Jesus, and the new, spiritual family that is present with God as the father.
John
1) Love in Symposium, God in John In Symposium, Plato describes how beauty is

represented on earth in the form of beautiful boys, but their beauty is not as great as the
abstract form of beauty itself. In the same sense, God comes to earth in the form of
Jesus, which then raises the question, is Jesus imperfect? If so, how can Jesus be
imperfect if he is a part of God (the Word was Godand the Word became flesh
[1:1,1])? This contradiction is one to be noted.
2) Worship v. Obedience Genesis and Job call for obedience for God in order to
receive blessings and rewards. John, however, claims that worship and faith are the
necessary elements to enjoy the rewards of god.