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Theadvantageofthefourchamberedheartofmammalsoverthethreechamberedheartofamphibiansis
that:
Thereisnomixingofoxygenatedandunoxygenatedbloodintheventricles
Becausediffusionisresponsiblefordeliveryofnutrientstothetissuesandremovalofwastesallcellsinthe
bodymustbewithin__________ofacapillary.
1mm
Respirationrateiscontrolledbythebrainstem,
WhichsensestheconcentrationofCO2intheblood.
Inmammals,Mostoftheoxygeninbloodis:
Boundtohemoglobin
Theenzymecarbonicanhydrase
IskeytothetransportofCO2transportedintheblood
CO2+H20<>H2CO3
SinoatrialNodeEmitselectricalsignalsthatinitiatethecardiaccontractioncycle
Locatedinrightatrium
Functionofthedistaltubuleofthenephron:
RegulatebloodpHandosmolality
Inasecondaryimmuneresponseantibodiesbegintobuildupinonlyadayortwobecause:
TherearealreadylargenumbersofmemoryTcellspresentthatrecognizetheforeignsubstance
Adrugthatstimulatedthehypothalamustoreleaseantidiuretichormone(ADH)wouldbeexpectedto:
Increaseconcentrationofureainurine
Whenbloodglucoseistoohighthepancreassecretes:
Insulin
Thecellularreceptorsforlipidsolublehormoneslikeestrogenarelocatedin:
Insidethecytoplasmoftargetcells
Secretedfromthehypothalamusinresponsetostress:
ACTH
TheNeuron:
AxonInitiatesandtransmitsactivepotential
Dendrites
CellBody
SchwannCells
Neuronreceivesastimulusthatpreventsanactionpotentialfromoccurring:
ThestimuluscausesK+channelstoopen
o
Inplasmamembraneofneuron
ActionPotentialReachestheTerminusofanAxon:
CausesCa+2channelstoopen
RisingCalciumconcentrationinthecytoplasmoftheaxonalterminus
o
Resultsinreleaseoftheneurotransmittermolecules
Whenactionpotentialisreached:
Afterwhich,isadrasticmembranepotentialdecrease
Causedby:
o
MostKchannelsareopen
MostNachannelsareclosed
Whenthebodyisatrestwhichpartoftheautonomicnervoussystemisactivated?
ParasympatheticNervousSystem
Myosinheadsreleasedfromactin:
HeadsneedtobindATP
Tostartanewroundofcontraction
Musclecellisatrestandisnotcontracting:
Highconcentrationofcalciumislocatedinthesarcoplasmicreticulum
TheMuscleFibersnameoftheindividualcellsofamuscle
RespiratoryandCirculatorysystems:
Flowofbloodthroughthemammalianheart:
Beabletonamethefourchambersoftheheart:
Twochambersatrium+ventricle
ThreeChambersleftandrightatrium,oneventricle
FourChamberstwoatriaandtwoventricles
BeabletoexplainhowoxygenistransportedtothetissuesandhowCO2istransportedfromthetissuesto
thelungs(loadingandunloadingofhemoglobin,transportoftheCO2ascarbonicacidandbicarbonatein
theredbloodcellandbloodplasma).
Differenceinopenandclosedcirculatorysystems:
Open:Hemolymph(interstitialfluid)
o
Closed:Bloodandinterstitialfluid
o
Bloodcompletelyenclosedbybloodvessels,capillaries
Whyclosedcirculatorysystemsaremoreeffective:
PumpingDependsonHydrostaticPressure
Bloodcellsareformedinbonemarrow,bystemcells
Immunesystem:
Differencebetweentheinnateandacquiredimmunesystems
InnateImmunity
o
Recognitionoftraitsbybroadrangesofpathogens
Usingsmallsetofreceptors
RapidResponse
AcquiredImmunity
o
Recognitionoftraitspecifictoaparticularpathogen
Usingvastarrayofreceptors
SlowerResponse
HumoralResponse:antibodiesdefendagainstinfectionofbodyfluid
CellMediatedResponse:cytotoxiclymphocytesdefendforcells
Beabletonamethemajorcellsinvolvedinboth(macrophages,mastcells,andneutrophilsintheinnate
immunesystem,andBandTcells(lymphocytes)intheacquiredsystem)
Knowinbroadoutlinewhatthesecellsdo.
Lymphaticsystemandwhitebloodcells(macrophagesandneutrophils(botharephagocytes):
TheLymphaticSystem:carriesexcessfluidsfromthetissuesbacktothebloodandispopulatedwitha
varietyofwhitebloodcell
Whitebloodcellsoftheinnateimmunesystemrecognizeinvadersusingafamilyofreceptorproteins
thatbindmolecules:
TLRProteins
Signalsphagocytosisandreleaseofantimicrobialproteins
Lymphocytes(BandTcells)andmastcells
Mastcellsactivatemacrophagesandneutrophils
BCellssecreteantibodiesthatcirculateinthebloodandlymph
o
Matureinbonemarrow
TCellshaveantibodies(antigenreceptors)intheirplasmamembrane
o
Matureinthymus
AcquiredImmunityDependsonLymphocytes:
Antibodiesproteinsthatbindtospecificnonselfsubstances.
Eachantibodyismadebyadifferentlymphocyteandrecognizesandbindstoaspecific
substance.
Antigensthesubstancethatisrecognizedandboundbyanantibody
Blymphocytes(BCells)secreteantibodiesthatcirculateinthebloodandlymph
HumoralImmunity
Tlymphocytes(TCells)haveantibodies(antigenreceptors)intheirplasmamembrane
o
CellularImmunity
Beabletoexplainthebasisofaprimaryandasecondaryresponseoftheacquiredimmunesystem.
PrimaryImmuneResponse:
Macrophagesdisplayantigensfromcellstheyhavegobbledup
o
TheseantigensstimulatespecificHelperTCells
HelperTCellsinitiatetheprimaryimmuneresponse
o
ActivateCytotoxicTCellsandBCellsthatmakethesameantibody
CytotoxicTCells
o
KillBacteriaandCellsInfectedbyVirusesbyLysingtheTargetCells
ActivatedBCellsreleaseHumoralantibodies
o
Whichinactivatebacteria,viruses,toxins
ExcretorySystem:
Osmolaritytotalconcentrationofdissolvedsubstancesinwater
Osmoconformersanimalswhoseinternalosmolarityisequaltotheenvironmentmanymarine
invertebrates,alsosharks
Osmoregulatorsanimalsthatmaintainaconstantinternalosmolaritydespitetheenvironmentfish,
aquaticamphibians,andalllandanimals
Knowthepartsofthemammaliannephron(Bowmanscapsuleandglomerulus,proximaltubule,loopof
Henleanddistaltubuleandthefunctionofeach.
Nephron:Basicfunctionalunitofkidney
Bowmanscapsule:
o
Glomerulus:
o
Filtration(proteinsandcellsstayinblood)
Proximaltubule:
o
Wasteandtoxinsaretransportedout
Nutrientsbackin
LoopofHenle:
o
NaClconcentratesbyactivetransport
Createsosmoticgradient
Removesmostwaterfromfiltrate
Concentratesureaincollectingtubule
Descendinglooppermeabletowater(notsalt)
Ascendinglooppumpsoutsalt(notwater)
Distaltubule:
RegulatesNa,K,osmolarity,andpHofblood
CollectingDuct/Tubule:
o
ConcentratesUrea
Antidiuretichormone(ADH)increasesbloodvolumeandwaterretentionbythebody
Byincreasingthewaterpermeabilityofthecollectingduct
Renin/angiotensin/aldosteroneacttoincreasebloodpressure:
ByincreasingNatransportbackintothebloodbythedistaltubule.
Endocrinesystem:
Hormone(releasedbyanendocrinegland)travelthroughthebloodtoatargetorganandproducea
response
Insulinandglucagonregulatebloodglucose:
Bloodglucoserises
o
Betacellsofpancreasreleaseinsulin
Livertakesupglucoseandstoresasglycogen
Bodycellstakeupmoreglucose
Bloodglucosedeclines
Returningtohomeostasis
Bloodglucosedrops
o
Alphacellsofpancreasreleaseglucagon
Liverbreaksdownglycogenandreleasesglucose
Bloodglucoserises
Returningtohomeostasis
Epinephrineinstressresponse:
Secretedbyadrenalmedulla
Glycogenbrokendowntoglucose
o
Increasedbloodglucose
Increasedbloodpressure,breathing,metabolicrate
Increasedalertness,decreasedkidneyanddigestiveactivity
Glucocorticosteroidesinstressresponses(Longterm):
SecretedbyAdrenalcortex
Proteinsandfatsbrokendownandconvertedtoglucose
o
Increasedbloodglucose
Immunesystemmaybesuppressed
Nervoussystem:
BeabletoexplaintheroleofNaandKchannelsinthefiringofanactionpotentialbyaneuronandhow
signalsaretransferredfromoneneurontothenextatthesynapse.
Neurons:
Cellbody
Dendrites
Axon
Synapticterminals
Synapses
Neurotransmitters
AsK+flowsoutofthecellVmgetsmorenegative(hyperpolarizes)
AsNa+flowsintothecellVmgetslessnegative(depolarizes)
Hyperpolarizationmorenegative(Kchannelsopen)
Depolarizationlessnegative(Nachannelsopen)
AtThresholdNaChannelsallopenActionPotentialoccurs
TheNaandKchannelsintheaxonareVOLTAGEGATEDionchannels
ActionPotentialStages:
1.
Restingstate(allclosed)
2.
Depolarization
3.
Risingphaseofactionpotential
4.
Fallingphase
5.
Undershoot(Kchannelsclosing)
(SomeNachannelsOpen)
(AllNachannelsopen)
(KchannelsOpen)
Muscularsystem:
Beabletoexplainthebasicstructureofthesarcomereinamusclefiber
HowATPcausesmyosintopullonactin:
1.
MyosinheadbindstoATP
2.
MyosinADPattachestoactin
3.
MyosinreleasesADPandpullsonactin
4.
MyosinheadbindsATP,releasesactin
Howcalciumregulatesmuscularcontraction:
Calciumuncoversthemyosinbindingsitesonactin
o
Bybindingtotroponinwhichmovestropomyosin
Nervestriggercontractionbycausingthereleaseofcalciumfromthesarcoplasmicreticulum
ActionPotentialreachingthesynapsecausesreleaseofacetylcholine
o
Triggersanactionpotentialinthemusclecell,whichtravelsdowntheTtubulesand
opensNachannelsintheSR