Bullying Victimization

BULLYING VICTIMIZATION: THE IMPACT OF
CHILDHOOD BULLYING AND LONG-TERM

EFFECTS DURING ADULTHOOD
Dissertation presented to the Faculty o f the

California School of Forensic Studies
Alliant International University
Fresno
In partial fulfillment o f the requirements for the degree of
Doctor o f Psychology
by
Sarah E. Dewey, M.A.
2015
Approved by:
Jana Price-Sharps, Ed.D., Chairperson
Valerie Forward, Ph.D.
Tamar Kenworthy, Ph.D.
ProQuest Number: 3725298
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THE IM PACT OF CH ILD HO O D BULLYING
Sarah E. Dewey, 2015
iii
Acknowledgments
First and foremost, to my parents, Sally and Bret Dewey, you two have always been the
force behind my motivation to achieve my goals in life. Without your love and support, my
journey in life would not have been complete. Thank you for always supporting me and always
encouraging me to never settle for less than I deserve in life. Most o f all, thank you for teaching
me hard work and believing in myself will guide me to achieve greatness. Over the years I have
been taught to take chances, live freely, and grow rapidly.
To my dissertation chair, Dr. Price-Sharps: Thank you for pushing me through this
process and for the support you have provided. I truly had an amazing chairperson; words cannot
express my gratitude. To the supporting individual who had the pleasure o f reading and editing
my work, I would like to acknowledge and give credit to my editor, Cristina Menjivar. Thank
you for helping and teaching me how to improve my writing abilities, but most o f all making my
work make sense and be legible.
To my grandparents, Jeanne and Clofas Case: Because o f the two o f you and the morals
you have taught me, my goals are within reach. Thank you for the love and support.
Lastly, to my brothers, Bret Dewey and Thomas Dewey, thank you for encouraging me to
follow my dreams, but most o f all being two big brothers I could always count on or look up to.
To all who participated in my research and made this dissertation doable, I greatly
appreciate it. Thank you all.
THE IM PACT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING
i\
Abstract
This study investigated the effects o f early childhood bullying experiences, physical or
verbal bullying, or both, and their effects during adulthood. More specifically, this study was
designed to investigate if there is a relationship between bullying experiences and posttraumatic
stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. This research was also designed to determine if there is a
difference between bullying experiences and gender. Prior research discussed the relationships
between children who are bullied and the effects it has during childhood. The previous research
also assisted in understanding the developmental process during critical developmental stages
during childhood. Both men and women o f the age 18 were included in this study. Participants
were divided by gender and completed two questionnaires: Retrospective Bullying Questionnaire
and PTSD Checklist.
It was hypothesized that individuals who have experienced early childhood bullying will
have higher levels o f PTSD symptoms than will those who were not bullied in adulthood. In
addition, an independent study o f gender groups revealed that females who were bullied during
childhood scored higher on depressive symptoms than did males who were bullied during
childhood. In return, males who have been bullied will score higher on hyperarousal symptoms
than will females. W ith regard to the data analyses related to normality assumption, statistical
testing was conducted using Kolmogorove-Smirnov (K-S) tests, P-P and Q-Q plots, histogram,
kurtosis, and skewness.
The results indicate the normality assumptions were partially met due to the small sample
size. When considering measures o f central tendency and independence within the limited
THE IM PA CT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING
sample size, it is reasonable to use parametric test statistics, such as independent samples t tests
for these data analyses. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) between gender was significant
(/ = -2.01, d f = 18, p = .05), indicating there were mean differences between males and females.
This result suggests females suffer more from PTSD than do males. Cohens d was -1.41,
indicating there was a small effect size. However, physical bullying and verbal bullying between
genders was not significant (t = .68, df= 18, p = .50; t = .67, df= 1 8 ,^ = .51, respectively),
indicating there were no mean differences between males and females. These results suggest
there were no significant differences when males and females experience o f physical bullying
and verbal bullying.
THE IM PA CT OF CHILD HO O D BULLYING
VI
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments
iii
Abstract
iv
CHAPTER I. Introduction to Bullying
CHAPTER II. Literature Review
Bullying
Developing the Self
10
Behavioral and Psychological Impact of Bullying on Adults
18
Conclusion
32
CHAPTER III. Method
37
Research Question 1
37
Hypothesis 1
37
Null Hypothesis 1
37
Research Question 2
37
Hypothesis 2
38
Null Hypothesis 2
38
Research Question 3
38
Hypothesis 3
38
Null Hypothesis 3
38
Research Question 4
38
Hypothesis 4
38
Null Hypothesis 4
39
Variables
vii
39
Dependent variables
39
Independent variables
38
Participants
39
Instruments
39
Procedures
41
Analysis
42
CHAPTER IV. Results
43
CHAPTER V. Discussion
45
General Discussion
45
Recommendations for Future Studies and Clinical Applicability
46
Limitations
46
References
48
APPENDIX A. Consent Form
56
APPENDIX B. Demographic Form
59
THE IM PACT OF CHILD HO O D BULLYING
CHAPTER I
Introduction to Bullying
Bullying behaviors have become an increasing concern nationwide over the last 30 years.
It has grown to become a normed phenomenon across all levels o f education, socioeconomic
groups, and the professional work field. Bullying behaviors can be described as
multidimensional behaviors. Bullies use two main types of bullying, which are verbal or
physical means to intentionally harm another person. Bullying actions are negative actions that
consist o f repeatedly and intentionally trying to inflict harm onto others and can include name
calling, social exclusions, threatening, spreading rumors, teasing, ridiculing, hitting, kicking,
pushing, spitting, and damaging others belongings (Olweus, 1989; Sharp & Smith, 1991). The
important details o f identifying bullying are the negative, unwanted, aggressive actions directed
toward the victim, repetition o f patterns inflicted on certain individuals, and the aggressive
dominance o f a weaker person.
According to the bullying statistics conducted in 2010, over 160,000 children miss school
every day in fear o f being bullied, and 2.7 million students reported at least one exposure to
being bullied within a year. Individuals are affected daily by encounters o f bully victimization.
Research has supported the idea that early exposure to bullying increases the likelihood of
physical and psychological distress issues, such as eating disorders, substance abuse, personality
disorders, social phobias, conduct behavioral issues, anxiety, loneliness, depression, and suicidal
behaviors (Vaughn et al., 2010). Research has found that bullying during childhood may be a
vital factor toward the developmental process that may persist into adulthood. Prior research also
indicated that it may be influential to the psychological, biological, and physical process.
The developmental process o f a child becomes altered when exposed to traumatic events.
Therefore, due to the nature o f bullying behaviors, they need to be considered a traumatic event
because o f the negative emotional response and experience that follows. During childhood
development, negative emotional responses stimulate the development o f feeling inferior, anger,
and shame toward others (Platt, 2008). According to Eriksons developmental theory, the feeling
o f inferiority negatively impacts the developmental growth of a child. The formation o f intense
emotional responses triggers a negative thought process that is primed in the childs cognitive
process (cited in Benas & Gibb, 2007). The consistent occurrence o f being bullied for an
unchangeable quality, such as appearance, height, weight, or the inability to perform certain
tasks, cultivated in a child provokes feelings of being ineffective or flawed. When a child feels
inadequate in his or her ability to meet social expectations of peers, development o f self-concept
is low (Gleason, Alexander, & Somers, 2000). Individuals who perceive themselves as flawed
and have a low sense of self-esteem become vulnerable, allowing them to believe what others
perceive them as. The development of maladaptive patterns o f cognition influences the desire to
interact with others because o f the fear o f being socially rejected (Ledley et ah, 2006). The
negative experiences combined with maladaptive belief bestowed upon by peers cause an
individual to develop poor social skills and personal qualities due to lack o f social interaction.
During childhood, a child ventures beyond the familial support environment in hopes of
receiving social support from peers o f similar age. When children lack poor social abilities and
problem-solving skills, they tend to become targets for bullying (Benas & Gibb, 2007). The
impact of social humiliation influences the ability to trust and depend on others, halting the
development o f the interpersonal relationship process (Ledley et ah, 2006). When children are
incapable of developing social skills, they learn to avoid social situations because of the fear o f
being rejected. Victimized children who fear interaction with peers possess high levels of
anxiety-creating social phobias (McCabe, Antony, Summerfeldt, Liss, & Swinson, 2003). The
combination o f low self-esteem, lack of social support, maladaptive beliefs, and poor social skills
contribute to the inability to create interpersonal relationships.
As children grow into adults, the learned behaviors tend to follow. Adults experience
high levels o f psychological distress because of the adopted behavioral and emotional responses
during early childhood victimization. Adults who did not learn how to become socially
competent during childhood will lack social abilities in late adulthood. During adulthood,
individuals are seeking intimate relationships and choosing career paths. But, adults who were
victimized early in childhood are greatly impacted by their traumatic experiences. Adults
recollections o f bully victimization can be as vivid as they were when they were children
(Crozier & Skliopidou, 2002). The negative thoughts and emotional responses contribute to the
psychological distress in adulthood. Victimization results in long-term effects socially,
emotionally, and psychologically (Hugh-Jones & Smith, 1999). Research has suggested that
bully victimization is a mediator factor that contributes to the increase o f psychological distress
through anxiety, social phobias, eating disorders, loneliness, and depression. The risk factors
influenced by childhood bullying are also seen as risk factors to suicidal behaviors (Klomek,
Sourander, & Gould, 2010). Bullying is considered to be a nationwide public health concern for
all (Burgess, Garbarino, & Carlson, 2006).
Given the prior research, the purpose of this study was to measure the relationship
between childhood bully victimization and the long-term psychological distress symptoms. The
study specifically measured the correlation between bullying experiences and posttraumatic stress
disorder (PTSD) symptoms to the diagnostic criteria based from the DSM-IV manual (American
Psychiatric Association, 1994). The current study was conducted to advocate that milder forms
o f trauma, such as bully victimization, are influential to the developmental process and may
result in severe conditions, such as PTSD.
CHAPTER II
Literature Review
Bullying can occur in and at every level of education; it is a behavior that can influence a
persons psychological development, starting from early childhood development and on to
adulthood. Some children may experience victimization during early childhood development
while they are still developing mentally, physically, emotionally, and socially into unique
individuals. During childhood, individuals need to learn to cope with social demands and
develop an ability to acknowledge a true self (McLeod, 2008). Without the proper techniques
and lack of support from peers, a child may develop a weak sense o f self and social abilities.
Thus, bullying experiences could impact normal development and affect psychological
development into adulthood. This research was focused on bullying during childhood and how it
correlates and may determine an individuals psychological distress level in adulthood.
Bullying
Bullying is not just a recent phenomenon. However, bullying has increasingly become an
area of research, and many researchers now seek to understand the behaviors and the impact
bullying may have throughout life. The relationship between bullying and victim was first
introduced during the 1970s by Dan Olweus, a Scandinavian researcher who initially started
studying bullying behaviors. It was not until the late 1980s that other countries began to take
interest in bullying behaviors (Olweus, 1993). During this time, bullying in the United States
became an issue and has continued to increase as a problem. Bullying was once thought o f as
only a behavior present during primary and secondary schools, but now it has become a concern
in environments such as colleges, workplaces, activities outside o f school, and prisons (Woods,
Wolke, Nowicki, & Hall, 2009). Bullying has taken the role for moral disengagement within
communities and has taught children aggressive ways to lash out toward others.
According to Volk, Camilleri, Dane, and Marini (2012), bullying is viewed as an
evolutionary adaptation behavior. As cited in Volk et ah, the authors studied historical
civilizations and behaviors in ancient Greece, ancient Rome, medieval China, medieval Europe,
and renaissance Europe. They uncovered evidence that traces bullying behaviors back to these
historical times. It appears that individuals were cast upon as outsiders, were hazed, physically
or verbally victimized, publically humiliated, and socially ostracized. These characteristics are
similar to the way 21st century society has defined bullying. According to Volk et ah, bullying
behaviors have become an evolved behavior that has been normed as expected behaviors.
Bullying during the historical period obtained negative connotation given to the outcast but
currently is perceived as normal behavior. Bullying is a behavior that contains serious
consequences and multiple psychological risk factors.
Bullying has been viewed as an increasingly important issue for children and has
continued to severely affect childhood development. Bullying exists in numerous forms, such as
verbal bullying (name calling, teasing, spreading rumors, and slander), social exclusion
(continuously picking a certain individual last or isolating a child completely), physical bullying
(hitting, biting, shoving, kicking, and spitting), and being threatened by force (Olweus, 2011).
Ian Rivers looked at bullying from the influences of sexual orientation and racially driven factors.
Bullying does not discriminate. Victims o f bullying regardless o f sexual preference are impacted
and may suffer internally (Rivers, 2004). These groups, like the majority o f the population who
are frequently bullied, are being affected as adults by their early childhood experiences of
bullying.
THE IM PA CT OF CH ILD HO O D BULLYING
Children are discovering new and quicker ways to bully other children. Bullying has
taken on new forms, such as cyberbullying. Mobile devices and computers provide a fast and
efficient means to communicate and harass individuals, along with the ability to receive instant
feedback through e-mailing or text messaging (Grigg, 2010). Cyberbullying enhances bullying to
reach a global level and can lead to greater humiliation and harassment. Among the enjoyment
mobile phones and the Internet can provide, they now can lead to unwanted aggressive messages
sent to torment and ridicule others (Smith, Mahdavi, et al., 2008), sexting (Becij & McFarlane,
2003; Spears, Slee, Owens, & Johnson, 2009), and other usages o f media communication to
aggressively attack others (Grigg, 2010). Cyberbullying is widespread among children and is
increasing with the Internet; new forms of social media, such as Facebook and Twitter, are
making it easier for children to have access to others by a click of a button (Gradinger,
Strohmeier, & Spiel, 2009).
Bullying has been seen as a common problem in schools throughout the world and has
continued to increase in the past 10 to 15 years (Benton, Robertson, Tseng, Newton, & Benton,
2003; Chapell, Casey, et al., 2004; Smith, Moody, & Madsen, 1999). Children as young as 7
years old are experiencing aggressive forms o f bullying or being socially excluded from
activities. Research has indicated that bullying and victimization are most common in
elementary schools and peak at approximately 11 years of age (Chapell, Hasselman, et al., 2006;
Eslea & Rees, 2001). Eslea and Smith (1998) conducted a survey o f more than 7,000 students
ages 7 to 18 and found that 30% o f children ages 7 to 8 years old have experienced bullied
behaviors, 10% at the ages o f 11 to 12 years old, to roughly zero after the age o f 16. An 8-year
longitudinal study was conducted among students ages 8 to 16 and found that children who were
victimized at age 8 were victimized at age 16, and children who were bullying at age 8 were
bullying at age 16 (Sourander, Helstela, Helenius, & Piha, 2000). Schaer et al. (2004) conducted
a longitudinal research on 2nd and 3rd graders until 7th and 8th grade and concluded that
children being victimized at younger ages continued into later years. The research has indicated
a stability of bullying behaviors: Once a child experiences being bullied in elementary school a
pattern o f being bullied is seen onward throughout his or her life.
In a retrospective study o f 884 Spanish, British, and German adults, 248 had encountered
a form of bullying during school, and 71 adults had been victimized during primary and
secondary school levels (Chapell, Hasselman, et al., 2006; Schafer et al., 2004). Another
retrospective study was administered in 2003 with 5,288 adults who reported that they were
bullied at school, their workplace, or both; ultimately, the study found that adults who were
bullied during their school years were also bullied in their workplace (Smith, Singer, Hoel, &
Cooper, 2003). Research has indicated a relationship between children who were bullied during
primary, secondary, and high school are even more likely to experience being bullied during
adulthood, whether in college or their place o f work.
Bullying does not discriminate between genders; both males and females may experience
bullying during childhood. A study was conducted on American males that indicated males were
bullied more in elementary and in high schools and were more consistently bullied than females
who had experienced bullying (DeVoe & Kaffenberger (2005; Nansel, Overpeck, Pilla, Ruan, &
Schiedt, 2001; Seals & Young, 2003). Other research has focused on college students behaviors
and bullying. The researchers found that American male college students were bullied more than
were American females (Chapell, Casey, et al., 2004). Juvonen, Graham, and Schuster (2003)
found that boys were three times more likely to experience bully-victim roles than were girls.
Another study indicated that males are more likely and more prone to experience bullying than
are females. According to Chapell, Casey, et al. (2004), bullying is a behavior that affects
everyone and is continuing to grow.
According to Olweus (1989) and as cited by Chapell, Hasselman, et al. (2006), bullying
consists o f two main types: physical or verbal attacks, and indirect bullying has behaviors
associated with social isolation or intentionally excluding individuals from activities (Chapell,
Hasselman, et al.). Nansel et al. (2001) stated that males and females equally experienced verbal
attacks but that males encountered more physical bullying. Another study indicated that females
are more likely to be socially excluded and verbally bullied than are males; this patten appears to
also be apparent in many other countries (Chapell, Hasselman, et al., 2006; Smith et al., 1999).
Bullying patterns affect more children and are becoming more influential to childhood
development. School-aged children most commonly see bullying behaviors such as teasing,
name calling, ridiculing, threatening, and socially isolating others (Cammack-Berry, 2004).
Researchers indicate there are a number o f risk factors, such as physical and
psychological symptoms, from being victimized as a child. Additional risk factors include lower
academic skills and performance, truancy, and an increased likelihood o f self-destructive
behaviors (Jankauskiene, Kardelis, Sukys, & Kardeliene, 2008). Children victimized between
ages 5 to 7 may experience unhappiness, poorer social adaption skills and school-related
behaviors, as well as experience separation anxieties and social phobias during adulthood
(Gladstone, Parker, & Malhi, 2006). Additional studies on bullying indicated psychopathology
symptoms, such as depression, emotional dysregulations, substance abuse, eating disorders, and
body dissatisfaction such as being overweight (Gleason et al., 2000; Griffiths, Wolke, Paige, &
Horwood, 2006; Klomek, Marrocco, Kleinman, Schonfeld, & Gould, 2006; Sweetingham &
Waller, 2008).
10
A multigroup structural study measured the relationship o f hope, life satisfaction, and
school connectedness with 866 fifth to 12th grade students. The research indicated that students
who have experienced victimization during school years reported less hope and lower levels of
school connectedness, which are both linked to lower levels o f life satisfaction. Additional
information provided by the research indicated that the lower levels o f hope, school
connectedness, and life satisfaction were also related to negative internal assets, external
resources, and resilience (You et al., 2008). Research continues to support the idea that bullying
is more than just a childish behavior; it is now seen as complex behaviors with negative
influential risk factors that can shape ones developmental being.
Developing the Self
Childhood development is a crucial period during an individuals life; it helps set the
foundation for an individual to transform into a unique being, as well as helps shape the growth
of personality development. During childhood, the developmental process happens in stages.
According to Erik Erikson (cited in McLeod, 2008), personality development occurs throughout
ones lifetime in eight different stages, all of which focus on a crisis the individual has to
overcome in each stage in order to move on to the nest stage. The eight stages consist o f a
positive or negative outcome, which influences the next stage of development (McLeod, 2008).
Each stage is individualized according to the persons biological make-up; environment; family
support; mental, physical, and self-development. Hence the outcome o f each crisis and the
persons environment will impact the development of personality and identity o f that person,
regardless of a positive or negative outcome. During childhood the development of intrapersonal
and interpersonal relationships is crucial to a childs self-esteem and self-identity (Ledley et al.,
2006).
11
According to Erikson (cited in McLeod, 2008), the stage a child will first encounter
bullying is the initiative versus guilt stage, which occurs around the ages of 3 to 5; therefore,
children are briefly exposed to bullying during this stage before entering into the next stage.
During this stage children tend to learn how to initiate activities with others and become more
assertively involved within their surroundings, allowing them to develop the sense o f initiative
and feel secure to branch out. But if not appropriately developed or supported by their external
environmentusually their familya child will struggle and take on feelings o f guilt. Too much
guilt will cause a child to question his or her abilities and will inhibit social growth. According
to Rigby (1997), poor emotional support from the family environment will lead a child to be a
target for bullying due to poor social interaction abilities, negatively influencing psychosocial
development. It is at this stage that a child has attempts to develop a purpose.
Research has indicated that there is a significant impact between an interpersonal
relationship and the emotional responses it elicits when dealing with social interactions between
children (Keltner, Young, Heerey, Oemig, & Monarch, 1998). The importance o f friendships
and the ability for the child to socially develop relationships outside o f the familial context is a
crucial aspect o f development. In the latency stage, which occurs between ages 6 to 12, a child is
learning the importance o f social support and demand. Even though children are separating from
their family environment, they will still lean on their family for emotional support and
encouragement to venture into society; but it is the relationships with peers and social support
they seek in order to feel a sense of self. According to researchers, in order to obtain social
development children depend on peer relationships to adequately develop the skills and the
desired social expectations (Cammack-Berry, 2004; Parker & Asher, 1987).
12
During the infancy stage children begin to develop specific skills to adapt into society.
According to O Connor (2000), in the latency stage children are learning how to develop the
skills to compromise, compete, cooperate, and acquire a sense of proper form o f failure.
Children look to their peers for social support, but if not appropriately acquired, children develop
a sense of inferiority. A study by Pouwelse, Bolrnan, Lodewijkx, and Spaa (2011) examined 606
Dutch children ages 10 to 12 to measure the relationship between social support, gender,
victimization, and depressive symptoms. The study indicated that social support affected
depressive symptoms of children who were victimized; meaning that children who were
victimized during the ages o f 10 to 12 received little social support and suffered from depressive
symptoms. As the literature indicated, social support is important during childhood development
because it impacts the development of a childs emotional reactions.
The importance o f peer relationships and the social support it is meant to provide to
reinforce the initiative o f a childs development can be negatively impacted by the exposure of
being bullied. According to a study by Platt (2008), children who are bullied or verbally attacked
experience negative emotional responses, such as shame, fear, and anger, leading them to feel
humiliated. Children who are publically humiliated may develop a social phobia, initiating the
development o f low self-esteem, identity confusion, gender differences, and negative
interpretations of cognitive processes (Platt, 2008).
Victims who are bullied may experience negative emotional responses to social
interactions, which affect the ability to become socially involved, therefore damaging the childs
abilities to appropriately establish friendships and be accepted by peers. Research shows there is
a strong connection between interpersonal relationships and emotional responses and social
interactions (Keltner et al., 1998; Whitesell & Harter, 1996). During the latency stage, children
13
tend to depend on interpersonal relationships for social support, and bullying can negatively
impact this development.
The literature illustrates the importance o f friendships and the role it plays in social
development. A study was performed with 11- to 15-year-old suburban students to measure the
cognitive process o f children who were exposed to bullying. The results indicated that children
may have a predisposed dissatisfaction on the quality o f life, which negatively impacts a childs
cognition process (Agliata, Tantleff-Dubb, & Renk, 2007). The negative experiences connected
with bullying can have a negative impact on children at any age. During the latency stage
children are still developing emotionally, mentally, and physically; therefore, in this period they
do not have the cognitive ability to rely on resources or coping skills to manage their negative
interpretation. Children tend to pay great attention to negative interpretation because they are
constantly being referred to as flawed and not meeting the expectations o f their peers. The
literature indicates that children who are constantly harassed about their appearance or inabilities
are cognitively primed to develop negative self-talk that impacts the cognitive processing.
Children who consistently experience negative relationships and negative attitudes from
peers tend to struggle with sociocognitive development (Schafer, Korn, et al., 2004). Victimized
children struggle with social acceptance and self-esteem. The repetitiveness o f negative
exposure and consistent negative emotional responses that are provoked psychologically affect a
childs mental development. According to Schafer, Korn, et al., children strongly internalize
peer rejection and develop a sense of helplessness and loneliness.
The latency age is the stage when a child should develop a sense o f self-concept and self
esteem. Self-concept is developed from perceptions and thoughts o f the self; self-esteem is
derived from those thoughts and perceptions (Cammack-Berry, 2004). A childs self-esteem and
14
self-concept are influenced by events, experiences, environment, and external awareness, and as
the child ages these areas continue to be significantly impacted. The elementary school ages
range is crucial to a childs developmental process. Children learn to lean on peers of the same
gender and age for social acceptance. A study conducted using 606 ten- to twelve-year-old
Dutch children measured the consequences and social support. The study concluded that social
support was a mediator factor that influenced depressive symptoms, therefore indicating that
being a victim of bullying between the ages o f 10 to 12 years old is affected by social support.
The study also indicated that a victim o f bullying suffers internally and lacks social problem
solving skills (Pouwelse et ah, 2011). Children who do not receive social support feel less
competent, which impacts their self-esteem development. According to Scott et al.(as cited in
Cammack-Berry, 2004), a childs self-esteem is impacted daily by peers evaluation and the
messages they receive from their social circle. During the latency stage, children depend on their
social environment to develop social skills; but failure to establish these skills due to
victimization may lead a child to develop low self-esteem, inferiority, and maladaptive beliefs.
A child continuously develops through each event of his or her life. During the identity
versus role-confusion stage children attempt to adapt to who and what they want to be. It is at
this stage that children begin to explore and become familiar with their body and self-image.
Children who struggle with identity and become confused with their self-image experience
inferiority (McLeod, 2008). Children are becoming more independent at this stage of
development. They are in search of who they are and what they want to become. During the
adolescent stage children are figuring out career goals, intimate relationships, and self-concept.
The challenge during this stage is the perception of ones self compared to how others perceive
one and the social norm.
15
During this stage o f development environment and social support again play a crucial
role. The negativity o f bullying transfers over into the next stage o f development. The negative
experiences impact the cognitive process that influences the self-image identity o f a child.
Children who are primed into believing they are bullied because they do not meet the social
expectations o f their peers develop the negative interpretation of being flawed, influencing how a
child perceives him self or herself. A study conducted using 202 students who were between 11
and 15 years old measured the interpretation o f bullying and the negative consequences that
followed. The results indicate that the cognitive process contributes to the negative experiences
of how individuals interpret being bullied. Females tend to perceive negative experience with
appearance-related issues, causing higher body dissatisfaction and impacting their ability to be
confident about their self-image; males focus their negative experiences on masculinity
appearance (Agliata et al., 2007). Previous research shows that individuals tend to prime their
cognitive process to negative, maladaptive beliefs, therefore altering their perception of selfimage.
Children who experience bullying during the stages of development contribute to the
negative cognitions that influence personality growth and self-image. Individuals who have
obtained low self-identity and self-esteem through previous failures during the developmental
stages tend to internalize negative interpersonal and intrapersonal perceptions, which may
develop into vulnerable cognition. According to Benas and Gibb (2007), children who
experience general or more specific forms of bullying internalize negative messages that
contribute to the various forms o f negative, vulnerable cognitions, impacting the development of
depression later on in life. The authors indicated (as cited by Cole, Martin, & Powers, 1997) that
verbal victimization significantly imprints a negative notation o f both symptoms and diagnosis of
16
depression during childhood, causing the development o f low self-esteem and life satisfaction
(Benas & Gibb, 2007). Children tend to internalize the verbal and physical victimization and
reflect it toward the self-image, viewing the self as flawed. The power o f thought and the lack of
social support influence perceptions that create vulnerable and maladaptive beliefs of self-image,
affecting the identity and self-esteem o f a child.
According to Ledley et al. (2006), children who are frequently bullied tend to develop the
belief that they are incapable o f succeeding in the social world and do not meet criteria for the
social norm, which may lead to the development o f maladaptive patterns o f cognition. Children
who lack identity and are frequently victimized tend to conform to how others perceive them.
During developmental stages, children are unable to distinguish between harmless joking and
serious bullying; thus, the development o f maladaptive patterns o f cognition may cause children
to internalize these irrational beliefs.
During adolescent development children are in search o f identifying who they are
internally (McLeod, 2008). It is at this stage that children attempt to set boundaries and learn
personal strengths through friendships. Due to the negative evaluations from peers, frequent
victimization, and the development o f maladaptive beliefs children tend to acquire poor social
skills and feel that they are unable to trust others. Children who lack social competency fear
interpersonal interactions because they fear rejection and public humiliation. The repetitive
exposure of victimization increases anxiety rates and creates social phobias (Ledley et ah, 2006).
Due to the constant occurrences o f victimization, negative emotional responses, development of
maladaptive cognitive patterns, and lack of identity, children begin to fear interpersonal
interaction.
17
Each o f these contributing factorspeer victimization, social exclusion, and maladaptive

beliefshas led to research that explains the consequences of childhood bullying. A study of
6,282 school children examined the behavioral and emotional reactions associated with bullying.
The results indicate that children who have suffered from victimization during childhood report
feelings o f anger, vengefulness, self-pity, and helplessness (Borg, 1998). The pain and agony
children experience during childhood significantly impacts their lives; for example, victimized
children show higher rates o f absenteeism at school, may run away from home, abuse drugs and
alcohol, may become psychologically ill, and may have attempted to commit suicide (Elliot,
1992).
Children who are publically humiliated or rejected by peers build up an intense
aggression. Due to the lack o f impulse control and the vengeful motivation, victims of bullying
have been known to aggressively and violently act out. According to case studies by Leary,
Kowalski, Smith, and Phillips (2003), violent school acts that resulted in 15 school shootings
may have been a product o f social rejection, ostracization, and chronic bullying. Research also
indicates that these experiences may cause psychological issues, such as depression, impulse
control, and sadistic tendencies (Leary et al., 2003). Victims o f bullying see effects in the
developmental process o f their personality, self-esteem, interpersonal and intrapersonal
relationships, and cognitive process. Various studies illustrated that there are multiple
psychological risk factors that are initiated through victimization during childhood. Bullying is a
phenomenal behavior that has impacted the lives of children and continues to influence
psychological development in adulthood.
18
Behavioral and Psychological Impact of Bullying on Adults

Prior research indicated that being exposed to early bullying experiences may affect
childrens psychological and personality growth. An adults recollection is similar to that as a
child, considering that the once stunted growth as a child manifests deeper in an adult, translating
to the maladaptive patterns o f cognitive process, negative emotional and behavioral responses,
and the psychological impact on an adult.
The final stages o f Eriksons theory of developmental processes explain what occurs
during young adulthood, middle adulthood, and old age (cited in McLeod, 2008). In young
adulthood, people are attempting to establish secure, long-term relationships. Avoiding intimate
relationships and fear o f commitment lead to isolation, loneliness, and may cause symptoms of
depression. As mentioned in previous research, victims o f bullying fear rejection o f peers, which
keeps them from socially and intimately interacting with others. Adults lack the social
competency to venture beyond their social norm, leading to the development o f social phobias,
anxiety, and increased isolation as they age. These factors continue to play out through middle
and old age, causing individuals to feel unproductive, unaccepted, and they may become
stagnant. The development of despair and depression tends to set in due to feeling guilt toward
not accomplishing social expectations (McLeod, 2008).
Victims o f bullying experience deeper issues. Individuals who have suffered negative
experiences related to bullying often tend to develop personality, psychological, and behavioral
issues. According to a study conducted by Crozier and Skliopidou (2003), a sample o f 220
adults, postgraduate and undergraduate students, who ranged from 18 to 70 years old, were asked
to complete a self-report questionnaire that asked them to recall instances of name calling and
verbal teasing experiences. The questionnaire consisted of questions where the respondents had
19
to recall hurtful or unpleasant experiences from childhood. In each response, the respondent was
asked to compare what he or she thought at that place in time during childhood and asked how he
or she presently perceives the experience. In the study, six categories were drawn from the data,
such as appearance, psychological attributes, ethnic groups, sexual connotations, and animal or
name calling. The results indicate that the most common verbal victimization referred to name
calling about physical appearance, attacking the context o f peoples names, and describing
people as an animal. Respondents felt they were being dehumanized and deindividualized
because bullies were targeting the central existence of a childs identity (Crozier & Skliopidou,
2002 ).
The majority o f the respondents indicated or endorsed feelings o f the great amount of
hurtful and negative feelings toward the recollections. The feelings endorsed were anger,
embarrassment, shame, and unhappiness, which affected their enjoyment o f school. The research
indicates that respondents experienced more negative feelings during adulthood than they did
during childhood. They claimed the negative feelings were more pronounced and easier to
recollect during adulthood. The results also indicated long-term effects on personality and
attitude development (Crozier & Skliopidou, 2002). Adults recollection o f name calling results
in negative thoughts and feelings, causing them to feel negative about themselves, affecting their
psychological distress levels in adulthood. Research indicates that the psychological distress
from childhood victimization such as being bullied impacts adults mentally, physically, and
emotionally. The effects o f early victimization can be related to criminal behaviors, substance
abuse, personality development, and mental health issues, such as depression, anxiety, social
phobias, and eating disorders.
20
Victimization during childhood may seem like it only has a short-term consequence on a
childs development, but according to research, early exposure to school bullying impacts the
long-term physical and psychological development on the psychosocial adjustment o f adults
(Ttofi, Farrington, Losel, & Loeber, 2011). Ttofi et al. conducted a study analyzing the extent of
school bullying perpetration and the similar risk factors o f offending behaviors in later life. Prior
to their research, no systematic longitudinal study measured the correlation between school
bullying and offending behaviors; therefore, based on a systematic review and meta-analysis, the
possible relationship between school bullying and later life offending was o f interest. The
authors conducted an extensive search on published and unpublished journals to establish an
effect size The study consisted o f 28 studies that entailed results based on systematic review and
meta-analysis studies that measured school bullying and later offending behaviors. The study
focused on the significant relationship and the predictability between early childhood bullying
and later life consequences, such as criminal behaviors, after the control o f other childhood risk
factors. Another objective was the measure o f covariates, such as a follow-up period and the
relationship between age and offending. The results indicate the probability o f offending for
childhood bullying was 11 years higher for those who were involved in school bullying.
Childhood bullying resulted as a risk factor for later offending behaviors, even after the control
o f other childhood risk factors. The overall outcome indicates that childhood bullying shares a
significant and strong correlation for later life offending; therefore, school bullying is an
indication and risk factor o f criminal behaviors (Ttofi et al., 2011).
Bullying is seen in multiple forms o f aggressive behaviors. According to Olweus (2011),
bullying is an aggressive, negative, intentional behavior that repetitively occurs to those who
cannot defend themselves. It is a special form of aggressive behaviors, physical or verbal, that
21
are directed to inflict painful consequences onto their victims. The research conducted was
designed to measure the relationship between bullying behaviors and probability o f later criminal
behaviors. The study consisted o f three Swedish community samples composed of male
participants. Olweus conducted a longitudinal research study based on reported associations of
bullying and later criminality rates from an 8-year period ranging from ages 16 to 24. The results
indicate a significant ability to predict the probability of criminal behaviors. The research found
a correlation between childhood bullying involvement and later criminality behaviors that
resulted in being overrepresented by school bullying. The outcome o f the research indicated that
55% o f bullying involvement results in one or more convictions o f a crime, and 36% had been
convicted for three or more crimes during that 8-year period from ages 16 to 24 (Olweus, 2011).
According to research, school bullying is a predictable risk factor that influences criminal
behaviors. A similar study o f Olweus, conducted by Sourander, Klomek, et al. (2011), analyzed
predictive associations between bullying and adult criminality. The research objectives were to
measure the correlation between childhood victimization at age 8, bullying, and adult criminal
behaviors at the ages o f 23 to 26 years old, as well as analyze the predictability correlation
between the three variables when psychopathology is controlled. The research consisted of 5,351
Finnish children, male and female participants, who were born in 1981, who were bullied and
victimized at age 8 by children, teachers, or family members. The data were self-reported and
collected from teachers and parents and carried out by a multinomial logistic regression analysis.
The results indicate a significant correlation between bullying at age 8 and risk factors for adult
criminal behaviors for males but did not indicate that bullying at age 8 for females was a
predictor factor for adult criminal behaviors. The reports from teachers indicate that bullying
among boys shared more o f a strong correlation of adult crimes than that o f girls. The main
22
outcome found that bullying was a significant predictable variable that influenced adult criminal
behaviors for males.
A study by Sourander, Klomek, et al. (2011) revealed correlated factors influenced by
psychopathology, such as antisocial behaviors. The study indicated bullying for males goes
beyond the risk factor of criminal behaviors, but found a strong correlation that contributes to the
development o f psychopathologic behaviors that exhibit externalized aggressiveness and
interpersonal violent behaviors. The negative consequences o f bullying behaviors during
childhood have a tendency o f resulting in psychiatric development, such as depression, anxiety,
social phobias, suicidal behaviors, and personality development (Sourander, Klomek, et al.,
2011). Childhood experiences o f victimization have a multifaceted influence on psychological,
physical, and personality development.
Childhood bullying has become an area o f concern because of the harmful effects that it
contributes to the developmental stages o f individuals who have experienced victimization at a
young age. Research indicates victimization during childhood is a predicting factor of adult
criminal behaviors, psychopathology development, and personality development. Renda,
Vassallo, and Edwards (2011) conducted a study to analyze personality growth. The objective of
the study was to measure the relationship between adolescent bullying and antisocial personality
development. The authors believed that early exposure to bullying increases the likelihood of
antisocial development 6 to 10 years later. The study consisted of approximately 800 adults who
participated in a 27-year longitudinal study that used a regression analysis to measure the
relationship between adolescent bullying and later development of antisocial tendencies. The
results indicate a moderate correlation between bullying involvement and antisocial behaviors.
The results show a significant relationship between bullying involvement during adolescent years
23
and the likelihood o f adult criminal behavior involvement. Also, the study indicated that males
tend to be more influenced by bullying experience than do females (Renda et ah, 2011). The
study of Renda et al. indicated that bullying during childhood alters and affects youths
personality growth and continues to be a risk factor of later adult criminal behaviors.
The following year, Sourander, Jensen, et al. (2012) conducted another study that
consisted of 5,813 children and 2,540 males. The objective o f the study was to determine the
impact o f childhood bullying at age 8 and the psychiatric disorders that develop during early
adulthood. Data were collected from self-reported victims, parents, and teachers, who reported
signs or symptoms o f psychological distress during childhood. The sample was separated into
three groups: victimized only, bully victimized, and bullied only. A univariate logistic regression
analysis was used to measure antisocial behaviors, substance abuse tendencies, and mental health
issues, such as depression and anxiety disorders. The victimized individuals reported to
experience high levels o f anxiety, whereas the bully-victim individuals reported to experience
both antisocial behaviors and anxiety disorders. After controlling for emotional and behavioral
symptoms, bully-victim individuals experienced antisocial and anxiety disorders, victim-only
individuals experienced anxiety disorders, and the bully-only individuals experienced antisocial
tendencies. Regardless o f the experiences o f bullying behaviors, early childhood involvement
with bullying predicts psychiatric disorders later in adult life, approximately 10 to 15 years later
(Sourander, Jensen, et al., 2013).
Childhood bullying is a predictable risk factor that has a tendency o f influencing
psychiatric characteristics that persist during adulthood. Research indicates that children who
experience symptoms related to trauma may develop eating disorders, social phobias, and
acceptance, anxiety, depression, and in some instances suicidal behaviors. According to Carlisle
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and Rofes (2007), adult survivors of school bullying experience obtain long-term effects in their
psychological development. A qualitative study o f 15 adults age 23 and older has reported a
significant and lasting impact o f childhood bullying during adulthood. The 15 participants
indicated symptoms o f shame, anxiety, and relational difficulties during their adulthood. The
respondents reported the trauma left by school bullying stunted their psychological development,
which caused them to experience anger, high levels of vengeful ideations, hyperarousal
symptoms, irritability, and constant repetitive thoughts o f being victimized. At one point,
participants experienced daytime or nighttime dreams o f a specific instance o f childhood bullying
(Carlisle & Rofes, 2007).
According to the study, the authors related childhood bullying to Eriksons developmental
model in order to understand the developmental process and the impact o f bullying victimization
(Carlisle & Rofes, 2007). Eriksons model was designed to understand the developmental
process through stages, and with each stage individuals encounter a crisis that has to be
overcome. Carlisle and Rofes conceptualized bullying experienced as children who have learned
to adopt the negative beliefs about themselves, internalize and accept these negative beliefs, and
adapt to being relied on as the scapegoat of the peers. Therefore, individuals who internalize the
negativity may develop anger, guilt, shame, and somatic issues. Individuals also become
receptive to the development o f psychological characteristics, such as depression, anxiety, and
social concerns.
Bullying can impact a person innumerous ways. Research suggests childhood bullying to
influence the developmental process in multiple ways. McCabe et al. (2003) conducted a study
to measure the relationship between anxiety disorders that developed during adulthood and the
impact o f childhood bullying experiences. The purpose o f the study was to analyze the
25
relationship o f childhood victimization and anxiety disorders, which were broken into three
groups: social phobia, obsessive compulsive disorder, or panic disorder. The hypothesis of this
study predicted the social phobia group would report instances o f being more severely bullied
than would the obsessive compulsive and panic disorder groups. The results indicated that
participants who were placed in the social phobia group reported greater severity o f being
victimized than did those in the obsessive compulsive and panic disorder groups. Childhood
bullying had a significant correlation between bullied experiences and anxiety disorders: 92%
obtained social phobias, 50% obtained obsessive-compulsive disorders, and 35% obtained panic
disorders. The evidence indicated children who frequently experience victimization have a
tendency of possessing lower levels o f social acceptance and higher levels o f social rejections
(McCabe et al., 2003). Children who feel socially excluded from their peers during crucial stages
of development set the foundation for adults later in life in developing social phobias due to the
fear of being humiliated and rejected.
The traumatic experience o f childhood bullying may be considered as a milder form of
trauma due to the psychological distress. A retrospective study was conducted by Duncan (1999)
to measure the relationship between childhood abuse, bully victimization, and psychological
distress. The study consisted o f 210 college students who completed questionnaires on
emotional, physical, and sexual abuse as a child in relation toward being victimized; also asked
participants to rank their current psychological distress level. The participants were asked to
complete the following: a Family Experience Questionnaire, Peer Harassment Questionnaire,
Clinician Administered Trauma Interview, and the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised
Questionnaire. Respondents who were bully victims reported high levels o f emotional and
physical distress, and they tended to avoid places or situations that may encounter them to be
26
targets of bullying. Also, victims o f bullying were reported to have been involved more in sexual
assault situations than were those who were not bullying victims. The study indicated bullying
victims and assault victims scored higher on psychological distress symptoms reported by the
Symptoms Checklist-90-Revised Global Severity index assessment, which indicated high levels
of symptoms correlated to posttraumatic stress disorder (Duncan, 1999). The study supported the
understanding of the severity o f bully victimization and the impact o f childhood development.
Children who are bully victims are severely emotionally imprinted, which causes them to fall
further on the victimization scale and have increased levels of psychological distress, putting
them at risk for social phobias, emotional and physical distress, and PTSD symptoms.
Social phobias and anxiety disorders have become common for adults who have
experienced bully victimization during childhood. The development o f these disorders tends to
develop because o f the lack o f social support, the need to feel socially accepted by peers, or the
maladaptive patterns o f cognitive processing. In a study that explored the relationship between
childhood bullying and the influence it has on later interpersonal functioning in adulthood, 414
college students were able to recollect childhood bullying memories. The purpose of the study
was to explore the interpersonal functioning characteristics, such as the amount of friendships
established, attachment issues within romantic relationships, and low self-esteem. The
participants were asked to complete the Teasing Questionnaire-Revised, Revised Adult
Attachment Scale, Janis-Field Self-Esteem Scale with Appearance subscale, and the Friendship
Information Questionnaire. The results indicate that bullying victims were less likely to build
trusting relationships with others and were more likely to depend on others. Victims tended to
possess high levels o f anxiety in interpersonal relationships because they were unable to
emotionally and intimately attach to others due to the fear o f being abandoned. Victims also
27
possessed lower levels o f self-esteem because they adapted to the maladaptive beliefs o f being
inferior to others, which enforces a negative perspective o f interpersonal relationships that keeps
them from interacting with others (Ledley et al., 2006). The inability to interact among peers
tends to create poor social skills and higher levels o f anxiety when interacting with others,
creating negative emotional responses to interpersonal relationships. Also, the consistent thought
of being flawed or inferior to others creates the fear o f being rejected and validates the
maladaptive beliefs of imperfection.
Childhood experiences o f being bullied trigger emotional responses that can influence the
psychological or behavioral responses. Negative emotional responses tend to influence the
perceptions o f bodily satisfaction and self. An empirical study concluded that a relationship
between childhood experiences o f bullying and the psychological distress results in an eating
disorder. From 92 female participants, the study supported the idea o f bullying experiences
during childhood resulting in an eating disorder due to the maladaptive belief o f feeling inferior
or flawed. Females reported about indirectly being victimized about weight, height, and multiple
forms o f characteristics related to appearance. The common source was the mediated factor of
shame. Each individual experienced a great amount o f shame due to the repetitive negative
experience o f being bullied about appearance as a child, which suggests that the body
dissatisfaction and shame also lead to social anxiety (Sweetingham & Waller, 2008). Children
who are indirectly victimized or verbally bullied are impacted more because o f the lack of
developmental self-cues as a child. During adulthood, individuals adapted to those negative
maladaptive beliefs o f being inferior or flawed.
Research indicates that indirect victimization or verbal bullying causes greater distress
than does physical bullying due to the mental manipulation of verbal expression. Indirect
28
victimization is defined as spreading rumors, socially isolating, socially rejecting, publically

humiliating, or intentionally causing harm to someone. A study was conducted with two
independent samples measured against two different measures o f perfectionism in relations
against indirect aggression and childhood peer victimization. The study consisted o f 162 and 196
adult females who were administered self-report questionnaires o f indirect aggression and one of
the perfectionism questionnaires, multidimensional perfectionism scale, or eating disorder
perfectionism scale. The results indicate that indirect victimization was significantly more
impacting on the psychological state than physical victimization. Indirect victimization appeared
to cause more psychological distress due to the mental nature evoked by decreased self-esteem
and the fear o f public rejection, creating an insecure attachment style with interpersonal
relationships led by social anxiety (Miller & Vaillancourt, 2007).
Individuals are impacted by childhood experiences. The negative emotional perspectives
interplay between the maladaptive cognitive beliefs and the individuals interpersonal
relationship that cause psychological distress. The negative message received from others
becomes internalized, influencing the self-schemas that create a negative interpersonal
relationship. These negative interpersonal relationships cause individuals to become vulnerable
in social environments. The lack o f social development creates poor social skills and problem
solving abilities. Individuals who are incapable o f feeling competent within social environments
may fear interpersonal interactions. Adult recollection o f school bullying imprints a negative
connotation o f both psychological and interpersonal development (Crozier & Skliopidou, 2002).
The lack o f self and maladaptive beliefs creates high levels o f anxiety and low levels o f life
satisfaction. Individuals who possess low life satisfaction, low self-esteem, maladaptive beliefs,
and poor social skills also tend to experience loneliness and depression.
29
Loneliness is a psychosocial factor that affects the quality o f an individuals life.

According to Segrin, Nevarez, Arroyo, and Harwood (2012), loneliness is a predictor factor of
the psychological development o f depression and social anxiety. A study conducted to measure
the effects o f family origin and the history o f an adolescents experience with bullying found that
bullying will increase the likelihood o f loneliness in adulthood. A sample of 111 students from a
large Southwestern university participated in completing multiple questionnaires, such as the
UCLA Loneliness Scale, Family Communication Patterns Instrument, Communication
Competences Scale, and the Revised Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire. The results indicated
a correlation between loneliness and the family origin, meaning that children learn by experience.
Children who witness the loneliness expressed by their parents tend to experience the direct and
indirect influences o f loneliness. Children tend to obtain a dual influence from the experience of
loneliness in the family origin. Children are impacted biologically and socially through early
exposure of loneliness (Segrin et al., 2012).
A history o f being bullied indicates a significant predictor o f adult loneliness. The results
indicate that children who experience loneliness during childhood become targets o f bullying due
to poor social abilities. Children who are unable to socially explore as a child develop a fear to
interact due to a combination o f poor social abilities and the fear o f being humiliated; therefore,
the development o f social anxiety becomes a dominant psychological factor (Segrin et al., 2012).
Adults who are exposed to early loneliness and become targets o f bullying behaviors tend to be
biologically and socially deficient during adulthood. Individuals who experience loneliness tend
to experience stronger psychological issues, such as social anxiety and depression.
Research shows the strong association between school bullying and high levels of
psychological distress o f children as they continue through adulthood. A study measured the
30
effects of school bullying and the health-related qualities of life and past victimization (Allison,
Roeger, & Reinfeld-Kirkman, 2009). The purpose was to analyze the relationship between
school bully victimization and adult health-related issues in life. The sample included 2,833
adults from Southern Australia who were asked to self-report bullying experiences and complete
the Medical Outcome Study Short Form of 36 health-related questions. A relationship was found
between the participants who reported bullying experiences and poorer mental and physical
health issues. The research indicates midlife symptoms o f depression and significantly higher
levels o f depression for those who can recollect bullying experiences from sixth grade, freshman,
and senior year o f high school. Individuals who recalled bullying victimization also reported
psychosomatic complaints, such as bodily pain, illnesses, headaches, abdominal pain, and stressrelated illnesses. The results o f the study indicate that adults who experienced childhood bully
victimization are later impacted by having lower health and experiencing psychological issues
(Allison et al., 2009).
The psychological distress from childhood bullying and the influential long-term effects
that contribute to adult psychological development are critical. According to Faith, Storch,
Roberti, and Ledley (2008), psychological distress levels differ from those who are nonclinical
and noncollege adults. Faith et al. conducted a study based on 355 adults, ages 18 to 86 years
old, from a nonclinical and noncollege population. The main objective was to determine the
relationship between recollections of childhood bully victimization and psychological distress in
a nonclinical adult sample. Participants were advised to complete the Teasing QuestionnaireRevised, Brief Fear o f Negative Evaluation Scale, Beck Depression Inventory (2nd ed.), and the
UCLA Loneliness Scale. The results indicated a correlation between childhood bully
victimization and the fear o f negative evaluation by peers, depressive symptoms, and signs of
31
loneliness in adulthood. The two predictor factors o f school bullying that evoked social
acceptance issues, depressive symptoms, and loneliness were appearance and social interaction.
The two were mediator factors for psychological distress symptoms. Childhood bullying also
indicated low levels o f self-concept. Individuals who had early experience with bullying lacked a
sense o f self and internalized the negative emotional responses associated with childhood
bullying until adulthood. The lack o f self-concept indicated an association with the avoidance of
interpersonal relationships, and the study signified a positive relation between bullying and
maladjustment to interpersonal relationship in adulthood. Adults who adapted to social isolation
tended to withdraw from dating and social situations, increasing the likelihood o f depression and
loneliness. These results provided significant evidence that indicate the relationship between
childhood bully victimization and later psychological distress issues, such as anxiety, loneliness,
and depression (Faith et al., 2008).
In the last decade childhood bullying has become viewed as detrimental to the
psychological stability o f an individual. Research indicates that childhood bully victimization
affects psychological, biological, and emotional development in adults. New studies look into
what is referred to as bullycide. Bullycide refers to adults who suffered years of turmoil and
continue to face repetitive encounters o f being victimized, ultimately leading to suicide. A crosssectional and longitudinal study was conducted to review the associations o f childhood bully
victimization and suicidal behaviors in adulthood. The goal o f this study was to analyze the
relationship between suicide and bullying. The research reviewed 300 articles on suicidal and
bullying behaviors, but only deemed 31 articles as appropriate for research value. The research
indicated that victims o f bullying have a higher likelihood of demonstrating suicidal ideations
and are more likely to act on suicidal attempts. Both victims and bully victims were more likely
32
to exhibit suicidal ideation and suicidal attempts. Research has found a stronger correlation
between verbal or indirect bullying than physical or direct bullying. The risk factors associated
with suicidal behaviors have been measured to be depression, sex, family structure, and
socioeconomic status, but tend to vary according to sex. According to the research, males tend to
exhibit suicidal behaviors when bullying is accompanied by psychopathology, mainly conduct
disorders and interpersonal violence. The more children have experienced bullying during
childhood the more likely the probability of suicidal behaviors during adulthood (BrunsteinKlomek, Sourander, & Gould, 2010). The continuous behaviors o f being verbally or physically
victimized that are inflicted upon a vulnerable individual who internalizes the pain and suffering
causes a great amount o f distress, which may cause all the internalized aggression and power
struggle within to turn deadly (Burgess et al., 2006).
Conclusion
Bullying has become an impacting behavior that leaves a lasting effect on that
individuals life. Being victimized as a child influences the developmental process of the
individual that later affects adult life. Bullying behaviors influence the biological, physical, and
psychological development, as well as the cognitive processing. It can be said that bullying
behaviors have a snowball effect on the personal growth from childhood to adulthood.
During the developmental process o f a child, a child tends to lean on his or her family
environment for the competency to stand alone. According to the Erikson model of personality
growth, the developmental process occurs in stages, and with each stage an individual will
encounter a crisis to overcome (cited in McLeod, 2008). Either the individual will successfully
overcome the crisis or he or she will fail to overcome the crisis and continue the developmental
process in a negative aspect. During childhood, children need to obtain a balance between
33
familial support and peer support. But, if not properly balanced, the developmental growth of
self becomes altered in order to compensate the lacking areas or will be adapted to the cognitive
distortions received. It is crucial to understand the impact that even the milder forms of trauma
play onto the psyche, which later develop to be a vital factor toward understanding the
developmental process.
The nature o f bullying behaviors becomes impactful the moment a child is exposed.
Children tend to encounter their first experience around the age o f 6 years old. At the age o f 6
years old, children tend to explore the social abilities with peers, attempting to branch out from
the familial support and establish a self-identity through peers and socializing. The experience of
being victimized as a child tends to prime the childs cognitive process with negative emotional
responses that question ones self-identity within the social acceptance o f ones peers. Once a
child obtains negative views o f the self, he or she tends to internalize a combination o f negative
interpersonal relationships and cognitive distortions o f the self that develops a low self-esteem
(Benas & Gibb, 2007). Individuals with low self-esteem combined with negative emotional
responses toward interpersonal and intrapersonal relationships suggest that these negative self
views impact the cognitive process. A vulnerable child who has been victimized by peers will
internalize these negative influences, which create a negative self-schema influencing the selfdevelopmental process (Clark, Beck, & Alford, 1999). A vulnerable child will adapt to the
expectations or perceptions others view o f them.
During the developmental years children are supposed to develop a sense of competency
and self-concept, but a victimized child will struggle with establishing the development of selfidentity. Bullied children learn to become inferior to their peers, doubting their abilities to
socialize among peers enabling them to develop friendships. The development o f poor social
34
skills and personal qualities tends to cause children to become targets for bullying because of the
lack of ability to socialize; this causes them to isolate themselves for fear o f being humiliated and
publically ridiculed by their peers. The combination of being victimized, lack o f self-concept,
poor social abilities, and development o f maladaptive patterns of cognition causes vulnerable
children to internalize the negative irrational belief o f being flawed. The negative emotional
response to feeling inadequate causes a child to feel shame, anger, guilt, and inferiority, which
psychologically paralyzes developmental growth (Platt, 2008).
Maladaptive beliefs stunt the developmental growth in numerous ways. Not only do they
halt the intrapersonal growth, but they also hinder the interpersonal growth (Ledley et al., 2006).
The repetitive attack o f an individuals appearance or ability to perform specific tasks impacts the
cognitive ability to desire interaction among others, negatively impacting future relationships for
fear of being rejected. The negative experiences and emotional responses evoked by bullying
forces an individual to feel he or she cannot trust or depend on others. When children enter into
adulthood the development o f poor social skills, low self-esteem, maladaptive cognitive patterns,
and fear o f rejection causes adults to fear interpersonal relationships due to high levels of anxiety.
The high levels o f anxiety and the fear of being socially ostracized can lead to social phobias
(McCabe et al., 2003).
Adults who have a social phobia avoid public attention or social situations because they
feel they will be victimized. Adults who have a history o f childhood bullying internalize these
fears, which causes them to possess anger, vengeful thoughts, hyperarousal symptoms, emotional
distress, and to be mentally disturbed (Leary et al., 2003). The psychological distress from being
victimized as a child impacts an adult by the development of mental issues, such as eating
disorders, personality issues, conduct behaviors, anxiety disorders, social phobias, loneliness, and
THE IM PACT OF C H ILD HO O D BULLYING
35
depression (Vaughn et al., 2010). But the impact of bullying has a deeper, more detrimental
effect on life; the combination o f internalizing multiple negative aspects, such as psychological
disturbances, the lack o f social support, a constant attack on unchangeable qualities, maladaptive
cognitive patterns, and low self-esteem, may force an adult to exhibit suicidal behaviors.
This study proposed that bullying victimization during childhood impacts the
psychological development in adults. The traumatic events that occur during childhood are
influential during adulthood and on developmental growth. If this occurs it could impact the
understanding of social phobias and trauma-related symptoms, such as the diagnostic criteria for
posttraumatic stress disorder. It has been found that childhood bully victims are unable to
socially develop by the time they become adults; consequentially, issues with development of
low self-esteem and interpersonal relationship difficulties are bound to develop (Ledley et al.,
2006). The research indicates that early exposure to bully victimization causes social phobias,
anxiety, eating disorders, antisocial tendencies, conduct behaviors, loneliness, and depression.
These specific factors were influenced by the mediator component o f early exposure o f bully
victimization. Not only have these psychological problems been identified as risk factors of
bullying but have also supported researchers with predictor variables o f suicidal behaviors in
adulthood (Brunstein-Klomek et al., 2011). Additionally, no study has measured the long-term
effect o f psychological distress in relation to the DSM-IV criteria o f posttraumatic stress disorder
in adulthood (American Psychiatric Association, 1994).
The purpose o f this study was to assess the relationship between early childhood bully
victimization experiences at any stage of development and the psychological distress of
adulthood that results in the diagnosis o f posttraumatic stress disorder. The study hypothesized
that adults who experienced early childhood bullying will have increased levels o f PTSD
symptoms than will those who were not victimized. Female participants who were victimized
will score higher on depressive symptoms than will males. Male participants who were
victimized will score higher on hyperarousal symptoms than will females. Adult victims who
were physically bullied will exhibit more PTSD symptoms than will those who were verbally
bullied.
37
CHAPTER III
Method
The focus o f this study was to analyze the long-term effects o f bullying during childhood
developmental stages and the psychological distress bullying causes in adulthood. This study
focused on measuring the correlations between bullying and posttraumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) symptoms, specifically analyzing the experiences and effects o f the first bullying
encounter.
Research Question 1
Can milder forms o f traumatic interactions, such as being bullied by peers during
childhood, result in long-term psychological distress during adulthood? To determine if there is
a correlation between childhood bullying and adults with posttraumatic stress disorder, one must
take into account the age o f the first encounter and its severity to compare bullying experiences
with other traumas.
Hypothesis 1
Individuals who have experienced early childhood bullying will have higher levels of
PTSD symptoms than will those who were not bullied.
Null Hypothesis 1
Individuals who have experienced childhood bullying will not exhibit PTSD symptoms.
Research Question 2
Does gender affect PTSD symptoms equally or will females and males experience
symptoms differently?
38
Hypothesis 2
An independent study o f gender groups will reveal that females who were bullied during
childhood will score higher on depressive symptoms than will males. Males who have been
bullied will score higher on hyperarousal symptoms than will females.
Null Hypothesis 2
Regardless o f gender, there will be no difference between symptoms caused by childhood
bullying.
Research Question 3
Will adults who experience physical bullying exhibit more PTSD symptoms?
Hypothesis 3
Individuals who were physically bullied (hitting, biting, punching, or any other violent
act) will exhibit more PTSD symptoms than will those who were verbally bullied (teasing/
taunting, name calling, and spreading o f rumors).
Null Hypothesis 3
Regarding symptoms o f PTSD, there will be no difference between physical or verbal
bullying.
Research Question 4
Who is more receptive to physical or verbal bullying based on gender?
Hypothesis 4
Females experience verbal bullying more than do males, and males experience physical
bullying more than do females.
39
Null Hypothesis 4
Regardless o f gender differences, there will be no difference between physical or verbal
bullying experiences.
Variables
Dependent variables. Bullying encounters: whether or not the victim experienced
bullying and if those experiences were verbal or physical. Different types o f bullying: physical or
verbal acts o f bullying.
Independent variables. Posttraumatic symptoms: self-reported responses from the
participants. Gender: male or female. Age.
Participants
Participants were volunteers from California State University, Fresno, as well as from
local bus and train stations and an online survey generated through Qualtrics. Participants were
both women and men o f legal age. A total number o f 200 participants were involved to generate
categories of women who were physically bullied, men and women who were verbally bullied,
men and women who were physically and verbally bullied, and men and women who were not
bullied.
Instruments
To assess adult bullying, the Retrospective Bullying Questionnaire (RBQ) is a self-report
questionnaire that consists o f 44 questions, mainly multiple-choice questions. The RBQ is an
assessment tool used to measure multiple experiences o f victimization during childhood based on
six types of victimization, 2 physical, 2 verbal, and 2 indirect, as well as focusing on seriousness,
frequency, and durations o f bullying experiences (Schafer et al., 2004). Each section is based on
a 5-point scale. This assessment was designed to explore primary school encounters, middle and
40
high school encounters, intrusive and recollections o f traumas (each on a 5-point scale), and a
question based on suicidal ideations (4-point scale). The final section on victimization during
college for university students or within the workplace for the others followed the assessment
and gauges the frequency o f experiencing bullying over the previous 6 months (6-point scale).
The RBQ has been found to have good test-retest reliability, with r = .88 for elementary school
victimization and r = .87 for middle/high school victimization (Schaefer et al., 2004). Currently
the RBQ assessment has only been administered once within the United States; a shortcoming of
the RBQ is that it has only been normed on UK populations. The RBQ was originally written in
English but later was translated into Spanish and German (Chambless, 2010).
To assess posttraumatic stress symptoms, the PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version (PCL-C)
is a self-report questiomiaire used to assess adults PTSD symptoms on a response scale ranging
from 1 to 5 that is computed into a total score by summing up each item s score. Each of the 17
items describes symptoms that are correlated to the criteria respondent with the DSM-IV criteria
for PTSD (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). The interviewees were asked to complete
the survey based on their childhood encounters o f being victimized, and the effects that has had
during adulthood. The reliability and validity o f the PCL-C was demonstrated to be excellent
based on multiple populations. The PCL-C demonstrates a test-retest with a highly internal
consistency o f .94 and a retest reliability o f .66 after a 2-week administration interval. The
concurrent validity to the PCL-C is good; also indicates significant correlations with PTSD
symptoms, depression, and general anxiety (Conybeare, Behar, Solomon, Newman, & Borkovec,
2 0 1 2 ).
41
Procedures
An informed consent document was provided to each volunteer that explained the
purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits o f the research, along with a statement detailing the
confidentiality of the research. This statement explained the volunteers rights, including the
freedom to decline to continue the research without consequence. No identifying information
was reported. Each individual was given the opportunity to request further information
concerning the research or confidentiality; outside resources for any distress concerns before
signing the informed consent document were also provided. The informed consent document
provided the contact information of the primary writer and the dissertation chairperson.
Following the consent form, volunteers were provided with thorough instructions as to
what was expected. Volunteers and the investigator provided time for any questions concerning
instructions to avoid any possible misunderstandings. Volunteers were encouraged to answer all
questions honestly and thoroughly for accurate references to understanding the bullying cycle.
Volunteers were informed that they were participating solely as a volunteer and
compensation would be determined by their primary professor, if any was to be distributed in
exchange for participation. In addition, volunteers were advised of their rights to terminate the
usage o f their data and informed about how their data would be used throughout the course of the
research. If necessary, volunteers were told they would be debriefed and provided with resources
within their community for further usage.
The volunteers were asked to complete the two self-report surveys to allow the
appropriate placing o f the four categories. The initial self-report survey asked each individual
about his or her encounters with bullying throughout his or her childhood up until current adult
encounters. Volunteers were also asked about their experiences in particular interactions.
42
Bullying was defined as unwanted or persistent encounters o f physical or verbal bullying, such as
hitting, biting, pushing, punching, name calling, spreading rumors, or teasing from another
individual or a group o f individuals. Following the completion o f the survey, the volunteers were
asked to rate their previous experiences relative to scenarios indicating a symptom correlated to
PTSD symptoms.
All data were kept anonymous and appropriately kept in compliance with American
Psychological Association guidelines for confidential purposes. The data were organized into
four groups, determining individuals who have experienced physical bullying, individuals who
have experienced verbal bullying, individuals who have experienced both physical and verbal
bullying, and individuals who have experienced neither.
Analysis
Two one-way ANOVAs were used to analyze the physical and verbal bullying with
gender. A MANOVA was used to find any differences between types o f bullying (physical or
verbal) and symptoms correlated with PTSD (intrusive thoughts, avoidance, and hyperarousal) to
determine the relationship between bullying and PTSD.
43
CHAPTER IV
Results
Data were collected from 52 individuals who completed a questionnaire either while
waiting at a local train station, local coffee shops, or through Qualtrics via e-mail
correspondence. O f the 52 collected questionnaires, five o f the protocols were from the local
train station or local coffee shops. The remaining 47 were obtained via e-mail correspondence.
Nonusable protocols were disregarded due to unanswered questions, missing demographic
information, or unclear answers. Out o f these protocols, 34 questiomiaires were deemed usable
for data entry. The viable demographic and summation responses were recorded into the
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), Version 19. The descriptive information and
data frequencies were then calculated using SPSS.
This study was designed to understand the relationship between early childhood exposure
and the two types o f bullying, physical or verbal. Also, the influence o f gender and the age of
exposure in connection to PTSD symptoms was considered. Certain questions were based on
childhood exposure(s) to bullying during specific time frames relative to elementary school,
middle school, and high school, and the extent of the levels of exposure. Other questions
targeted the individuals conceptualization o f bullying and the influential imprints that have been
exhibited during adulthood. In general, the questions were placed in specific order from earliest
exposures to later exposures and then categorized in order from physical bullying to verbal
instances.
Relative to the data analyses regarding normality assumption, statistical testing was
conducted using Kolmogorove-Smirnov (K-S) tests, P-P and Q-Q plots, histogram, kurtosis, and
44
skewness. The results indicated the normality assumptions were partially met due to the small
sample size. When considering measures o f central tendency and independence within the
limited sample size, it is reasonable to use parametric test statistics, such as independent samples
t tests for these data analyses. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) between genders was
significant {t = -2.01, d f= 18,p = .05), indicating there were mean differences between males
and females. This result suggests females suffer more from PTSD than do males. Cohens d was
-1.41, indicating there was a small effect size. However, physical bullying and verbal bullying
between genders were not significant (t = .68, df= 18, p = .50; t = .67, d f= 18, p = .51,
respectively), indicating there were no mean differences between males and females. These
results suggest there were no significant differences when males and females experienced
physical bullying and verbal bullying.
45
CHAPTER V
Discussion
General Discussion
It was hypothesized that individuals who have experienced early childhood bullying will
have higher levels o f PTSD symptoms than will those who were not bullied in adulthood. In
addition, an independent study o f gender groups revealed that females who were bullied during
childhood scored higher on depressive symptoms than did males who were bullied during
childhood. In return, males who have been bullied will score higher on hyperarousal symptoms
than will females. Individuals who were physically bullied (which was defined as hitting, biting,
punching, or any other violent acts) will exhibit more PTSD symptoms than will those who were
verbally bullied (which was defined as teasing/taunting, name calling, or spreading of rumors).
Females experience verbal bullying more than do males, and males experience physical bullying
more than do females. Given the limited sample size, results o f the study demonstrated a
significant relationship between gender and PTSD. The statistically significant findings
supported evidence indicating females suffer more from PTSD than do males.
Due to these destructive behaviors, it is customary for society to understand the
importance o f results in a real world perspective. In particular, this study indicates that
individuals, mainly females, are impacted psychologically relative to early childhood exposures
to bullying. The results o f this study were not able to demonstrate a statistically significant
relationship (p = .51) for physical bullying and verbal bullying between genders.
46
Recommendations for Future Studies and Clinical Applicability

To streamline future use, it is possible to modify the questionnaire to make it more user
friendly. Given the lengthiness and complexity o f the questionnaire, it may be in the best interest
to remove or add more direct questions to increase the sensitivity o f the questionnaire.
Furthermore, there is the possibility of a future longitudinal study consisting o f a larger sample
size with an equivalent male-to-female ratio and documentation o f four major transitional stages:
primary school 5-9, elementary 10-14, high school 15-18, and adult 19-50. This may allow for
greater insight into the behavioral impact and symptomatological influence of specific time
frames during which an individual becomes affected by peer involvement or exposure to
bullying. Utilizing the aforementioned developmental ranges will enable the researcher to rule
out alternative influences based on environmental, familial, and social influences. Thus, the
researcher will be able to better gauge the effect o f bullying in adulthood.
Given the statistical significance of this study, it is recommended to expand and extend
the study further into other origins, such as different counties, states, and countries. This study
was based in the localized region of the Central San Joaquin Valley o f California; but this study
could easily be duplicated throughout different counties, states, and countries. The study also has
potential use within more populated areas and with culturally differentiated participants in
California itself. Future research could assist and encourage those who have been impacted
psychologically by bullying to inquire about effective treatment options.
Limitations
The present study possessed multiple limitations. One limitation found in this study was
the uneven ratio o f male-to-female participants. According to the provided data, the majority of
the participants identified as female, leaving to question the actual influence o f bullying
experiences among gender. Relative to the scope and range o f the study, the locations o f the
participants could not be accurately detected due to the lack o f information provided or the
possible variety in the form o f how data were collected. Furthermore, out of the original 52
participants who participated via e-mail through Qualtrics, some individuals may have chosen
not to complete the questionnaire or may have quit before completing the full survey. A larger
sample size would be needed to better articulate an understanding o f the effects o f early
childhood exposures to bullying during adulthood.
48
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APPENDIX A
Consent Form
TH E IM PA CT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING
57
Alliant International University

Fresno Campus
5130 E. Clinton Way
Fresno, CA 93727
DESCRIPTION: You are invited to participate in a research study on bullying and how early
childhood exposure affects the psychological distress during adulthood. You will be asked to
take a brief survey on your experiences, recollections, and perceptions based on bullying. This
survey is anonymous. Do not write your name on the survey. No one will be able to identify you
or your answers, and no one will know whether or not you participated in the study. Should the
data be published, no individual information will be disclosed. This study is part o f a masters
thesis at Alliant International University by Sarah Dewey, M.A., under supervision o f Dr. Jana
Price-Sharps.
RISKS AND BENEFITS: There are no foreseeable risks involved with this study other than the
discomfort anticipated in the research which is no greater than that ordinarily encountered during
the performance o f routine physical, psychological, and educational examinations or tests. The
benefit which may reasonable be expected to result from this study is utilizing the data from your
results to help understand the effects o f childhood experiences and the impact it may have during
adulthood. We camiot and do not guarantee or promise that you will receive any benefits from
this study.
TIME INVOLVEMENT: Your participation in this experiment will take approximately 30
minutes to complete.
PAYMENTS: There is no payment for your participation in this study.
PARTICIPANTS RIGHTS AND CONFIDENTIALITY: If you have read this form and have
decided to participate in this project, please understand your participation is voluntary and you
have the right to withdraw your consent or discontinue participation at any time without penalty
or loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. Your individual privacy will be
maintained in all published and written data resulting from the study. All information obtained
will be stored in a locked area with restricted access to only those involved in this study. Your
name will never be connected to your results or responses. Instead, a numerical identification
code will be assigned to your response sheet to allow for organizing o f data. Any information
that could be used to identify you will not be released in the report or allowed out in any way.
Data, in the form o f recorded answers with numerical identification code, will be accessible to
those working on the project, as well as to future researchers who request it. However, if a
statement is found regarding abuse or neglect regarding a child or dependent adult, I will be
mandated by law to contact relevant services to report this.
CONTACT INFORMATION: Questions, Concerns, or Complaints: If you have any questions,
concerns, or complaints about this research study, its procedure, risks, and benefits, or alternative
course of treatment, you should ask the Protocol Director, Sarah Dewey. You may contact her
58
now or later as sdewey@alliant.edu or (559) 392-9869 or Dr. Jana Price-Sharps at jpricesharps@alliant.edu, or by phone (559) 253-2241.
Independent Contacts: If you are not satisfied with how this study is being conducted, or if you
have any concerns, complaints, or general questions about the research or your rights as a
participant, please contact Fresno-IRB@alliant.edu. A participant may request a summary of the
aggregate results o f the study once the study has been completed, if the participant desires.
Signature of Adult Participant
Date
APPENDIX B
Demographic Form
Demographic Form
Date o f Intake:_____ /_____ /_____
Age:_______
Gender:
Years o f Education:
Marital Status:
Occupation:
Children:
If so, how many?
Ethnicity:_
How would you rate your present physical health?
Poor: 1
2
3
4
5
6
10
How would you rate your present emotional health?

Poor: 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
10
How would you rate the seriousness o f this problem?

Poor: 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
10
How would you rate your stress level because o f this problem?
Poor: 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Do you fear this problem will impact your children, future generations, etc.?
Poor: 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Do you think this problem will change?
Poor: 1
2
3
4
5
10
Is there anything else you would like to share at this time? If so, Please do so below.

Bullying Victimization

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Bullying Victimization

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BULLYING VICTIMIZATION: THE IMPACT OF

CHILDHOOD BULLYING AND LONG-TERM

Dissertation presented to the Faculty o f the

ProQuest Number: 3725298

All rights reserved

THE IM PACT OF CH ILD HO O D BULLYING

Sarah E. Dewey, 2015

THE IM PACT OF CH ILD HO O D BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING

THE IM PA CT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING

THE IM PA CT OF CHILD HO O D BULLYING

CHAPTER I. Introduction to Bullying

CHAPTER II. Literature Review

Developing the Self

Behavioral and Psychological Impact of Bullying on Adults

CHAPTER III. Method

THE IM PA CT OF CHILD HO O D BULLYING

CHAPTER IV. Results

Recommendations for Future Studies and Clinical Applicability

APPENDIX A. Consent Form

APPENDIX B. Demographic Form

THE IM PACT OF CHILD HO O D BULLYING

THE IM PA CT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING

THE IM PA CT OF CHILD HO O D BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CHILD HO O D BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING

THE IM PA CT OF CH ILD HO O D BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CH ILD HO O D BULLYING

THE IM PA CT OF CH ILD HO O D BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CH ILD HO O D BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CHILD HO O D BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CHILD HO O D BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING

Each o f these contributing factorspeer victimization, social exclusion, and maladaptive

THE IM PACT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING

Behavioral and Psychological Impact of Bullying on Adults

THE IM PACT OF CH ILD HO O D BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CH ILD HO O D BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING

THE IM PA CT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CHILD HO O D BULLYING

THE IM PA CT OF CHILD HO O D BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING

victimization is defined as spreading rumors, socially isolating, socially rejecting, publically

THE IM PACT OF CH ILD HO O D BULLYING

Loneliness is a psychosocial factor that affects the quality o f an individuals life.

THE IM PACT OF CH ILD HO O D BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CHILD HO O D BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CH ILD HO O D BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF C H ILD HO O D BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CH ILD HO O D BULLYING

THE IM PA CT OF CHILDHOOD BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CHILD HO O D BULLYING

THE IM PACT OF CHILD HO O D BULLYING