STORY

THE

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY
SCIENCE

BY

HENRY

WILLIAMS,

SMITH

M.D.

ILLUSTRATED

HARPER

5NEW

PUBLISHERS

BROTHERS
YORK

AND

I9OI

LONDON

Copyright,

1900,

AU

by

HENKY

rights

SMITH

reservrj.

WILLIAMS.

CONTENTS

I.

SCIENCE

AT

BEGINNING

THE

OF

THE

CENTURY

1
...

II.

III

THE

CENTURY'S

THE

CENTURY'S

PROGRESS

PROGRESS

44

ASTRONOMY

IN

88

PALEONTOLOGY

IN

....

IV.

THE

CENTURY'S

PROGRESS

IN

GEOLOGY

V.

THE

CENTURY'S

PROGRESS

IN

METEOROLOGY

123

157
....

VI.

CENTURY'S

THS

PROGRESS

PHYSICS.

IN

DERABLES"
"IMPON-

THE

192

VII.

VIII.

IX.

ETHEII

THE

CENTURY'S

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

PROGRESS

THE

AND

230

IN

CHEMISTRY

252

IN

BIOLOGY.

THEORIES

OP

288

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

MATTER

EVOLUTION

ORGANIC

X.

PONDERABLE

THE

IN

ANATOMY

OLOGY
PHYSI-

AND

321
...

XL

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

IN

SCIENTIFIC

MKDICINE

354
.

XII.

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

IN

EXPERIMENTAL

OGY
PSYCHOL-

395

XIII.

UNSOLVED

SOME

i.

n.

SOLAR

PHYSICAL

LIFE

m.

INDEX

SCIENTIFIC

TELLURIC

AND

PROBLEMS

433

PROBLEMS

435

443

PROBLEMS

449

PROBLEMS

,459
......

ILLUSTKATIONS

PAGE

BARON

VON

ALEXANDER

HUMPHRY

Frontispiece

IITJMBOLDT

DAVY

WEDGWOOD

JOSIAH

HERSCHEL

HIS

AND

JAMES

LOUIS

JAMES

HUTTON

SISTER

TELESCOPE

14

LAGRANGE

18

THOMPSON

BENJAMIN

JOSKPH

THE

AT

"

25

RUMFORD

COUNT

30

PRIESTLY

LAVOISIER

IN

HIS

LABORATORY

37

'

EDWARD

41

JENNER
.

WILHELM

FUIEDRICH

HEINKICH

SIR

WILHELM

JOHN

MATTHIAS

55

OLBERS

61

HERSCHEL

GREAT

THE

45

BESSEL

REFRACTOR

OF

NATIONAL

THE

AT

OBSERVATORY

67

WASHINGTON

TYPICAL

STAR

SPECTRA

OF

STAR

IN

71

CENTAURI

73

CARINA

75

ROSSE'S

NO.

NO.

2"

"

77

TELESCOPE

SIDEREAL

TIME,

15

HOURS,

50

MINUTES

SIDEREAL

TIME,

17

HOURS,

50

MINUTES

OXFORD

GEORGES

THE

STARS

"

SPECTRA

LORD

THE

CLUSTER

85

HELIOMETER

92

CUVIER

WARREN

MASTODON,

FOUND

NEAR

NEWBURG,

ON

THE

94

HUDSON

ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE

THE

SKULL,

LOWER

THE

LACKING

JAW,

COR-

EOBASILEUS

OF

96

COPE

NUTUS,

SWIMMING

OR

METAMYNODON,

FROM

RHINOCEROS,

SOUTH

KOTA
DA-

'.

101
RHINOCEROS,

RUNNING

OR

HYRACHYUS,

FROM

SOUTHERN

MING
WYO-

103
PROFESSOR

D.

B.

O.

....

112
HORSE'S

OF

FOOT

AND

FOUND

REPTILES

OF

FOOTPRINTS

110

HORSE

MARSH

C.

EVOLUTION

THE

FOUR-TOED

ANCESTRAL

THE

PROTOROHIPPUS,
PROFESSOR

106

COPE

OF

IN

HORSE'S

115

HEAD
STONE
SAND-

CONNECTICUT

118
FROM

TITANOTHERE

SOUTH

120

DAKOTA

THE

RESULTS

OF

EROSION

BY

RUNNING

THE

RESULTS

OF

EROSION

BY

WIND

MOUNTAIN

CARVED

LOUIS

JEAN

ADAM

SEDGWICK,

131

133

STRATA

HORIZONTAL

FROM

127

WATER

AGASSIZ

RODOLPH

)
.

135

JAMES

F.R.8

DWIGHT

DANA

"
SIR

RODERICK

WILLIAM

IMPEY

POULETTE

139
)

F.R.S

SCROPE,

"
SIR

CHARLES

LANDSCAPE

LANDSCAPE

LYELL,

BART.,

AND

MAMMAL

AND

Io7

LL.D

SMITH,

GEORGE

MURCHISON

F.R
OF

141

8
THE

TERTIARY

REPTILE

TERRESTRIAL

143

AGE

OF

....

THE

MICSOZOIC

147

TIME

MANHATTAN

ISLAND

IN

QUATERNARY

THE

AGE

"

THE

DON
MASTO-

151
SIR
A

RICHARD
METEORIC

CIRRUS

163

CLOUDS

165

CLOUDS

STRATUS

168

CLOUDS
BAPTISTE

LIEUTENANT
A

159

STONE

CUMULUS

JEAN

155

OWEN

WHIRLWIND

WATERSPOUTS

1 73

BIOT
MATTHEW

IN
IN

FONTAINE
A

DUSTY

179

MAURY

183

ROAD

185

MID-ATLANTIC

,,,...

vi

ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE

SAND-STORM

THOMAS

ON

THE

MOJAVE

1"7

DESEHT

195

YOUNG

HANS

OERSTED

CHRISTIAN

ARAGO

FRANCOIS

DOMINIQUE

-|
J- 201

JEAN

AUGUSTIN
JAMES

FRESNEL

CLERK

MAXWELL
,

211

FARADAY

MICHAEL

PRESCOTT

JAMES
WILLIAM

JOULE

(LORD

THOMSON

KELVIN)

1" 219
MAYER

ROBERT

JULIUS

TYNDALL

JOHN

JOHAN

JAKOIJ

JUSTUS

TON

GAY-LUSSAC

257

BEKZELIUS

261

WILLIAM

GUSTAV

ROBERT

W.

JOHN
ERASMUS

BUNSEN

277

KIIICHHOFF

279
281

DAGUERRE

DRAPER

285

DARWIN

290
DE

BAPTISTE

JEAN

MANDE

JACQUES

267

~.

LIEBIG

ROBERT

LOUIS

ETIENNE

GEOFFROY

CHARLES

ROBERT

ALFRED

RUSSELL

THOMAS

HENRY

294

LAMARCK

299

SAINT-HILAIHE
DARWIN

304

WALLACE

308
311

HUXLEY

314

GRAY

319

HAECKEL

ERNEST

XAVIER

FRANCOIS

MARIE

JAKOB

MATTHIAS

VON

ERNST

JOHANNES

323

BICHAT

326

WOLLASTON

HYDE

WILLIAM

KARL

237
254

LOUIS

JOSEPH

330

SCHLEIDEN

333

BAER

337

MULLER

339

CARPENTER

BENJAMIN

WILLIAM
MAX

HELMHOLTZ

DALTON

JOHN

ASA

FERDINAND

LUDVVIG

HERMANN

341

SCHULTZE

HUGO

VON

JEAN

BAPTISTE

344

MOTH-

346

DUMAS

vii

ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

CLAUDE

351

BERNARD

LAENNEC,

OF

INVENTOR

RUDOLF

ArIRCHOW

WILLIAM

T.

THE

NECKER

357

367

MORTON

W.

THEODOR

371

LONG

377

SCHWANN

JOSEPH

383

LISTER

LOUIS

PASTEUR

PINEL

AT

FROM

391

LA

SALPETRIERE,

THEIR

CHARLES

FRANCOIS

EMIL.

AT

364

G.

CRAWFORD

SIR

STETHOSCOPE,

PARIS

HOSPITAL,

SIR

THE

IN

1795,

RELEASING

THE

INSANE

397

MANACLES

402

BELL

403

MAGENDIE

DU

GUSTAV

408

BOIS-REYMOND

THEODOR

JEAN

MARTIN

PAUL

BROCA

413

FECHNER

416

CHARCOT

421
,

THE

STORY

OF

CENTURY

NINETEENTH-

SCIENCE

NINETEENTH-

OF

STORY

THE

SCIENCE

CENTURY

NOT
a

months

many

scientific

first

as

last

at

report;

manifestation
of

as

of

only

to

look

than

Coins
within

to

human

hand

about
Not

them

only

revelations,

tube

purse,
case,

held

was

were

could

but

but

of

the
the

sight

driven

into

magic

before
as

the
if the

shadowy

human

impartial

eye

tube,

interior

One

of

screen

of

more

the

derful
won-

medium.

when

jected
sub-

when

and

tube;

stood

its bones

living, palpitating
of

substance

evidence

these

tain
cer-

spectacles

visible

see

cal
electri-

peculiar

wood,

clearly

new

the

vision

second

this

of

eyes.

towards

became

told

human

clairvoyant

nails

the

to

came

pronounced

which

containing

directed

simplicity,

of

It

It

virtue
visible

acquire

influence

in weird

in

discredited

leather
the

and

to

the

within

demonstration.

is made

into

composition,
apparatus,

as

of

Germany

world.

the
then

credited;

energy,

objects

opaque

had

little

rumor,

of

out

came

startled

that

discovery

word

ago

vealed
re-

flesh

ghost.

astounding
of

inanimate

THE

STORY

could

chemicals
mind

harbored

the

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

be

brought
illusion.

no

things

that

the

SCIENCE

forward
The
eye

to

prove

that

the

corded
photographic film remight see, and ghostty

picturesgaloresoon gave a quietusto the doubts of the

month
of the announcement
most
a
sceptical.Within
of Professor
the
Rontgen's experiments comment
upon
and
the
X ray
had become
new
a
photography
part of the current gossip of all Christendom.
but natural
that thoughtful minds
It was
should have
boasted
associated this discoveryof our
latter-dayepoch
with another
fancy
discovery that was made in the earliest in"

"

of

"

"

our

century.

In

the

year

1801

Mr.

Thomas

family of potters,
Wedgwood, of the world-renowned
and
Humphry Davy, the youthful but already famous
showed
that it was
chemist, made
experiments which
the imprint of a translucent
possibleto secure
body
upon a chemicallyprepared plateby exposure to sunlight.
In this way translucent
pictureswere
copied,and skele.
tal imprints were
secured
of such objectsas leaves and
the wings of insects
imprints strikinglysimilar to the
cure
objectswhich we se"shadowgraphs" of more
opaque
of the
new
by means
photography" to-day. But
these
of the real significance
experimenters little dreamed
of their observations.
It was
forty years before
shadowed,
forethese observations
practicalphotography, which
was
developed and made of any use outside
the laboratory.
It seems
that imaginativemen"
strange enough now
and
have paused
such a man
should
Davy surely was
the very brink of so great a discovery.But to harbor
on
that thought is to misjudge the nature
of the human
mind.
been
done
seem
Things that have once
easy;
thingsthat have not been done are difficult,
though they
"

"

"

HUMPHRY

From

the

DAVY

painting by H. Howard

SCIENCE

AT

lie but

hair's-breadth

what

to-day foretell
of what

off the

of my

part

no

impossiblefeat
My

of

had

and

Davy

inquire what

what

each

we

to its

is

the

attempt
the

tograph
pho-

new

reminiscent, not

hundred

of

main

our

years

phetic.
pro-

whither

closingdays
chief

of the

of

of the

men's

; to

ago
a

person
Let

century.

own

department

know

may

the

were

to

scientific horizon

threshold

those

trending in

when

the

standing at the
glance brieflyat

knowledge of the sciences

that discoveryof Wedgwood

made, almost
was

time, that

theme

ful
use-

recall what

days

was

however,

purpose,

can

the agency

through

casting a horoscope for

to

in the

men

hence

Who

made, what

photography

new

present

I wish

track.
be

may

CENTURY

THE

beaten

revelations

call the

now

we

It is

and

OF

developed,fortyyears

arts

that

BEGINNING

THE

science

minds

us

of

were

eighteenth century,

scientific

of
legacies

that

tury
cen-

successor.

ii

In

the

this

field of

the

astronomy

central

figureduring

of the

eighteenth century is William

Herschel, the Hanoverian, whom
England has made
is a man
with
hers by adoption. He
a
positivegenius
for sidereal
in asamateur
tronomy,
discovery. At first a mere
closingepoch

he
teacher

to

at

the

he

makes

for the

than
the

snatches

grind him
stars.

work

curved

that

ever

content

reflective

his

with

duties

his

possesses

before.
surface

hours

His

music-

begins gazing
first telescope,

better

such

genius

instrument

patience in grinding

is monumental.

together he must
mirror, polishing it,without
5

as

and

he has

another, and

soon

made

for sixteen

the

he

from

mirror,
telescopic

Not

another, and

was

about

time

walk
once

times
Some-

steadily
removing

THE

STORY

OF

JOSIAH
From

his hands.

puts food
astronomer

rise,year

with

his

in

and

Reynolds

sister,
always

her presence, and

into his mouth.

turns

WEDGWOOD

painting by Sir Joshua

Meantime

cheers him

SCIENCE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

The

out, sweeps
6

from

time

to

time,

telescopecompleted,the

night into da\r,and

year

ant,
his chief lieuten-

from
the

sunset

heavens

to

sun-

unceas-

STORY

THE

enables

the astronomer

task

he

finds

that

axis ; he

influence

the

spots

the

weather

which

vistas

abysmal

which

bring him

will

miles"

smallest

ago.

The

those

of the

power

But

sixth

what

depths
is what

does

of space

the world

Kepler, have

the

wishes
us

What

stars

as
points of light,
one
philosopher of

contended,

or

are

his

to

; this

learn

system

the

the}'suns,

than

of

"

at

ly
vague-

of

two

the

least eleven

millions

million

unaided

of

years

eye

are

he thinks,
telescope,

magnitude.

regarding
people

these

them

awful

That

Copernicus,Galileo,

system, but the

stars
"

eighteenthcentury
as

enters

forty-foot reflector

1342d

that

stars

most

regions of

says the great reflector

the ancients taught, and

than

his

source

of the

solar

been

very

fore,
penetrated be-

millions

of

to know.

But

solar

more

distance

visible

Herschel
and

short, he

and

our

ever

hitherto

left its

stars

; in

him,
of

its

suggests that

into the

e}'e

magnitude

given

mystery.

span

that
a

stars

reveal

to

the

millions

which

light

"

out

and

on

he
perfectedtelescopes

us

lightfrom

three-fourths

and

has

tells

He

imagined.

for

our

Saturn,

astronomy.

him

had

eye

of

earth

our

human

no

human

no

his

With

point.

mere

carry

of

moons

and

sun,

small

too

which

with

compared

space

of

skies,and

rings, revolves

the

field of solar

researches

important

unseen

its

on

the

bewilderingprofusion.

special studies

this field becomes

soon

is

makes

entire

the

genial
con-

ments,
embarrass-

to

in

hitherto

planet,with

this

scans

extends

more

of mundane

another

one

various
he

planets;

proves

the

to

enthusiasm

fresh

follow

his discoveries

sister

his entire time

the burden

with

turns

He

ing
of teach-

thraldom

the

escape

star-gazing.

of

relieved from

Thus

they

to

to devote

music, and

SCIENCE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

others

hold

are
as

have
the
more

has still
HerscheJ

HERSCHEL

AND

HIS

SISTER

AT

THE

TELESCOPE

they

answers,

millions

of

moving

suns.

thought, they

some

common

Our

is

different
some

shower

of

Nor

visible

which

the

"What

has

eye

galaxy

in space.

far

serve

an

infinite

an

in the

held to

as

the

isolated

the

awful

system

suns,
"

the

span

our

mere

11

yet

of the

the

universe.

globe,
irregular
vided
proportions,and dian

is revealed

to

even

Milky Way.
conceives

it

"

revolving,
poised
marvellous
do
telescopes

unit of measure,

of

And

centre,

one

beyond

universes,like

of

that

here those
out

distance

bounds

of

Herschel

as

in

system, this universe,

disklike

forking of

sees

limits of his vision.

the

to

shape

universe

even

that

the

thousand

reaches

confines

bifurcation

"

thinks,of myriads

into

few

no

large as

so

the

the

come

the

to almost

Far, far

other
he

even

in

reached

outline this

it has

of suns,

But

pause.

might

star,

longer increase.

has
to

can

This, then, is our

so

Far from

sun

matter

last he

at

not

He
seen

oblatelyflattened
at one
edge

not

about

eye, Herschel
stars, marshalled

distant

more

then?

that

prove

naked

galaxiesno

believes that he

vast

stars, not

the

; but

he

sidereal system

the naked

other

to

of

millions

he thinks"

and

that

one

rest, circlingon

giant

our

"

Looking beyond

all.

are

galaxies of

He

satellites

after series

beyond

all the

sparks.

that

series

the

that centre

sun

spark of
insignificant

is this

stars

our

star, like all the

myriad

mere

of

one

every

them, larger than

Is

only

from

CENTURY

whirling in giganticorbits

are

its attendant

with

"so

of

centre.
sun

and

THE

tiny system. Not only so, but they

Instead
of being fixed in space, as has

our

been

it.

OF

each

suns,

many

centre

is the
are

are

suns,

"

BEGINNING

THE

AT

SCIENCE

are

own,

confines
of

our

of

each

clustered
islands

other

tems,
sys-

composed,

like
of

verse,
uni-

system

own

revealed

our

our

matter

as

galaxy
in

an

THE

STORY

infinite

their

these

studies.

of

Herschel's

Before

the

as

he

resolved
He
can

the

remote

as

believes

its

requiresthree

his

fixed

About

began

them,

and

clusters

farthest of these

nebulae

the

300,000

that

Yet

star.

times

as

one-half years

star

nearest

miles

to reach

from

distant

his

to substantiate.
telescopes
myriad suns of his numberless

line of

human

sense.

his followers

planets

may

be

had

He

thinks

systems

Giordano
held

inhabited,but

that

are

Bruno
some

Herschel

is

so

second,

planet.

our

if to

life in the

his

of these

many

-touches
this
to
give the finishing
scheme
of cosmology, Herschel, though in the
allows
theorizing,
very little given to unsustained
call
the privilegeof one
belief that he cannot
As

in

hundred

Herschel

travelling180,000
light,

and

glow,

largesttelescopesinto

that

is at least

see

nearest

that

by

of

that

ered
century he has discov-

close of the
more

discovery

eye.

when

universe

our

nebulous

dim

known

thousand

two

been

that

only

us

were

of stars.

us

universes

nebulae

about
had

distant

invisible to the unaided

cases

from

So

light reaches

most

of

ne\v

SCIENCE

space.

of

ocean

these

are

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

that

of

main
self
him-

upon

all the

instinct
and

novel

our

extends

with

long
sister

the

all the
thought to include the moon, the sun, the stars
demonstrate
He
believes that he can
heavenly bodies.
the habitability
of our
own
reasoning from
sun, and
of all
that all the suns
analogy, he is firmly convinced
In
the systems are
well suppliedwith inhabitants."
other
this,as in some
inferences,Herschel is misled by
ing
workthe faultyphysics of his time. Future generations,
with
sustain him
not
perfected instruments, may
all along the line of his observations
even, let alone his
inferences.
But how
one's egotism shrivels and shrinks
as
one
grasps the import of his sweeping thoughts!
"

"

12

is led

Herschel

He

inference.

ol the innumerable
another

presentlyto
that

notes

CENTURY

THE

OF

his observations

Continuing

curious

star groups

some

lae,
nebu-

tive
speculamuch

are

thicklyclustered than others,and he is led to

that such varied clusteringtells of varying ages

more

have

may

He

nebula?.

the different

thinks

all the

when

come

from

of

suns

it

of

be

tion.
gravitagether
to-

centre.

clusters

have

towards

verging

are

must

drawn

common

thickest

usefulness,"and

their

outlived

the

at

of

that

the time

will

system

him,

to

seems

action

that

appears

fer
in-

first all space

at

the stars,and

the

destroyed by impact

and

Already,

that

evenly sprinkledwith

been

grouping has resulted

Looking forward, it

the

"

BEGINNING

THE

AT

SCIENCE

their doom.

again, other nebulae present an

of an oppositecondition.
They

But

able

into

stars, but

present

throughout, and
of

hence

are

shining fluid,which

condensed

the

at

in

thinks

be

instances

glowing

he

uniform
to

sees

ance
appear-

composed

is seen

to

In

mass.

sun

gestive
sug-

resolva-

not

are

believed

some

into

centre

Herschel

nebula

almost

an

appearance

in

be

such
of

process

formation.

together,these

Taken

cycle of
a

broad

adumbrated

borg.

This

that

in

with

cosmic

the

times
so

beginning

diffusion, formless

in

and

state

to

13

destruction

"

been

Kant

and

Sweden-

of

hypothesis assumes
was
uniformly filled
nebular

void."

coagulation,if you
form
segregated masses,

jestic
ma-

"

all space

"

mass

and

nebular

"

had

vaguely
by Kepler, and in

as

before

by Wright

called

world

such

centuries

matter
"

and

of cosmogony,
two

recent

more

conceptions outline

formation

world

scheme

two

It

wilA

"

or

"

fire-mist

pictures the
of portionsof

a.ul the ultimate

"

densation
con-

this

devel-

THE

STORY

opment
we
come

out

of these

Thus

see.

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

was

from

mass

How

follows

LOUIS

LAGRANGE

which

was

born

our

solar

system

maining
planetarybodies instead of rethe planets struck off
Were
a
single mass?
sun
by the chance impact of comets, as Buffon

divided

the

from

which

readily; but now

happens it,for example, that

JAMES

the cosmic

of the sidereal bodies

masses

far the mind

difficulties.

SCIENCE

into several

14

THE

STORY
the

that

form

to
at

even

when

time

solar

our

system

it

filled all space

and

to

swiftly,and

more

of

forces

from

As

this

heat,it

time

was

its

revolvingon

was

distance

loss of

through

which

matter

in character,

still nebular

was

present limits of the system.

contracted

SCIENCE

cosmic

of

primitive mass

destined
axis

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

far

the

beyond

mass

vaporous

revolved

and

more

time, through balance

to

its

were
periphery,rings of its substance
off and
whirled
left revolving there, to subsequently
become
condensed
into planets,and
in their turn whirl
off minor
The main
moons.
rings that became
body of
the originalmass
remains
in the present as the still contracting

at

and

rotatingbody which we call the sun.

nebular
The
hypothesis thus given detailed completion
by Laplace is a worthy complement of the grand
Whether
true
or
false,
cosmologicscheme of Herschel.
the two
of
conceptions stand as the final contributions
ceaseless
the eighteenth century to the historyof man's
efforts to solve the mysteriesof cosmic
originand cosmic
The
world
listens eagerly and without
structure.
dice
prejuto

the

marvellous

intellectual

transition.
stake

for

doctrines

new

In

the

growth

In

that
of

attitude

our

earth

our

1700, Newton

was

is not

was

tells of
Mark

race.

1600, Bruno

year

teaching that

universe.

; and

burned
the centre

the
at

the

of the

pronounced "impious

philosophersfor
declaringthat the force which holds the planetsin their
orbits is universal
gravitation. In 1800, Laplace and
Herschel
honored
for teaching that
are
gravitation
and

built

heretical"

the

up

universe
our

races

system

is but

earth

myriad

by

mere

minor

large

which

it still

nebula, our

atom

peopling an

of

school

of

matter,

sun

but

our

race

infinityof
16

controls;

worlds.

that

minor

only

our

star,
one

of

Doctrines

AT

THE

BEGINNING

the

span

of

brought

their

SCIENCE
but

which
have

enunciators

the

to

would

before

lives

human

two

CENTURY

THE

OF

stake

now

were

sublime.

pronounced not impious,but

in

science

pace

with

very

obviousness

the

of

the

stars.

its

spurns

kept

perhaps the
delayed the study
But

that

unattainable

It is the

developing mind.

the

enchants

mystifiesand

and

least have

at

phenomena

earth.

the

proverbialchild

The

of distant
the

of

of

crust

allures

feet,would

lies at man's

earth, which

of the

science

that the

might naturallysuppose

One

the

for

cries

toys and

moon.

in

So
when

those

closingdays
had

astronomers

mysteries of

the

find

we

chaos

of the

formation

explain the

distant

earth.

formation

Guesses
of the

of

had

ice,which

dashed

against

Other

it.

the

universe,

wanting

bizarre

are

precipitatedas

word,

the

various

schemes

been

ice,or

water,

have

solids,according to
and

the
to

final

have

quite unchecked
B

the

crust

or

have

been

at

only

theories

first

after

upon

the

solid

comet

conceived

fancies

due

waters.

of the

the

floated

supposed the originalmass

a conglomerate of water

random

to

One

indeed.

of water, over
which
originalglobe as a mass
in
vapors containing the solid elements, which
were

and

structure

not

were

animated

became

explaining

world, it is true, but, with

exceptions,these
theory supposed the earth to
mass

eighteenth centurj7",

far towards

so

gone

two

or

one

the

portions of
opinion regarding the

the
of

of

time

In

to

and

theorists;

ceived
conseparation into land and water was
taken
place in all the ways which fancy,
by any tenable data, could invent.

17

THE

STORY

JAMES

HUTTON

Whatever
of the

SCIEN'CE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

important changes
surface of the globe were

in the

generalcharacter

conceived

to have

taken

the Mosaic

generallyassociated with
theories which
attempted to

which

quiteon a
periodof the

place since

its creation

were

deluge,and the
explain this catastrophe were
dealt with

remoter

18

par with those

earth's history.

SCIENCE

Some
is

AT

OF

Others

into

this chasm

held

vertical

that

the

axis,and

position had
But

oceans.

and

the

caused

the

perhaps

the

in
through gravitation,

philosophers in
methods, they

the

the

beckoning
but

earth

their eyes

last, however,

At

on

ent
pres-

it to

have

carried

tide

vast

the

near

the
the

over

ters,
wa-

nents.
conti-

the

old

science,but

the

by
unlike

as

what

study

to

we

deductive

ghost

of

in nature

anything

phantom that could be conjured from the

speculativeimagination. And all the while

other

depths of

inundated.

majority of eighteenth-century

and

had

crust

wandered

attempts

not

immaterial

science,as
any

founded

thus been

have

Deluded

geology.

term

now

their

the

globe

catastrophicshifting of
favorite
that
theory was

the

blindlygroped

that

of the

originallyrevolved
sudden
change to its

to
supposed a comet
earth, and in whirling about

Thus

CEVLTKY

had

earth

that

THE

interior

had

which

as

the

great abyss of waters, conceived

its

BEGINNING

speculators,
holding that

dropped
a

THE

lay beneath
fixed

were

there

in air.
a

who

man

had

the

phantom science of geology

and who
took to
needed
before all else a body corporeal,
Dr. James
himself
the task of supplying it. This was
uring
Hutton, of Edinburgh, physician,farmer, and manufactpenetrationto

see

that

came

aries;
vision-

the feet of these

the

level-headed
enthusiastic,
patient,
Inspiredby his love of chemistry

devotee

chemist;
of

science.

the character
before
He

saw,

the

of rocks

earth

and

stood

Ilutton
soils,

revealed

to

him

had
in

not
a

to

study

gone

new

far

light.

what

refused

to

instead

of

plastic,and

generations of predecessorshad blindly

the face of nature
everywhere,
see, that

being rigid and immutable, is perennially

by year is undergoing metamorphic
year
19

THE

STORY

The

changes.

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

slowly, but
and
frost,by

rain

rocks

solidest

decomposition, to form
This soil is being swept
carried

off to

and

sands
surface

rocks.

of the

being carried
Should

to

entire

worn

Should

away.
that

conception
long. That
"

truism

"

genius

to

to

the

lapsesof time,
oceans

the

sea

overflow

animals

the

in

an

is

continents

thinks

must

his mind

be
And

long enough!

on

inspiring

an

is

time

import,and made
theory of the earth."

is this

that

"

the

result in

in

wearing

ocean-bed

it the

dered
ponbasis of

observed

them.

What
the

continents
then

oceans

detritus

of

any

proof

that

changes

might
the

20

of

not

this
of

formation

has, in fact, occurred?

is deposited

bodies

basis

To

tinents
con-

Along

continents

the

such

the

as

fillingup.

wasted

"

till the

away

Why,

are

strata, together with

we

Hutton

through indefinite
conveying all the land at

and

have

surely,the

its substance

eighteenth.

vegetables. Why
solidifyto form layers of rocks
Why not, indeed?
But

but

full

must

the

bottoms
in

of

structure

earth, continued

down,

wear

their

"

the

surface

to

beat

long enough,

the

solar

it in

conceive

hypothesis,his
The
hypothesis

last

and

"

his

the

clay.

long, indefinitely
almost a
a simple enough thought
seems
the nineteenth-centur}7
mind
; but it required

it,grasped its

of

of

flashes

that

and

seas.

it be continued

idea

the

away;

continue

surface

there

thought

chemical

themselves

oceans

worn

in the

this denudation

Hutton, the
with

The

being

burial

and

by perennialshowers,

away

into
insidiously
Everywhere, slowly
is

and

pulverizedearth

eat

land

wind

surely, by

attrition

the

oceans.

shores,and

their

on

the

less

mechanical

grated,
disinte-

day by day

are

the

none

SCIENCE

marine
debris

new

tinents?
con-

of rocks
be

sure

we

AT

SCIENCE

BEGINNING

THE

OF

THE

CENTURY

It is furnished

by every bed of limestone,every

fied
rock, every stratioutcropping fragment of fossil-bearing
else than
cliff. Ho\v
through such formation in an
have.

ocean-bed

they

came

these rocks

came

in their

embedded

freaks

of

"

it is
that

clear

links

two

still wanting to

are

of the ocean-bed

And

through

above

looks

are

not

of the

water,

him

about

for

eye

of

Different

minerals

having

so-called

equally solid

into the

in
"

in

no

moulds

evidence

in

some

rock

form

new

the
?

lifted

been

continents?
finds

he

soon

outcroppingrocks

give
in

evidence

to

molten

solid
to

seen

different

the

state.

have
of

filled

so

way,

molten,

founder.

instances

be

as

with
can

Hutton

liquidmetal
fied
the strati-

Even
not

of

masses

variety,which

conceivable

21

has

into solid rock

otherwise

are

of the

the chain

agency

this

are

rocks,though they seemingly

give

continents

together; pebbles are

rock like plums in a pudding;

of

veinings
granite of a

gotten there

run

seems

laid in

was

of

clew, and

thinks, but by running in while

is

it

complete

been

mixed

are

through masses
irregular crevices

have

him

what

which

once

scattered

"

to

there

us

stratified,but

observant

rock

has

agency

about

Everywhere

that

To

mystery.

To

transformed

been

what

the surface

Hutton
it.

the

detritus

hypothesis. Through

of Button's
ooze

the

of

mere

ancient.

more

But

of

basis of the present continents

the

as

superstitious
explanation,but had

longer.

no

sea-beds, formed

ancient

yet

mystery

them

Less

stars."

solution

tenable

else

ancients,findingfossil

repudiated this

generations had
failed to give a
Hutton

the

How

livingorganisms

once

rocks, explained

and

nature

stratified i

The

depths?

in the

embedded

shells

be

shells of

the

to contain

to

been

having

melted,

been

sub-

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

STORY

THE

SCIENCE

for

jected to the action of heat. Marble,

clearlynothing but calcined limestone.
before

evidence

such

With

him,

complete his hypothesis. The

to

is at

which

agency

loss

no

ified
has solid-

heat.

says, is subterranean

ocean-beds, he

the

Hutton

example, is

The

has produced volcanic

acting excessively,
continents.
to form
cataclysms,upheaving ocean-beds
same

agency,

The

and

rugged

of stratified

character

and

broken

the

standing witnesses

And

the

this

with

continents,worn
in the

ocean-beds,and

ours

end

is indeed

man,

not

have

formulated

long

number.

In

century,

when

the

middle

of

the

askance.

school

doctrines; a

Germany, opposed
The

unique view
and

without

as

rival

noveltyof
22

He

century.
before

which

at

the

notice.

It

last decade
and

Then

worked
it

the
ment
mowas

of

the
over

caught

the

of followers

expounded the
school, under
Werner, in

details

some

world
very

is

and

over

paper

to

with

fiftyyears.

of the world.

educated

lived

almost

eye

the

till the

form

had

theory

Huttonian

for

book

Hutton

his

scheme,

making and unmaking in

time began.
his hypothesis while yet a young

after

published in

nents.
conti-

been

publicityin 1781, in a
Royal Society of Edinburgh, a paper
neither friend nor
foe deigned
not

this

beginning

it

first gave

again

into

more

only, but

once

without

rocks

Button's

cycle,in
not

into

once

the action

by

sea

over

raised

then

without

series since

Hutton

made

occurred

; its continents

endless

been

world

everywhere, are

to the

carried

this massive

supposed to have
over
again,times

rocks

of these

and

elements, have

the tilted

mountains,

giganticupheavals.
imagined cycle is complete. The

away

of the

And

of

surfaces

uneven

of

the

hypothesis;

whole

viewed

the

views

new

and

disputants
forbade

their

we

of

notion
which

is

did

He

speak

learned

had

to

and

the

he

this

with

them

energy,

he

subtile

as

forms

subject
yet tangiblefluids,

chemical

attraction

of them

none

one

the

the

the

could

test

to

but

only

with

within

the

gauge

spoke

or

Wedgwood,
peratures
highesttem-

clay pyrometer.

of
of

of the

having weight

as

the balance.

versally
uni-

as

that could

Following Newton,

he

some

stances
subdensed
con-

be

tected
de-

spoke

"

"

or
fluid,
lightas a corpuscularemanation
composed
shining particleswhich
possibly are transmutable

into

particlesof heat, and

combination

with

he
Electricity
"

"

of heat

matter

solid,and

with

curacy,
ac-

narrow

being the most

distributed
fluid in nature; as entering in
degree into the composition of nearly all other
being sometimes
liquid,sometimes
; as
He

he

though

heat

Josiah

century, when

potter, taught him

famous

and

matter

conceived

measure

until late in the

limits

to

gravitationand

to

yet conceived

as

highly attenuated

as

"

not

physics of a later epoch.

forms
of
as
heat, light,electricity,

of

"force";

SCIENCE

between

fundamental

so

or

of matter

distinction

not

energy

had

he

But

recur.

may

NINETEEXTII-CRNTURY

OF

STORY

THE

attenuated

fluid of

fluid,"and

by

enter

particlesof

considered

perhaps an

vital

the

which

some

other

even

forms

of matter.

subtile kind

still more
form

chemical

into

of
"

of matter

light. Magnetism,
gravic fluid,"and a

scale ; and taken

placedin the same
together,all these supposed subtile forms of matter were
classed as
imponderables."
This view of the nature
of the
imponderables was
in some
seventeenthfor many
measure
a retrogression,
and Iluygens and
century philosophers,
notably Hooke
alistic
correct
views; but the materiBoyle, had held more
well with the eighteenthso
conception accorded

sound,

were

"

"

24

''

SCIENCE

AT

THE

BEGINNING

century tendencies
a

on

of

that

thought

philosopher,like Euler, called

towards
to

the
the

close

of the

just dawning

BENJAMIN

"

of

it in

century.

materiality of

Students
Iquestioningly.
was

OF

the

CENTURY

THE

only

here

and

question,until
Current

"

well

speech

"imponderables"

meteorology

there

science

ferred
re-

un-

that

explained atmospheric phenomena

THOMPSON"

COUNT

RUMFORD

THE

STORY

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

SCIENCE

that heat,the heaviest imponderable,

supposition
predominated in the lower atmosphere, and that light,
and
magnetism prevailed in successively
electricity,
And
Lavoisier,the most
higher strata.
philosophical
heat and lighton a par
chemist of the century, retained
with oxygen,
hydrogen, iron,and the rest,in his list of
elementary substances.
in
But justat the close of the century the confidence
the status
of the imponderableswas
in
rudely shaken
the minds
of philosophersby the revival of the old idea
and
and
Bacon
of Fra Paolo
Boyle, that heat, at any
of motion
rate, is not a material fluid,but merely a mode
vibration
of
the particles
or
ponderable
among
The
matter.
new
champion of the old doctrine as to
the nature
of heat was
a very
distinguishedphilosopher
and
calling,
diplomatistof the time, who, it may be worth reAmerican.
He
was
an
was
a sadly expatriated
American, it is true, as his name, given all the official
appendages, will amply testify; but he had been born
and reared in a Massachusetts
the less,and
villagenone
he seems
always to have retained a kindly interest in
the land of his nativity,
even
though he lived abroad in
the service of other powers
during all the later years of
his life,
varia,
and was
knighted by England, ennobled by Baand honored
by the most distinguishedscientific
of Europe.
bodies
pioned
chamThe
American, then, who
the vibratorytheory of heat, in opposition
to all
current
opinion,in this closing era of the eighteenth
Sir Benjamin ThompLieutenant-General
century, was
son,
Count
Rumford, F. R. S.
Rumford
showed
that heat may
definit
be produced in inquantitiesby friction of bodies that do not
themselves
lose any appreciable matter
in the process,
on

the

"

26

"

AT

SCIENCE

THE

BEGINNING

OF

THE

CENTURY

the

this proves

immaterialityof heat.
force to the argument
he added
Later on
by proving,in
refutation of the experiments of Bowditch, that no body
either gains or loses weight in virtue of being heated
He
cooled.
or
thought it proved that heat is only a
that

claimed

and

of motion.

mode
But

Rumford,

to

be

have

with

down

put

similar

Humphry

conflict ; and

so

reached

into

line.

similar

was

be clear

But

1800, Dr.

they called

or

fall

fell

nomenon
PheYoung""
Cambridge, because

at

but

no

one

which

announced

for the

into

; his

be known

the

that

metals

contraction

the

Ten

years

placed in
in the

Working along

than

more

lines
27

fair

physical

the

current

of speculation

The

inventor

was

to

of

the

basis

earlier Galvani

had

pile
"

contact

have

the

of animals

the

apparatus

the

muscles

ure
nat-

to

impetus

invention, the

voltaic

the

over

century, a discovery

new

channel.

as

made

turned

moment

Italian scientist Volta

galvanicbattery.

of

gave

another

in future

had

yet made

as

of electricity.
againstthe fluidity
before
this speculativecontroversy

science,and

dead.

others

soon

Thomas

him

together;

"imponderables"
beginning,in the last year

excite

precipitate
here.
Young
experiments,
may

"

of the

was

and

minds

gels
everything took up the cudreputed to know
the vibratorytheory of light,and
it began to
that the two
imponderables," heat and light,

stand

claim

was

to

"

for

must

it

dict.
ver-

not

many

first blow

conclusions;

in

Young"

Where

duplicatedRumford's

had

Then,

accept his

to

single blow.

fully
respect-

generation are

the

Davy

and

he

beliefs of

drift,however,

general

it listened

little minded

was

cherished

The

while

judgment,

contemporary

ered
discov-

power

to

apparently
suggested by this discovery,

OF

STORY

THE

developed

Volta

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

metals
apparatus composed of two
acted
on
by chemicals, which appeared

an

joined together and

to accumulate

store

or

might be. The

by linking together several

like the

known

half

more

than

after

Yolta's

the

world

the

since

galvanic influence,

philosophicworld
of

the

Within

century before.

tery."
bat-

"

Nothing

storm.

the

invention

batteries

announcement,

into

piles
by

in

be accentuated
"

"

such

it created

enthusiasm

been

had

took

invention

This

the

up

effect could

it

whatever

SCIENCE

Leyden jar,
a

few

made

weeks

according

portant
being experimented with in every implan were
laboratoryin Europe. The discoverywas made
March.
Englishmen, Messrs.
Early in May two

to his

in

and

Nicholson

their

in

made

of

Carlyle,practisingwith the first battery

composit
the decountry, accidentallydiscovered
water

in its earliest

thus
"

As

had

the

opened

by the action
infancy the new

the

way

to

of

the

science

another

new

pile.
of

"

And

ism
galvan-

science

"

tro-chemi
elec-

world
century closed,half the philosophic

speculatingas

to

whether

"galvanic

influence"

was
a

were

imponderable or only a form of electricity

; and the
other
what
half was
new
eagerly seeking to discover
marvels
the batterymight reveal.
The
least imaginative
new

could

man

would

see

that

here

was

an

invention

that

be

epoch-making,but the most visionarydreamer

could not" even
the real measure
of
vaguely adumbrate
its importance. Hitherto
been
had
only a
electricity
laboratoryaid or a toy of science,with no suggestionof
cine
practicalutility
beyond its doubtful applicationin medicovery,
; in future,largelyas the outgrowth of Yolta's disit

"

was

destined

become

to
28

great economic

later

our

century

all the

Of

fields of

field

was

battle

turbulent

France

in the

the

As
the

enlarged vision

outline.

in the

various
the

epoch, perhaps

that

which

this

fell within

was

of

one

the

historyof polemics.
in its

It

inception,
scope,

it was
of
contest
a
fitting,
but the Napoleonic parallel

was

world

CENTURY

waging

veritablyNapoleonic

against

fails before

was

warfares

incisiveness.

and

were

chemistry. Indeed,

memorable

most

the

even

this iconoclastic

in

most

of

not

that

THE

OF

pretend to

can

contests

science

fiercest and
the

BEGINNING

limitations

whose

agency,
of

THE

AT

SCIENCE

end, for in this

France

case

not

won

only speedilyand uncompromisingly, but for all time.

The
the central
main
trine
docpoint at issue concerned
the doctrine
of Becher
of the old chemistry
and
"

the

Stahl, that
a

kind

of

only

called

matter

composition of

the

combustible

determining their
crude enough now,

substance

in

phlogiston,which

other

bodies

is

nature

enters

into

varying degree,thus
inflammability. This theory seems
since

in

know

we

that

phlogistonwas

purely fictitious element, }7et it served an excellent purpose

it was
when
propounded and it held its place as
the central doctrine
of chemical
philosophy for almost a
century.
At
must

the
be

primal
sway

as

time

this

when

recalled,the
elements
the
Air

old Aristotelian

water

Only a few acids

but imperfectly;

put forward, it

was

idea

earth,air,fire,and

are

working
and

theory

and

and

foundation

alkalies

the

of

phies.
philoso-

simple

known,

were

gases

four

still held

of all chemical

existence
29

the

water

accepted as

were

that

bodies.

and
as

we

these
now

THE

know

STORY

OF

them,

other

All the

NINETEENTH-CENTURY
than
known

JOSEPH

to

harmonize

with

later on, did the

new

SCIENCE

much

air,was

hardly so

facts of

chemistry seemed

as

pected.
sus-

then

PRIESTLY

the

phlogistonhypothesis; and so.

discovered
phenomena which were
30

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

STORY

THE

SCIENCE

At
pendentlyof Priestleyand Scheele.
once
began experimenting with it,and

dawned

him

upon

furnish

key

that
the

to

this remarkable

explanation of

all events, he at

substance
of the

many

it

soon

very

might
puzzles

is consumed
chemistry. He found that oxygen
of any substance
transformed
during the combustion
He- reviewed
the phenomena of combustion
in
air.
of

light of

this

It seemed

knowledge.

new

him

to

or

in
the
that

all without
aid of the
explained them
phlogiston. What
proof,then,
supposititiouselement
have
that phlogiston exists ? Very soon
he is able
we
the

element

new

to

that

answer

Then

that it exists.
and

myth,

discard

with

and

de

Morveau,

it is

In

combustion

mixtures

are

earth

"

"

and

that

with

these

altogethernew
the

of whim

phlogiston
reallyconcerned

earth
a

"

claims

It

that

base, instead of

metals

and

"

simple
phlogiston ;
are

"

compound

of oxygen

element.

applying

Hitherto

"

discards

; that

like air,is
itself,

water

another

In

of

with

water

of

chemists,
Fourcroy, and sets

heat.

of oxygen

He

French

elements
and

oxygen

compounds
of

1788

the

do.

chemistry based
the work
is completed
merely an epoch-making

revolutionar}7.It

elements, not compounds

and

and

It is not

world.

to

purposes

famous

believe

phlogistonas
chemistry ?

of

Lavoisier

alleging that
altogether,
are

realm

ton

the

given to

acids

the

three other

conception.

new

book;
in

denounce

develop a complete system

to

the

on

it from

to

reason

not

him

Berthollet,Guy
to work

proof,no

no

why

is what

Preciselythis
associates

is

there

the

ideas

nomenclature

for

terminology of
and

"

mercury

of

the

Such

caprice.
life,"
"

names

has
as

moon,"

an

substances.

chemical

science

horned

32

system proposes

new

been

ter
mat-

phur,"
liver of sul-

"

"

the double

secret,"

"

BEGINNING

AT

THE

the

salt

SCIENCE

of

THE

OF

CENTURY

virtues,"and

many

the

like,

accepted without
protest by the chemical
such a terminology continued
With
world.
progress
without
wras
as
speech.
impossibleas human
progress
lowing
folThe
new
chemistry of Lavoisier and his confreres,
the model
set by zoology half a century earlier,
instead of a phrase,
designateseach substance by a name
according to fixed rules, and? in
applies these names
short,classifies the chemical knowledge of the time and
edge
bringsit into a system, lacking which no body of knowlbeen

have

full title to the

has

Lavoisier

Though

of science.

name

not

was

alone

in

developing this

him
its
as
revolutionaryscheme, posterityremembers
scured
originator. His dazzlingand comprehensivegeniusob-

confreres.Perhaps,too,
influence in augmenting
his tragic fate was
not without
In 179i he fell by the guillotine,
his posthumous fame.
but patriotism a victim
of any
crime
of the
guiltless
The
Republic has no need of
Keign of Terror."
remarked
the functionary who
savants"
signed the
lightsof

feebler

the

his

"

"

"

of the

death-warrant

leader

The
thus

died

rather,let
while

to

soon

of

the
see

French
from

been

of

at

the

us

say,

the

of

chemist

in

movement

bigotry

victim

of

of

and

the

tury.
cen-

chemistry

fanaticism

national

"

"

frenzy
"

he

fierce,
eager type which

in the

effort.

sier in

effigy,but

theories.
c

reform

hands
as

famous

championed was young, yet not too

the victoryas good as won.
The
main
body
had accepted the new
chemists
most
doctrines althe first,
and elsewhere
the oppositionhad

cause

of that

new

the

most

At

In

Berlin

soon

exhausts

itself

they began by burning Lovoithey ended speedilyby accepting the

stubborn,
England the fightwas more
33

STORY

THE

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

but

equallydecisive.
opposed by such great
fame

the

first the

At

discoverer

of

chemistry was

new

Black, of

as

men

Rutherford, the

SCIENCE

of

"

latent

nitrogen;

heat

and

"

endish,
Cav-

pneumatic trough and the

discoverer
of the composition of water, not to mention
a coterie of lesser lights
by one they wavered
; but one
and
the enemy.
to
went
over
Oddly enough, the
pions
doughtiestand most uncompromising of all the chamof the old " phlogistic ideas was
Dr. Priestley,
the very man
whose
discovery of oxygen had paved the
for the " antiphlogistic movement
fact which
a
way
that Priestleywas
edly
undoubtgave rise to Cuvier's remark
of the fathers
of modern
one
chemistry, but a
father who never
wished
to recognizehis daughter.
A
most
this Dr. Priestley.
was
extraordinary man
Davy said of him, a generation later,that no other person
inventor

the

"'

"

"

discovered

ever
as

he ;

yet

so

new

many

to the last he

his

and

only an
ministry.

was

curious
amateur

substances
in

science,

There
is hardly another
professionbeing the
in historyof a man
in science
not a specialist
case
accomplishingso much in originalresearch as did Joseph
electrician ; the
Priestley,the chemist, physiologist,
moralist ; the
gian,
theolomathematician, logician,and
He
and
economist.
mental
political
philosopher,
time
took all knowledge for his field ; but how
he found
for his numberless
researches and multifarious
writings,
remain
a
along with his every-day duties, must ever
mystery to ordinary mortals.
should
That
this marvellouslyreceptive,
flexible mind
have
refused
acceptance to the clearlylogicaldoctrines
of the new
chemistry seems
equallyinexplicable.But
so

it

was.

To

the

very

last,after all his friends

capitulated,
Priestleykept up
34

the

fight.

From

had

America,

SCIENCE

AT

THE

BEGINNING

had

gone

to live in

whither

he

defy

the enemy

to

of

Doctrine

knew

besides

CENTURY

sent

brochure

out

In

it

"

The

the mind
of

paean

that

the last

entitled

etc.

little less than

was

world

all the

but

1800, in

THE

1794, he

Phlogiston Upheld,"

this

its author

in

OF

victory;

the

was

of

swan-

of the doctrine of

phlogiston. Despitethe defiance

of this singlewarrior the battle was
reallylost and won,
and as the century closed,"antiphlogistic"
chemistryhad
song

the field.

of
practical
possession

VI

Several
fashion

the

during
New

the

conspired to

causes

aid to the

which

hitherto

had

and, above

all,the

venturesome

new.

Some

tradition.
purpose,

All

for the

passage

but

those

these of

its fund

these

which

course

added

they

antipodal lands.

much

furnished

by

the invention

had banished

scurvy,

pole,others tried for

to India,yet others
told of by

continent

failed of their immediate

to

world's

the

of

store

of travellers' tales.

tales

told

been

to the voyperpetualmenace
ager;
pelled
restless spiritof the age imgether
to seek novelty in fields alto-

started

northwest

or

knowledge and
Among all
than

been

science

the

tury.
eighteenthcen-

quadrant,and by

the great fictitious antarctic

sought

in

and

the

northeast

navigator had

medical

chronometer;

exploration all

of the

closingepoch

perfectedcompass

of the

make

of
And

none

was

more

remarkable

found
strange livingcreatures
here, as did not happen in

the narratives were

often substantiated
by
every field,
the exhibition of specimens that admitted
no
question.

Many
laden

company
with such

explorers returned
trophiesfrom the animal
of

35

more

and

or

less

vegetable

kingdoms,

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

STORY

THE

and
mingled astonishment, delight,

to the

of the
"

in. the

Linnaeus

golden

3000, and

of

accessions

from

400, of birds

for

of described

to

see

before
of.

the

The

insects

these

now

of

the

figurefor
brought the

material

new

The

classifiers.

it bad

material

new

way

as

was

discerning

more

to

be

upon

satisfactorily
disposed

natural

more

derful
won-

be advanced

been, must

could

to

sudden

that the artificial system of Linnaeus,

useful

and

cies
spe-

20,000.

wealth

this

of known

birds, and

above

insects

of

few

doubled

and

fish

Naturally enough,
sorely puzzlingto the
began

But

territories

new

followers

1000, of

to

wilderme
be-

history,"a

number

the

plants to 10,000.

plants,tripledit
number

natural

of

age

increased

of fishes to about

The

naturalists.

closet

before,had

decades

SCIENCE

system, based

on

less

arbitrary signs, had been pointed out by Jussieu in

not
prepared to make
botany, but the zoologistswere
they should gain a
which
wider understandingof the organisms with
they
had to deal through comprehensive studies of anatomy.
headway

Such

such

towards

until

system

in their relations

studies of individual forms

to

the

organic beings were

pursued in these last
of the century, but though two
three most
decades
or
achieved (notablyKaspar
were
important generalizations
"Wolff's conceptionof the cell as the basis of organiclife,
and
Goethe's
all-importantdoctrine of metamorphosis
entire

scale of

of

parts),
yet, as a whole, the
the period was
germinative
Bichat's

volumes, tellingof
tissues of the

of the anatomists

work

than

rather
the

body,

not

till the last year of the

century.

Cuvier

of correlation

same

of the

date,but

doctrine
in

general

the
86

fruit-bearing.

recognitionof

did

The

studies

begin

to

the

parts bears

of this

damental
fun-

appear

announcement

of

of

great

by
the
nat-

LAVOISIEH

IN

HIS

LABORATORY

THE

be

STORY

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

simpleelement, servinga

in the economy
But

the

from

mechanical

mere

purpose

of the earth.

the discovery
all the

soon

SCIENCE

of oxygen

chemists

the

gave

clew, and

testing the

were

air that

very
came

Dr.

lungs

as
usual, being in the
Priestley,
His initial experiments were
made
in 1777, and
van.
from
the outset
the problem was
as
good as solved.
Other
his results in all their
experimenters confirmed
essentials
Lavoisier and Spallanzani
notably Scheeleand
and Davy.
It was
ical
clearlyestablished that there is chem"

"

action

lungs ;
It

that

that

and

in the

of the

contact

of

some

carbonic

air with

the oxygen

acid

of

the

is added

gas

the tissue of the

air

to the

disappears,
inspiredair.

shown, too, that the blood,having come

with the air,is changed from
black to red

was

These

essentials

were

not

in

disputefrom
changes caused

the

in

tact
con-

in color.

first.

But

these results
just what chemical
the subjectof controversy.
was
"Whether, for example,
is actuallyabsorbed
into the blood, or whether
oxygen
it merely unites with
carbon
given off from the blood,
was
long in dispute.
Each
of the main
biassed by his own
disputantswas
particularviews as to the moot
points of chemistry^

as

to

Lavoisier,for example, believed

of

metal

oxygen

oxygen

combined

heat; Dr. Priestley

thought

with

gas
the

to

be

posed
com-

ment
allegedele-

compound of positive
and
electricity
Davy,
phlogiston; and Humphry
he entered
when
the lists,
a little later,
supposed it to be
of oxygen
and
tions
noa compound
light. Such mistaken
plete
naturallycomplicated matters, and delayed a comration.
understanding of the chemical
processes of respiIt was
time, too, before the idea gained
some
important chemical changes
acceptance that the most
40

it

SCIENCE

do not
tissues.
the

AT

occur

BEGINNING

TIIE

in the

Indeed,

OF

THE

lungs themselves, but

the

matter

close of the century.

\vas

not

CENTURY

in the

ultimate

clearlysettled

Nevertheless,the problem

at

of

been solved
in its essentials.
had
Moreover,
respiration
been
established
the vastlyimportant fact had
that a
identical with respiration
is necessary
process essentially
not
to the existence
only of all creatures
supplied with
lungs, but to fishes,insects,and even
vegetables in
short, to every kind of livingorganism.
"

EDWARD
From

the

JENKER

painting by Sir Thomas

Lawrence

STORY

THE

All

of

welfare

the

on

have

in science

advances

our

of

or

previousepoch.

any

discovery of

Jenner's

the

rumored

and

other

Needless
of

virus

immediate

say I refer to

pox
preventing small-

of cow-pox.

of this

the

to

discoveryof

to

It detracts

discoveryto

say

inoculation

had

of accidental

among

mote,
re-

it remains

direct

any

merit

preventivepower

been

long

the

or

eighteenthcentury

method

with

by inoculation
nothing from
that the

the

but

of the

discoverywhich, in its power

benefit to humanity, surpasses
this

bearing,near

race

closingdecade

credit to the

SCIENCE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

peasantry

of

England.

runner
unavailinghalf-knowledgeis often the foreof fruitful discovery. To all intents and purposes
Jenner's
discovery was
originaland unique. Neither,
it in any sense
considered as a perfectedmethod, was
an
Such

vague,

It

accident.
how
we

triumph

of

experimental science;
to understand,for
great a triumph it is difficult now
of to-day can only vaguely realize what a ruthless and
was

small-poxhad been to all previous

since history began.
Despite all
and by direct inoculation,
by medication

ever-present scourge

generationsof

men

efforts to check
it

swept

it

and

now

then

and
devastatingpestilence,
tenth of all the beings in
average

quota

but

remain

few

almost

was

ago

as

Little

as

smooth

made

method

much
one

"

of

matter

is

Jenner's

in 1796.
was

urging was

old

the world

discovery.
Before

to

oneas

its

love

pitted face

hundred

years

to-day.
The

gave

induce
42

the

eager

ceptance
ac-

first vaccination

the close of the

practisedeverywhere
needed

saw.

course

all-

an

by death
small-pox and

From

the

as

it claimed

year
Christendom

victims.

free,"ran

earth

by

year

wonder, then, that

to

was

of

the

over

century

in Christendom.

the

No

majority to give

it

AT

SCIENCE

trial;

passengers

from

the

sought
their

there

in

succor

and

known

so

physician
other

by

one

in

perhaps

was

that

posterity.

all

Of

world

and

the

great

other

no

Jenner.
be

recalled

of

Surely
with

of

there

greater

fore
be-

century,

widely

so

that

of

were

the

once

as

low,

name

that

at

one

reverenced

Edward

the

names

aloof

and

high

blessed

days

closing

uniformly

should

the

hold

not

poor,

and

vaccination,

deliverer.
the

Kich

life-boats.

CENTURY

do

ship

burning

on

THE

OF

BEGINNING

THE

the

lish
Eng-

was

gratitude

no

II

CHAPTER

THE

THE

CENTURY'S

first

the

by

of

vastly

the

nearer

supposed,

later

that

the

observation

position

in

christened

Ceres,

of

planet

Jupiter.

Indeed,

concerted

search
who

exceed
their

the

they

tutelary

magic
But

next

year
of

number
a

saw

but

could

when

the

the

to

of
not

the

up

ence
existand

make

phers,
philosopossibly

forestalled

sequel;

wonderful

following

expected,
un-

Mars

Piazzi
with

was

not

was

surmised

Sicily.

of

protests

planets

came

It

Jupiter.

preparing

the

seven,

44

first

between

gap
even

while

first

at

comet;

be

to

He

goddess

long

were

Olbers,

later

shown

discovery

wide

surprise

Dr.

Bremen,

this

the

which

he

was

and

it, despite

that

star.

(hence,

tiny planet, occupying

had

the

true

when

Mars

the

for

efforts.

astronomer

in

argued

the

very

it

between

astronomers

thus

body

unpremeditated,
for

eye),

done

unfamiliar

after

unaided

any

had

proved

space

Though

than

observed

Piazzi,

was

of

evening

magnitude

and

moved,

earth

the

eighth

the

to

Herschel

as

Uranus,

have

to

seen

was

the

invisible

On

astronomer,

about

of

fittingly signalized

was

world.

new

Italian

an

star

quite

course,

ASTRONOMY

IN

century

our

of

1, 1801,

apparent

on

of

day

discovery

Januarv
an

PROGRESS

for

physicianthe

course

of

FIUEDRICII

WILHELM

BESSEL

THE

STOEY

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

SCIENCE

becoming aggregated into a singlebody by the

of Jupiter.
perturbingmass
have
As
we
seen, the discoveryof the first asteroid
confirmed
a conjecture; the other
important planetary
discovery of our century fulfilled a prediction. Neptune
found
was
through scientific prophecy. No one
of a trans-Uranian
suspected the existence
planet till
Uranus
itself,
by hair-breadth departuresfrom its predicted
from

orbit,gave

the

out

No

secret.

planet till the pencilof

one

turbing
the dis-

saw

mathematician, with
occult
almost
divination, had pointed out its place in
the
heavens.
The
general predication of a transUranian
by Bessel,the great Konigsplanet was made
berg astronomer, in 184-0; the analysisthat revealed its
location

exact

the

undertaken, half

was

decade

later,by

John
Couch
Adams, just
independent workers
graduated senior wrangler at Cambridge, England, and
mathematician
of
U. J. J. Leverrier,the leading French
two

"

his

generation.

Adams's

calculation
But

of

it had

and

young

pigeon-holeof
and

an

have

desk

of

ceased

an

actual

there,close

to

had

to

the

first

was

the

it

pleted.
com-

work

lodgment in a
Royal,
England's Astronomer

would

spot where

Englishastronomers
Had

mourn.

planet

"

and

it found

So

lost which

opportunity was
never

made,

the

man.

begun

defect

radical

one

untried

first

.was

have
the

been

been

search

the

seen

pencil of

the

shining
matician
mathe-

placed its hypotheticalcounterpart.

But

prophecy of
Adams
gathered dust in that regrettablepigeon-hole,
Leverrier's
calculation
was
coming on, his tentative
results
Arago and
meeting full encouragement from
the

search

other French

was

not

savants.

made, and

At

while

the

last the laborious

48

calculations

THE

CENTURY'S

PROGRESS

IX

ASTRONOMY

Leverrier
and, confident of the result,
proved satisfactory,
sent
to the Berlin
observatory,requestingthat search be
for the disturber
of Uranus
made
in a particularspot of
Dr. Galle received
the request September
the heavens.
That
his telescopeto the
23, 1846.
very night he turned
indicated
region,and there, within a single degree of
the suggested spot, he saw
a
seeming star, invisible to
the unaided
proved to be the long-sought
eye, which
to be known
To the
as
planet,henceforth
Neptune.
mind, which finds something altogethermystifying
average
about

savoring of
Stimulated
orbit for

the

mathematics,

this

was

feat

miraculous.
this

by

interior

an

but

abstract

Leverrier

success,

planet

from

calculated

perturbationsof
christened

though prematurely

Vulcan,

an

cury,
Merthis

hypotheticalnurselingof the sun still haunts the realm

certain
of the undiscovered, along with
equally hypothetical
existence
has
trans-N"eptunianplanets whose
been suggested by "residual
perturbations" of Uranus,
No
of comets.
and
other veritable
by the movements
been made
additions
to the sun's planetaryfamily have
small moons,
in our century, beyond the findingof seven
in telescopicpowers.
which
chieflyattest the advance
of our
Martian
Of these, the tiny attendants
neighbor,
discovered
by Professor Hall with the great Washington
refractor,

are

of

extremely rapid flight. One

size and

only 6000

miles

four times

as

by

the

The
made

from

fast

Martian, to

making

the

month

Mars, and
he

as

whirls

rise in the west

only one-fourth

discovery of

of them

is
him

about

the

inner

or

1850

by

49

and
as

set in the

long

crape
William

as

poised
almost

revolves,seeming thus, as

simultaneously in
D

of their small

greatest interest,because

viewed

east, and

the

day.

ring of Saturn,
C.

Bond,

at

THE

OF

STORY

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

SCIENCE

observatory,in America, and the Rev.

in England, was
another
W. R. Dawes
interesting
optical
but
achievement
most
our
important advances
;
in knowledge of Saturn's
unique system are due to the
mathematician.
Laplace,like his predecessors,
supposed
these rings to be solid,and explained their stability
as
of contour
which Herschel
due to certain irregularities
But
about
1851
Professor
Peirce of
had pointed out.
showed
of this conclusion,
the untenability
Harvard
the rings such as Laplace thought
proving that were
fall of their own
fessor
them, they must
weight. Then Proof Cambridge took
the matter
J. Clerk Maxwell
the puzzlingrings to a
in hand, and his analysisreduced
cloud of meteoric
particles a shower of brickbats "circulates exactly as if it were
each fragment of which
an
independent planet,though of course
perturbed and
Mutual
or less by its fellows.
jostledmore
perturbations,
and the disturbingpullsof Saturn's orthodox
satellites,
as
investigatedby Max-well, explain nearly all the phenomena
of the rings in a manner
highly satisfactory.
But perhaps the most
interestingaccomplishments of
from
mathematical
a mundane
stand-point,
astronomy
Harvard

the

"

"

"

at

rate

any

are

"

those

refer

that

to

the

earth's

own

seemingly staid body was

long ago
discovered
to
have a propensit}r
the
to gain a little on
moment
earth, appearing at eclipsesan infinitesimal
That

satellite.

ahead
this

of
act

time.
of

Astronomers

insubordination

Lagrange explained it
the earth's

seeming

due

but
to

an

sorely puzzled by
at last Laplace and
oscillatory
change in

orbit,thus fully exonerating

to

of

misbehavior

as

were

demonstrate
our

had

the

absolute

the

and
stability

planetary system, which

appeared to threaten.
50

moon,

the

and

manence
per-

moon's

CENTURY'S

THE

This

PROGRESS

Adams

of

until

Xeptunian fame,

an

error,

but

the

the

of

entire substance

seeming

have

first

at

This
no

lengtheningof

retardation

could

one

day

instead

of

was

shown

waters

in the

might

the

the

of rotation.

moon

of

the

was

key might be found

perpetual brake on

its rate

of the

half

Helmholtz, the great

planet,must

our

changed

acceleration

actual

as

Professor

not merely
rotation,and affecting

of time

for

for.

unaccounted

discrepancy, which
explain. But presentlyProfessor
German
suggested that
physicist,
in tidal friction,
which, acting as
earth's

1853, when

corrected,left about

momentous

the

orthodox

an

whom

which, when

acceleration

the moon's

with

was

complex analyses
and discovered
Laplace'scalculation,

pastime,reviewed

sweep

ASTRONOMY

conclusion
highly satisfactory

belief of celestial mechanics

were

IN

earth's

long
Thus

be accounted
rotation

shortening of

"

the

month.

Again

the

the

moon

time

earth

could

be

not

be

to

at

fault,but

exonerated, while

this

mated
the esti-

of our
lished,
stability
system, instead of being re-estabwas
quite upset. For the tidal retardation is not
an
oscillatory
change which will presentlycorrect itself,
like the orbital wobble, but a perpetualchange, acting
Unless fully counteracted
always in one direction.
by
not to be),
some
opposing reaction,therefore (asit seems

the effect must

disastrous.

be

The

exact

was

first estimated

He

showed

must
a

also

that

push

spiralorbit.

have

been

very

remote

nearer

ultimate

cumulative, the

by
tidal

the

moon

character

Professor
friction
out

period

earth

it must

have
51

in

the

than

these

G. H.

from

Plainly,then,
the

of

consequences
consequences

Darwin,

in 1879.

retarding the earth

the parent planet on
must
moon
formerly
at

present.

At

actuallytouched

some

the

THE

STORY

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

been

have

words,

earth ; must, in other

SCIENCE

thrown

off from

of the earth, as a polyp buds out

plasticmass
from
its parent polyp. At that time the earth was
ning
spinabout
in a day of from
two
to four hours.
the
Now
day has been lengthened to twenty-four
the

then

hours, and
of

the

progress

of

period

in the

the

month,

the

earth

lunar

looks

take
made

always

even

at

this

the

day

out

little

and

that the

the

little towards

choose

to

be

may

from

still continues,

month, and

must

same

brought

dissent

with

coincidence

meantime

moon

equal

that

been
we

mote
re-

face of

one

future,it

tidal action

finallyexceed

by

the

astronomers

appear

must

has
Should

with

some

to

with

moon

The

yet.

come

moon,

her parent orb.

(though some
prediction)that, as solar
to

the

the

now

distance

is not

ceased,and

has

greater liberties

even

end

future,the day has

out

towards

assume

the

to

at
continue, till,

tidal action

which

fixed stare

but

must

events

thrust out

been

miles;
quarter-million

same

to

has

moon

lengthen
the

year;

in its outward

pause

and come
swinging back on a descending spiral,
flight,
until finally,
after the lapse of untold
a5ons, it ploughs
and ricochets along the surface of the earth,and plunges
to catastrophicdestruction.
But even
though imagination pause far short of this
direful

culmination, it
based

to

lutionize
revo-

to the stability
as
formerly current
ematician
planetary system. The eighteenth-centurymath-

which

years, and

had

which

this system

upon

was

been

in existence

destined

analyst of to-day computes

of this

tions,
calcula-

views

looked
machine

modern

that

friction,suffice

tidal

inexorable

on

the

of the

still is clear

system in

millions

to

both

instead
52

run

as

about
on

vast

celestial

six thousand
forever.

The

past and

the future

of thousands

of years,

the

THE

CENTURY'S

PROGRESS

yet feels well assured

contradiction

the

those laws

to

everywhere

seem

that

to

IN

of

ASTRONOMY

solar system
and

growth

offers

decay

represent the immutable

no

which

order

of

nature.

ii

Until

mathematician

ferreted

could

suspectedby

the

surelynever
the earth's

orbed

maiden,

mortals

Whom

inhabitant
free
similarly

been

of

from

say I refer to the black

'that
celestial vagabond "
"

to

mind

of

out

presage
of

destruction
which

the

white

secret,it

any

one

that

fire laden,

moon,"

her

parent

orb.

the skies whose

to

Time

with

call the

plottinginjury to

be

is another
not

been

the

attendant,

serene

"That

could

have

out

But

there
have

purposes

popular suspicion.Needless
sheep of the sidereal family,
the

these

comet.

wanderers

have

been

posed
sup-

famine, pestilence,
perhaps the

war,
world.

And

little wonder.

Here

is

flashingout of boundless space into

dreds
hunour
system, shooting out a pyrotechnic tail some
of millions of miles in length ; whirlingperhaps
through the very atmosphere of the sun at a speed of

body

three
on
an

comes

hyperbolic orbit
that
one
elliptical
a

of years

thousands

the

away

from

weird

voyager

came.

Not

of

many

that

second

forbids
be

cannot

; then

it

; the

tail meantime

times

need

to

ever

closed

darting off

for

return,

hundreds

or
or

pointingalways
fading to nothingness as the
sun, and
recedes
into the spacialvoid whence
it

coincide

the death

miles

hundred

four

or

with

the

the

outbreak

Caesar,to stamp
53

the

advent
of
race

of such
a

an

parition
ap-

or
pestilence,

of comets

as

an

OF

STORY

THE

the

clan in

ominous

It is true

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

minds

blow

hard

of all

SCIENCE

snperstitious
tions.
genera-

struck

the

prestigeof
Newton
these allegedsupernaturalagents when
proved
of 1680 obeyed Kepler'slaws in its
that the great comet
a

the

flightabout

visitant

same

sun

natural

fullysustain

proved a
menacing

in

1758, obedient

in

down
"

pretender,and

hundred

show

how

of voyaging
bow

to

no

or

years

very
It

so.

completelyunmask
egregiouslyour forebears

century

own

could

the

Halley's

to

still regarded as

object,was

for another

our

when

one

longer
not
long-standing
notorietycanday, and the comet, though

But

its role.

one

for

back

harder

celestial messenger

natural

"

even

of a century
three-quarters
abyss of space. Proved thus to

the

lived

be

an

its

in the

law,

at

; and

came

after
prediction,
out

was

mained
re-

the

to

had

deceived.

been

unmasking began early in the century, when Dr.

Olbers, then the highest authority on the subject,expressed
The

the
all

along

earth

been

the

the

comet's

threatener, is

filmy of
sun,

opinion that
in

spectaculartail,which
chief stock

in trade

realitycomposed

repelledfrom

of

had
as

the

an

most

the

cometary body by the

ity
presumably through electrical action, with a velocvapors,

light. This luminous

gestion
sugheld more
was
or less in abeyance for half a century.
it was
Then
elaborated
by Zollner,and particularly
by Bredichin,of the Moscow
observatory,into

comparable

what

has since

to

been

that

of

regarded

as

the most

plausibleof

and
It is held that comets
the sun
cometary theories.
and hence
are
similarlyelectrified,
mutually repulsive.

Gravitation

body

of the

vastly

outmatches

this

repulsion

comet, but yieldsto it in the

54

case

in

the

of gases,

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

the

gravitationvaries only with

atomic
weights,and estimates
of

the

hydrocarbons, and

From

the

kinds

of

tails

sustainingthese

tail has been

to

put

conclusive

chief

hydrogen,

are

spectroscopic
assumptions.
of the
Twice

test.

of

thrust

the

that

aside,the unsubstantialness

But, theories

study

velocityof

of iron ; and

vapor

far towards

analysisgoes

surface,while

concluded

various

the

of

components

the

mass.

of

Bredichin
tails,

cometary

with

varies

electrical force

because

ASTRONOMY

IN

et's
corn-

during

actually plunged directly

of these threatening appendages, in 1819,
through one
to a depth of
and
being immersed
again in 1861, once
ful
Yet nothing dreadsome
300,000 miles in its substance.
the

century

our

happened

to

that

and

the

train could

the

can

be

sun

have

actual

exhausted, and

departed.

to hold

known

were

Such

no

one

at

condition.
them

are

world-destroyer.
humiliation

that
It

time
was

as

is not

it is of portions

paid the

tribute

the obeisance

Should

the

comet's

to

fate has

glory will

chiefest

actuallybefallen

Jupiterand

the

dragged into our

system,
captivehere.
Many of these

titude
mul-

other
and

outlying
helped the

tailless comets

eighteenth-centuryastronomers, but
suspected the true meaning of their
of
known
how
not
even
closelysome

enchained, until the German

in 1822, showed
which

which

to the

coraetary

rial
repeated,the train-formingmate-

times

of comets,

sun

substance, is

be recovered.

never

planets have

as

of the comet's

measure

many

will be

fiascoes, the

such

After

of the comet's
sun, and

pyrotechnictail,composed

The

yet told.

was

again pose

never

the full

But

more

all.

was

peculiarglow in the
imaginativeobservers thought,

There

us.

atmosphere, so

has

earth

that

has since borne

one

which

his name,
57

he had
was

Encke,

astronomer

rediscovered,and

moving

in

an

orbit

THE

STORY

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

SCIENCE

that it must

completeits circuit in about

half years.
three
another
and
a
Shortly afterwards
covered
discomet, revolvingin a period of about six years, was
Only two more
by Biela,and given his name.
discovered
of these short-period
comets
were
during our
first half -century, but latterly
to
they have been shown
which
be a numerous
family. Nearly twenty are known
reach of
the giant Jupiterholds so close that the utmost
their elliptical
tether does not let them
go beyond the
have adaptorbit of Saturn.
These aforetime wanderers
ed
themselves
wonderfully to planetary customs, for all
of them
revolve in the same
direction with the planets,
and in planesnot wide of the ecliptic.
in their proud hyperbolicsweep, made
Checked
tive
capin a planetarynet, deprived of their trains,these
mere
quondam free lances of the heavens are now
contracted

so

of their

shadows

bulk, they

are

measured
their actual
of

mercy

mass

the

planets tug
be torn

been
the
so

very

short

The
seen

shadows, their

in

thousands

hundreds
is

of

to

extent

miles

of

mere

ing
be; but

slightthat they are quiteat the

gravitationpullsof their captors. And
so

for

them.

So

them

that

they

fate has

do
persistently
doomed

are

already overtaken

of the astronomers,

eyes

period during
observed.

earth, as

created

than

as

sun

and

presentlyto

into shreds.

Such
the

at

Considered

very substantial

is in store

worse

selves.

former

that,
very

In 1832

these

panic on
of

measure

our

planet.

course,

and

time

came

broken

it

of them, under

within

the

relatively

ill-fated comets

have

Biela's comet

astronomers

next

to have

which

one

into two

passed quitenear
distance,and in doing

It did

no

greater harm

passed on its way as usual.

within
hail it was
telescopic
fragments. Six years later
58

these

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

fragments

the

millions

many

comet

for it in vain.

looked

tronomers

ASTRONOMY

separated by

were

1852, when

in

miles ; and

IN

due

was

It had

been

of

again,as'

completely

shattered.
What

of the

become

had

fragments ?

At

that time

knew.
But the question was
to be
positively
answered
presently. It chanced that justat this period
attention
astronomers
to a class of
were
paying much
bodies which
they had hitherto somewhat
neglected,the
familiar shooting-stars
The studies of Professor
meteors.
or
no

one

Newton
with

had

predicted,and

shown

of

sporadic swarms
orbits.
elliptical
Presently it was
Schiaparellithat
in the

orbit

of

of

debris

shown
one

grew
comets

and

certainty when,
crossed

the orbit of the

of meteors

came

Professor

about

the

by

were

meteor

meteor

soon
swarms

whizzing into

our

meteor-

Newton

not

are

sun

mere

but

in

exist

regular

astronomer
moves

swarms

comet, and

other

forthcoming. The
are
really the

November,

ill-starred

bridge
Cam-

intervals of

Italian

this conviction
in

at

the

previouslyobserved
that

great

meteors

these

of

of

flyingat random,

sweep

of the kind

coincidences
conviction

that

matter

and

swarms,

the

be recurrent

to

showed

thirty-three
years,

Adams

to

1866, which

November,

in isolated

Professor

and

particularreference

of

shower

Yale

of

became

1872, the

Biela, and

atmosphere

practical
earth

shower

in lieu of

the lost comet.

awe-inspiring
comet, instead of being the planetarybody it had all
less
nor
along been regarded, is reallynothing more
which
than
a
great aggregation of meteoric particles,
have become
clustered togetherout in space somewhere,
And

so

at last the full secret

59

was

out.

The

THE

STORY

and

which

OF

luminous.

So

separatedthat
particles
has

estimated

been

earth's

the

than

particles
strung

out

thicklyis

the

So

dust

Professor

Newcomb's

Each

day.
a

millet

in the

to

if

tiny planet sweeps

the

the

such

up

the

and

with

strewn

its

this

of this cosmic

masses

entire stretch

since firsthe stretched

sun

Hence

up, according to
million tons of it each

beyond all estimate.

myriads of cometary victims

of the

less dense

sweeps

be

must

to

traverse

we

of it in the

amount

of times

whole

perhaps no larger than

particle,
it
a
as
shooting-staror meteor
And
earth's upper atmosphere.

seed, becomes

matter, the

as

streaming swarms.

estimate,a

burns
one

body

be dismembered

the earth

individual

vapor

individual

sea-level.

at

may

space

that

cometary

the

are

cometary

thousands

comet

into

through electrical

or

widely

atmosphere
the

which

with

ease

the
be

to

SCIENCE

another

one
by jostling

become

action

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

his

What

of

our

tem
sys-

story it tells

that have

fallen prey

planetary net

across

heavens.

in

Biela's comet

When
such

fright in 1832,

fifty millions
through whose

of

mind,
stretches
such

Were

the
a

unchecked

to

with
comet

miles

measure

yet these
the

vast

which
miles

earth

planet,cannot

pygmy
;

of

straightout

not

space

by

grasp

the

second

past
to

units
of
us

continue

its

into the void of space,

60

nary
ordi-

tiny
import of

of

was

the

measure

sidereal
at

comet

1861
The

away.

stretches

hurtles

great

passed in

mere

are

within

come

the

Even

us.

of the earth

inhabitants

really did

tail the

schooled

hundred

of

millions

distances

compared
say,

of

it

miles

filmy

itself fourteen

the

gave

space.

speed of,
mad
flight
it must
fly

SIR

From

the

painting by

II. W.

JOHN

HERSCHEL

Pickersgill, R. A., in St. John's

College, Cambridge

THE

STORY

father's double
the

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

collaboration
of

scores

data

the

in
studies,

of Mr.

which

at first he had

James

South, brought to light

unrecognized pairs,and gave fresh

hitherto

for

His

stars.

SCIENCE

calculation

the

of

orbits

of

those

longer
O

known.

So

W.

G.

also

did

Struve, the

Russian

the observed

by
these

to

reason

Pulkowa.

bodies.

doubt

that

systems

even

thousands

that

the

Newton's

laws

there

firming
con-

applv-to

could

which

the double
the

be

holds terrestrial

linked

are

ticle
par-

early found

stars

stars

no

by

are

great clusters

familiar

few

cluster

stars

of
was

of associated
of which

evident

more
are

systems, as yet
all instrumental

linked
but

it becomes

together into

little understood.

advances

seeminglysinglestars

the

motions

close
64

ber,
num-

unaided
the

ot

that

eye.

stars

wideh7

are

rated
sepa-

infinitely
complex
At

tend to resolve
into

in

2500

stars, some
visible to

are

carefullythe

more

studied,the

containing hundreds or
It is known, for example,
the Pleiades
is not
merely
formerly supposed, but an

of members.

federation

the

plicable
ex-

thus
gravitation,

force

which

opticalgrouping, as
only

are

to

and

systems

actual

stars

singlepairs. Often three or four

thus closelyconnected
found
into gravitation
nary
biindeed, there are all gradations between
confined

are

of

that

globe pulls at each and every

throughout the visible universe.

the systems into

stars

famous

in 1827

the double

of

same

pioneerexplorersof

means

the

showed

Henceforth
the

of

of F.

our

of matter

that

of Paris

ordinary laws
assumption that

objectson
The

observer

the

sidereal

researches

universityof Dorpat, and

Utilizingdata gathered by

orbits
elliptical

the

And

the

at

observers,M. Savary

these

an

independent

enthusiastic

observatory

subsequently at

no

the

the
more

pairsand

same

and
minor

time
more

clus-

CENTURY'S

THE

The

ters.

and

others

and

Mr.

would

star

from

as

to

the

command.

eluded
it

So
him

minimum
was

on

in

the

of

Just
to

about

the

this

and
reflector,

expectation
positionof

and

he died

in 1822

of the

His

of

test

but

apparent
it

at

was

at

and

allured
without

estimate

star, based

nearest

of Herthen

means

distance

time, however,

invented

ing
see-

of the

though

was
brilliancy,

best

it
a

scientific

great opticiancame

Joseph

astronomers.

as
refractingtelescope,

liometer,"or

is to

scientific measurement.

the aid of the

the

that

vision

of star

prospect of solution.

fallacious

The

shift of

star,

earth's orbit

of the

instrumental

any

singularlysagaciousone,
guess, not

of

parallax;

star.

apparent

problem
end,

distance
the

amateur

an

distance

preternaturallyacute

aid

to the

even

the

from

The

almost

schel,with

still

opposite sides of the earth's orbit,

tremely
parallax might be estimated, is so exthat it proved utterly inappreciable,

the

the

added

from

minute
even

actual

diameter

the

seen

fulfilled.

which

astic
enthusi-

most

pursuers,
was

of its annual

which

angle

viewed

as

the

stars
early studies of double
hope that these objectsmight

in the

subtend
not

was

he

thousand

ten

present estimate.

all

measurement

say, of the

-star

while

ascertainingthe

in

through

of double

Herschel's

elder

him

above

by professionthe stenographer of a
of multiple
Clearly the actual number

undertaken

aid

; Struve

and

Chicago court.
stars is beyond
The

discovered

multiplesystems

list to

discoveries

new

them

ham, of late years

successful

astronomy,

were

the

S. "W. Burn

thousand

ASTRONOMY

between

close

of these

increased

and

in

Herschels

two

thousands

some

IN

PROGRESS

Herschel

65

had

the

aid

of

fected
per-

perfected

wonderfully accurate
With

sun-measurer.

Fraunhofer

these

"

hein-

distance

of star

almost

old and

the

struments

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

STORY

THE

difficult problem
infinitely
In

solved.

was

SCIENCE

Bessel

1838

announced

Konigsberg observatorythat he had succeeded,

in detecting and
of effort,
months
measuring the

from

the

after

Similar claims had been made

often
parallaxof a star.
enough before,always to prove fallacious when put to

test; but

further

authorityof one of
age, and scepticismwas
the

Indeed,as

tion.

the

solved

happens
had

Hope, but

afterwards

Henderson's

observations

and

numerous

considered

had

he

chance, the
made,

parallax of
neighbor in

which

star

and

was

has been

star

is

which

measured,

ever

much

so

the

more

uniformly
discovery,

servatio
ob-

Henderson's

consequentlythe

sidereal space,
of miles nearer
than
this nearest

on

; and

Cape of Good
Royal of Scotland.
precedence in point

as

odd

ery,
discov-

established

were

that

authoritative

were

even

actual

measurements

corrobora-

simultaneously
Pulkowa, where
so
long held the

deserving the chief credit of

secured him.
priorityof publication

an

the

at the

the Astronomer

time, but Bessel's

By

been

Henderson, then working

Thomas

which

almost

now

await

in fields of

"

great Russian
all others,had
palm over

of

long

problem Struve at
observatory,which

the

of

silenced.

workers

same

carried

announcement

greatest astronomers

often

so

other

two

the

achievement

Bessel's

did

Nor

the

this time

is

first star the

our

nearest

ions
bill-

ten
being,indeed, some
the one
next
beyond.

more

than

200,000 times

Yet
as

mote
re-

lightflashes to the
earth
in eight minutes,and
three
to Neptune in about
and a half hours, but it requiresthree and a half years
to signalAlpha Centauri.
And
for the great majoras
ity
of the stars, had they been blotted out of existence
from

us

as

the

sun.

The

66

sun's

THE

GREAT

REFRACTOR

OF

AT

THE

WASHINGTON

NATIONAL

OBSERVATORY

THE

CENTURY'S

the

Christian

their

light and

before

When
do

not

the

see

no

star,hitherto

only

; relative

with

the

sun

absolute

from

the

differ

enormously

space

laws

of

true, yet

equivalent of
extreme,

moves

two

thousand

the sun,

from

shines

like two

is dim

beside

parallax cannot

eyes

at

are

smaller
or

than

miles

that

stars

regards.

through

creep

it is

second,

and

yet

the

him

the

stars

furnishes
sun,

perhaps thousands

even

which

measured,
As

yield to

passes
arc-lightsur-

brightestmeasured

; and

to

are

this
so

star,

giant orb
that

distant

yet which

actual

greet

while

others

of times.

exceed

Yet

one

our

which

bulk, of

adequate test,some

no

its

diameters

stars

the

as

ing
"fly-

change

lunar

half

that

this

to

the

one

even

brightness,some

suns

be

is

stars,

earth, seems

surpass

other

the

twenty

stars

computed

in all these

barely

the

magnitude.

lustre

apparent

In

hundred

their

is found

second

Arcturus,

those

first

It

sun,

three

others

be

of

pared
com-

double

may

measured

years.

lustre,as

of the

case

the

of progress

speed

absolute

of

seconds

many

actual

of

only passing through

in a day.
At
diameter

miles

candle.

so

star

rate

among

while

as

into

our

were

distance

motion

proper

themselves

own

about

of the

components

or

that

seen

place by only
a

ten

hundred

star," as

the

like

their

other

in

the

in the

among

at

even

and

they

as

parallax of

the disclosure

gravitation.

compassing

"

the

be reckoned

of

mass

speed, some,

to

from

translated

history;

ago.

known,

to

ceive
re-

do.

we

ancient

but

are,

still

just as

study

we

becomes
brightness.

the

As

with

should

them

they

as

derived

readily be

arc, may

sky,

ASTRONOMY

to-day

see

millennia

Distance

body.

of
to

stars

halts

means

IN

we

seem

up to the

information

The

that

era,

centuries,even

years,

by

look

we

we

PROGRESS

stars

him

and

dreds
hun-

all,

THE

STORY

distant

so

before
All

utmost

this

seems

In

the

1859

pointed out
That

before.

by

points of light

telescope.
but

enough,

greater

even

spectroscope

Kirchhoff

perfected by

scene,

lines

along

of the modern

powers

store.

SCIENCE

diskless

mere

wonderful

in

were

the

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

they, remain

are

the

things
upon

OF

and

Fraunhofer

came

Bunsen,

almost

half

marvellous

ing
instrument,by revealthe telltale lines sprinkledacross
a prismatic
trum,
specand
nature
discloses the chemical
tion
physical condiwhose
substance
of any
to it,
light is submitted

century

telling its story equally well, provided the light be

the luminous
substance
be near
strong enough, whether
or

far

"

in the

Clearlysuch
in the

wand

room

same

instrument

an

must

all

and

Miller

in

America,

were

the

chief

results exceeded

At

the

very

gave

work

of solar

in

the

up

magic

of

his

the dreams

outset, in 1860, it

were

himself
in

Italy,

Rutherfurd

in

immediate

followers.

of the most

visionary.

shown

was

that

such

sodium, iron,calcium,

as

copper,
the

Secchi

and

England,

magnesium, nickel,barium,
form
of glowing vapors
in
stars

veritable

Kirchhoff

Father

terrestrial substances

common

space.

the world

over

test.

and

Donati

and

Huggins
The

of

of the astronomer.

hands

way,

confines

prove

Yery soon
eager astronomers
putting the spectroscope to the
led the

the

at

or

zinc exist in the

and
and

sun,

correspondingsecret.
and sidereal analysishas

very
Since

gone

on

soon

the

then

the

steadily

(prominent
whom, in this country, are Professor Young of
among
fessor
Princeton,Professor Langley of Washington, and Prohalf the
than
Pickering of Harvard), and more
located
have
been definitely
known
terrestrial elements
hands

of

in the sun, while

multitude

of

fresh discoveries
70

workers

are

in

prospect.

OF

STORY

THE

fail to

has

no

means

of

raw

dust

we

t\vo

new

had

exist

may

in the

or

air

reached

brought

chemist

back

to

the

sublunary laboratory. There

his

in

that

than

picturesque fact

troscope
spec-

into

space
it took
the

that

substance

as

named

The

sun.

of miles

discover

one

the astronomer

in tho

same

last year

Only

element,and

new

in the

element, and

millions

years

samples of

had

to

stellar

out

this

of

score

known

of its abundance

because

sends

discovered ; but

were

which

undiscovered

breathe.

we

been

suspected as

had

in

star

for years

and

helium

along

of the earth's

resources

the substance

terrestrial elements

solar

and

the

material,and

tread

of these
a

the

exhausted

from

its message

SCIENCE

vaporizeiron,nickel,silicon,
But
test.
again,chemistry

to

seen

withstand

should

supply

is

which

of the sun,

by

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

he

had

all

unrecognized

is

hardly a more
entire
history of

the

science.

the

But
stars

their
and

was

identityin substance
not
more
clearlyshown

of earth
than

and

the

sun

and

diversityof

It was
that sun
seen
existingphysicalconditions.
being the cool,earthlike,habitable
stars,far from

(surrounded by
thought them
glowing clouds,and protectedfrom undue heat by other
in truth seethingcaldrons of fieryliquid,
or
are
clouds),
lurid envelopes
viscid by condensation, with
gas made
made
It was
of belchingflames.
soon
clear,also,particularly
bodies

that

by
that
or

Herschel

studies

the

differ among
condition.
There
in

solar

sun

stars

metallic

(our

vapors;

spectra indicative

are

the

and
of

Rutherfurd

themselves

stars

spectrum revels

of

white
lines

of

or

of

and

in exact

constitution

Sirian

stars,whose

hydrogen

yellow

being the type),showing

sundry red stars, with
carbon
72

Secchi,

or

various
banded

compounds; besides,the

THE

purely

CENTURY'S

gaseous

Professor
famous

PROGRESS

stars

of

IN

recent

more

Pickering had
of
interpretation

ASTRONOMY

discovery,which

speciallystudied.
these diversities,
as

Zollner's
indicative

',

iVM

''""''' ,'^A
Si

'1"'".'*V'
"'
"

'"

'"/, i
IV, '"',

SPECTRA

of

varying stages

of

OF

STARS

IX

cooling,has

CARINA

been

called in

question
the general
it postulates,
but
to the
exact
as
sequence
tions
propositionthat stars exist under widely varying condiof temperature is hardly in dispute.
73

THE

STORY

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

SCIENCE

The

assumption that different star types mark varying

of
further
has
the
of
modern
cooling
stages
support
physics,which has been unable to demonstrate
any way
in which

the sun's

otherwise

energy

"

"

chief

the

be contraction

of the

solar

to

come

of

Therefore, unless

period of
But by

culmination

five

In

far the

this is furnished
to

appear

miniature

are

"

the

shine.

to

The

opening

is another

again
"While

of the

testinghis
to

that

number,

are

course,

whom

stars

infer,from

motion,

likelyto

occur

various

our

Lord

as

own

vin,
Kel-

within

Of

"

this class

there

and

are

space

"

forecast

which

stage of

even

as

now

development
examples in

star

the

smaller

of

largerbodies

of

veritable

"dark

yet nowadays clearlyrecognized.

of the invisible

astronomy

great achievements

it is Bessel to

led

of

final

stellar

of this

up

of

case

estimate

the earth

by

in

out

of
invisible,

"

the

stellar bodies

to

furnished

type

same

means

years.

companion planets. But

stars

was

those

by

ceased

and

plainlythis

some

strongest support of such

cooled

have

the

appears

six million

or

to

restoring the lost energy to the

of them
must
tre,
gradually lose its luscondition
of solidification,
seeming

frigiddarkness.
star, accordingto
particular
a

is held

energy

and
itself,

mass

and
sterility,

such

solar

is

yet unrecognized
stellar bodies, each
and

supply

its limits.

have

must

the

restored,or

made

Helmholtz,

its

be

may

perpetual,since meteoric
impact has
shown
under
to be
at
existing conditions
any
with
the theory of
inadequate. In accordance

been
rate

radiated

the honor

"

century, and

of

our

of

discoveryis due.

observer
that astute
parallax,
of
certain unexplainedaberrations
for

stars, Sirius

accompanied by
74

himself

invisible

among

the

companions, and

CENTURY'S

THE

in

he

1840

PROGRESS

IN

ASTRONOMY

definitelypredicated the

existence

"dark

stars."

The

shown

twenty

years

American

later,when

optician,while

companion

luminous.

of

Since

invisible star

was

Clark, Jun., the

lens,discovered

proved thus

existence

the

companions

new

inference

such

SPECTRA

Sirius,which
then

the

Alvan

testinga

STAlt

the

of

correctness

of

has
75

been

to be

of other

and

faintly
quite

proved incontestably,

THE

STORY

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

SCIENCE

renewed

merely by

observations,but by
telescopic
the curious testimony of the ubiquitousspectroscope.
One
of the most
surprisingaccomplishments of that
is the power
the flight
of a luminous
instrument
to record
If the luminous
object directlyin the line of vision.
lines are shifted
body approaches swiftly,its Fraunhofer
their normal
from
positiontowards the violet end of the
spectrum; if it recedes, the lines shift in the opposite
not

unknown
cases

lightlines

of stars

motion

be measured

may

the

actual

The

direction.

are

whose

in this way.
to

seen

oscillate

But
on

distance

is

in certain

the spectrum

Obviously the star sending such

regular intervals.
light is alternatelyapproaching and receding,and the
inference that it is revolvingabout
a
voidable.
companion is unaat

From

this

tance,
extraordinarytest the orbital disand
of
relative mass,
actual speed of revolution
the absolutelyinvisible body may
be determined.
Thus
the
deals
only with light,makes
spectroscope, which
paradoxical excursions into the realm of the invisible.
the stars hope to conceal
What
secrets
when
may
tioned
quesby an instrument of such necromantic
power?

IV

But
assault

the
upon

companion

spectroscope
the
and

is not

strongholdsof
assistant

in the

alone
nature.

in this audacious

It has

worthy

photographicfilm,whose
efficient aid has been
invoked
even
by the astronomer
more
recently. Pioneer work in celestial photography
by Arago in France and by the elder
was, indeed, done
in 1839, but the results then achieved
Draper in America
were
only tentative, and it was not till forty years later
assumed
that the method
reallyimportant proportions.
76

"s

"

I!
-7

-j

="

CC

2**
r1
"

S
t-i
rt

THE

STORY

OF

of

condensation

process

Rosse's

this

it made

largestmirror.
would

all nebulae

Herschel

what

island

But

the

had

to

our

Rosse's

even

of

others.

great
More

nebulae

some

was

but
liquids,

nebulae

of

the

stars,singly or

certain

condensed

fair inference

that

in

no

to be

attained,
in

are

reality

vastlydistant

about

respect from

the

scope
spectro-

1864, by Dr.

hydrogen

showed,

it is

spectrum

among

true, that

of solids

types intermingle and

the closest

has

film

stars

the

that

nebulas
gaseous
shown
to

tween
beto

midst;

scarcelyto

are

type;
the

and

presence

vision
telescopic

generalityof

the

found

in their actual

of the

stars

are

or

grade

is shown
affinity

nebulae

Some

Hug-

of discrete stars,

not

gases,

in groups,

photographic
matter

in

continuous

"planetary"

distinguishedfrom

nebulous

studies

stars.

contain

the

glowing

Also,

and

nebula

different

another.

one

greater
Her-

for when

the spectrum

extended

the

resisted

aggregations of stars,

wrong;

applied to

give

into

galacticsystem.

own

mass

as

yield to

not

"

gins,it clearlyshowed

be

that

day
perhaps some
yield,hence that all
at first thought them
of

nebulae,
Just

nebulae

when

Milky Way

would

that

It seemed

inference
first

was

into

the

Lord

universes,"composed

comparable

but

so

the

on

doubtful.

very

resolved

1844,

scope
largesttele-

the

"

turned

was

generally

in

sufficient power,

with

"

had

others

resolved

reflector

reflector

seem

but his own,

all instruments

But

resolved

had

Herschel

stars,justas

century.

"

hypothesis

first lens

Galileo's

stars, was

six-foot

great

yet constructed

ever

schel's

SCIENCE

form

to

half

almost

accepted for
Lord

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

their

fellows

cently
re-

of
fer
difin

galaxy. The familiar stars of the Pleiades cluster,

for example, appear
the negative immersed
in a hazy
on
blur of light. All in all,
of
the accumulated
impressions
80

33

CENTURY'S

THE

the

PROGRESS

film

photographic
in. the

matter

And

so, of

vanishes, and
universe

one

And

these

by

Professor

Keeler,

floatingthrough
The

only

of

linking
all

by
the

schel's

spectra of
warranted
that

the

that

the

"

inspection.
been

speed

found
be

to

of from

ten

clearly

denced
evi-

But

the elder

the

in

conclusion

The

point

system

our

have

for

practicallyidentical

are

telescopicnebulae

of

fact

the
with

seems

minor

lae
nebu-

wise,
putting it other-

; or,

are

all,
Her-

nebulae

recently suspected;

are

into

so

of what

comets.

comets

drawn

are

sition
po-

observations, is,after

until

of them

that

true

Observatory,

stars,

affirmed.

spectra of certain

the

with

corroboration

not

some

Lick

modern

theories

affinities

other

jectured.
con-

universes"

their

have

the starlike

nebula3

these

scientific

later

at

even

per second.

thirty-eightmiles

to

the

nebulous

stellar system

one

world-stuff

of

space

"island

present human

to

of

clouds

vast

of

relegated to

are

is open

hitherto

not

parts of the

that

"

ASTRONOMY

prodigalityof

question

nebulae

the

system

all

component

as

reveal

stellar

course,

IN

tant
simply gigantic dis-

comets.

Following
J.

Norman

what

cosmogonic
the

time

is

guess

theory, known
our

suprisingclews

Lockyer,

elaborated

bears

the

up

as

that
the

has
"

the

nebular

has

London,

perphaps

relation

same

that

of

the

ever

meteoric
to

the

thus

most

been

suggested, Mr.
in

recent

years

comprehensive
attempted.

His

hypothesis,"probably
speculativethought of

hypothesis of Laplace

bore

to

few
in a
Outlined
eighteenth century.
words, it is an
nomena
attempt to explain all the major pheof the universe
to
as
due, directlyor indirectly,
the gravitationalimpact of such
meteoric
or
particles,

that

of

the

THE

STORY

specksof

cosmic
vast

are

less

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

dust, as

comets

SCIENCE

composed

are

clouds, with

cometary

of.

ulae
Neb-

particlesmore

widely separated,giving off

gases

condensation

or

through meteoric
internal or external,and perhaps glowing also
collisions,
with electrical or phosphorescentlight. Gravity eventually
into closer aggregations,
bringsthe nebular particles
and increased collisions finallyvaporize the entire mass,
ued
Continstars.
forming planetary nebulas and gaseous
luminous

more

make

the

stellar

time,

but

eventuallyleads

may
for

and
liquefaction,

ultimate

nebulae

in the

The

becoming

correlation

exact

point

out

does

Kanyard,
may

not

and

that

not

for
be

the

which

successive

between

and

consolidation

end

the

various

meet

with

dark
Mr.

stars, but

nascent
true

its

to

the aforetime

"

planetary star.
Lockyer attempts
of

meteoric

of observed

unanimous

example, suggests

and

or

stages

types

hotter

mass

that

densation
con-

stellar bodies

acceptance.

Mr.

the visible nebulae

emanations

nebulae
pre-stellar

to

are

from

stars,

invisible until

proportions.But such details aside,

the broad general hypothesis that all the bodies of the
universe^ are, so to speak, of a singlespecies that nebulae
(includingcomets),stars of all types, and planets,
but varying stages in the life history of a single
are
race
or
organisms" is accepted by the
type of cosmic
dominant
rant
thought of our time as having the highestwarof scientific probability.
All this,clearly,
lar
is but an
amplificationof that nebuhypothesis which, long before the spectroscope gave
sidereal neighbors,
to accuratelyjudge our
warrant
us
had
boldly imagined the development of stars out of
But Mr. Lockyer's
nebular
and of planetsout of stars.
hypothesisdoes not stop with this. Having traced the
condensed

to stellar

"

84

developmental
it

sees

no

process

cause

IN

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

to

from

abandon

the

nebula

this

dark

ASTRONOMY

to
star

the
to

dark

star,

its fate

by

assuming, as the originalspeculationassumed, that this

final stage of cosmic
existence.
is a culminating and
activities have
For the dark
star, though its molecular
come
enormous

to

relative

and
stability

of
potentialities

THE

OXFORD

impotence, still retains

molar

HELIOMETER

motion;

and

the

clearly,

THE

where

STORY

OF

motion

is,stasis

ceaseless

other

some

of the dark

Such

of other

but

"

that

of

into

bodies

fragments
of

hurtled

must

Thus

series of

one

to

at

"

; and

be

the dark

cosmic

series

condition

but

infantile

stage,or

time

shrunken
the

to

units

later,we

or

Then

shatter

both

star, which

without

colliding

once

the

scale,and

dark

cosmic

cosmic

star

as

pre-

is rounded

luminous

dark

plified,
am-

cycles,more

'stagesof

individual; the

of true

hypothesis,thus

linear

adolescent

last

the first

post-nebularand

nebular

mere

and

is the

changes, becomes

view, nebulae and

cosmic

the

of

the

are

occur.

an

this extended
the

it chances

sooner

unending series of
nearly satisfyingthe imagination.
to connote

In

of

combined
with
meteoric
vapor
; in short, into a veritable nebula, the matrix

ceases

out

thousands

on

billions

"

thousands

or

vapor,

of another

nebular

not

impact

worlds.

of future

term

be

circuit about

eternity,"and

mutual

questionthe

term

Croll

"

collision must

hardly doubt, a

can

lide
col-

must

"

may

matters

arithmetic

the

in

Dr.

orbits,before
parabolicor elliptical

diverse

collide

star

imagines
pre-nebulartheory postulates.
be long delayed ; the dark

his

and

stellar masses,

later,in its

or

dark

body, as

in-cometlike

be drawn

may

stellar

collision

Sooner

space, the

which

bodies

SCIENCK

is not.

flightthrough

with

star

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

stars

the

are

life history

star, its adult

virility.Or we may think of the

of
the germ-cell,the pollen-grain,

organism.

Reduced

in

size,as

becomes

body from
its seemingly nonwhich
it sprang, it yet retains within
of the original
vital body all the potentialities
organism,
and
requiresonly to blend with a fellow-cell to bring a
to
germ-cell,

new

whose

mere

fraction

generationinto being.
aggregate

census

of

Thus

makes
86

the

nebular

may
up

the

the cosmic
stellar

race,

universe,

THE

CENTURY'S

EVER

his

here

that

with

there

whether

whether

the

the

when

"teemed
Innumerous

living
and

Limbed

few

Steno

the

wisest

story
modern
on

the

is

crust

one

had

crypt
them"

over

been

once

alive,

souvenirs

the

earth

of

was

posed
sup-

had

philosophers

of

them

of

written

no

in

case

the

more

the

rocks

suspects

museum

of

forms,

perfect

"

and

Hutton.

the

mummy.
88

the

the

meaning

Leibnitz,
in

the
of

importance
history,

full

but

import
stroller

average
of

and

others

the

ancient

suspected
than

Moro,
and

conceived
earth's

Hooke

Robert

as

century,

Werner,

vaguely

records

as

birth

creatures,

seventeenth

"

at

full-grown."

Whitehurst,

eighteenth
fossils

these

of

in

Buffon,

had

of

there

monster

abortive

matrix

and

dilettante

this

they

the

have

to

Some

here

pondered

mere

fertile

been

rocky

from

had

not

recognized

there

and

relics

were

first

earth's

perchance

they

time

had

philosopher

PALEONTOLOGY

Vinci

Here

cabinets

questioning

that

da

realized

and

or

IN

mausoleum.

gigantic
filled

PROGRESS

fossils, there

of

who

man

ni

Leonardo

since

character

true

CHAPTEE

the

of

the
the
in

hieroglyphs

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

It
hard

that

not

was

decipher

to

rather

that

along

viewed

the

should

was

could

towards

appear

he

of

led

later

enough

was

the

structure

shake

did

William

such

dire

when

first

began noticing the

and

there

of the

there

was

character

of any

Copernicus

discovery was

any

its

of established

his

in

the

of

simply

being

by

surveyor's duties

led

him.

so

that

its fossil

series

of such

facts

In
that

any

its bald
the

given

since

in which

the

stratum

that

day

Smith's

essence

are

concertin
dis-

most

fossils in the

and

of fossils is

of strata

the

were

lutionary
revo-

unearthed

he

revealed

population;

groups

apparent

which

haphazard,

scattered

of such

vertical

this:

here
soils

been

Galileo.

of his act

come

fossil shells that

facts

had

to

and

anything

that

and

regular systems,
succession

his

stratified

yet in their implicationsthese

labelled

dent
indepen-

more

rocks

in the

which

regions over

instead

He

suspect, however,

were

consequences

to be found

are

Nor, indeed,

of

century in the

destined, in

Smith

that any
he

such

its foundations.

to

Little

man

sharp eyes
tenacious
By
memory.
as
they are homely, he

which

science

developments, to

thought

And

saw.

close of the

most

faculties,rare

to

he

perhaps the
the gift,besides

exercising these
way

that

this

prejudice,and

and

had

receptive mind,
the

of preconceptio

Smith, the English surveyor.

William

that,and

for

all

Before

image.

what

the

had

atmosphere

without

very

enough

attempt

necessary

see

so

hard

are

the
an

was

to

self-taughtman,

and

who

it

common-sense

of

person

made

distorted

story are

they

subjectthrough
corrected

sound
did

who

be

PALEONTOLOGY

of this

in truth

men

gave

appear

man

the

which

could

image

rudiments

though

"

"but

apply

the

IN

rocks,

arranged
of
the

always the
they occur.

in

rock
order
same

is
of
in

That

THE

STORY

OF

is to say, if fossil A underlies

it

overlies

never

it in any

fossils found

in

in another.

Moreover,

never

in any

From

these

inference

novel

that

He

that

had

of which

fossil shells with

quite omitted
having disappeared

once

later stratum.

earth

partiallyverified

found

fossil

be

may

facts Smith

the

of creatures, each

given region,
series;though a kind of

strata

in any

fossil B

other

of

set

one

reappears

SCIENCE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

the

drew

had

successive

in its turn

this

had

inference

in older

occur

as

populations

become

extinct.

by comparing the
similar orders,and

existingspeciesof

such

common-sense

strata

of the rocks

had

livingspecies. But on the whole,

practicalman, Smith troubled himself

counterparts among

no

being eminently a
but

little about

his facts.
had

the inferences

He

as

the

an

of

geologicalmap
to others

chieflyconcerned

was

discovered

the

untangling

fact

disseminated
course

that

aid to

of

the

England

to arise
might seem
of varying forms
of

He

that

life

ever

discoveryof
the globe.

his views

his

attempted, and he
snarls of thought

his
on

of the first

construction

of any

from

from
might be drawn
in using the key he

far and

the

left
that

succession

wide, however, in

journeyings quite disregarding the

"

peripateticswent

of

out

fashion

when

in
and
by the beginning of
printing-presscame
century he had begun to have a following among
for a moment
not
geologistsof England. It must
"

supposed, however,
succession

of strata
On

For
was

the
a

that
met

his

contention

with

immediate

contrary,

that the

was

men,

our

the

be

regarding the
or
ceptance.
general acmost

long generation after

made, the generalityof

strain at gnats and

it

the

prone

tagonized.
bitterlyanthe discovery
as

always

to

swallow

camels, preferredto believe

of

being deposited in successive

instead
fossils,

90

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

ages, had

been

needless

to

all at

swept

of

the current

by

successive

numberless

to

found
been

done
of

days

our

in

the heaviest

that

the bottom

at
some

Just
been

flood,

how

the

laid down

depth of several miles in one

indeed
puzzling,especiallyafter

be admitted

always

that

the

orderly sequence to
such fell cataclysm was
came

have

tions
present posi-

and

"

deluge.
could

strata

in

it

flood

mighty

PALEONTOLOGY

into their

once

Noachian

the

say,

IN

; but

rank

was

way

to

fossils

doubt

were

that

heresy

in

not

this had

the

early

century.

ii

But

once

to the

discovered, William

succession

There

was

which

the

facts needed

one

of forms

inferences

in the

vital

most

that

verification

"

Smith's
rocks

unique
would

facts

not

as

down.

point, however, regarding

seem

the

to

follow

from

question,namely,

these

whether

disappearance of a fauna from the registerin the

rocks reallyimpliesthe extinction of that fauna.
thing
Everyto that question,
reallydepended upon the answer
and none
but an accomplished naturalist could answer
it
the

with

hand

uralist
authority. Fortunately the most authoritative natof the time, Georges Cuvier, took the questionin

not, indeed, with

"

of

Smith's, but

the
in the

idea
course

of

verifyingany suggestion
of his own
original

beginning of the century, when

Smith's
views
were
attractinggeneral attention.
and
Cuvier
Smith
exact
were
contemporaries, both
in 1769, that
"fertile
men
year"
having been born
which
the world
also Chateaubriand, Yon
Humgave
uralist
boldt,Wellington, and Napoleon. But the French natstudies

at

"

was

the

very

of very

different
91

antecedents

from

the

Eng-

THE

STORY

OF

CUVIEB

GEORGES

lish surveyor.

He

had

come

anatomist

of

that led him

out

of the

to his

they

to be

his

known

time.

rocks

by
at

as

It

different from

the

his trained

eye

anything he had
92

young

studies

dug
brought

bones

Some

quarry

early

comparative

anatomical

of fossils.
in

had

yet

foremost

the

was

workmen
once

while

and
scientist,

into the realm

notice,and

were

educated,
brilliantly

was

gained recognitionas
man

SCIENCE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

were

told
seen

him

that

before.

THE

CENTURY'S

Hitherto

such

for the

been
or

neither

bones,

fallen

giants
of

IN

when

giants of

to

Cuvier

angels.
angels

nor

PALEONTOLOGY

entirelyignored, had

not

part ascribed

most

to

even

PROGRESS

in

days,

showed

soon

were

former

that

question,but

phants
ele-

unrecognized species. Continuing his

with material
studies,particularly
gathered from g}rpbeds

sum

of

an

that
the

livingon

of about

believed

he

studies

went

fossil bones

poured

in from

all

that

extinct

the fossils

strange and
these

novel

forms,

by

of them

some

of many

of

gigantic

Fossiles,describing
vertebrate

other

Among

victions
con-

represented

are

the evidence

published,and

science.

presently

Cuvier's

sides,and

Ossemenls

famous

objects,was

became

abroad, and

animals

sustained

was

the

of

forms

anomalous

In 1816

size.

now

any

globe.
of these

among

ning
begin-

twenty-fivespecies

be different from

to

fame

The

the

accumulated, by

century, bones

our

of anima-ls

had

Paris, he

near

tology
paleon-

things of great

tive
popular interest the book contained the first authoritaby Cuvier
descriptionof the hairy elephant,named
the

the

mammoth,

embedded

in

of ice in Siberia

mass

preserved that
had

which

of

remains

the

actuallyate

its flesh.

Bones

been

in

several

found

Siberia

naturalist

Pallas, who

rhinoceros

there,frozen

suspectedthat
were

these

were

had
in

of

men
fisher-

Tungusian
the

species
by the

same

before

found

the

mud

bank

; but

be

fully
wonder-

1802, so

years

of

found

been

also

members

supposed to

in

of the

dogs

had

of

carcass

extinct

an

then

one

no

tion"they
popula-

merely transportedrelics

of the flood.

Cuvier, on
other

the other

creatures

region where

he
their

hand, asserted

described
remains

had
were

93

that

lived

these

and

found,

and

and

died
that

the

in the
most

STORY

THE

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

SCIENCE

livingrepresentatives
upon the globe.
than William
Smith
This, to be sure, was
nothing more
had tried all along to establish regarding lower forms of
life ; but great monsters
appeal to the imagination in a
of

have

them

THE

no

WAKUEN

MASTODON,
ON

way

of

FOUND

THE

NEAU

NEWBUUO,

HUDSON

the power
of mere
shells ; so the announcement
of Cuvier's discoveries aroused
the interest

quite beyond
the entire

accorded

world,

and

the

Ossements

Fossiles

was

popular reception seldom

given a work of
technical science
the enthusiastic
a reception in which
a

"

was
approval of progressivegeologists

bitter protestsof the conservatives.

94

mingled

with

the

OF

STORY

THE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

British
remains

rocks;

could

and

no

borne

refuge

tell of

to

LACKING

JAW,

find

OP

as

in

other

various

that

Cuvier's

livingcreatures.

vertebrates

in

strange forms

found

well

these,as

scarcely hope

SKULL,

been

unearthed

were

such

bore

was

had

by Conybeare,

saurus

SCIENCE

the

from

contention

COHNUTUS,

EOBASILEUS

conclusion

that

populationsactually extinct.
'96

sceptical

most

that all the

existingage are known

by recent explorations,and
the

world,

counterparts among

of the
out

of

whose

monsters

parts of the

even

their

deeper strata

the
But

larger

COPE

to naturalists

there

seemed

fossil

records

if this

were

view

Smith's

then

admitted,

of

rotations

extinct

resentino-

there

have

cessive
suc-

denied.

faunas, whose

preservedin myriads, rep-

been

thousands

speciesby

been

longer be

no

the successive

that

have

remains

individual

that

PALEONTOLOGY

populationcould

could it be in doubt

Nor

IN

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

and

of thousands,

tens

requiredvast periods of time for the

production and growth of their countless generations.
it
to be generallyknown, and
as
As these facts came
have

must

itself

cases

in which

rock

the

of

all,is

final

the

It

science.

of

the

in the

record

from

present forms, have

that

the
of

inconceivable

of

idea

an

another
of

which

James

thinker,had
before
The

existence.

one

these
The

Hutton,
science

of

the

pretation
inter-

numerous

another

and

here

lived

file

swift

and

and

and

away;

realize the

and

after

belabored

creatures

rank

with

remains

tenable

passed

records,to

conceived
the

and

which

length.

aid of fossil

the

genius long

into

risen

of

is that

from

many

which,

only

rocks

distinct

in

geologic ages

thus, with

of the

aid

the

the

that

conceded

populationsof creatures,

were

is in

life,common-sense,
to

matrix

very

embedded

are

tribunal,came

was

of

fossils

the

composed
giganticfossil,

one

microscopicforms

of

that

in addition

understood

to be

came

came

import
there

intuition

paleontologycame

Huttonian

propositionthat time is
long had been abundantly established,and by about the
close of the first third of our
century geologistshad
of time"
"ons
begun to speak of "ages" and "untold
with a familiarity
which
their predecessorshad reserved
for days and decades.
in

And
earth
o

now

has

new

been

questionpressed for solution. If the

inhabited
by successive populationsof
97

THE

STORY

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

SCIENCE

all these
have
been
creatures
extinct,how
beings now
to present
destroyed ? That question,however, seemed
difficulties.
It was
answered
of hand
out
no
by the
All
down
the
centuries,
applicationof an old idea.
their varying phases of cosmogonic thought,
whatever
there

had

been

present the

ever

times; that

idea

past times

epochs the
earth
of awful
had
been
the scene
catastrophes that
have no parallelin "these degenerate days." Naturally
in every
cosmogonic
enough this thought, embalmed
appealed to in
speculation of whatever
origin, was
agined
explanation of the destruction of these hitherto un imnot

were

recent

as

hosts,which
their

abysmal

and

as

These

ancient

hosts,it

of odd

which

Sphinx

as

of

by

as

silent

pyramid.

or

exterminated

been

years

the Mosaic

from

science,rose

to

said,have

was

millions

catastrophesof

remote

incontestable,but also

as

thought -provocative

at intervals

of

thanks

now,

slumber

in

that

the

deluge

recurrence

is the

latest,

but

perhaps not the last.

This
explanation had fullest
Cuvier

of scientific

warrant

had

prefaced his
whose
speculativedisquisition
very

classical work

devolutions

of

whose

Globe)is
fullysustains

text

Cuvier's
even

du

foremost

beyond

described

the

Proofs of a
Both
remains

the

they

the

follower

master,

(Discours sur

naming

the

les

and
catastrophism,

Buckland,

And

augury.

across

with

Channel,

the work

had

gone

in which

fossils,
ReliquiaeDiluviance,

Kirkdale

Universal

these

ominous

title

thority.
au-

he
or

Deluge.
whose
supposed the creatures
to have
perishedsuddenly in the
awful
they supposed,
current, as

authorities
studied

mighty flood whose

gouged out the modern
valleys,and
of granite broadcast over
the land.

hurled

And

great blocks

they

invoked

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

IN

PALEONTOLOGY

similar floods for the extermination

scientific citations

these

It is true

the time

approvalat
qualified
then

that

had

there

revolutions; but
the

of

acclaim.
and

one,

be

to

the

the

there

was

truce

to

headquarters does not

ancient historyat its source.
from

truce, however,

The

mankind

belief

science

moment
a

only

utterance, because
did

in

were
great paleontologists

For

with

not

cede
con-

past geologic

phes
heresy, the recurringcatastro-

and

of

tradition

thought

permeate
not

was

accepted

for

with
at

were

controversy, except

outlyingskirmish-lines

in those

met

pluralityof populationsor

that

now

ceased

had

ages

been

previous populations.

had

of their

majority of

conservative

the

of

indeed

whither

till it has

news

become

long. Hardly

had

adjust itself to the

conception of past ages of incomprehensible extent,
terminated
each
by a catastrophe of the Noachian
wilderin
the utterlybea
man
appeared who made
type, when
thought begun

contemporary

to

geologicalrecord, instead
in the
of proving numerous
catastrophicrevolutions
to the
earth's
sions
pretenpast history,gives no warrant
or
universal
of any
catastrophewhatever, near
that

assertion

the

remote.

iconoclast

This
was

soon

time.

As

be

to
a

famous

voiing

Lyell,the Scotchman, who

the greatest geologistof his

Charles

was

man

as

he

become

had

imbued

with

the

"-

force

of the

Huttonian
those

with

are

one

the

globe,and

to be its logical

that

he carried

that present causes

proposition,
produced the past changes of
that

idea
To

conclusion.

to

what

his mind

he

conceived

this excluded

the
or

thought

of

changes
catastrophic

organicworlds.
99

in either

inorganic

THE

STORY

But

often

be

not

of

score

the

most

with

is the

that

showed
Some

the

into
of

stratum

this

By

mammoth

the

forms

Moreover,

blanks

thick

in

strata

example, in
directlyoverlaid by the
series.

For

this sudden
that

breaks
that

great

"

the strata

in

we

forced

are

to

above

sediment

until

back

again.

the
some

But

seemingly sudden
the whole

case

for

when

in the

elsewhere

the Devonian
So

rocks

commonly

filled up

that

in

the record

so

future

age when
if this be the real

another,
shown

stratum

significance
particularsea-bed
"

ceased
it had

to

receive

oscillated

of
significance
to

the

stratum, then

lost
catastrophismis hopelessly
100

are

local

that

and
water-line,

from

particular

records

; but

series is of but

change

in any

measures

region

conclude

time

marine

living representatives.

with

of fishes."
one

plete.
com-

geographically distant
regions Silurian rocks are

coal

age
in

by any singlevertical
perhaps,of a
telling,
oscillated

some

But

always

numerous

strata

is tilled in with

break

tell of

some

of

change

allegedepoch
contemporaries

one

still have

filled in

to tell

seems

not

all the

between

amply

are

is

from

on

ancient

the

vertical series
of

change

extinct, and

are

proposition,
be epitomized

the rocks.

of

another

means

no

vastly more

form

to

of

essential

his

apparently sudden

specieslive

next.

yet the

which

evidence

con,

outline

mere

organic world, may

The

past revolutions

Lyell

the

For

and

pro

last established

at

tion
revolu-

contest.

argued

was

Lyell

one

long

tion
revolu-

such

say

fill a volume

words.

fossils from

to

bearingson

in few

suggest

unscientific ardor.

which

in its

matter

would

controversy

to

without

effected

years

with

facts

of

SCIENCE

deny catastrophism was

current
thought. Needless

could

the

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

to

in

OF

; for

CENTURY'S

THE

in the

breaks

such

PROGRESS

IN

furnish

strata

PALEONTOLOGY

the

only

suggestion
oo

"/

offer of sudden

geology can
wide

catastrophicchanges

of

extent.

from

evidence

When

gathered,said Lyell,it
species that have

METAMYNODON,

have

died

out

it has

away,

SWIMMING

one

by

as

brought

about

the

not

ages
same

out

in the

FROM

the

of

have
natural

tory
in the life his-

which

causes

died

out

that
in

present, under
101

of

in rotations

causes

the

passed
there,

here, now

another

resulted

species

extermination,

speciesnow
The

past

DAKOTA

SOUTH

populationshave

instantaneous
a

is

less
number-

in

individuals

just as

by

the

exterminated

RHINOCEROS,

of

that

gradual exterminations,and

such

Species have

dying

been

clear

single species.

any

long lapseof
are

becomes

shoals ; if whole
been

separated regions

generationsucceeds

one

of

widely

one,

the elimination

by

much

OR

in vast

die,not
but

and

are

have
in the

tion,
popula-

still in operation.

past

influence

as

of

they

are

changed

THE

STORY

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

surroundings,such
into

their

present

altered

as

of
territory

causes

are

one

SCIENCE

climate, or

migration
species. Past and
is changeless and

masterful

more

natural

"

the

law

eternal.
Such

the

was

of the Huttonian

essence

Lyell adopted

and

will

associated.

be

always

.though of
workers

after

itarianism,it
of the

dogma
of
to

our

for

the way

the

"

called

aid

name

efforts,
other

of uniform-

doctrine
became

"

his

of many

the

accepted

was

not

last

generation,at

old

the

terms:

and

be

the

his

long after the middle

after clingingmadly
catastrophists,

The

phantom

without

idea

geologic world

century.

their

without

to

came

which

Largely through

time, this

with

extended, and
not

course

doctrine,which

the

heresy became
paved

for

capitulated

fresh

new

doxy,
ortho-

controversy.

IV

The

followed

fresh controversy
For

course.

the

idea

the destruction
as

well.

suddenly,new

of
of

faunas

had

had

presumably

been
been

of

matter

catastrophism had not

speciesmerely,"but their

If whole

faunas

quite as

cerned
con-

duction
intro-

extirpated
introduced

by specialcreation ; but if species

equal suddenness
of new
die out
speciesmay
gradually,the introduction
be presumed to be correspondinglygradual. Then
may
the new
not
speciesof a later geologicalepoch be the
lineal descendants
of the extinct populationof
modified
earlier epoch ?.
an
The
idea that such might be the case
not new.
was
fossils first began to attract
It had
been suggested when
conspicuous attention; and such sagacious thinkers as
with

Buffon

and

Kant

and

Goethe
103

and

Erasmus

Darwin

had

STORY

THE

another,

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

influence

under

of

SCIENCE

changed surroundings,in

series.

unbroken

placed
thought as this was hopelesslymisthe existence
in a generation that doubted
of extinct
and
hardly less so in the generation that
species,
accepted catastrophism; but it had been kept alive by
advocate
like Geoffrey St.-Hilaire,
there an
here and
of catastrophism opened the
the banishment
and now
for its more
respectfulconsideration.
Respectful
way
consideration
was
given it by Lyell in each recurring
led to
edition of his Principles,but such consideration
its unqualified
rejection. In its placeLyell put forward
He
assumed
a modified
hypothesis of specialcreation.
that from
time to time, as the extirpationof a species
such
had left room,
to speak,for a new
so
new
species,
specieshad been created de novo ; and he supposed that
such intermittent,spasmodic impulses of creation
fest
manithemselves
nowadays quite as frequentlyas at any
Of

time
that

course

such

in the

past.

no

need

He

did

not

in

so

be

speciesof
ground before him, "pawing
lion,but his theory implied as
new

noted, was

to

words

many

surprisedto-day were
deer, for example, come
up

one

let it be

say

he

to

And

of

out

the

Milton's

get free,"like

much.

see

that

theory,

theory of Lyell alone, but

of nearly all his associates in the geologicworld.
There
is perhaps no
other fact that will bring home
to one
so
in thought of our
vividlythe advance
own
generation
as

the recollection that

conception could
less than

This

theory

the current

have

half
of

the

not

so

crude, so

been

the current

century

unthinkable

almost

doctrine

day, though

of
most

uniformitarianism
thinkers
104

of science

ago.

excluded

specialcreation, moreover,

doctrine

of

the

as

time

night
did

cludes
ex-

not

CENTURY'S

THE

be

to

seem

PROGRESS

be

It may

ideas.

fullyrealized

the

of

aware

If he

whether

did, he

for it seemed

dilemma,

And

almost

of the time

that

the

the

record

the

in

the

verdict.

hypothesi
gists
paleontolo-

Owen, Agassiz,

Falconer, Barrande, Pictet,Forbes, repudiated the

as
unqualifiedly

as

earlier

in the

done

to

come

would

believe

that
of

been

ever

this

one

every
But

to

the

been
that

another.

into

appeared

them

had

deed,
did, inof

successive

the idea

objectionseemed

in 1859

now

of

is evidence

fossils had

of

transformed

Some

there

life in

give countenance

idea

great predecessor Cuvier

generation.

development
graded series

such

no

their

gressive
pro-

ages, but

discovered
one

And

as

specieshad
to nearly

insuperable.
book
which, though

the

Lamarckian

accord

one

two

from

escape

alternative

with

sustained

no

the

Lyell himself

even

saw

him

to

clearlydisproved the

rocks

PALEONTOLOGY

incompatibilityof

doubted

it.

IN

not

a
yet contained
dealing primarily with paleontology,
gether
chapter that revealed the geologicalrecord in an altogin
Orinew
light. The book was Charles Darwin's
citation of
wonderful
the chapter that
of Species,
In this
the
Imperfectionsof the GeologicalKecord."
"

shall be
how

probable
of

of

the

raised

how

formed,

fossils

it is that

sea-bed

will

rocks, or
above

unusual

the

by

of the

record
paleontological

as

the

that

such

conditions

once

embedded

when

denudation
Add

water-level.

fragment of

order

fossils

are,

and

ment
in sedi-

destroyed by metamorphosis

be

only small territories

he
geologically,
says,
mere

conditions

what

shows
epoch-making chapter Darwin
must
prevail in any given place in

earth
it

and
we

now

the

strata

to this the

fact that

have

explored

becomes

been

clear

that

possess it shows

past historyof organisms on

105

are

the
but

the

THE

STORY

earth.

It is

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

SCIENCE

history imperfectlykept and written in

Of this historywe
a changing dialect.
possess the last
volume
three
countries.
or
alone, relatingonly to two
Of this volume
only here and there a short chapterhas
"

PROFESSOR

been

and
preserved,

few

lines."

such

record
to

For

would

land

for

E.

of each

D.

page

COPE

only

as

rash, he thinks,as

five minutes
106

on

there

"

barren

for

from

dogmatize

to
paleontologist

be

here and

uralist
nat-

point of

CENTURY'S

THE

then

and

Australia

PROGRESS

IN

PALEONTOLOGY

discuss the number

and

of its

range

productions."
citation of

This

observations,which
almost
came
self-evident,

seemed

out

geologicalworld.

to the

old facts took

for

had

that Buckland

More

noted

recentlysuch
and

over

Owen

had

that the

over;

between

intermediate

able, with

been

view

the

now

recalled

was
a

sible
pos-

order

new

examined,

and

nondescriptforms were
allied existingorders.
had

forms

that, to

so

he

revelation

new

in structure

intermediate

clarified

first fossil creatures

of the

some

the

ed
point-

once

as

meaning. It
obliged to establish
a

on

been

had

Cuvier

that

In

when

but

name

aid

been

example,

one

extinct

of

ered
discov-

species^to

by gradationsthe apparently wide interval

had
the pig and the camel."
between
Owen, moreover,
''
of the
been led to speak repeatedly
generalizedforms
of extinct animals, and Agassiz had
called them
thetic
syn"dissolve

"

"

or

"that

such

links."
that

the

terms

in fact intermediate

are

himself

fossil animals

had
of

any

shown

clearlyimplying
or
connecting

some

continent

before

years
are

lated
closelyre-

the

tates
edenexistinganimals of that continent
predominating, for example, in South America,
marsupialsin Australia.
Many observers had noted

that recent

nearly like
and

forms

Darwin

to

and

prophetictypes,"these

that

more

of two

"

everywhere show
existingone than do

strata

the

fossils from

closelyrelated
remote

any
to

two

each

formations, the

fossil fauna

a
more

consecutive

other
fauna

than

ancient
strata
are

of each

more

strata;
are

far

the fossils

geological

being, indeed, in a wide view, intermediate

between
preceding and succeedingfaunas.
that Lyell,
So suggestivewere
all these observations
the admitted
leader of the geological
world, after readformation

107

THE

STORY

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

SCIENCE

citations,felt able to drop his own

ing Darwin's
crass
of species,
and
explanation of the introduction
adopt
the transmutation
hypothesis,thus rounding out the
doctrine

of uniformitarianism
Lamarck

which

all

Not

their

of

proof was

that ; but

for

all

former

stage in the
the

in

conceived

it half

paleontologistscould

; the

course

had

the

shaken

of

progress

raised

was

third

the

bounds

time

the

controversy

not

been

acrimonious, than

at

of

once,

seeming security

white

called upon

staid

waged

the

in this first

heat

century
to

interest

in

kling.
twin-

of its

the

over

extended

over

that

which

transmutation

of

of

age

istence,
ex-

play a leading

the

yond
be-

far

truth-seekingscience.

bitter,that

more

of the

of

him

is

to

controversy whose

century before.

always a necessary
est
thought. And
popular inter-

paleontologywas
role in

in

position,which

matter

So, for

follow

proportionsin

demonstative
yet sufficiently

not

were

the full

to

And

earth

catastrophism not
now
raged over the

had
more

tion
ques-

The

question had
far beyond the bounds
of paleontology,of
implications
main
The
evidence
course.
yet presented had been
from
drawn
consent
quite other fields,but by common
the record
the truth
this

in the

rocks

species.

might

furnish

said

crucial

test

of

falsityof the hypothesis. He who rejects

of the imperfectionsof the geologicalrecord,"
whole
will rightly reject the
Darwin,
"

or

view

"

theory."
With

than mere
something more
turned
anew
paleontologists

rocks, to inquirewhat

might
book."

be

found

And

as

in

evidence

unread

might

pages

have

been

JOS

scientific
the

to

in

records

proof
of

the

fore,
zeal,there-

or
"

in the

refutation

great

expected,many

stone

minds

being

thus
was

the

of

being presented to
first time
brought

evidence,such

new

visit to

"

the

into

man

from

had

that

there
to

do

the midst

with

for
M.

by
work

animals.
he

Dr.

Somme,

had

of

the

Falconer

was

he

been

Perthes.

urged

flint

to Abbeville

sent

out

reports

implements,

gravel beds, in

mammoth

and

much

so

his

incited

These

in undisturbed

that

saw

Prestwich

the

allegedfinding of

of man,

Dr.

1859

made
paleontologist,

before

des

In

story.

valleyof

decade

of fossil remains

what

with

Boucher

the

with

clearlythe
extinct

the

Abbeville, in

by reports

dence
evi-

Darwin's

British
Falconer, the distinguished
a

PALEONTOLOGY

writing a new
chapter of the geologicrecord was
the public a chapter which
for the

moment

instructive

very

IN

prepared to receive
not long withheld.

Indeed, at
and

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

other

impressed
fessor
Pro-

countrymen

vestigat
thoroughly inthe
Prestwich
subject. Professor
complied,
collaboration
of Mr. John
port
Evans, and the re-

the
which

to

go

and

these

gation
made
of their investipaleontologists
human
brought the subjectof the very significant
fossils at Abbeville
the
prominently before
public;
whereas
the publicationsof the original discoverer,
Boucher
des Perthes, bearing date of 1847, had been altogether
ignored. A new
aspect was thus given to the
current

As

controversy.
Dr. Falconer

through

the

same

age

of Galileo.

day

when
the

the

remarked, geology
ordeal

But
author

passing

now

passed in
the times were
changed since
of the Dialogues was
humbled

Congregationof

that

was

the
109

astronomy

Index, and

now

no

the
the
fore
be-

Index

THE

STORY

OF

Prohibitorum
such

eyes
had
with

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

could
pages

avail

of the

hide

to

SCIENCE
from

geologicstory

human

eager
Nature

as

herself

spared. Eager searchers were

turning the leaves
renewed
zeal everywhere, and with no small measure
of success.
In particular,
interest attached
just at

this time

to

human

PROTOROHTPPUS,

covered
"

Height

at

in

cave

THE

which

the Neanderthal

zoologistsare
Homo

Dr. Fuhlrott

ANCESTRAL

shoulder, 16 inches.

cranium

of man,

skull

From

at Neanderthal

which

has

ever

Big Horn

two

or

since

Mountains

three
been

years
famous

neanderthalensis.

as

Like

distinct
others

fore
beas

ern
mod-

skull,the type specimen of what

disposed to regard

dis-

HORSE

FOUR-TOED
the

had

cies
spe-

of the

Spy, it is singularlySimian
in character
low-arched, with receding forehead and
it was
first exhibited
enormous
protuberanteyebrows. When
to the scientists at Berlin
by Dr. Fuhlrott, in
of the
doubted
character
was
1857, its human
by some
there is no present question.
witnesses \ of that,however,

same

type

since discovered

at

"

110

THE

by

STORY

the
to

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

progressiveportionof

an

ovation

the scientific world

; but the unscientific masses,

hand, notwithstandingtheir
remote

genealogies,still

usual

gave

O.

PROFESSOR

Neanderthal

C.

the cold shoulder.

quiteagreed that
fossils with

SCIENCE

the

mingled with them

that
bare possibility

the

the

men

the other

on

fondness

for
of

tracing
Engis and

MARSH

Nor

were

all of the

contemporaneity of

animals
had

been

the

bones
112

ed
amount-

whose

remains

man
these huhad

fully established.
of

man

and

ogists
geolbeen

The

of animals

long preceded him

that
the

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

successive

in

caves

had

been

ages,

and

intermingled there, was

as
a last refuge. But

way

securitywas

workers, M.

urged.

This

fragment

of

scratched

rude

antiquitybefore
last

at

could

had

he

the

and

well

seen

the entire
of

this

most

for all time

the

have

and

age,
born

the

Mr.

sociated
as-

Henry

been

outline
evidence

was

portraitof
man's

to

as

the

cave-dwellingman

and

to

the

mammoth

admit

that

contemporaries was
the

therefore,as

soon,

instructive
to

which

on

pictureof

animal,

work

man's

of

art

came

antiquitywas

man

to

cede
con-

full import
to

be

silenced

come.

generationthat

of the
of

to

and

two

suggestivemerely, here

; for

So

realized,scepticismas
In the

If all the

that

case.

of

measure

for in 1865

mammoth,

drawn

had

mammoth

tives
conserva-

of

presented was
have

the

small

Lartet

unmistakable

demonstration

was

not

unless

of

itself.

mammoth

the

mysterious

some

Dordogne, unearthed
such objectioncould
no
exhibit
bit of ivory,
a
was

tusk
but

in

them,

Edouarcl

momentous

the

swept together into

this

even

Christy,in exploring the caves

a bit of evidence
against which
be

PALEONTOLOGY

clung to by

be denied

to

soon

IN

cave-dweller

has

elapsedsince

artist

wide-spread existence

ing
first draw-

discovered,evidences

was

of

the

man

in

an

early epoch

and to-day the paleontolomultipliedindefinitely,

gist
back beyond the iron
traces the historyof our
race
bronze ages, through a neolithic or polished-stone
to a paleolithic
or
rough-stoneage, with confidence

dently
And
he looks confiunequivocal knowledge.
to the future explorerof the earth's fossil records
to
extend
the history back
remote
into vastly more
the
that paleolithic
epochs,for it is little doubted
man,
most
is a modern
ancient
of our
recognizedprogenitors,
of

113

STORY

THE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

compared

to those

childhood

of

our

SCIENCE

generationsthat representedthe

real

race.

VI

Coincidentlywith

the

discovery of these highly suggestive

structiv
inpages of the geologic story, other still more
ica.
chapters were
being brought to lightin Amer-

It
in

found

was

strata

found

that
in

in the

lake

ancient

tertiaryperiod,or age
preserved with fulness

of

Rocky

Mountain

beds,
had

mammals,

records
been

the

of

made

in

approached

not

region,
and
other

any

region hitherto
were

O.

C.

and

geologicallyexplored. These records

known
made
mainly by Professors Joseph Leidy,
Marsh, and E. D. Cope, working independently,
recently by

more

numerous

gists.
paleontolo-

younger

profusionof vertebrate remains thus brought to

lightquitebeggars all previousexhibits in point of mere
numbers.
first
Professor
Marsh, for example, who was
in the field,
found
300 new
the
tertiaryspeciesbetween
The

ears

and

1870

he unearthed

1876.

remains

pterodactyls,or
wings

of

of about

200

birds

flyingdragons, some

twenty-five feet, and

sea-serpent type,

in cretaceous

Meanwhile,

some

of

them

1500

with

with

strata,

teeth, 600
a

spread of
of

mosasaurs

sixty feet

or

the
in

more

length. In a single bed of Jurassic rock, not larger

the remains
than a good-sized lecture-room, he found
of 160
of mammals,
individuals
representing twenty
speciesand nine genera ; while beds of
have yielded 300 reptiles,
varying from
rabbit to sixtyor eighty feet in length.
But

the chief interest of these

114

the

same

the

fossils from

age

size of

the West

is

"2

ll
35"

THE

CENTURY'S

their

not

PROGRESS

number

organisms

Here

succession.
others

the

on

are

bird-like

with

locomotion.

Here

and

bird-like

and

birds
diverse

birds

the

In

short, what

with

between
In

forms,

and

the

These
our

cavil the actual

to

the

modern

reptiles

similar

ous
vari-

way,

and

three

toed

forms, to

like revelations

such

time;
no

are,

Index

to

sent
repre-

of the modern

speciesback
in the

ancestor

an

four

had

and

held

are

one-toed

our

of

say,

tilian
rep-

reptilianbirds

line of descent

rudiment

own

other

eros,
tapir,the rhinoctogether by fossil progenitors.

geologicalepochs, which

early tertiary that

or

eocene

and

Marsh
important of all,Professor
series of mammalian
remains, occurring

two

lineal

the

as

linked

horse; tracing the lineage of

through

cession
suc-

most

discovered

beyond

if the

unbroken

teeth

horse, are

And

in successive

types of

past

an

with

mammalian

and

the

been

the gap
reptiles,
quite bridged over.

is

in

are

reptileswith bat-like wings, and

pelvesand legsadapted for bipedal

are

characters.

has

them

intermediate

existed

globe

PALEONTOLOGY

; for among

nature

justsuch

of

have

must

as

of life

has

their

but

illustrations

numerous

IN

functional

toes

fifth.

have

indeed, still being

of any

sort

now

come

to

lightin

disclosed.

attempts

less
Needto

ceal
con-

them; yet something has been accomplished towards

end
same
by the publicationof the discoveries in

Smithsonian

bulletins, and

government
have

been

surveys.
rescued

interpretersas
inklingof

technical

memoirs

of

Fortunately,however, the results

from
that
partialoblivion by such

Professors

public has

in

Huxley
allowed

been

the wonderful

progress

Cope, so the
to gain at least
of paleontologyin
and

scientific
unan
our

generation.
The

writingsof Huxley

in
117

particularepitomizethe

STORY

THE

record.

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

admitted

he

In 1862

SCIENCE

candidly that

the

paleon-

tologicalrecord as then known, so far as it bears on

doctrine
of progressivedevelopment, negativesthat
In

1870

able

was

severity"of

Brutus-like
that

he

in favor

clear balance

Pikermi,
the

life from

Marsh

OF

an

REPTILES

FOUND

gathered in
unequivocal that,had

on

and

the

the

CONNECTICUT

In

of Natural

1881

of

of

Gaudry
of paleontology,

SANDSTONE

History

he

asserted

previous decade

the transmutation

would
existed,"the paleontologist

then

later,when

years

the evidence

IN

Museum

historical fact."

evidence

Since

leave

of many

In the American

but

assert

existingforms of animal
predecessorsis no longer an hypothesis,

evolution

FOOTPRINTS

the

of the evolution

Six

on

to

"to

seem

in America

that,"

trine.
doc-

somewhat

verdict,and

researches

another."

he declared

their

soften

of the doctrine

livingforms one from

reviewing the work of
in

his former

results of recent

the

"

to

the

delvers

after

have

been

the
so

hypothesis not
had

fossils have

proof in bewilderingprofusion. The

J18

had

that

to invent

it."

piled proof
fossil beds

in

THE

STORY

OF

lemuroid
from

type

in these

form

which
beds.

creature, and

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

It is
of

the

that

other

"Old

their

gested by

Professor

their

becoming

extinct

ape-man

island

of Java

fossil found
two

Eugene Dubois, and

have

been

direct

years
named

-World"

of

the

found
of this

forms

above

Asia, probably,as sug-

to

DAKOTA

SOUTH

Museum

of Natural

across

evolution

History

bridge

a
on

in the

the
of

land

in the

Bering

at

other

their

sphere,
hemi-

nativity.

tertiarystrata

of

the

by the Dutch surgeon Dr.

Pithecanthropuserectus,may

ago

descendant

primitivelemurs, though

be

the descendants

FROM

Marsh,

continue

Strait,to
The

American

way

to

also been

descended, has

thought

TITANOTHERE
In the

believed

mammal,

has

man

to, found

referred

of

SCIENCE

this is
120

American

of the

only

tribe of

conjecture.

CENTURY'S

THE

PROGRESS

strange beasts

all the

Not

in

the
of

culmination

rapidlyin

time

evolution

has

Marsh, Cope,

been

F.

mains
re-

ample,
ex-

stock

same

rhinoceros,represented

of descent.

worked

H.

and

They developed

flourished

and

the

Agassiz's

use

story of their

Professors

by

out

about

Leidy,

Osborne.

bit of

latest

very

the

of

tertiaryperiod; then, to
The
fought againstthem."

the

phrase,

The

line

geologicalsense,

of
"

brontotheridae,for

and

horse

left their

scendant
represented by livingde-

are

titanotheres,or

produced

middle

have

gigantic tribe,offshoots

the

PALEONTOLOGY

which

"

lands

bad

"

our

The

which

IX

evidence
paleontological

ing
bear-

of speciesis that
questionof the introduction
in connection
with the
presentedby Dr. J. L. Wortman
It was
fossil lineage of the edentates.
suggested by
the

on

Marsh,

1877, that these creatures,

in

all South

are

America

before

long

The

connection.

animals

the

of the

sloth

of Natural

that

these and

With

question of
As

the

Professor
is to

name

Thus

land

any

these

preserved

in

shown
of other

here

of
paleontologists

introduction

Marsh

doubt

has

of

said, "

science ; and

seum
Mu-

Wortman.
observations

recent

tell the
time

story

same

regard

evolution

doubt

science

is

only

the

solved.

speciesas

new

to

by strikingly

Dr.

our

scendants
de-

American

the

by

ing
teeth,com-

modern

their

illustrated

tribe,are

outlined

even

their

of

condition

multitude

accord

one

now

from

enamel

History, as
a

be

cannot

the

unique

graded specimens
All

had

continents

two

resentativ
rep-

stages of degenerationby which

graduallylost

finallyto

modern

in North.
originated

American,

the

whose

day
to-

another

for truth."
the

fossil records

third
has

great battle
come

to

121

over

the

conclusion.

meaning
Again

of

the

there

STORY

THE

is

to

truce

that

observer
final

is
that
been

and
full

told?

OF

the

fortified

new

do

we

the

generalization

science

does

this
of

await

or

of

the

story

only

Lamarck

knowledge

of

to-day

with

casual

of

fossils

really

mean

has

paleontology
the

Darwin,

the

to

seem

may

But
of

synopsis

it

stand

present

impregnable.

twentieth-century
the

and

controversy,

Or

SCIENCE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

coming
who
the

of

shall

batteries

the

attack
of

CHAPTER

THE

and

HUTTON'S

are

Theory,

theory
by

few

adherents

the

which

prove

convincing.

the

rival

Werner
the

the

and

way

of

that

rocks

The

followers

tunists;

the

geology

during
the

denied

in
the

Werner

came

Huttonians

intemperate

earth's

of

of

char-

whatever
this

from

sea,

originated

gigantic

crystals,

he

practically

ignored

the

to

theory

be

of

morphosis
meta-

heat.

of

agency

quarter-century

123

universal

are

toto

controversy

"in

present

have

veins

Plutonists.

as

first

the

rocks,

word,

through
of

our

once

that

taught

waters

mountains

at

the

contemporary,

which

even

of

enamoured

precipitation

that

In

and

all

become

of

tury.
cen-

Huttonian

not

famous

heated

by

masses.

action,

of

the
that

cooled

had

paratively
com-

our

friend

did

1802,

solids

formed

been

upheaved

volcanic

in

affirmed

waters

this

the

dissolved

icter, had

not

all

Werner

in

theory

"

and

pupil

Hutton's

of

of

the

of

away

gained

beginning

world

the

Saxony

were

sea.

in

The

beginning"

jrust

the

published

theory

of

the

wear

had

Illustrations

Play fair,

Scotchman,

continents

upheaval

at

lucid

great

GEOLOGY

IN

that

volcanic

replaced

Even

of

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

JAMES

IV

known
The
is

between

as

Nep-

history
mainly
these

of
cital
re-

op-

THE

STORY

OF

posing schools
London

members

compromising theories.
too closelylinked
to
were

The

stratified rocks
Plutonists
had

the

of

brunt

claimed

of

as

theoretical

the

hunt

to

Fact
be

controversy

granites and

"

be

forgotten that,
Geological Society of

effort

an

SCIENCE

not

the

of

making

were

avoid

it should

though

the

meantime,

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

for

and

facts and

ever,
theory, how-

thus

divorced.

settled

about

their

allies

the

un-

which

"

igneous origin. This

the

contention

support of the nebular

hypothesis,

gaining ground, which supposed the earth to be a

coolingglobe. The Plutonists laid great stress,too, on
then

at

to the

The

Mr.

G.

classical work

volcanic

mountains,

peaks, are

belched

forth

But

of other
were

to be admitted

trap

been

"

formations

made
in

and

along
But

the
to

pealed
ap-

gathered

was

and

he claimed

in
for

the

the

of

some

the

highest
of

masses

earth's

crust.

aqueous

that

lava
The

originof

mountains.

Scrope,and as time went on it

that not merely volcanoes,but many
had
not
taking the form of craters
rock through fissures
obtrusion
of molten

by the
overlying
the

its

particularthey

accumulated

crevice

with

well-known

example, to cite
setts,
Holyoke, in Massachu-

Such, for

strata.

are
illustrations,

familiar

towards

Scrope, secretary of the

England, who, in 1823, published
including

creases
in-

Poulett

merely

from

the facts

came
"

as

in

descent

source

Neptunists stoutlycontended
volcanic

as

volcanoes, in which

on

known

But

this

from

GeologicalSociety of
a

ratio

of the earth

of volcanoes.

phenomena

by

temperature

mines.

in

evidence

elaborated

the

constant

pretty

is made

centre

that

fact

the observed

Mount

formation

of

the

Palisades

Hudson.

admit

the

"Plutonic"
124

originof

such

wide-

THE

spread formations

geologiststhen
indeed, with

think

to

came

which

on

the

crust

of

rests

the

as

Lyell,preferredto
only as lakes in a

exist

areas

tunian
Nep-

the

abandon

practicallyto

was

GEOLOGY

IN

nation
explahypothesis. So gradually the Huttonian
of the originof granitesand other "igneous" rocks,
massed
in veins,came
to be accepted. Most
or

whether

mass,

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

earth

solid

molten

film.

mere

believe

as

Some,

the molten

that

crust, heated

to

action, as
melting,perhaps, by electrical or chemical
tempts
Davy suggested. More
recently a popular theory atfacts with the claim of the
to reconcile geological
that
physicists,

the

earth's

entire

rigidas steel,by supposing

the
nucleus.

solid

observed
be that

But
heat

condition

has

molten

and

crust

it may,

as

been

that

is at

mass

film

the

the

instrumental

in

long controversy

the Plutonists

nists and

tween
be-

rests

alleged solid
ranean
theory that subter-

of

dispute since

as

the

determining the
producing many

"primary" rocks, and in

phenomena of the earth's crust, has

other

least

been

never

between

the

in

Neptu-

led to its establishment.

ii

If molten
it must

contract

the

exists

matter

beneath

cooling,and

an

the crust
in

portion of the
plausibleexplanation

level of the

So

continents

theory, as

and

mountains

Hutton

difference

turb
doing it must disfied.
crust
already solidi-

so

of

the

suppliedby

from

the
of

earth,

first

upheaval
the

of

Plutonian

alleged.

But

to the
as
opinion arose
rationale
of such upheavals. Hutton
exact
himself,and
else who
one
practically
accepted his theory, had
every
supposed that there are long periods of relative repose,
now

an

important

had

was

of the

125

THE

STORY

during

which

of

periodsof

up with

thrown

are

the level of

short

by

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

SCIENCE

lowed
is undisturbed, fol-

the crust

stress, when

active

volcanic

suddenness, as by
But

giganticearthquake.
extension

continents

now

of the

the throes

Charles

came

Lyell

with

his famous

uniformitarian"

have

claiming that past changes of the earth's surface

been like present changes in degree as well as in

"

trine,
doc-

making of continents and mountains, he said,

is going on
as
rapidlyto-day as at any time in the past.
There have been no giganticcataclysmicupheavalsat any
time, but all changes in level of the strata as a whole have
been gradual,by slow oscillation,or at most
by repeated
earthquake shocks such as are stilloften experienced.
In support of this very
Lyell
startlingcontention
kind.

The

gathered

of

mass

evidence

level of continental

inspectionthe claim
in 1802, and by von
Sweden

is

feet in

risingat

to sudden

areas,

due

abundance.

Buch

the

that
that

1807, that the coast-line of

in

of from

rate

made

been

cited

Greenland

few

Darwin's

to

eral
sev-

observations

is

of level of several

feet,over

evidence

left it

large

forward

brought

earthquakes,was

Cumulative

inches

and
similarlyrising,
is slowly sinking. Proof

Patagonia

changes
to

had

He

century.

going to prove
Pingel'sclaim
as

which

changes in
by personal
by Play fair

recent

corroborated

He

areas.

the

of

in

longer open

no

question that such oscillatory

changes of level, either
upward or downward, are quite the rule, and it could
not be denied that these observed
changes, if continued
long enough in one direction,would produce the highest
to

elevations.

highest
without

The

ranges

that
possibility
of

mountains

the
had

making
been

exaggerated catastrophic action

freelyadmitted.
126

of

the

even

accomplished
came

to

be

CENTURY'S

THE

"

feet

in the

slow

These

land

of marine

Paris;

near

subaerial

clay

of

in the

thickness

faces
sur-

the surface

ly
seeming-

formation,

coal

hollow.

being

made

were

clear

fresh-water

Cuvier

stood,
undersuch

"

formations

and

Brongniart had
sandwiching of layers of

the

or

sandstone,

or

land

masses,

surfaces

and

series,which

vertical

coal,of

than

and

crest

geologicalenigmas

the alternation

observed

between

sweep

oscillations

many

supposedly stable

sands
reallyrisingand fallingin billows thouinstead
of moments
in height,ages
being

fixed,are

consumed

in

GEOLOGY

variable
more
realitymuch
shiftingsea" ; that continental

of

as

the

IN

in

are

so

that

clear

It became

of the

PROGRESS

between

which

layersof subaqueous
be

may
In

measures.

observed

where
every-

the
particular,

extreme

sedimentary strata as a whole, many'

exceeding the depth of the deepest known
sea,
it was
for the first time
stood
underexplicablewhen

times
was

of

that

the

such

had

strata

in

formed

slowty sinking

ocean-beds.
AH

doubt

being

thus

favorable

removed,

district.

that

in

of

so

height
that

"

eminence.
the

of

have

in
a

rocks

more

Huttonian

will

be

in
intelligently

trine
doc-

surfaces.
to

patent
mountain

the
region where
example, the Alleghanies
in

any

"

many

must

the

the

strata

the
Sicily,

the
Catskills,
129

evidence

are

risen

have

once

been

cases

valley marks
of

for

of land

erosion

which

Where

mountains

other

denudation

evident

strata

stratified

opened

was

that

slow

as, for

now

the familiar
i

be

great folds of

away,
former

and

will

origin of

way

his eyes

uses

tilted

are

miles

case

It

of

of land

amount

who

one

strata

the

extremely

enormous

any

mode

consideration

of the
The

to the

as

entirely

worn

location

level,as

Scotch

of

the

in the

Highlands,

of denudation

is,

STORY

THE

if

OF

even
possible,

and

elevation

of land

out

valleyhave

carved

been

from

rose

the

this herculean

been

accomplished by

the

frost

and

shower

idea

by

the

elements

plateaus.
could
land-sculpturing

of

have

an

it is clear that

level

as

sea

labor

was

SCIEN'CE

; for here

marked

more

that

that

But

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

slow

of wind

action

few

could

men

and

grasp

propounded
half-centuryafter Hutton
it begin to gain general currency
until
did
it; nor
Ly ell'scrusade againstcatastrophism,begun about 1830,
the

within

first

of

century accustomed

to
geologists
the thought of slow continuous
changes producing final
results of colossal proportions. And
even
long after
rector-Ge
combated
as
Murchison, Dithat, it was
by such men
of the GeologicalSurve\7 of Great
ain,
Britthe foremost
of his
then accounted
field-geologist
time, who continued to believe that the existingvalleys

had

for

quarter

features

their main

owe

Even
the

from

the

the

Yon

Buch, whom

died

in

found

in his

sudden

upheaval

of

recession

some

authorities,"lie
who

early faith

the Jura
the

cannon-balls,across

heaval.
up-

de

that

contended

jacks-in-theand fellow-pupil
von
geologistof the time,

the foremost

high on

of

up like veritable

his friend

1853, still firm

forces

made

Buch,

von

sprung

considered

bowlders

subterranean

Continental

Leopold
had

Humboldt

like

belief of

mountains

box.

to

Murchison, however,

and

Beaumont

had

that the erratic

been

valley of

hurled

Geneva

neighboringmountain

there,

by

the

range.

in

The

bowlders

whose

the old German

had

long

been

presence

accounted
a

source

for in

manner

of contention
130

of the Jura

the crags

on

among

so

theatrical

geologists.

CENTURY'S

THE

They

found

are

other
often

and

not

PROGRESS

merely
in

mountains
far out

in the

on

the

Jura, but

all north

less
number-

on

temperate latitudes,

country,

open

GEOLOGY

IN

as

many

farmer

plough against them might testify.

for them, as for nearly
The
early geologistsaccounted
Deluge. Brongeverythingelse,with their supposititious
who

broken

has

THE

niart and

Cuvier

his

RESULTS

and

appeared to have no
of graniteweighing
by this current
scores
But

source.

of

course

OF

EROSION

Buckland

and

hundreds

of

means

or

The

could
bound

the

medium
131

been

of miles

the uniformitarian

transportationfor

only available

had

tons

hundreds

such

of

their

contemporaries
in conceiving that masses
difficulty

explanation,nor
projectionidea; so Lyell was
no

WIND

BY

swept

from

faith

ted
permit-

it countenance
to

find

their

some

the

other

puzzlingerratics.
was

ice,but

fortunately

STORY

THE

this

OF

seemed

one

observed

are

it in the

been

to

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

quite sufficient.
all

carry

sea-bottoms.

manner

Present

beneath

the

SCIENCE

Icebergs,said Lyell,
of debris,and deposit

land surfaces

have

often

During the latest of

these submergences icebergsdepositedthe bowlders
now
scattered
here and
there over
the land.
Nothing could
be simpler or
And
more
even
clearlyuniformitarian.
the catastrophists,
L\Tell amicably on
though they met
submerged

almost

of his
plausibility

the

all

theoretical

other

no

Ly ell's non-conformist
likelyto

most

Yet,

even

sea.

mit
inclined to adground, were
theory of erratics. Indeed, of

doctrines,this seemed

the

one

with

generalacceptance.
this iceberg theory loomed
as
large and
the geological world, observations
were
meet

larger before
destined
to show
making in a different field that were
er
its fallacy. As earlyas 1815 a sharp-eyed chamois-hunthad
noted
the exof the Alps, Perraudin
istence
by name,
of the erratics,and, unlike most
of his companion
hunters, had puzzled his head as to how the bowlders
merged
he saw
them.
lie knew
nothing of subgot where
continents
of icebergs,
still less of upheaving
or
heard
of the
had
mountains; and though he doubtless
Flood, he had no experienceof heavy rocks floatinglike
corks

tops, and

he

would

him

so) to

was

have

of the

been

disbelieve

themselves

present.

he had

observed

never

on
perching themselves
good enough uniformitarian

hill and

rollingup
he

Moreover,

in water.

puzzled indeed
stones

in

in
differently

this

Yet

that

there

the stones

mountain-

had

any

past

times

regard
are.

stones

(though
told

one

had

from

How

ported
dis-

stones

did

they

get there?
The

mountaineer

question.He

saw

thought
about

him
132

that

those

he

could

answer

that

giganticserpent-like

THE

PROGRESS

of ice called

streams

slow

CENTURY'S

IN

glaciers, from
"

rollingon," carrying with

and

other

debris

glaciershad
no\v

them
natural

been

once

they might

are,

where

we

agency

form

to

them

have

carried

the

within

sphere

the

FROM

of

extensive

more

On

CAKVED

blocks

deposits.

find them.

MOUNTAIN

their far fountains

moraine

much

GEOLOGY

the

of the

HORIZONTAL

If

than

bowlders

other

granite

hand,

and
no

these

they
left
other

chamois-hunt-

STRATA

knowledge could have accomplished this,ergo the

Perraudin
extensive.
have been more
glaciersmust once
drove
him
would
probably have said that common-sense
er's

to

this conclusion
one

which

our

of

; but

the few

century

can

be

that

as

it may,

truly originaland
boast.
133

he

novel

had

ceived
con-

ideas

of

TUB

STORY

OF

Perraudin

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

mines

Bex,

at

pupil of

Jean

"

and

Buch

von

Freiberg School

the

mountaineer's

find

And

it.

he

engineer,who
before

felt that

all

the

there

of the
in
to the

became

soon

of

the

ice,and

other

many

abroad

who
now
Charpentier,
gation.
something in it worth investi-

lightof

theory

new

had

the chamois-hunter

became

the

the

enthusiastic

an

Alps

had

in 1836

he

ded
embed-

been

once

brought

porter
sup-

the

notion

of Louis

Agassiz,who was spending the

Alps. Agassiz was scepticalat first,but
Then

convert.

theory

had

M.

of de

He

of

the

Alps

be

that

in the

summer

attention

spect.
greater reVenetz, a civil

glacialtheory
brought the matter

This

1823.

idea

attention

at

the novel

on

paper

right.

mass

Werner

with

notion

Charpentier that

been

under

listener in

might

convinced

along

his

of the field in the

survey

soon

found

societyin

to

more

once

treated

read

local

Humboldt

von

fellow-

of Mines.

who

Then

of the

de

Charpentierlaughed at
grotesque idea,and thought no more
could
years elapsed before Perraudin

ten

one

any

greatest scientist

Charpentier,director
geologistwho had been a

skilled

the

about

his idea to the

announced

in his little world

SCIENCE

been

extended

for evidences

northern

of

the

implications
beyond the Alps. If
ice sheet,so
had
an

with

the

that

saw

far

covered

regions of

he

hemisphere.

ing
Cast-

glacialaction,Agassiz found

everywhere, in the form of transported erratics,

scratched and
polishedoutcropping rocks, and morainethem

like

deposits. Presently he

ice sheet
whole

common

which

of

covered

became

the

higher latitudes
forming an ice cap over
induction

of
134

had

Alps

the

-sense

convinced

the

of

spread

the

the

that the
over

northern

globe.

chamois

Thus

-hunter

the
sphere,
hemithe

blos-

THE

STORY

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

controversy and

tered

probation,the

idea

of

the

the

Age,

exact

of

nature

full

contends; there
of such

was

period is

century that

one

of
of

and
effects,
these

Ice

Ice

precise

the

exact

have

even

Ice

aside, the

many

moot

the

sheet, the

geologistsas

Age

historical

an

Ages,

as

Dr.

surelyone;

and

the conception

of the very

few

ideas

previous century

no

cause

details

been

have

the

all of

not

But,

may

manner

ice

its

produced

All

"

the

recognitionfrom

There

period.
Croll

it

determined.

has

now

of

effects ; and

these

yet been

Age
geology.

attention

generation of
its place among

took

Ice

an

extent

in which

manner

full

the inevitable

of

accepted tenets
points still demanded

SCIENCE

had

even

of

much

so

our
as

faintlyadumbrated.
IV

But, for that matter, the

entire

subjectof historical
geology is one that had but the barest beginning before
found
Until the paleontologist
the
out
our
century.
Button
not even
key to the earth's chronology,no one
"

"

could have

earth's past.
the strata

of

The

deposition,and

small

Werner's

the

found
to

Werner

called

as

who

their

on

story of
to

divided

supposed

he did

not

the succession

there, the

confined

were

hesitate
of strata

concentric

the

classify
the
order

primary, transition,and

observations

the world
same

true

by Werner,

province of Saxony,

that all over

with

made

three systems, based

Though

to the

as

only conspicuous attempt

that

was

into

rocks

definite idea

any

to

ondary.
sec-

the

to affirm

would

be

ing
accordlaj'ers,

this

the

conception,being arranged about the earth

But
in this
regularityof layers on an onion.

was

as

mistaken

as

136

in

his theoretical

explana-

origin of

tion of the
"

primary

"

show

that

in

same

the

of

widely

any

there
truth

quired
re-

act
ex-

the
arated
sep-

was

germ

in Werner's

tem.
sys-

contained

the

It

idea, however
of

terpreted,
faultilyina

succession
and

the

theless,
Never-

regions.
of

ical
chronologof

strata

it furnished
outline

GEOLOGY

strata

precisely

never

IN

little observation

succession
is

It

rocks.

but
to

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

for the

;
JAMKS

ing
work-

who

observers

mVlGHT

to

were

DAXA

make

the

out

geologicaldevelopment. But the correct

facts could only be made
of the observed
interpretation
true

story

of

the Huttonian

after

the

to

as

had

origin of

William

having
this

to

found

which

deal

chanced

which

the
of

that
Werner
He

lilPEY

rous

MUKCIIISOX

137

Smith,

the true

key
story, attempted

with

are

KDUEKICK

ceptance.
ac-

apply it,the territory

where

SIR

strata

gained complete

When

to

view

he
to

had
be

surface

one

rocks
series

later
termed
made

subdivisions

to

ondary.
sec-

numer-

within

THE

STORY

it
system, based mainly on the fossils. Meantime
the strata
that
found
that, judged by the fossils,

this
was

and

Brongniart

studied

Cuvier

period(presumed
to
deluge),which came

latest

which

mammals
But
"

"

spoken of

be due

seemed

to

the

the

been

strange

found.

were

studied, were

still

have

to

of

tertiary.

as

rocks, underlying the

Smith

that

system

be

first described

Cuvier

transition

"

the

first to

lakes,that many

fresh-water

in

formed

of

were

at

of which

beds,some

in these

was

Paris

near

recent

more

It

SCIENCE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

still

"

ary
second-

practically

taken
they were
unexplored when, along in the thirties,
in hand
Impey Murchison, the reformed
by Roderick
and
fox-hunter
ex-captainwho had turned geologistto

such

Sedgwick,
advantage, and Adam
Woodwardian
professorat Cambridge.
notable

iant
the brill-

together, these two friends classified the

transition rocks into chronologicalgroups, since familiar
in the largeroutlines as the Silurian system
to every one
Working

and
the Devonian
(age of invertebrates)
derived
respectivelyfrom
fishes) names

country of
Devonshire, England.

"

the
It

Silures,in Wales, and

ancient

subsequentlydiscovered

was

strata, which

crop

sheets
and

Europe
in

them

Yerneuil

in

over

and

work.

von

In

and

spread

thousands

America.

Russia,

that

beneath

Britain, are

in

areas

from

out

Kerserling,in

America

they

these

on

rocks

that

are

rocks

in

out

into broad

of
stricted
redisturbed
un-

in continental

Murchison

studied

them, conjointly with

cal
a
ponderous and classi-

were

of still older
138

systems

newer

studied

berry, Whitney, Dana, Whitfield, and

all but anticipated
who
their
geologists,
The

the

of miles

Later
described

system (age of

by Hall, Newother
pioneer
poraries.
English contem-

formation

than

those

CENTURY'S

THE

studied

by

location

to

the

are

and

Murchison

the

and

primary

surface

first

were

"

the

1846, and

later

"

Canadian
on

by

rocks
of

of
vast

studied

Sir William

139

by

Canada,

William

I.

Survey, as early as
Dawson.

system
the

tion)
concep-

in

areas

there

Government

representparts of

Werner's

LL.D.

SMITH,

comprisingtheLaurentian
to

"

feature

WILLIAM

GEOLOGY

Sedgwick (correspondingin

prominently

Logan, of

IN

PROGRESS

"

were

crust
original

These

rocks

formerly supposed
of the

earth,

STORY

THE

formed

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

SCIENCE

first

coolingfrom a molten state ; but they

posits
are
now
more
generallyregarded as once-stratified demetamorphosed by the action of heat.
Whether
primitive or metamorphic, however, these
Canadian
the fossilbeneath
rocks, and analogous ones
iferous strata of other countries,are
the oldest portions
of which
of the earth's
crust
geology has any present
Mountains
of this formation, as the Adiknowledge.
rondacks, and the Storm
King range overlooking the
the patriarchsof their
"West Point, are
Hudson
near
kind, beside which Alleghaniesand Sierra Nevadas
are
recent
are
mere
upstarts,and Rockies, Alps, and Andes
of yesterday.
parvenus
The
Laurentian
rocks were
at first spoken of as representing
on

"

"

"Azoic"
formation
the

deep

Still

such

as

with

met

very

has

in

midst
low

speak of

Smith's

William

system

be termed

Murchison

general favor.

togetherspoken

the

life,and

Carboniferous

of

as

to

be

after that
"

as

Eozoic."

supposed

questioned,and

invertebrates,of fishes,and
are

of

found

believed

was

title of Dawson's

been

and

Dawson

1846

which

form

early rocks

Silurian,Devonian,
of

to

recentlythe

more

rank

customary

that the
has

in their

fossil relic of

it became

to

time; but

fossil

Dana's

merely

gestion
sug-

Archaean

and

Sedgwick's
groups (the ages

of coal

plantsrespectively)
representingPaleozoic time.

system of strata, next

these,once

above

secondary,"represents Mesozoic time,or the age

of reptiles. Still higher, or
Cuvier
more
recent, are
and Brongniart'sTertiaryrocks, representingthe age of
mammals.
recent
formations, dating
Lastly,the most
called

"

back, however,
any

but

period
geologicalsense,

representingthe

to

age

of

far

enough

are

classed

man.

140

from
as

recent

in

Quaternary,

It

be

not

must

that

"ages"

successive

the

of
shut

geologist

off from
in

point of
"ages" have
than

might

no

for
have
and

of

bal
ver-

suggest. In
fact, these

to

warrant

bitrary
ar-

this

classification
seem

other
an-

such
as

way

are

one

any

better

existence
the

turies"
"cen-

the "weeks"

Very-day COmptltation.
They are convenient, and

GEORGE

for local divisions

no

GEOLOGY

posed,
sup-

however,
the

IN

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

actual gaps

in the

in the

POULETTE

they

strata, but

sweep

SCROPE,

stand

even

may

they are

of terrestrial

F.R.a

bounded

by

events.

Moreover, it
understood

be

must

the

that
of

"ages"

different
scribed
de-

continents, though
under
name,

the
not

are

of exact

same
sarily
neces-

contem-

poraneit}7.There
test

sure

by

could

be

it

shown

that
age,

outlined

strata
not
SIR

CHARLES

LYELL,

BART,

F.R.S.

141

of

begin

no

available

which

as

is

the

for

nian
Devo-

instance,
in

Europe,
millions

the
did

of

STORY

THE

earlier

years
said

later than

or

fail

identityof

origin; for the

age is ground

veritable

present

that

seas

to earliest

chalk

regions not

far

limestone
This

On

Paleontology,of
tests, but
been

the

time

if ever,

other

since

when

the

of

one

It

age.
of

some

our

dating back

hand,
the

at

rocks

ferent
dif-

time

same

in

along shore, a

and

chalk

three

their

rocks

now

yond.
be-

process
different

logical
chrono-

better

have

limitations.
in existence

had

earth

bed

in the

of

record

these

even

in

mass

supplies far

course,

after

age

sandstone

rock

subsequentages.
change but little

stratum, broken

seem

no

the

seaward,

continuous

upheaval, might
epochs.

has

say

farther

of

forming

be formed

"

the

continuous

one

may

apart

of

There

of

made

still

geologicages.

in character

coral

be

beds

form

may

contemporaneous

conditions

may

In attempting

adjoiningregions

of

substance

where

seas

of rock

form

is believed

of

up to build the rocks

in

Furthermore,

are

this,mineralogical

as

proof

no

records

in America.

age

in rocks

is

structure

SCIENCE

periodwhose

details

Even

utterly.

us

same

such

decide

to

the

the

represent the Devonian

to

data

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

uniform

were

formed,

climate

its entire
fauna
over
singleundiversified
surface, as the early paleontologistssupposed.

land

and

ed
Speaking broadly,the same
general stages have attendthe evolution
of organic forms
everywhere, but there
is nothing to show
that equal periods of time witnessed
correspondingchanges in diverse regions,but quite the
the marsupial
contrary. To cite but a singleillustration,

order,

which

livingfauna
died

out

is the

dominant

of Australia

there

geologistmight

in

the

think

type of the

mammalian

to-day,existed
Tertiary age.

the

Australia
142

of

in

Europe

Hence

and

future

to-daycontempo-

CENTURY'S

THE

it

IN

of

of the

the

the

trace

to

attempt

the

No

of formation

sequence

attempting

to chronicle

from

the matrix

parts

rose

story is found

in the

surface

feature

in each

are

at

the

surface

in any

that

the

age,

appear
Devonian

consideration

land

did

this,due

therefore,is
permanent
to

establish

been

to the

that

All that

away.

exact

there

is

that

land
know

the

even

this

to

that

strata

lay

once

land

are

above

rocks

moment's
of

this is much

chronologicalorder
period,for all parts of any

that

them

have

the

not

all

lie at

may

geologistdare

earlier than

tainty
uncer-

of feet of

region in question did

the

element

an

in

surface

steady denudation

the cautious

surface

caution

key

But

undergo. The Devonian

simply because the thousands

strata

But

that

single

rocks
territory.If Devonian
given region,for example, it

region became
just afterwards.

or

its various

The

sea.

surfaces

the surface

worn

of the

this

shows

about

in which

order

now

of all

Beaumont

identification of the

the

would

the

the

would

one

within
the limits of
Even
half-centuryago.
continent,the geologistmust proceed with much
in

subject

simple matter

globe,as filiede

the

of

mountains

exact

the

it.

esteemed

science

dated
realityante-

to render

these

fathers

in

puzzlingfeatures unite
historical geology anything but

All

GEOLOGY

period in Europe which

by perhaps millions of year
with

raneous

PROGRESS

boniferous
car-

been

assert,
become

Devonian

age.

indeed, to
sufficient,

"

of

elevation,if

continent

that

not

its

have

geologically
explored understanding always that
there must
be no scruplingabout a latitude of a few millions
or
perhaps tens of millions of years here and there.
K

"

145

STORY

THE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

SCIENCE

continent,for example, we
Kegarding our own
of a multitude
of workers
through the researches
in the early day it was
a
mere
archipelago. Its
island

backbone

the

"

of

the

future

continent

learn
that
chief

was

"

Hudson
surrounding what is now
of a
Bay, an area built up, perhaps,through denudation
ancient polar continent,whose
existence
is only
yet more
t-he
conjectured. To the southeast an island that is now

great Y-shaped

Adirondack

area

Mountains,
south

representedby
westward

the

another

above

Jersey Highlands,rose
far to the

and

the

probably a

the

Eidge

is

the

now

of waters

waste

stretched
Blue

that

; and

line of islands

Mountains.

now

Far

off to

line of islands foreshadowed

another

present Pacific border.

few

minor

our

islands in the interior

completed the archipelago.

this bare, skeleton

From

depositof

the

islands

from

sediment

(which

the continent

the denudation

partlyby

of the

inal
orig-

miles,perhaps, where

towered

once

grew,

but largelyalso by the

of feet),
they rise thousands
in the interior sea,
depositof organic remains, especially
now

teemed

which

In

life.

with

the

brates
ages, inverte-

Silurian

brachiopodsand crinoids,andcephalopods
dominant
types. But very early no one knows

the

there

"

early ones
yet, large spaces

enclosed

vegetation grew
coal beds.
Many
to be

or

times

their

formation

in

having

of

remains

forests

to
146

Later
risen

to

the

form

to

formed,

were

of the

of this Paleozoic

thickness,and

some

strange types of

the oscillations

stands

shells.

sea

forests

such

over

All told,the strata

miles

turtlelike

deposited their

and

destroyed by

several

in

the interior

within

surface,great marshes

only

strange forms,

fishes of many

came

of the

in

just

"

when

the

were

"

"

land

face.
sur-

period aggregate
time

all later time

consumed

up

to

the

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

TilE

IN

present,according to Professor
to

Dana's

GEOLOGY

estimate,as

three

one.

the close of this Paleozoic

Towards
Mountains

of
the

miles

above

since

gnawed

them

continental

The

Appalachian

slowly upheaved in great convoluted

them
probably reaching three or four
sea-level,
though the tooth of time has

were

folds,some

the

era

down

comparativelypuny limits.
ing
enlarged were
peopled dur-

to

thus

areas

with
time
of
multitudes
ensuing Mesozoic
of them
gigantic in size. The
strange reptiles,
many
and
fishes,
waters, too, still teeming with invertebrates
in the air
had their quota of reptilianmonsters
; and

the

of
some
flyingreptiles,
from
tip to tipof their

were

feet

the

era

of the

border

folds,for they
floods

the

the

on, in

the

bend

as

were

into

ern
east-

haps
per-

mountain

as

still in evidence

are

the

Palisades

along
Holyoke in

Mount

three

rocky

contrast

with

dacks, Green
heads

to

was

the

"

five

or

ten

the

by

million

that

slow
is to

years ago"

Mountains.

forms

shrunken

rounded

In the vast

divided

only yesterday

Mountains, and
and

be

which, later

sea,

High and erect these

stand
to this day, their sharp angles
vouching for their youth, in strange

Rocky

contours

or

interior

vast

land, which

mountains

young

ages.

the

million,or

became

Tertiary age,

uprising of

and

strata

of which

elevations

remained

Still there

the

the

lettingout
great fissures,

denudation,

such

and

Near

rose.

this

Massachusetts.

western

say,

of

ages

Hudson,

into

rent

twenty-five

wings. During

stiff to

lava,remnants

of molten
after

and

were

bat-like

continent

forming

thick

too

now

measured

Mountains

Nevada

Sierra

which

lakes

140

the

old

Adiron-

Appalachians, whose

shoulders
which

of

attest

the

still remained

ered
low-

weight
on

of

either

THE

STORY

side

of

the

formed

Rocky
the

to

here

and

Finally

interior

the

the

came

of

long

of

before

lay almost

mile

denudation

then, in

our

when

time, to

own

paleontologist.
the

and
filled,

of the

shore

At

haps
per-

"

The

ice sheet

driving
parallel,

destroying those

its

depth

line.
out-

glacialepoch

fortieth

the

it,and

in

which

nearly their present

about

migrate.

to

closing
miles, en-

remains

glacialepochs.

animals

slowly

were

three

or

by

were

winter

to

unable

view

to the

seas

southward

some

mass

vertebrate

assumed

succession

extended

were

those

story

lines of the continent

Then

of two

there

wonderful

so

depth

exposed again to
still higher,and
rose

the land
tell

ultimate

SCIENCE

Tertiary strata

range,

be

to

were

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

that
ice

fulness,the great
New

over

England,

as

by the scratched and polishedrock surfaces and

Such a mass
depositederratics in the White Mountains.
and
with a weight of about
hundred
one
presses down
twenty-five tons to the square foot, according to Dr.
neath
CroH's
estimate.
It crushed
and ground everything beit more
or
less,and in some
regions planed off

attested

hillysurfaces
carried

all

prairies.Creeping slowly forward,

into

of debris

manner

its terminal

away
land

masses

known

now

; other
Boston

moraine

the

famous

scattered

all

river

its

courses

of

and

up

course.
or

York

the

Island
the

"

Breeds

"till"

ridges of

erratics clear

the ice sheet

along

Long

as

Bunker

as

latitude of New

As

built

the

across

it melted

When

it.

of its depositsformed

long irregularline
and

with

nucleus
and

of

Staten

drumlins

hills;and
or

it

"

and
Isl-

about

it left

bowlder

country

the

clay

at about

City.
it left minor

slowly receded
Sometimes

in
inequalities
150

moraines

its depositsdammed
the

surface,to

form

up
the

CENTURY'S

THE

which

lakes

PROGRESS

abound

everywhere

that

all events, it left

live

closingof
the

period the

this

all

exist

along

At

the line

this

to

lakes,

day

as

the

of the

border

the

on

feeds

basins of many
the Saint Lawrence.

its remnants

glaciersand

mountain

first

the

out

of its presence

traces

its retreat, and

of

view

ries.
territo-

suggested
Geological Survey, that the

by Kamsey, of the British

great glacialsheet scooped
includingthe system

the

GEOLOGY

Northern

over

hold

even
glacialists

Some

IN

polar ice cap. Indeed, we

last glacialepoch, for with the
long geologicpast merges into

present.
VI

And

the

That

change.

and

men
first,

to

it

were

it has
was

which

true

pass

James

very

the truth

could
of that

fair's Illustrations

you
text

of

find

that

every

hardly

can

scientific

three

assert

that

ceived
con-

appreciate.

new

declare

stages
"

it hostile

natural

has

one

law

is

where
this final stage. No-

scientist

who

would

dispute
Play-

Lyell,quoting from
Huttonian
Theory, printedon

which
the

to

they

truth
always. Button's
changelessand eternal has reached

of

time

his contemporaries

one

"

Every
through

it

now

which
slow

Button

; then

they
religion
; finally,

known

past, is

axiomatic

doubted.

ever

it is not

so

become

Agassiz,must
say

the

century ago, but

successors

Now, however,
truth, says

thought

is the
than

more

realize that

less than

present,no

tions
all the revolutkle-pageof his Principles: Amid
has been uniform,
of Nature
of the globe the economy
and her laws are
the only things that have resisted
the rocks, the
the general movement.
The
rivers and
been changed in all their
and the continents, have
seas
direct those changes, and the
parts ; but the laws which
the

"

153

STORY

THE

rules

OF

which

to

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

they

SCIENCE

subject,have

are

remained

bly
invaria-

the same."
other

the

But, on

Hutton

hand,

and

Playfair,and

inferences
from
particularLyell,drew
the modern
which
by no
physicistcan
it implied that the changes on
To them
have

the earth

kind,

in

as

hold

and

must

world

as

modern

of the

adolescence

to

of

and

and

of that.

Lord

the

well

as

present forces
of

But

the
the

insightby
of
dissipation

the
ergy,
en-

Kelvin, in particular,

periodsof our earth's infancy and

have
been,
developmental changes must

any

other

pronounced
clear

every

while

of

in the

its

like those

rapid

degree

mechanical

conservation

none

that

urged

the surface

words, they thought

given truer
physicist,
will have

has

admit.

machine.
great perpetual-motion

doctrines

principle

means

in

same

continue

so

In other

their sway.

the

been

always

this

in

thinker

infant

organism, vastly more

those of a later day ; and

than
this

truth

also must

now

seem

axiomatic.
Whoever

thinks

hardly

doubt

heaved

under

that

of the

earth

strain of

the

of that

stress

which

Jersey coast,

belching of
geyser,
areas
over

or

were

the

an

the
rent

thousands

perhaps at

now

coolingglobe can
thinner, may

moon's

nearer
body was
like waves
risingand falling,
magnified.

Under

its crust, when

that

not

or

as

tidal

pull
"

into great

"

of the

have

whether

billows,dailv

present

seas

vastly

lateral pressure from

traction
conproduces the slow depressionof the

slow

same

rise of

Sweden,

the

occasional

insignificant
volcano, the jettingof a
trembling of an earthquake,once
large
in
of

twain,
square

and

miles

singlejet; and,
154

floods of lava

vast

for

of

the

aught

earth's
we

know

flowed
surface
to the

CENTURY'S

T11E

PROGRESS

contrary, giganticmountains
heads

contorted
most

ardent

could

have

of

volumes

since

that

stored

have

granites,may
hand, and

built

rapiditythat
And

and

up

would

beds

in

worn

of

these

of

the

geology

filled with

chemicals

other

vast

that

coal, limestone,and

down

the

organic forms on
seem
hardly
now

yet wh,ileall

day

their

OWEN

RICHARD

SIR

elder

early day,

carbon, oxygen,
been

heaped up
spasmodic as even

the

of
catastrophist

GEOLOGY

have

may

cataclysms as

imagined.
atmosphere of

The

have

in

IN

anomalous
155

rocks, on
the

the

one

other, with

conceivable.

things went

on,

STORY

THE

the

held

laws

same

that

concession

in

embittered

geological

century
that

due

the

of

of
from

that

the

whatever

level

not

action

of

land

them

being

the

the

of

our

realize

to

the

future.

and

under

each

If

of

stage

is

cooling

will

will

assume

just

continue

the

and

away,
into

afforded

its

of

to-day, until,

does

it

as

by

as

ly,
sure-

to

wear

the

last

globe, lapsing

our

second

port
trans-

sation
compenof

the

for

the

upheaval
will

land

dry

water,

the

childhood,

will

before

the

as

refrigeration,

Then,

elements

differ

true,

contour

attained.

ation
oper-

it be

earth

the

The

will

day

it.

its surface

foot

last

beneath

organism

middle

of

surfaces, particle b}r particle, and

longer

time

melting

most

parties

of

so

present

the

ocean,

continents,
last

both

true

a.

unwonted

no

the

operate;

that

yet

the

to

no

of

forces

when

of

the

away

of

preceded

its

come

slow

to

has

must

rigidity

though

present,

believes,

physicist

time

and

unchanging

one

globe, then,
the

all

failure

continue

these

every

every

make

controversies

past

will

forces

same

would

; and

fact.

simple
as

operative

"

the

to

SCIENCE

are

them

conceding

were

And

now

uniformitarianism

of

doctrine

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

sink

mountain

-peak

like

other

be

any
the

on

sur-

face
"

rose

"

as

presumably

one

time
in

the

throbbed.

sweep

"

vast

and
of

it

waste

things,
the

was

of

waters."

an

awful

cosmic

life,

As

cycle
a

first

puny
will

have

pulse-beat

continent
man

ceives
con-

lapsed
will

have

CHAPTER

THE

CENTURY'S

AN

"

M.

of

13th

the

"

France,

of

citizen
of

France

"

in

Such
a

form

sky,
Such
The

"
"

it

perhaps

hung

loud

sound,
the

over

people,

of

ball
"fire-

and

the

over

then

ploded
ex-

thousands

scattering

surface

3,

wildfire,"

was

"

many

May
of

appearance

which

by

seen

"miracle"

could

had
of
and

been

lightning
hurling

cases

had

agog
as

literal

of

territory

some

before

their

authenticity

heart

of

unbelief."

For

that

some

the

over

announced

been
years

appearing

"

thunder-bolts

scientific
such

whether

question

reported

the

at

had

real

in

clear

existence.

"

been

"thunder-bolts"
relics

have

not

time.

opportune

world

the

was

outside

which

meaning

as

date

under

extent.
a

more

date

trict,"
dis-

our

undistinguished

"

fragments

miles

"
"

in

L'Aigle,

at

11

chronicle

being
with

occurred
if

interpreted

daylight

naive

meadow,"

home

year

be

just

worthy

his

"miracle"

broad

the

stony

from

would

in

has

Marais,

METEOROLOGY

IN

miracle

Floreal,

This

1803.

says

PROGRESS

astonishing
wrote

reported

often

themselves

had

chided

been
But

and

scientific
157

it

is true.

exhibited

were

altar,

an

many

enough,

those
as

who

having

scepticism

cred
sa-

as

doubted
"an

had

evil

ques-

STORY

THE

of

consensus

earth

that

SCIENCE

late in the

opinion in

admit

to

the

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

the evidence, and

tioned
a

OF

such

French

the
stones

by lightning,"let

eighteenthcentury

had

alone

clined
Academy had debeen
conveyed to
"

miraculous

more

any

agency.
In

1802, however, Edward

before

Howard

had

read

paper

Royal Society in which, after reviewing the

evidence recentlyput forward, he had reached
the conclusion
from the sky, sometimes
that the fall of stones
be admitted
or
always accompanied by lightning,must
as

the

actual

an

the

when

now,

phenomenon,

brilliant

stone-fall

great

French

the

however

Academy

physicistJean

young

haste

made

send

to

BaptisteBiot

to

the

gate
investi-

be set finally
might, if possible,
in all respects successful,
The investigation
at rest.
was
the stony or metallic lightand Blot's report transferred
ning-bolt

it,that

But

matter

the aerolite

"

tradition

the

at

inexplicable.So
nounced,
anL'Aigle was

and

formed

how

masses

from

that

had
the

but this contention

not

earth
was

from

"

the

realm

of

acceptedscience.
strange phenomenon ? At once

conjectureto

explainthis
rife.
speculationwas
stony

meteorite

or

of

theory contended

One

that

the

actually fallen, but had been

by the action of the lightning;
early abandoned.

The

chemists

disposed to believe that the aerolites had been

of elements
formed
floatingin the
by the combination
the
other
hand,
atmosphere. Geologists, on
upper
of terrestrial origin,urging that
they
thought them
The
omers,
astronmight have been thrown up by volcanoes.
as
represented by Olbers and Laplace, modified
this theory by suggestingthat the stones
might, indeed,
uated
have been
cast
out
by volcanoes, but by volcanoes sitwere

not

on

the earth, but

on

158

the

moon.

THE

STORY

his belief that

declared
in

one

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

these

kind

origin and

SCIENCE

fallingstones were
really
those
of
flashingmeteors

with

atmosphere which are familiar everywhere as

shooting-stars."
of these coruscatingmeteors, he affirmed,must
Each
tell of the ignitionof a bit of cosmic
matter
entering
ter
the earth's atmosphere. Such
wandering bits of matmight be the fragments of shattered worlds, or, as
Chladni
probable, merely aggregations
thought more
the

upper

"

of

"world

stuff"

hitherto

never

connected

with

any

largeplanetary mass.
Naturally enough,
favor.

scant

it;
fervor

the

being

atheistic

"

perfectmechanism.
Some
light was

view

time

world

with

met

very

little to

saw

rejected it

tify
juswith

heretical,"because

and

impl}7that

to

seem

at that

non-scientific

would

acceptance
a

Astronomers

and

as

unique

so

the

universe

its

is not

point presently
of Brandes
and Benzenberg, which
by the observations
tended
that
travel at an
actual
to show
falling-stars
This
speed of from fifteen to ninety miles a second.
observation
tended to discredit the selenic theory,since
an
ly
object,in order to acquire such speed in fallingmerefrom
the moon,
have
been projected with an
must
itial
invelocitynot conceivably to be given by any lunar
volcanic
viction
impulse. Moreover, there was a growing conthat
other

and

complete
But
no

when
and

are

no

considerations

abandonment

the

means

there

thrown

theory

of

on

the moot

active
of

volcanoes

the

telluric

easily disposed of.

electrical phenomena
were
interest,and

there
160

the

moon,

led to the

theory.

origin of

so

universal

tenor

same

of the selenic

on

aerolites

This

was

an

by
epoch

was

exciting unbounded
was

not

unnatural

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

IN

METEOROLOGY

in explanationof every
tendency to appeal to electricity
the seeming similarity
obscure
phenomenon ; and in this case
and
the flash of an
between
a
lightning-flash
color

aerolite

lent

Thomas

Forster,

find
explanation. So we
ing
meteorologistof repute, still adher-

atmospheric theory of

the

to

the

to

publishedin

in his book

opinion of

the

time

telluric theories, to

1823

seemed

the

formation

of aerolites

and, indeed, the prevailing

divided

neglect of

between

various

cosmical

any

theory

whatever.

occurred

in 1833

But

finallyat

matter

November

in

of

centre

the

of

great meteoric

that

}Tear, and

shower

appeared

to

this centre

in

that

heavens,
the

the
curred
oc-

observing it

from

come

vanishing-point in the
shifted its positionwith

or

set

shower

Olmsted, of Yale, noted

Denison

Professor
stars

rest.

which

phenomenon

all the
a

single

and

that

stars, and

hence

full

vation
significanceof this obsermonstrate
at once
was
recognized by astronomers
; it debeyond all cavil the cosmical origin of the
conservative
Some
meteorologistskept
shooting-stars.
telluric.

not

was

up the argument
to

in

come

as

the

for the telluric

of

matter

course

of progress.

rear

silenced

The

when

the

"

But

originfor

such

great shower

band

these

even

of

decades

some

trails

always

doubters

were

shooting-starsappeared

again in 1866, as predicted by Olbers

radiatingfrom the same
point of the

and

ton,
New-

heavens

as

before.
Since then the
evidence

as

to

spectroscope has added

the

star,and, moreover,
with

such

Thus

it appears

distant

its

confirmatory
identityof meteorite and shootinghas linked these atmospheric meteors

cosmic

residents

thatChladni's
161

as

comets

and

nebula?.

daringhypothesisof

1794

THE

has

STORY

been

OF

than

more

postulatedand
have

been

than

any

that

the

fragments

atheistic

for

billions of times

"

which

of

he

postulating
"

more

numerous

bodies
of which
have
we
larger cosmic
nizance"s
cogwidely does the existinguniverse differ from
preconceivednotions as to what it should be.

man's
Thus

which
an

be

to

SCIENCE

planetaryconnection

declared

was

shown

verified,and

from

dissociated

matter

"

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

also
the

the

of

miracle

scientific

evil heart

natural

"

of

of the

scepticismof

unbelief," turns

phenomena,

atmosphere some

"

inasmuch

millions

as

of times

fallingstone, against
yesterday presented
be

the

out

to

it is

repeated in
day.

each

most
our

ii

If fire-balls

and portentous
thought miraculous
in days of yore, what
needs
have
interpretationmust
been
enon,
picturesquephenomput upon that vastly more
the
aurora?
"Through all the city,"says the
for the space of almost
Book
of Maccabees,
fortydays,
horsemen
there
seen
were
running in the air,in cloth
of soldiers : and
with lances,like a band
of gold, armed
in array encountering and
running
troops of horsemen
tude
one
againstanother, with shaking of shields and multiof pikes,and
drawing of swords, and casting of
and harness."
of golden ornaments
darts,and glittering
the aurora
Dire omens
these; and hardly less ominous
it
observed
seemed
to all succeeding generations that
witness
down
till well into the eighteenthcentury
as
the
in England in 1710
the popular excitement
over
were

"

"

brilliant

aurora

of

that

year,

which

became

famous

through Halley's description.

But

after

1752, when

Franklin
162

dethroned

the

light-

CENTURY'S

THE

METEOROLOGY

IN

PROGRESS

ning,all spectacularmeteors
natural phenomena, the aurora

to

came

be

regarded

the

among

rest.

as

lin
Frank-

which
was
seen
explained the aurora
commonly
enough in the eighteenthcentuiy, though only recorded
"

CIRRUS

once

in the seventeenth

on
electricity

to

the

the

CLOUDS

due

as

"

surface

of

to

the accumulation

polar

equator through

the

and

snows,

of

charge
its dis-

atmosphere.

upper

suggested that the luminositymight be

due to the ignitionof hydrogen, which
was
supposed by
the upper atmosphere. Daito form
philosophers
many
Erasmus

ton, who

Darwin

first measured

particlesin
the most

the

height

of

the

aurora,

mating
esti-

the

phenomenon
to
ferruginous
magnetism acting on
perhaps
air, and his explanation was

it at about
due

the

one

popular one

hundred

at the

miles,thought

beginning of

163

the

century.

OF

STORY

THE

Since

then

aurora,

but

fact

it

as

is
ago.

has

the scientific grasp

to

seems

There

has

casual

it,however.

been

Much

found

to-day as

it

dearth

of

studied

Biot, who

dust,the originof

have

it due
he

which

to

was

studied

it

observation,and

no

1817, thought

SCIENX'E

of observers

multitude

undetermined

as

in

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

as

its

theories

it in the

recently the

to

exact

Shetland

of

settled

in

years

ands
Isl-

ferruginous

Icelandic

idea

ure
nat-

concerning

electrified

ascribed

elusive in

hundred

the

canoes.
vol-

ferruginous
has been revived,their presence
being ascribed
particles
not to volcanoes, but to the meteorites
constantlybeing
in the upper
atmosphere. Ferruginousdust,
dissipated
presumably of such origin,has been found on the polar
the snows
of mountain-tops,
well as
but
on
as
snows,
whether
it could
is
produce the phenomena of auroras
at least an
open question.
due
theorists have
Other
to
as
explained the aurora
of electricity
clouds or
the accumulation
on
on
spicules
of ice in the upper air.
Yet others think it due
merely
to the
through rarefied air itself.
passage of electricity
Hum

more

bold t considered

the

matter

yet another

when

Faraday showed, in 1831, that magnetism

effects.
But
produce luminous
perhaps the premay
vailing
that the aurora
is due
theory of to-dayassumes
of electricity
to a current
generated at the equator, and
the
passing through upper regions of space, to enter
earth at the magnetic poles simply reversingthe course
way

"

which

The
in

Franklin

assumed.

of
similarity
vacuum

support

to the

is of electrical

the

auroral

lightto

that

generated
lends
electricity

by the passage of
long-standingsuppositionthat the aurora
but the subject still awaits
plete
comorigin,

bulb

elucidation.

For

once

164

even

that

mystery-solver

CENTURY'S

THE

the

PROGRESS

spectroscope

from

the

has

been

substance.

light,it is true, but this is of

light,though thought by some
meteor

whole,

known

the
to

exact

be

what
which

the
visible,

Ilumboldt
manifests

in

aid, for

the

itself to

the

zodiacal
be due

to

to

be, on

to

it has

aurora,

with

the
a

long
nomena
phe-

brilliant

CLOUDS

world
a

nized
recogzodiacal

Whenever

magnetism.

called

any

itself.

of

nature

it sifts

the

astronomers

aurora

CUMULUS

is

line

of

intimatelyassociated

of terrestrial

aurora

that

is found

little

the

sun, is held

the

mysterious as

as

Whatever
been

the

about

swarms

by

like line

METEOROLOGY

baffled,for

matched

is not

aurora

IN

is

sure

magnetic
human

senses

to

visited

be

storm

in

"

no

"storm"
way

except by deflectingthe magnetic needle

165

with

soever
whatand

THE

STORY

SCIENCE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

conjuringwith the electric wire. Such magnetic storms

are
just
curiouslyassociated also with spots on the sun
how
has explained,though the fact itself is unquestioned.
no
one
directlylinked with
Sun-spots,too, seem
each of these phenomena passing through periods
auroras,
least frequency in corresponding
of greatest and
"

cyclesof
It

in the

variations

effect

full

suspected a

was

the

years'duration.

eleven

about

number

weather,

terrestrial

upon

of

spots had

sun

and

he

by using the priceof wheat as a

conditions,meantime
making careful

of climatic
of the

sun-spots. Nothing very

efforts in this

direct

attempted

it

demonstrate

that

Herschel

by

century ago

definite

direction,the subjectbeing far

criterion
tion
observaof his

came

too

to

complex

long periods of observation.

Latterly,however, meteorologists,particularlyin the
are
disposedto think they find evidence of some
tropics,
to

without

be determined

between

connection

such

is a

sun-spots and
That

of the
effects

casual

of excessive

seasons

such

some

weather

as

connection

But

the

does

rain
exist

in India.

seems

cally
intrinsi-

modern

meteorologist,
learning
past,is extremely cautious about ascribing
to astronomical
phenomena. He finds it

probable.
wisdom

the

declares that
suspected. Indeed, Mr. Meld rum
ous
positivecoincidence between
periods of numer-

Herschel
there

sun-spots and

of climatic
recentlyall manner
with
associated
conditions
were
phases of the moon
;
of falling-stars
that not so very long ago showers
were
considered
''prognostic" of certain kinds of weather;
had been accepted as
and that the "equinoctialstorm"
hard

to

forgetthat

verityby

every

banished

Yet,

on

the

until

one,

it from
other

until the

unfeelinghand

tics
of statis-

the earth.

hand,

it is
166

easilywithin

the

possi-

THE

with

STORY

which

of water

water

NINE1EENTH-CENTURY

the familiar

phenomenon
explained.

was

Franklin
as

OF

had

suggested that

dissolves salt,and

STRATUS

this

SCIENCE

of the

air dissolves

theory was

evaporation
water

still

much

popular,

CLOUDS

disproved it by showing that water

than in air.
more
rapidlyin a vacuum
evaporates even
earlier chemists,
from
Deluc's
own
theory, borrowed
union
of particles
that evaporation is the chemical
was
of the supposititious
element heat.
with particles
of water
the two
combined
Erasmus
Darwin
theories,suggesting
that the air might hold a variable quantity of vapor in
moiety in
mere
solution,and in addition a permanent
though

chemical

Deluc

had

combination

Undisturbed

by

with

these

originalgenius,John

caloric.

views, that strangely

conflicting

Dalton, afterwards
168

to be known

as

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

exists

but

air

solved

it

in

of his studies

1801.

The

merit

but the

of
tenability

took

by showing that
utterly independent gas.

an

as

chemists,

partialinsightinto the matter

of meteorologicalessays
first volume
the full elucidation of the problem

reached
his

the

in

METEOROLOGY

theoretical

of

perhaps the greatest

question in hand, and

IN

his

hypothesiswas

of

evaporation was

water

He

1793,

when

published;

was

him

to

came

in

recognized,
long and ardently

at

was

the

once

disputed.
While

the

nature

in

dispute,as

be
must
questionof precipitation
famous
The
most
theory of the
equallyundetermined.
in a paper
that formulated
by Dr. Hutton
period was
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and pubread before
lished
of

matter

the

in
also
This
the
a

the

same

"theory
coolingof

colder
of

justas

of

author's

epoch-making

which

transactions

volume

of rain"

of saturated

air

the

of salt dissolved

excess

the

precipitatedin

was

the

water

saturated

moisture

is the

Button's

important.

air

All

in

cools.

The

causes

the

of truth

germ

geology.
due

as
explained precipitation

current

moisture

contained
on

paper

by

that

the

idea

sense,

is precipitated

water

that

the

ing
cool-

of
precipitation

renders

this paper

later theories

correct

age
surplus-

chemical

hot

to

with

contact

current, the assumption being that

when
of

the

course

build

its
of
on

this foundation.

The

next

ambitious

of aqueous

meteors

remarkable

paper

Magazine

on

explain the phenomena

made
was
by Luke Howard, in his
clouds,published in the Philosophical

in 1803

attempt

"

the

to

paper

in

which

cirrus,cumulus, stratus, etc., afterwards

adopted,

were

first

acknowledges his

proposed.

indebtedness
169

In

this

to Dalton

so

the

names

universally

paper

Howard

for the

theory

THE

STORY

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

SCIENCE

of

evaporation,yet he still clingsto the idea that the

with
vapor, though independent of the air,is combined
of caloric.
He holds that clouds are composed
particles
of vapor that has previouslyrisen from
the earth, combating
believe that they are
the opinions of those who
formed
by the union of hydrogen and oxygen
existing
independently in the air; though he agrees with these
theorists
that electricity
has entered
largely into the
modus
He
the
opemndi of cloud formation.
opposes
opinion of Deluc and
of particles
of

de

Saussure
in the

water

that
form

clouds

are

of hollow

posed
com-

vesicles

(miniatureballoons,in short, perhaps filled with gen),

hydrowhich
untenable
opinion was a revival of the theory
which
of all vapor
Dr. Halley had
to the formation
as
advocated
early in the eighteenthcentury.
Of

interest
particular

formation

of

dew,

which

Howard's

are

he

explainsas

views

as

caused

to

the

by

the

of caloric forsaking the vapor to enter

the cool
particles
This comes
the surface.
as
on
body, leavingthe water
the truth
near
perhaps as could be expected while the
ard
Howold idea as to the materialityof heat held sway.
in
is usually formed
believed,however, that dew
the air at some
height,and that it settles to the surface,
opposing the opinion,which had gained vogue in France
vocated
and
in America
Webster
(where Noah
prominently adthat dew
ascends
from
the earth.
it),
tion
The
complete solution of the problem of dew formawhich
reallyinvolved also the entire question of
made
was
precipitationof watery vapor in any form
of American
birth,whose life,
by Dr. C. W. Wells, a man
however, after boyhood, was
spent in Scotland (where
he enjoyed the friendshipof David
a
man
as
young
Inspired no doubt by the reHume) and in London.
"

"

170

CENTURY'S

THE

PROGRESS

IN

METEOROLOGY
i

searches

Black, Hutton,

of

and

their

confreres

Edinburgh school, Wells made observations

and precipitation
as
early as 1784, but
his attention

claimed

; and

his

often
in
subject was
again in earnest until
Meantime
and

Davy

had

long

been

to all

of
precipitation
that

known
and

given

out

had

shown

in

that

air

heat

and

expanding;

Professor
the

of

on

Dalton

curious
Patrick

that
take

the
it up

Rumford

for

of

and

terpreta
in-

proper

facts

of

themselves

opinion. Dr.

the

his time
when

up

water

before

the

subject of
it had

on

been

evaporates,

it condenses.

paper

phenomenon
vaporizationof the water
some

the

from

when

this

But

way

discussions

is taken

1788, in

things

observations,had reallygiven

and

again

other

not

practicalunanimity

vapor;

gives off

the
about

subsequent

heat

heat

on

"

his latent-heat

Black, with
the clew

facts

tion
evapora-

asserts

did

that

1812.

cleared

the

of
there

about

had

Leslie

he

mind,

observations

the

he

though

on

of

Dr.

Darwin

Royal Society,

contracting,and

takes

it up

in

1793

had

as

his

due

essay
the

to

contained

and

of

condensation

in the

University of Glasgow,

had

of

plained
ex-

and

air.

puzzling observations

"Wilson,Professor

on

which

Astronomy

communicated

to

in
the

similar
Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1784, and some
made
ones
by Mr. Six of Canterbury a few years later,
had remained
served
unexplained.Both these gentlemen obthat the air is cooler where
dew
is forming than

the air
in

few

forming

established

feet
had

higher,and they

taken

for

show

that

to

the cart

heat, in apparent violation

of

physicalprinciples.

It remained

1816,

up

that the dew

inferred

before

the

Wells, in
these

his

memorable

observers

He

horse.
171

made

had

paper

of

simply gotten

it clear

that the

THE

STORY

cooler

air is not

the

heat, and

of

so

clear

heat.

independent

an

by
problem

the

space

of

hoar-frost.

heat

tends

it
are

the
his

volume

containing
epoch-making paper

duplicationin
also

his essay

the
on

natural

selection

Charles

Darwin

had

made

fact

of

this

which

on

out

closed

in

the

The

and

the

epoch

fact

contained

paper

Weils's

the

meteorology, as

it.

opened

that

given

any

clouds, rain, snow,

that
also

finds

curiouslya

volume

contained

Geology,

on

vapor

it solved

space,

field of

freely admitted

the doctrine

become

that

theory

of Weils's

Hutton's

for

the

reflect the radiant

quantity in

that

of

Albinism,
was

in

had

1784

solids

to

Dalton's

this paper

of

paper

having

"

the

clouds

no

gas, limited

speculationregarding

Button's

from

that

equalizethe temperature.
forms
on
a
plain why dew

formation

Thus

formed, but

to

temperature
the

is

in forming, gives
itself,

with

Combined

SCIENCE

air is cooler

dew

explanation made
night,when there

This

dew

the
the

The

forms.

dew

its latent

of

because

radiation

through

so

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

because

is formed

dew

is

OF

which

the

first time

doctrine

of

formulated, as

after

his

efforts

own

famous.

IV

The

very
there

Memoires

de

next

year

after Dr.

Weils's

appeared in France the

Physique et de C/iimie

paper

third

was

volume

lished,
pubof the

de la Soeiete d'Ar-

epoch in meteorology was inaugurated.

quential
inconseThe
numerically an
society in question was
But every
band, listingonly a dozen members.
famous
one
:
was
a
name
Arago, Berard, Berthollet,
Biot, Chaptal, de Candolle, Dulong, Gay-Lussac, llumrare
boldt,Laplace,Poisson, and Thenard
spirits
every
cueil,and

new

"

172

JEAN

BAPTISTE

BIOT

STORY

THE

where

but
them

globe

latitude

same

; but

Bay

NINETEENTH-CENTURY
with

practicaltests
our

on

the

OF

it is.

as

the

as

isotherm

the

SCIENCE

the thermometer

London,

for

example, lies in
extremity of Hudson

southern

of

locate

London,

Humboldt

as

outlines

it,passes through Cincinnati.

Of

such

course

placesin
America
to

had

at

not

all

which

that the
principle
regions are
of

generaltruth
of the
been

In

sea

of

companion
had

of

his second

noted

as

than

corresponding
of

and

in temperate

isothermal

the

course

in the vicinity

of continents

interior

Humboldt's

general

of continents

borders

in the

known.

settlers

on

temperatures being milder

But

had

long

lines for the

made
to these ideas, and
tangibility
ticable
pracogytruly scientific study of comparative climatolgave

studying

further

earliest

warmer

eastern

than

familiar.

first time

always

been

Moreover, sagacious

borders

western

their

long

tween
be-

subjected
European experience

them.

prepared

conditions

themselves

their

George Forster,

young

latitudes

had

find

to

in particular
Cook's
travellers,

voyage,

climatic

observes, the

for

climate

of

latitude

same

astonished

were

rigorsof

the

himself

Humboldt

As

deviations

these

as
lines,particularly

observations,it

clear

became

that

elaborated

by

the}'are

by

haphazard in arrangement, but are dependent

conditions
which
in most'cases
not
are
upon geographical
Humboldt
himself
difficult to determine.
pointed out
viations
that tend
to produce decauses
very clearlythe main
no

means

the

from

average

or,

"

Dove

as

later

on

called

For
temperature of any given latitude.
annual
ferrin
example, the mean
temperature of a region (rehemisphere) is raised by
mainly to the northern

it. the

the

normal

"

proximityof

western

coast
176

by

divided

config-

CENTURY'S

THE

continent

ration of the

of

surfaces

south

the

to

cold winds

from

into

the

METEOROLOGY

the existence

radiatingcontinental

of

or

mountain

by

by

IN

peninsulas; by

north

the

to

seas

open

PROGRESS

infrequencyof

shield

to

ranges

come
be-

to

swamps

in a dry,
congealed ; by the absence of woods
sandy soil ; and by the serenityof sky in the summer
current
months, and the vicinityof an ocean
bringing
is of

which

water

surrounding sea.
Conditions
opposite
lower

to

boldt

the

says
relative

the

than

higher temperature

these

to

the

tend, of

distribution

climatic

distribution

of

land

word, Hum-

of heat
and

spondingly
corre-

course,

In

temperature.

that of the

depends
and

sea,

on

the

on

hypsometrical configurationof the continents"; and

he urges that
great meteorologicalphenomena cannot
"

"

be

when

comprehended

considered

"

a
geognostic relations
general principles,seems
"

truth

independently
like

most

simple enough

once

which,

of

other
it is

pointedout.
With

that

broad

him, Humboldt
"

aerial

in

ocean,

which

always
of

In

water.

the lower
he

of

of the

the

these

the

on

atmospheric phenomena
there

oceans

of every

enormously modify
The

zone.

boilingup always
at the

equator, and

either

pole,while

becomes

the

of

ocean

under

the

under

an

current

trade-winds, flows

supply its place.

177

is

upper
from

towards

manent
pertions,
direc-

conditions

maelstrom,

vast

of the
current

the

ocean

vast

are

climatic

influence

flowing as
an

the

air

of

shoals

currents, flowing always in determinate

which

the

as

of that other

those

to

terized
charac-

atmosphere

and

strata

studies

in relation

each

imagination which

speaks

live," and

we

of

sweep

sun's

heat

towards

poles,which

the

equator

to

THE

STORY

But

the

descends

in

SCIENCE

air,becoming chilled,
superheatedequatorial
the

to

its
The

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

surface

in

temperate latitudes,and

poleward journey

the

as

anti-trade-winds.
the

trade-winds

are

deflected

approaching

the

equator they constantly pass

of the earth

surfaces
of

rotation,and

having

towards

west, because
over

ity
greater and greater veloc-

tend

it were,

as

so,

tinues
con-

behind"

lag

to

explanationwhich Hadley pointed out in 1735, but

which
not
was
independently
accepted until Dalton
it out
and
worked
promulgated it in 1793. For the
oppositereason, the anti-trades are deflected towards

an

the

it is that

; hence

east

in

temperate

breezes,while

the

zones

in

bathed

are

their eastern

borders

western

borders

lack

of

tinents
con-

moist

sea-

this cold-dispelling

influence.

In the

of water

ocean

sharplycircumscribed
Of

is the

streams

the best known

these

familiar

the main

Gulf

run

as

Stream, which

has

its Griffinin

is deflected

westward

northward

in

Roque, entering the Caribbean

to emerge
finallythrough the
the Atlantic
journey off across
Europe.
Such,

at

least,is the Gulf

it.

and
general,
of

no

either

end of
causes

Humboldt,
them
Lieutenant

his

Since
this

an

'

which

sea.

sharplycircumscribed

most

equatorialcurrent, impelled

more

veritable rivers in the

"

and

currents

by trade-winds,

the

Sea

main

ancf Gulf

Strait
to

Stream

at

of

Mexico,

Florida, and

Humboldt

as

St.

the shores

warm

time, however,

of

Cape

ocean

of

stood
underin

currents

in

have been the subject

particular,
controversy,it being hotly disputed whether
effects of the Gulf Stream
or
are
justwhat
in
to

M.

one

with

common

be.
F.

About

Maury,

others

the middle
the
178

of his

time,

of the

ceived
con-

century,

American
distinguished

CENTURY'S

THE

hydrographer
gravitationas
that

difference
and

PROGRESS

and
the
in

METEOROLOGY

meteorologist,advocated
chief

cause

density,due

saltness,would

LIEUTENANT

oceanic

IN

circulation.

of the
to

theory of
currents, claiming
a

difference

in

account
sufficiently

MATTHEW

FONTAINK

ature
temperfor the

MAURY

theorygained great popularity

raphy
through the wide circulation of Maury's Physical Geogis said to have
of the Sea, which
passed through
more

editions

than

This

any

other
179

scientific

book

of

the

STORY

THE

period;

OF

it

but

Croll,the

Time,

and

due

ably and

was

James

are

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

Scottish

lattertythe

to

the

the

aid

that

of

which

it is said

not

such

enter

of the Gulf
and

similar

circulation

in its

have

to

by

no

oceanic

and

the

tation
graviof producing

extent

marked

currents,

polar-equatorial

idea of such

by

Stream.

pendent
circulation,inde-

the

to

in detail

suggested

to

trade-

that

sure

similar

largeroutlines
The

demonstrated

means

general

Stream

into favor.

the Gulf

as

case

and

currents

of the actual

into the

Dr.

constructed,with

been

current

it is

of the air.

first

was

been

in the direction

insensible

an

has

by

Climate

his

theory that ocean

has again come

model

Meantime, however,
does

in
geologist,

trade-winds

winds
prevailing
would
produce

winds

vigorouslycombated

old

Indeed, very recentlya

SCIENCE

oceanic

tion
circula-

Professor

Lenz

of

not
Petersburg,in 1845, but it was
generallyrecognized
until Dr. Carpenter independently hit upon
the
than twenty years later.
The
idea more
of
plausibility
the conception is obvious ; yet the alleged fact of such
has been hotly disputed,and the question is
circulation

St.

still sub

whether

But
water

the

judice.

takes

place,it

currents

carry

Stream
much

any

to

conveys

heat

as

other

that

Dr.

poles.

to the

the

physics of

computes

North

Atlantic

body

receives

nized
recogfrom

has

the

that

ocean

heat

Croll,who

person,

the

of

circulation

quantityof

enormous

attention

more

almost

than

an

general

beyond dispute that

is

the

tropicstowards
given

such

not

or

subject

the

one-fourth

directlyfrom

haps
per-

the

Gulf
as

sun,

transportationof
heat by this and similar Pacific currents, only a narrow
enough for
region of the globe would be warm
tropical
and

he argues

habitation

by

that

the

were

it not

for the

existingfaunas.
180

Dr.

Croll argues

that

CENTURY'S

THE

PROGRESS

in the

slightchange

the

that

instead

of

its main

now

cold

as

warmed

are

winds

the Gulf

the

across

same

at

of Panama
current

tells

to

pass
this

been

time

some

into the
isthmus

then, that

the

have
?

two

juggled

from

two

Pacific.

with

Panama

that the
of Central

explain

to

chanced

that at

roamed

across

the reindeer

so, if the

be

Stream

Russia.

to

at

But

Yet

their

ogist
geol-

that

nection
con-

to

infer,

and

made

within

unions
disisphere
hem-

other

It is

tenable.

there

land

we

of the

seems

ribbean
Ca-

the

unions

estimates

it

mus
Isth-

comparatively

Are

the climate

cerned
con-

the

it is hinted

in

is

allowing the

continents.

Americas

Apparently

influence of the Gulf

supervene

were

sea,

rose

then

Europe,

Europe

as

be

would

previouslya temporary

the

between

to

into the

geologicalperiod,though

recent

had

settle

would

anti-trades,

would

apparently ensue

to

that

us

far

so

consequences,

least,would

The

Koque.

bud, and,

of western

probabilitya glacialepoch
throughout the northern
hemisphere.
The

in the
results

in all

and

Gulf

the

St.

Stream,

shores

the

of
a

the

far cry

possibilities
gist
geolo-

meteorologistmay learn from the

America
something that will enable
the
paleontologistof Europe how
one

time

northern
and

musk-ox

the

mammoth

and

Siberia,while
browsed

the Mediterranean.
181

so

southward

angle of Cape
nipped

taken

suffice to

be deflected

be

and

has

feeds

now

hemisphere.
by

northern

believes

estimates,the

for the northern

disastrous

blow

the

of

past) would

would

would

Dr. Croll's

according to
which

the

bulk

Stream

he

which

northward, by

Gulf

the

METEOROLOGY

values

as

equatorialcurrent

Stream

Thus

(such

periods in

various

place at
alter

relative

trade-winds

southern

IN

it

rhinoceros

at another

along

him

time

the shores

of

STORY

THE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

SCIENCE

I said,not
Possibilities,

Yet
the
even
probabilities.
faint glimmer of so alluringa possibility
brings home to
with vividness the truth of Ilumboldt's
one
perspicuous
be properlycompreobservation, that meteorology can.
hended
panion
only when studied in connection with the comisolated phenomena
in
There
sciences.
are
no
nature.

Yet, after all,it is

the

medium,

For

live."

"

the

in

currents

that

As

Dr.

do

not

but

the

any

But

much

of which

the Gulf

we

water

wind
heat.

Stream

direct

contact,

subsequently
everywhere the

And

fying
effectual in modi-

by

radiation

direct

as

by

trade-winds

the
of

wind

rank

until

of science, and
had

dynamics

substantial
about

further

laid

our

advance

century

as

"W.

his elaborate

183

began.
was

Dove,

perhaps the

generation,included

had

for

foundation

Heinrich

led

tion
explana-

in this direction

to be known

his

Dalton's

the

before

1827, when

Konigsberg,afterwards
of
meteorologist
the subjectsof
among
climatology.

fusion
dif-

of the air.

importance of aerial currents

practicalstudy long before meteorology

of

effected

other

of that

Europe by

becomes

medium

the

no

of

water

title to

science

that

obvious

very

their

so

the

of

waters

continent.

by

through

chief

anti-trade-winds,which

the

accumulated

distribution

final

shores

climate,not

to

of

the

across

with

the

accomplished by
conveying heat, it is the

urged, the

has

warm

This

be

that

be

may

way

by warming

heat

denied

the shoals

air,on

effect the

Croll

blow

of

ocean

whatever

currents

be

to

meteorologistmust

the

of

concern

not

of

most
fore-

the winds

statistical studies in

THE

STORY

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

SCIENCE

American

meteorologist,who had been led to

subjectby a perusal of Maury's discourse

the

winds, formulated
effect that

the

righthand
southern
as

earth

in any

deflected,owing

course

tends

the

earth's

and

to

This

hemispheres.

then

one

to

have

to

rotation,to
left hand

the

had

law

to

right line along

direction

in the northern

early as

in

indeed

up

ocean

on

law,

general mathematical

body moving

any

of

surface

take

the
the
its
the

in the

been

stated

by the French physicistPoisson, but no

thought of it as other than a mathematical
1835

after
was
only understood
significance
Ferrel had independentlyrediscovered
Professor
it (just
as
Dalton
rediscovered
Hadley's forgottenlaw of the tradewinds) and applied it to the motion of wind currents.
clear that here is a key to the pheThen
it became
nomena

curiosity;

its true

of

from
atmospheric circulation,

maelstrom
equatorial

winds,

the

to

as

the

between
as

is seen,
whirl

the

local

the

the

which

form

as

this

of

storm-centre,

about

of

from

its normal

against the stream;

but

main

the
course

such
184

are

hemisphere
in

great

turbances
the local dis-

found

local

always

storm-centre

of the

eddy, caught

as

may

deviations

seem
are

the
the

stream.

it

were

great polar stream,

and

to
"

along in
little whirlpool in

current

nounced
an-

phenomena
parallel

is carried

sees

local

is

lesser eddies.

these

be carried

to

meantime,

ancillarycurrent

the

of each

great tide

Sometimes, indeed, the

the

more

hemisphere, so

major current, as one often

water
swept along with the
an

and

whole,

that

whirls

itself in the trade-

strikingseemed

more

pole of

within
take

the

atmospheric mass

viewed

when

great polar-

riffle which

And

storm.

greater maelstrom

entire

about

manifests

circumscribed

most

studied,the

were

Just

which

the

to

in

is deflected
travel

departures

from

the

ample, in

rule.
the

IN

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

In

the

METEOROLOGY

great majority of

north-temperatezone,

cases, for

storm-centre

ex-

(with

1
WATERSPOUTS

its attendant

the main

local

current

IN

MID-ATLANTIC

whirl)travels

of the

to the

northeast,along

anti-trade-wind,of
185

which

it is

THE

STORY

OF

SCIENCE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

be to the

part ; and though exceptionallyits course

may
southeast
never
instead, it almost
departs

so

from

the main

channel

westward.

Thus

it is that

storms

be

can

announced,

of their

to

as

sweeping

as

United

seaboard

similar

storms

to

come

unannounced.

Hence

the

of the forecasts

of weather

more

States

in advance

communication
coming by telegraphic

interior,while
ocean

the

over

the

rule,at

the

to

progress

widely

from

the

Europe off the

bility
practicalavaila-

bureaus

in

the former

country.
But

these local

only in a
singleone

But

whirl,the
two

always

air

quite without
composing
It

either

rushes

it

or

spreads

in which

case

is associated

cyclone

terrific storm,

in

but

it has

to

miles

the

itself

the

in diameter,
miles

size

of

always

in

the
one

circles ; it
in

centre

it is called

local
as

hundred

in concentric

towards

scending
de-

cyclone,
in a widening spiral,
centre
an
anti-cyclone. The word

case

the

in

three

or

it conducts

is called

it

thousand

regard

which

from

out

word, inasmuch

whirls

never

spiral,in

of the

is two

one

ways.

understood, are

than

more

small

across.

of

be

may

be

must

general sense

very

and

whirls,it

popular phraseology with

such

no

restriction

cal
techni-

in

gentlezephyr flowingtowards a stormthe meteorologist

is just as much
a cyclone to
centre
is the whirl
constitutinga West- Indian hurricane.
as
Indeed, it is not properlythe wind itself that is called
but
the entire system of
the cyclone in either case,
where
there
whirls
itself,
including the storm-centre
usage.

"

"

"

may

be

no

at all.

wind

What, then, is this storm-centre?

low

barometric

pressure"

lighterthan

area

an

the air of

Merely
where

the

an

area

air has

of
come
be-

surroundingregions.Under

186

CENTURY'S

THE

influence

the

so

''storm-centre."

law, they
will

as

in

right,or

the

the

its face

with

will

cycloniccurrents
in barometric

and

confines

the
of

the

between

determine

in

But

it is true,

cyclone system
first

pointed out,

to the

The

wind

has

marks

cyclone

is

now

heat.

Each

Professor

pounds of
large masses
storm

heated

the

and

added,

up

the
the

part of the
famous

with

rule

his back

barometric

condensed

condensing, gives

the

of

path

every

pressure

establishes

air

is

ference
dif-

the velocity

approaches

through
air,risinginto cold

of

the

his left.

low

centre

portion of its vapor

new
dynamic factor
in

the

storm

hands

extent

Ballot's

at

the

to

velocityof

And

standing

person

of

expansion

vapor,

to

left

of the

exact

in

Buys

as

result,

from

some

wind

storm-centre

cause

the

The
has

the

primary

which

that

the

and

case

every

rers
Fer-

the storm-centre

to

degree of deflection,and hence

the
descending spiral in which
centre.

the

depend largely upon

cyclone system.

will

currents

with

The

upward.

pressure

of the

that

opposite to

never

current", which

namely,

"

all

becomes

currents

vortex

direction

one

direction

held

watch

be

thus

right,and

the

to

just as

in from

accordance

In

must

seen,

in

always

its level

flowing

comes

mark.

deflected

are

readilybe

whirls

of

their

straightto

come

air seeks

air

heavy

METEOROLOGY

low-pressurearea, which
the
But
inrushing

the

sides towards
a

IN

gravitationthe

of

does;

water

PROGRESS

of temperature.

excess

regions,

upper

clouds, and

into
for each

its modicum

the

particleof
of

latent

pound of vapor thus liberates,

according to
Tyndall's estimate, enough heat to melt five
cast

iron ;

of cloud

convection

so
are

the

forming
of the

currents

-developingpower

amount

of
189

the

must

given out where

enormously add

air,and

hence

to

forming cyclone.

the
In-

STORY

THE

deed,

one

school

Espy

was

the

of

effects,no

meteorologists,of

leader,has

held

that

SCIENCE

whom

Professor

without

such

less

storm

whether

continue, the

of winds

of

could

storm

any

terrific force of that

temperate

zones,

obej'sall the laws of cyclones,but

ordinarycyclones in having a vortex core
feet or yards in diameter
the
without
"

of

masses

condensing

it in the form
The

cyclone.

Its centre

air rushes

out

is

an

which

vapor

reverses

of

area

the

most

ed
dread-

dffers

only

always

rather

low

as

than

few

those

pany
accom-

As

pressure.

towards

to concentration

of the

pressure, and

towards

before, all parts

the

right,and

of energy,

the

ing
surroundof the
the

sult,
re-

to

that

of

to

tion
dissipa-

sidered
hence, con-

storm-generator, the anti-cycloneis

from
a

of

aid

clearly,is a whirl opposite in direction

cyclone. But here there is a tendency

the

storm

"

conditions

high

it in all directions

from

be deflected

will

current

attain,

of storm-clouds.

anti-cyclonesimply

regionsof

ever

the tornado

which

great

added

constantlyaugmenting the dynamic

could
in violent action.
long continue

it is doubted

much

-CENTURY

of energy

increment

And

NINETEENTH

OF

of relative

insignificance.
In

ducts
particularthe professional
meteorologistwho conbureau"
weather
a
as, for example, Sergeant
"

"

of the United

Dunn,

States

station
signal-service

in New

of this
preoccupied with the observation
phenomenon that cyclone-huntingmight be said to be
in the main,
his chief pursuit. It is for this purpose,
that government
partment
deweather
bureaus
or
signal-service

York

"

is

so

have

Their
of

chief

work

been
is to

established
follow

up

all

over

cyclones,with

telegraphicreports, mapping their course,

the attendant
meteorologicalconditions.
190

the

and

world.
the

aid

ing
record-

Their

so-

CHAPTER

THE

CENTURY'S

PROGRESS

the

early

and

Laplace;

"the

names

Quaker

who
of

profession
this

Thomas

was

studies

medical
his

of

water

one

of

could

the

those
the

be

told
us

the

them

all

that
and

The

from

the

Continent,

at

his

tongue's

with
a

the

whole,

young
the
of

name

emoluments

and

fresh

there

practise

1801.

on

as

of

list ?

professional
he

and

end;

his

yet

mental

treasures

but

was

had

as

drop

ocean.

this

that

prodigies

and

than

honors

compared

Hum-

extend

among

year

came

intellect

it chanced

tell

patent

He

medicine

capacious
in

the

and

knowledge,

of

For

of

to

in

Lagrange,

Lamarck;

London

in

medical

to

Edinburgh

at

But

figure

in

Young.

theory

the

medicine

aspirant

young

need

us.

settle

to

came

and

what

upon

science

of

Herschel,

"

intellectual

taller

PHYSICS

world

the

Brongniart,

Priestley
crowd

in

century.

our

Cuvier,

Goethe,

no

of

days

boldt,

was

abroad

giants

were

IN

"IMPONDERABLES"

THE

THERE

VI

full
on

list

who
of

things

fairy-tales.

whom

in

mere

192

physician

few

the

and
him

about

As

but

come

thumbs

one's

Quaker

young

times

records

fingers.

that
infant

read

of
His

like
in

in

arms

was

tury,
cen-

history
phers
biogra-

the

most

he

had

been

he

came

Watts's

Ift/mns"poor

he

had

shown

as

other

"

absorb

propensityto

absorb

children

wrhen

and

child !

birthday
well

through, as

twice

Bible

the

read

had

PHYSICS

his fourth

fluently. Before

read

able to

IN

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

much

languages

tattle

nursery

eight

or

seven

as

Mother

and

he was
lady
fourteen,a young
rhymes. When
visitingthe household of his tutor patronizedthe pretty
boy by asking to see a specimen of his penmanship.
buked
The
pretty boy complied readilyenough, and mildly retences
senhis interrogatorby rapidly writing some
for her in fourteen
languages,including such as

Goose

Arabian, Persian, and

Ethiopic.

languages had

Meantime
education

of the

available

field

lad.
of

but

been

He

to

seems

thought

in the

incident

an

entered

have

every

any,
mathematics, physics,bot-

"

literature,music, painting,languages, philosophy,

and
archaeology,
had

entered

had

reached

and

added

genius.

the

but
took

where

even7

early for

other

has

man

the

the

brain

of

he

until

he

known,

of his

recesses

range

of

do.

Thomas

of the

saying that

may

then

once

own

as
Priestley,
profound

as

had

man

the

the

the full grasp

his motto

done, another

has

He

himself.

aside

subjectas

from

new

versatile

as

was

"

turned

the

of

and

lengths

seldom

confines

something
He

tiresome

to

on

field he

any

Newton

as

so

tante,
dilet-

mere

master.

what

one

Granting that
Young, it is a

He
man

the
true

motto.

Such

then

to follow

out

in the

was

the

year

the young

Quaker

humdrum

life of

1801.

But

who

came

to London

cine
of medipractitioner
the young
incidentally
cian
physiof early
the interims
occupy
a

prevailedupon to
the duties of the chair of Natural
losophy
Phipracticeby fulfilling
which
Count
Rumford
at the Royal Institution,
was

193

STORY

THE

of which

founded, and

had

"

the

which

such

of

then

was

far

of

glorieshave been perpetuated

Faraday and Tyndall,and

that

was

have

not

Professor

whose
as

it

which

fame

of

SCIENCE

to-day speaks of

Here

studies

temple

names

Briton

Science."

those

Davy

the institution

Chemistry
by
of

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

the

as

Thomas

insured

him

removed

"

Pantheon

Young

made

niche

in the

that

from

Isaac

of

Newton.
As

1793, when

early as

he

only twentj^,Young
had begun to communicate
papers to the Royal Society
of London, which
were
adjudged worthy to be printed
in full in the Philosophical
Transactions; so it is not
was

strange that he should

have

Bakerian

that learned

year

lecture before

after he
November

of

Light

and

Its

12, 1801.

Colors," and
; for here

physicalscience

its

which

lightwith
the

theory

which

body

air,or

in

Young

liquidsor

was

that

idea

it

which

holds

over

the

undulatory theory

familiar
which

from

films

of

miliar
physicsis faporeal
light is not a cor-

that

this

1801

substance

the
a

pulsationin

It

theory at

that

bring

to

demonstration.

rings into
thin

until
him

enabled
a

Theory

of
the

solids.

not

was

ered
deliv-

was

of modern

had, indeed, advocated

date, but

first

very

The

"

the

reading marks an epoch in

brought forward for the

pulsationin
entity,but a mere
ether,justas sound is
all-pervading

an

the

lecture

The

student

every

deliver

to

subjectwas

convincingproof of

first time

"

London.

to

came

asked

been

he

it to

hit upon

the

anything

proachin
ap-

while

was

er
earli-

an

pondering

puzzlingphenomena of colored
reflected
white
light is broken when
Newton's
planation
rings,so called that an exbut

"

"

occurred

to him

undulatorytheory on

new

which

at

once

footing.
194

put the

entire

that

sagac-

"With

THOMAS
From

Peacock's

Life of Young,

YOUNG

by permission

of John

Murray,

Publisher, London

THE

CENTURY'S

PROGRESS

ity of insightwhich
that the phenomena

call

we

could

IN

genius,he

PHYSICS

of

saw

sudden

be

explained by supposing
that when
a thin
rays of lightfall on
glass,part of the
the upper surface,other
rays being reflected from
rays,
reflected from
the lower
surface,might be so retarded
in their course
through the glassthat the two sets would
with

interfere

another, the forward

one

pulsationof one
pulsationof another,

corresponding to the backward

thus
the effect.
quite neutralizing
Some
of the component
pulsationsof the light being thus effaced by
mutual
the remaining
interference,
no
longer
rays would
ray

the

give

opticaleffect

white

of

light; hence

the

zling
puz-

colors.
this clew

By followingup
measuring the
able to
of

the

between

space

pulsationfor

each

estimated

of the different

that
end

number

37,640

in

about
rate

of 463

plateand

to

the

to

colors

the undulations
of
the

millions
the

second, while

undulations

of the

sion,
precithe

different

lower

at

thickness

exact

at the extreme

spot

mathematical

rings of color,Young was

be the length
mathematically what must

show

He

with

the visible

inch, and
of

millions
violet

extreme

inch, or

735

of the spectrum.
of

red

light,

spectrum,
pass
of

any

must

given

undulations

numbers

59,750

millions of millions

to

the second.

the colors that are

Young similarlyexamined
duced
prosurface, in particular*
by scratches on a smooth
crometers
Coventry's exquisitemitesting the light from "Mr.
consist of lines scratched
which
on
glass at
These
measured
intervals.
microscopic tests brought
the same
results as the other experiments. The
colors
were

and

produced
the

at certain definite

theory of

interference
197

and

measurable

of undulations

angles,

explained

them

them

"

that

he

in favor

sufficient and
This

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

SCIENCE

dence,
perfectly,while,as Young affirmed with confiother theory hitherto advanced
could
no
explain
at all.
Taking all the evidence together,Young

declared
forth

OF

STORY

THE

doctrine

considered

of

the

the

argument

he

had

undulatory theory of lightto

set

be

decisive."
of

of interference

undulations

was

the

allabsolutely novel
part of Young's theory. The
had, indeed, very
compassing genius of Kobert Hooke
than a century before,as
nearly apprehended it more

Young himself points out, but no one else had so much

it ; and even
with the sagacious
as
vaguely conceived
it was
Hooke
outlined
only a happy guess, never
distinctly
in his own
mind, and utterlyignoredby all others.
of Hooke's
Young did not know
guess until he himself
had fullyformulated
the theory,but he hastened
then
to give his predecessorall the credit that could possibly
be adjudged his due by the most
disinterested observer.
To Hooke's
inator
contemporary, Huyghens, who was the origof the general doctrine of undulation
the exas
planation
of light,
Young renders full justicealso. For
himself he claims only the merit of having demonstrated
these and a few others of his predethe theory which
cessors
without full proof.
had advocated
The
followingyear Dr. Young detailed before the
tional
addiRoyal Society other experiments, which threw
lighton the doctrine of interference;and in 1803
he cited still others, which, he affirmed, brought the
In applying this
doctrine to complete demonstration.
he made
demonstration
to the generaltheory of light,
ether
the strikingsuggestion that
the luminiferous
of all material bodies with little
pervades the substance
or
no
resistance,as freely,
perhaps, as the wind passes
"

198

STORY

THE

the

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

SCIENCE

were
Royal Society]

again given publicityin full in

volume
natural
his celebrated
on
philosophy,consisting
in part of his lectures before the Royal Institution,
lished
pubin 1807; but even
then they failed to bring conviction
to

the

arouse

even

philosophicworld.
controversial

Indeed, they

did

not

his first papers

as
spirit,

had

done.

it chanced

So

militaryengineer, named
from
the

the

03'

his

that

quite unaware

philosopher

Jean

made

Fresnel,

to

him

to

vert
contro-

the

materialityof light,he
ticipated
experiments had been anthe

across

Channel.

He

experiments and results to the

Institute,supposing them to be absolutelynovel.
body

them

referred
would

fortune

to

of

committee,

it, the

have

in

experiments

his

communicated

turning
re-

interested

some

seemed

French

young

became

wars,

light,and

concerning diffraction,which
of
the accepted notions
was

1815,

Augustin

Napoleonic
of

phenomena

in

when,

that

French
That

which,

as

good

member

dominating

was

versatile as Young
as
Dominique Frangois Arago, a man
himself,and hardly less profound,if perhaps not quite so

original. Arago
nel's work, and
He

told Fresnel
the

done,
in

at

recognized the

once

became

soon

that

Young
generaltheory,but

and

offered

he

to

convert

had

to

learn

that

associate

worked

by

another

bo\ved
unabated

out

gracefullyto

that

his
while

to

of Fres-

the

theory.

anticipatedhim
much

with

Fresnel

was

the situation,and

went

gards
re-

to be

Fresnel
not

was

originalideas
he

as

remained

himself

prosecutingthe investigation.

little dashed

merit

had

lad,
ahead

been

but

he

with

zeal.

championship of Arago insured the undulatory

theory a hearingbefore the French Institute,but by no
The

200

HANS

OERSTED

CHRISTIAN

ACGCSTIN

JEAN

FRE9NEL

DOMINIQUE

JAMES

FRANCOIS

CLERK

ARAGO

MAXWKW,

the contrary,

PHYSICS

ensued, in which

bitter feud

IN

its generalacceptance.

bringabout

sufficed to

means

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

Arago

On
was

"Jupiter Olympius of the Academy,"

the only less famous
Poisson, and by the
So bitterly
but hardly less able Biot.
raged the
younger
feud that a life-long
friendshipbetween Arago and Biot
the

opposed by
Laplace,by

The oppositionmanaged to delay

rupturedforever.
the publicationof Fresnel's papers, but Arago continued
and pertinacity,
his customary enthusiasm
to fightwith
and
at last,in 1823, the Academy
yielded,and voted
into its ranks, thus
Fresnel
implicitlyadmitting the
was

value

of his work.

It is

humiliatingthought

this must

story of the

the

theory has
in character

its claims

and

those

of

great

his counsel

theory

to

the

still demanded

Fresnel's

work

had

to

realize

vainly

called

century before.

by
the

any
lustre

the

Frenchman,

applicationof

and

the undulatory

problems of polarizationof light,

explanation,and which Fresnel's

admission

the

dim

tions
rela-

called to it ; and

was

of

in the

Now,

the end

profundity

of

to conquer.

Institute

in 1823

the

gradually the philosophers

of a theory which
Young

merits
to

and

to the

and

opposition weakened,
came

the

freelyacknowledged Young's

of experimental resource
fertility
mathematical
insightsufficed in
After

often

so

his attention

the

and

both

pressing

picture unmarred

Fresnel

names.

in

"

unately
but fort-

great

men,

Arago

as

undulatory

concerned

and

petty jealousiesthat

with

which

Fresnel
form

men

as
priorityso soon
Young applauded

aided

Three

intellect,
were

Young,

"

of these
of

in

of the

introduction

pleasantside.

more

controversies

of scientific truth

the progress

mar

that such

their

thanks
303

attention

full

quarter-

largely to Arago,

both

THE

STORY

Fresnel

and

Young

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

received

SCIENCE

their full meed

of

tion.
apprecia-

medal
of the
given the Rumford
Royal Societyof England in 1825, and chosen one of the
of the Society two
foreign members
years later,while
of the eight foreign
elected one
was
Young in turn
members
of the French
nation
As a fittingculmiAcademy.
of the chapter of felicities between
the
three
friends,it fell to the lot of Young, as Foreign Secretary
of the honors
of the Royal Society,to notify Fresnel
him
shown
entists;
by England's representativebody of sciwhile
Arago, as Perpetual Secretary of the
French
Institute,conveyed to Young in the same
year
the notification that he had been similarlyhonored
by
Fresnel

the

of France.

savants

him

survived
but

only

their

with

connection

importance

two

ranks

was

was

dead,

Both

years.

great work

always

remember

Fresnel

later

months

few

was

and

died

done, and

Young

ly.;
premature-

the

world

will

in
togetherthese two names
theory which in its implicationsand
the theory of universal
little below

and

link

gravitation.
ii

importance of Young's studies of lightmight

perhaps have gained earlier recognition had it not
chanced
made, the
they were
that, at the time when
The

full

philosophicworld was turned

fascination of a hypnotic stare upon

of the

attention

fixityand
field,which
the

old

when
ask

for

time

brooked

no

rival.

phenomenon light interest

in view?
agent galvanism was

new

one

to

blazes

across

fix attention

on

the sky.
304

star

while

the

another
could

How

familiar

the

with

any
As

one

well

meteorite

CENTURY'S

THE

world

had

identical

with

the

Yery early in

do

to

hour

the

questionof

The

PROGRESS

was

with

new

IN

PHYSICS

whether

in

force,or

whether

electricity,
masking under a
the century the profound, if

Dr. Wollaston

galvanism
it is

form.

new

rather

tious,
cap-

to
experiments which seemed
identical ; and by 1807 Dr. Young
show
that the two
are
write in his published lectures : "The
could
identityof
of electrical and of galvanic effects is
the general causes
To
be entirelyaccurate, he
doubted
now
by few."

have

should

But

had

the

the

for

an

the
the

been

"

cited

sentence

meantime

found

by few of the leaders of

lesser lightswere
by no means

added,

thought," for

agreed as

made

new

agent galvanism. From

rather

chemists

fully

so

to imply.
might seem
had
strikingaffinity

more

even

scientific

than

been

the first it

the natural

phers
philoso-

not then in vogue

who
physicistwas
had chieflyexperimented with Yolta's battery; and the
mind
of Humphry
acute
Davy at once
recognized the

the

"

close
the

word

"

chemical

relationshipbetween
of the

appearance
chemist

Swedish

thing.

same

But

new

"

imponderable." The great

also had
an
inkling of the
first gave
the
Davy who

Berzelius
it

decomposition and

was

lecture before
thought full expression,in a Bakerian
the lecture which
the Royal Society in 1806
gained
him
not
only the plauditsof his own
countrymen, but
the Napoleonic prize of the French
Academy at a time
bodies of the two
countries
in
when
the political
were
"

the

midst

of

country,"said

testimonial,against the

French
more

narrow-minded

wishes

of his friends.

governments are at
That
would, indeed,

or

not.

"

Science
knows
no
sanguinary war.
the young
Englishman, in accepting the

war,

be

205

the

of

If the two

"

men

civil

some

war

of

tries
coun-

of science

of the

the

are

worst

THE

STORY

We

description.
of
national

it

the

the

rather, through

science, soften

of

men

that

was

the

mentality
instru-

asperitiesof

same

under

electrical

acting

cause,

other

attraction

in

one
"

the

on
electricity

"fluid"
rested

Davy,

whose

further

had

for

been

another

it not

been

the

with

no

decade.
must

side

Young, having

severed

his

Institution,was

devoting himself

connection
to

tury,
cen-

the

But

lated
iso-

the

there

imaginative

have

carried

more

problem
Avith

him

and

more

the

of

of the

The

diverted,became

chemical

with

frictional

means

thought.

penetrativegenius

in

absorbed

it had

linked

first decade

the

all the

combinations."

and

is by
electricity

that

of

thus

hand,

one

other, in

that

showing
matter

the

on

property,

cause

were

belief

produced
in
particles,

same

voltaic

phenomena exhibited by different

The
phenomena of galvanism
action

the

his

are
on

the

modifications,is

different

chemical

case

that

and

masses,"

on

stated
explicitly"

Davy

and

"chemical
the

by

should

SCIENCE

hostility."

Here

that

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

the

and

Royal

developing his

ical
med-

practice,and in intervals of duty to deciphering

be
Egyptian hieroglyphics. Parentheticallyit may
that

added
time

to

Young

make

was

great

far too
success

demand

sophistryrather
physician),but that

work

in

For

of these
and

the

of

his

success

and

with

the

glyphics
hiero-

epoch-makingthan

his

philosophy.
time

no

came
master-generalizer

to take

the

place

studyof the "imponderables"as such,

ner
phenomena of electricity
occupiedan isolated cormen

in the

in the realm
to

his

in advance

practitioner(people
ily
philosophy of their fam-

as

than

less novel

no

was

much

chemistrythan

of

science,linked,as has been said rather

to the

field
206

we

now

term

physics.

THE

STORY

Arago, who
produced at
the

1830

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

in

discovered
will

shifted

scene

of

Davy, and his

Michael
Faraday,

the

"

of the

to

But

then

be

may

the

about

protege

Royal Institution,

added

to

human

experiments

destined

were

the

who

man

graces

that series of electrical

; for

in

successor

magnets

induction.

to London

of his intellect all the

which

that

1825

electrical

by

SCIENCE

powers

heart."
the

at

the

began

the dazed

attract

tution
Insti-

Royal

tion
atten-

of the

philosophicworld, and stamp their originator

the greatest experimental philosopherthe world
as
Nor
has ever
seen."
does the rank of prince of experimenters
for he was
do Faraday full justice,
far more
than a mere
experimenter. He had not, perhaps,quite
the
the intuitive insightof Davy, and he utterlylacked
None
the
profound mathematical
training of Young.
"

less

he

was

and,

Maxwell

as

channels

if not

always

must

man

who

could

has

insisted,think

with

technical

traverse

earth

dream

dreams
in

on

occasion,

mathematical

symbols. Only
though hitched

his wagon
to

star.

guided him onward, but ever the hand of

experiment kept check over the dreams.
It was
in 1831
that Faraday opened up the field of
magneto-electricity.Reversing the experiments of his
His

dreams

who
had
predecessors,
generate magnetism,

power
; he

under

certain

found
he

that

showed

circumstances

proved, indeed,

the

electric currents
that
to

magnets

generate

may
have

ity
electric-

of
interconvertibility

tricity
elec-

that all bodies

magnetism. Then he showed
less subjectto the influence of magnetism,
are
more
or
and that even
light may be affected by magnetism as to
satisfied himself
of polarization.He
its phenomena
completely of the true identityof all the various forms
and
of electricity
of electricity,
and of the convertibility
and

208

THE

CENTURY'S
action.

chemical

PROGRESS

Thus

full well

knew

he

and
no

cal
togetherlight,chemi-

And,
electricity.
of these

one

from

another.

creation

PHYSICS

moreover,

be

can

produced
he

Nowhere,

says,

out
production of power withof something to supply
corresponding exhaustion

there

"is

that

supply

in indefinite

linked

he

affinity,
magnetism,

IN

pure

or

it."

When

Faraday

the very

treading on
than

which

any

those

wrote

he

of

heels

in

words
a

he

1840

was

greater generalization

actuallyformulated

he

; nay,

had

it

He
without
saw
a great truth
fairlywithin his reach.
left for others,
fully realizingits import ; it was
proachin
aptruth along another
the same
path, to point
its full significance.
out

in

which
great generalization

The
missed
as

is the

the

that

truth

doctrine

in

which

of the

since

can

never

then

has

conservation

secure

than

quantity; that, in short, "to create

is as impossible as to create
or
and that all the phenomena of the
consist

in transformations
think

conceived

surely one

by
of
It

this

the

mind

of

the

the
stands

of energy

familiar

become
"

the

condition

one

more

narrowly

so

of energy

from

transforming energy

we

Faraday

or

law

to

other
an-

equivalent

an

annihilate

annihilate
material

alone."

gy
ener-

matter;
universe
Some

losophe
phi-

greatest generalizationever
man.

Be

great intellectual

that

as

it'may,

landmarks

of

it is
our

stupendous and so farreaching in its implicationsthat the generation which

first saw
the law
developed could little appreciateit ;
only now, through the vista of half a century, do we
begin to see it in its true proportions,
century.

apart,

so

209

generalizationsuch

vast

growth,
minds

are

as

near

before

truth

had

men

The

room
mush-

from

grown
number

of

mind

fully

the doctrine

of

Not

Faraday alone,but half a

inklingof it before it gained

an

expression; indeed, every

undulatory theoryof lightand
goal.

never

one

any

is this of

full

the

this is

usuallyspring full
Always a
single man.

of energy.

different

SCIENCE

it

Pre-eminently true

conservation
dozen

does

any

very

it.

grasps

nor

of

mind

the

NINETEENTH-CKNTURY

OF

STORY

THE

doctrine

of

who

man

heat

Young

was

and

advocated

the

verging towards
Fresnel

was

as

vation.
highway leading surelyon to the wide plainof conserThe
furnished
phenomena of electro-magnetism
another
such highway. But there was
yet another road
led just as surely and
which
even
more
readilyto the
the road furnished
same
goal. This was
by the phenomena

of

outstriptheir

to

have

wayfarers

seen,
t

distance
In

the

heat,and

on

order

to

do

that
and

justat the close

Humphry
Davy

may

be transformed

this

fact

there

as

amount

that

into the

roads

were

though,
within

as

we

hailing

last

century Count

independently showed
into heat ; and

the

We

TCumford
that

labor

correctlyinterpreted

transformation

of molar

into

hardly doubt that each of

of genius realized,
vaguely, at any rate, that
the
be a close correspondence between

of the molar

each

of the

meaning
motion.

must

other

tined
des-

were

passed the mark.

approximate justiceto the men
great achievement, we must recall

even

entered

men

fellow- workers

it

the leaders

who

these

travelled

*/

when

molecular

who

men

of them

and
was

can

the
in

molecular

sight of

the

motions; hence
law

of the

chanical
me-

equivalentof heat. But neither of them quite

grasped or explicitlystated what each must vaguely
for just a quarter of a century no one
have seen
; and
210

MICHAEL

FARADAY

else

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

their line of

abreast

came

even

PHYSICS

IN

thought,let

alone

passing it.
then, in 1824, a French

philosopher,Sadi Carnot,
caught step with the great Englishmen, and took a long
statinghis belief that a definite
leap ahead by explicitly
But

into a definite
quantityof work could be transformed
did not, indeed,
quantity of heat, no more, no less. Carnot
the clear view of his predecessorsas to the
reach
of heat, for he still thought it a form
nature
of
derable"
impon"

fluid; but
to

its mutual

important
back

reasoned

as

his

them

conclusions
with

whatever
was

clearlyas

work.

that

now

vision,they

But

look

we

made

pression
im-

no

his

contemporaries. Carnot's
isolated phenomenon of historical

an

it did

but
interest,

mechanical

seem

clearer

upon

in this line

the less

none

with
convertibility

upon

work

he

into

enter

not

scheme

the

of the

completed narrative in any such way as did the work of

and Davy.
Kumford
who
The
man
reallytook up the broken thread where
it into a
and Davy had dropped it,and wove
Kumford
the

scene

Manchester, England

; his

completed texture,
home
of

in

was

came

He

manufacturer.

great

His

Dr. Dalton.

When

posterityhas

names

of

this

our

For

work

century, which
is

preciseand
work

and

James

was

name

His

occupation that
and
pupil of the

friend

in 1840.

Prescott

Joule.

juggling with
unlikelythat the name

the

its final

done

not

of

philosopherwill be a household word

of Aristotle,Copernicus,and Newton.

names

Joule's

was

century, it is

Manchester

like the

upon

done

it was,

beyond

demonstrated
absolute
heat

of molar

in the fifth decade

all cavil that

motion,

whatever
it
213

can

the

form

generate

our

there

cal
mechani-

equivalencebetween

; that

of

of

festation
mani-

definite and

THE

STORY

OF

measurable

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

heat,and

of

amount

SCIENCE

no

Joule

more.

found,

a
example, that at the sea-level in Manchester
pound
hundred
and seventy-two
weight fallingthrough seven
feet could generate enough heat to raise the temperature
There
of a pound of water
one
was
degree Fahrenheit.
nothing haphazard, nothing accidental,about this ; it

for

bore

the

saw,

what

truth

is

merely

If heat

made

manifest
then

motion,
those
"

time

in

others

law.

law.

of unalterable

stamp

as

forms

which

had

not

the

of "force"

the truth

to urge

confirm

to

The

of heat then

attention

our

Channel

with

of the

All

of the

corner-stone

greater

of energy.

all haste

Denmark,

to

"

of

analogy seemed
ed
; all experiment tendmechanical
equivalent

this citation is fresh

while

But

kind

closelyassociated,

so

heat?

the main

became

of the conservation

law

be

to

law

more

another

of

of this inference

it.

general
created,but only
a

thing be true of all

light,electricity,
ism
magnet-

"

shown

been

this

same

mutually convertible,with

so

sense

transformation

must

in any

be

cannot

himself

see, that

to

within

particularcase

other

made

were

Joule

And

in

to

mind,

country

in short"

must

we

and

turn

the

across

learn that

even

as

of heat, a
experimented with the transformation
had hit
philosopher of Copenhagen, Colding by name,

Joule

the

upon

idea,and

same

And

again,this
other

three
of the

same

reached
if

neither
The

Mayer,

and

carried

then, without

time
men,

pausing,we

Germany, and consider

who
independently were

it earlier

brought

of

two

than

it to

quite

of these

Helmholtz.

either

three

Their
214

so

shift

yet

the work

of

the

on

Joule
clear

or
a

Germans
share

in

track

ted,
be admit-

it must

whom,

stration.
demon-

must

to

truth, and

names

it far towards

Colding,

tion.
demonstraare

Mohr,

establishing

STORY

THE

the

appreciationof
doubtful

that it may
and

new

point

wonderful

Here, then,
such

visions

seen

before.

The

the

no

No

is so small

straw

receptive mind

this obscure
life of

as

practiceof
subject; but once,

the

results.

letting,
Blood-

of

genius to

truths.

was

the humdrum

of conservation.

rule,to

to marvellous
not

SCIENCE

physician holds, was

benefit,as

least,it led

at

great law

modern

the

very

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

German

ing
physician,leadvillagepractitioner,
yet seeing

human

being in

great principle he

had

the

world

discovered

had

ever

became

the

and filled all his leisure

dominating thought of his life,
hours.
He applied it far and wide, amidst
all the phenomena
of the inorganic and organic worlds.
It taught
him
that
both vegetables and
animals
are
machines,
laws that hold sway
bound
over
by the same
ic
inorganmatter, transforming energy, but creating nothing.
Then

his mind

made

up of

him

as

reached

questions.
in

he rode

into space

out

Each
to

answer

long

not

be true

burned

since

No

an

had
But

answer.

so

if your

had

much

as

tried to

realized

universe
down
an

Why

theory of

even

seemed

exist?

that

at

rogation-p
interhave

conservation
answer

that

it demanded

physician understood

Heilbronn

the

met

blinked

night call

do

hitherto

one

question;few

out

that

star

asking, How

and

the

His meteoric
pothes
hyquestion and found an answer.
published in 1848, gave for the first time a
heat of
tenable explanation of the persistentlightand

our

and

sun

which
All
with

that

we

the myriad

shall

recur

other

in another

suns

"

an

explanationto

connection.

philosopher,his brain aflame

the glow of creative thought, was
quite unaware
else in the world
was
working along the
any one
this time

our

isolated

216

And

lines.

same

friend

spiritto

react

this is the

on

where

master

because

there

-originatorin
the

the

other

Of
master-originator.

except

scene

was

give courage, no kindred

but lonely mind.
And

this masterful

remarkable

more

as

confrere

of

Davy ; Davy,
pupil of Davy

raday, the
Arago ; Colding, the
pupil of

Dalton.

But

are

few

other

science

has

come

friend

pupil or

the

men

the

was

of

have

we

present connection, Young

the

PHYSICS

equallyheedless
no
physician. There was

and

upon

in

world

outside

inspireenthusiasm

to

cases

the

of the Heilbronn

work

of the

IN

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

noticed

friend

protege of Rumford
Fresnel, the co-worker

the
;

confrere

Mayer

is

some

and

; Far-

with

of

Oersted

an

isolated

phenomenon

Joule,

the

mountain-peakintellects of the century.

That estimate
be exaggerated which has called him
may
the Galileo of the nineteenth
warm
century, but surelyno lukepraisecan do him justice.
Yet
for a long time his work
attention
attracted
no
In 1847, when
whatever.
another
German
physician,
"

of the lone

one

Hermann

Helmholtz,

von

towering intellects of
led to comprehension
energy,

and

hardly

heard

hear

him, however,

to

of

the

age, had

any

doctrine

of

largegives him

treatise

of conservation
the

on

hastened

to

subject,he
When

of

independent

he

of
had
did

all claim

renounce

conservation, though the

credit

and

independently

Mayer.

countryman
he

massive

most

been

of the doctrine

published his
of his

of the

one

world

though

even

at

sequent
sub-

discovery.
Meantime

in

Joule

England

was

going

on

from

to another, oblivious of
experimental demonstration
German
competitorsand almost as little noticed by
own

He

countrymen.

chemical

section

of

read
the

his

British
217

first paper

Association

one

his
his

before

the

for

the

OF

STORY

THE

of Science

Advancement
in the

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

least.

Two

in

paper, but the chairman

and asked him to confine
the

of

results

of

1843, and

later

years

SCIENCE

he

no

wished

hinted

that

himself

to a

heeded

one

read

to

time

it

another

limited,

was

brief verbal

sis
synop-

his

the chairman
experiments. Had
but known
a paper
it,he was curtailing
vastlymore
important than all the other papers of the meeting put
given, and one
together. However, the synopsis was
had
the genius to apprethere to hear it who
was
man
ciate
William
its importance. This was
Thomson, the
Lord

present

the

among

only

Kelvin,

novitiate

in

himself

associated

natural

with

all the

to

Manchester

as

then

Joule's

to

came

controversy, and

the

world

philosophers,but
He

science.

ball of

rollingthe

started

of

greatest

known

now

aid,

subsequently

experimenter

in

pursuing his investigations.

But

meantime

the

viewed

science

the

Brewster, Herschel
that

physics at
the

accept
years

da\T, and

half-centur\r

forward
This
came

and

unopposed.

seen

it elaborated

least three

thought
1853

Whe
a

did

in

The

pointed out,

For

of

countries,yet
much

edition

he did not

thought which

of

quite
several

recognized
of

doctrine

the

the

know

as

even

of

in at

much
then
218

was

In

sciences,published

history,and, as Huxley
as

of

leaders

its existence.

of the inductive

of his
so

the

even

had

century

demonstrated
substantially

and

so

support

fifth decade

well,the historian
second

could

them

of

one

in

names

first
culminating thought of our
silentlyinto the world, unheralded

different
not

no

great

regarding energy.
physicist,speaking with

authority,came
conservation.

the

were

views

new

older

no

those

"

British

Faraday,

askance.

doctrine

new

of

leaders

acknowledged

has

izing
refer to the revolutiona

full decade

old,

JAMES

PRESCOTT

JOULE

WILLIAM

THOMSON

JOHN

(LORD

TYNDALL

KELVIN)

THE

CENTURY'S

this

By

PROGRESS

time, however, the battle

the

risinggeneration

saw

their elders

not

could

that

abroad
honor

there

Tyndall, the

of

knows

which

left its

And

scars

whose

men

of the
of

It is

philosophers.

Joule

lies between

expressed

the

the

noised

efforts of Professor
to the

contention

and

in

"

that

minds

is the

chief

ceptible
sus-

satisfyall

the

Professor

coverer
dis-

is not

would

that

future

of the

involved.

were

that

generally held

belief that

ensued

of Joule

of energy

Mayer.

the

to

known

question who

the

and

was

those

hearts

categoricalanswer

it

always regarded, and

not

of conservation

law

the

Davy's

was

upon

day

which

claimant

and

personal interests

this

to

so

which

country

no

law

soon

became

Mayer

regrettablecontroversy

most

controversy, in

science

will

of

one

partisansof Mayer

the

between

great

work

public,and

bitter

than

more

The

brewing.

importance

appreciate,and

were

PHYSICS

was

discovery. Chiefly through

of

British

IN

first choice
has

Tyndall

each

of

these

men

in connection
with
this
equally remembered
But
for such a hope.
work.
historygives us no warrant
Posterityin the long-run demands
always that its heroes
shall

be

with

contested

Hooke

universal

of

little doubt
mentioned

that

of conservation

remembered

Newton,

the

name

be

Joule, it

of

of the

that
is not

from

The
be

The

our

And
one

the

of

as

century;

the

century
'

so

Robert
the
of

trine
doc-

terity
pos-

we

great doctrine
name

is thus

the

Galileo,

but

final verdict

whether
of

history

Mayer, Helmholtz,
to

decide.

can

will be

name

whose

man

Colding, Mohr,

for

judgment

now

spoken

nineteenth

dignifiedby
of

discovery of

originatorof

perhaps
the

thus

the

that

now

it is inexorable.

of energy.
will

the

Newton

century

that

as

remembers

gravitation?

unjust, but

is

will

Who

alone.

stand

or

THE

STORY

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

SCIENCE

IV

The

gradual permeation of the field by the great

doctrine
of conservation
simply repeated the history
of

the

introduction

of

novel

and

revolutionary
thought.
Necessarily the elder generation,to whom
all forms
of energy
were
imponderable fluids,must pass
before
the new
conception could claim the field.
away
the word
Even
energy, though Young had introduced
it in 1807, did not come
into general use
till some
time
To
of the century.
the generalityof
after the middle
less in favor
philosophers(the word physicistwas even
this time) the various
forms
of energy
still
at
were
idea
subtle
never
was
fluids,and
relinquished with
greater unwillingness than this. The experiments of
of
a
large number
Young and Fresnel had convinced
and
stance;
subnot
a
philosophers that light is a vibration
but so great an
authorityas Biot clung to the
idea

old emission
a

to

every

the

end

of his

in 1862, and
life,

held

following.
Meantime,
who

men

had

for the
a

motion

molecular

accumulated

Frenchmen,

served

finallyto

lightis
into

an

the

Scotch
conforms

their

evidence

not

an

"

Fizeau

the last

; and

had
physicist,

shown

the

laws

same

that

imponderable

day by day.

convince

had

scene

the
grown

battlingactively

were

The
and

energy
"

experiments of
Leon

Foucault,

by implicationbrought
in 1837
of
222

form

lingeringscepticsthat

category, since James

same

to

the

upon

Confirmatory
and

brilliant young

when
apprenticeship

came

Hippolyte L.

undulation

of

company

arid
positions,

ideas.

new

of matter
two

justserved

authoritative

into

the

of conservation

doctrine

is

however,

David
that

heat

Forbes, the
radiant

polarizationand

heat
double

STORY

THE

in Nature

dency
From

drew

SCIENCE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

Dissipationof

the

to

here expressed Professor Thomson

principle
tion
that, since any restorastartlingconclusion

the

the

"

of this

mechanical

without

energy

known

gradually running
world

live

we

on

finite future.

to-day that

This

has

been, in

the

of energy

the

which

commonplace
startlingit appeared

sipation
dis-

and

ence
alphabetof physicalsci-

part had

the

so

conservation

of

very

for the most

problematical whether

attitude

eration
gen-

thought it
continue
to give

not

could

sun

of

even

But those advance

thinkers
lightforever.
had grasped the import of the doctrine of conservation
could
at once
appreciatethe force of Thomson's

heat and

who

doctrine

of

character

of
and

Here

there

thinker

such

no

Professor

effort has

Thomson's

to the

complementary

like Rankine

fancy conditions
through dissipationmight
but

the

and realize
dissipation,
the two
conceptions.

to

as

within

but ill appreciatethe mental

can

out

become

generation trained,as

doctrines

as

unfit for

realize how

century ago.

the

finite time

such

thought seems

it is difficult to

half

again

must

machine

particularthat

in

within

has been

an

universe, as
of

condition

; and

down

habitation,and

human

in the

be

us, must

to

than

more

the
equivalentdissipationis impossible,"

ours

ergy."
En-

Mechanical

which

under
be

restored
with

met

did, indeed,
the
to

success,

and
generalization
of the

consequences

law

tempt
at-

lost

energy

availability,
in time

and

his conclusions

involved

to

came

be

universallyaccepted.
The
of

every

introduction
energy
other

of the

followed, as

growth

of

new

views

new

I have
ideas.
224

regarding the
said, the

Young

and

course

ure
nat-

of

imagina-

tive

is this

in

while

mentioned

the idea

IN

PHYSICS

pointof view ; older philosophe

minds
their
channelled
by preconceptions,
So strikinglytrue
get into the new
groove.
the particular
before us that it is
case
now

not

worth

accept the

could

men

could

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

to

the

note

new

the time

at

ages

experiments of the men

as
entering into the
that energy
is merely a
Such

in motion.

whose

work

scheme

tionary
revolu-

has

been

of evolution

manifestation

list will tell the

of the

of

of matter

story better than

of commentary.

volume

Observe, then, that

of

melting ice by
Young

twenty.

communication

his

friction

when

he

older

when

he

no

was

epochal experiment
was
a youth of
made

his first

in his
Royal Society,and was
he first activelyespoused the
when

the

to

twenty -seventh

made

Davy

year

he
twenty-six when
undulatory theory. Fresnel was
in the same
field ;
made
his first important discoveries
his champion, was
and Arago, who
became
then
at once
but

two

for

senior, though

his

vears

decade

he

had

"/

been

so

famous

belonging to
Forbes

that

generation.
under
he
thirtywhen
heat, which pointed the

was

the

to
thirty-one,

twenty-two

in

and

Mayer,

whose

was

then

the

same

his

involuntarilythinks

formulated
And

his

1840, when

he

as

William

his

own

and

discovered
way

to

the

Mohr,

larizati
pothen

from

also

was

the

same

the age

of

year,

Helm-

independent discovery of
Thomson
was
a youth justpast

published

law.

date

discoveries

twenty-six,which

Clausius

him

equivalent. Joule was

was
begun
great work

mechanical

his

majority when he came

British Society,and but

the

of

elder

an

of

holtz when

one

doctrine

to
seven

of

Rankine, who
225

the

aid

of Joule

jears

older

before

when

he

dissipationof energy.
are
usually mentioned

'

STORY

TilE

with

Thomson

the great

as

both

ics,were

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

far

before

they

father

of inductive

in years

Yet
side.

we

must

not

was

not

For

with

We

science

be old

may

developersof thermo-dynam-

advanced

thirty.

were

SCIENCE

their
well

may

that

the

"

who

shield

has

the

of

rays
middle

the

the

past fiftybefore
?

spectrum
he

years
even

the

have

must

be

may

And

added
in

would

pity
"

"but

clause:

There

thought

have

are

only

out

in any

then, after

lull has lasted

it is true,

In the

move.

half

the field,and

to

saw

the

heat

reached

especiallyto
phrase complete,
who

man

in the

other

is old

case

the

applicationof
happeneth rarely."

"

in

more's

his

fying
quali-

great generalizationsas

period

case

multitude

his

"the

singlefield

is

ever

Faraday

of

science.

has
great generalization

expression,there

mers,
astrono-

imagination." Here, however,

few

not

make

that

been

that

he

reverse

his attention

turned

young

he discovered
had

appropriate than

more

is young

greatest of observing

?
electricity
Clearly,then, to
Bacon

the

in hours."

forget that

life before

studies
with

agree

man

before
Herschel, past thirty-five
and
telescope,

novel

of the

century.
of workers

doctrines

the casual observer

it

definitive

another

ward
for-

of energy,

Throughout
have

Naturally,

found

of lull before

yet

the

this

been

might

period,
delving in
seem

if

as

activityhad been boundless, while the practical

as
applicationsof their ideas
exemplified,for example,
in the telephone,phonograph, electric light,
and so on"
their

"

have

been

competent

little less than

of

revolutionary.Yet

living authorities,Lord
226

the most

Kelvin, could

as-

in 1895

sert

that

regarding

new

in

the

This, however,
that

It

of

thought regarding

the

leaders

few

had

Kelvin

Lord

then

energy

is in

among

the

particlesof

nature.

But

sight of

this truth

grasped

the

and

for

of

magnetism
of

file

long

time

but

are

the

At

even

give

the

the

ether,

the

same

within

even

of

of

had

partly

conservation.
man,
Scotch-

young

no

in

of

met

the

ethereal

no

was

the

the

whirl

immediate

popularity.
reception given the

forward

producing

ditions
con-

medium

strain,magnetism

with

cordial

of various

in

1863, that

phenomenon

respect except in their

we

the
call

wave-length

pulsationsof electro-magnetism.

about

somewhat

of

of

they

after

The

vibration
or

not

were

that

form

one
or

be

manifestations

theory, put

in

light differ
from

if

matter

marvellous

motion

idea

undulations

ethereal

range

Maxwell,

less

even

thinker's

same

the

century.

that

doctrine

the

fifties,that

and

stress

ether),the

And

the

"

already

of energy

must

energy

a displacement
(electricity

in the

had

undulation

an

and

of

had

been

formulating in other words

ty
Faraday's, expressed his belief that electrici-

James
idea

of

rank

Clerk

of

ponderable

'k

meaning

late in the

world

middle

tions.
genera-

file have

doctrine

new

reality merely

manifestations

When,

in the

meaning

two

leaders

clearlyenough

saw

the

and

the

road

the

at

all other

an

the
men

Only

nothing

as

these

during

the rank

that

along

interpreted

still

stood

few

travelled.

be

not

rather

forward

moving

must

means

learned

had

of energy.

nature

has

world

the

he

fiftyyears

the
similar

weight
doctrine

experiments

time

same

Helmholtz

electro-magnetictheory
of

this

vogue

of Heinrich

combined
until

Hertz,
227

very
the

formulated
of

authority

light; but
could

recently,when

not

the

pupil of Helmholtz,

have

the

into

travel

light.

Since

condition

then

the

that

it is

reallyonly
the

than

More
a

means

shortness

through

of

"

suggested that
X

as

the

of

ray

it may,

consist

the

part

yet by

as

has, indeed,

all the

no

strated
demon-

been

differ

in

energy,

forms

magnetism-

speed, and

sist
con-

quivers,"as Fresnel
tively
length,and not posiIt

has, indeed, been

of radiant

form

no

known

lateral

the

energy,

Rontgen's discovery,is

Professor

is

of

rate

same
"

newest

there

It is

whole.

"

to

the

of radiant

forms

conservation.

it-

veloped
light,but as yet no one has deeven
remotely approximating the
The
that can
most
tively
posirays.

longitudinalvibration,but
that

of

differ otherwise.

to

light

electro-magnetism pass through

at

known

light

of

called

architecture,but

It

vibrations

known

famous

himself

Hertz

heat, light,electro

"

space

of traverse

said

visual

energy

rapidity of

as

the

asserted,therefore,is that

radiant

the

such

of

waves

of the

be

travel

of

speed

that

the greatest eralizati

gensober thinker
must

to

arch

the

one.

waves

the

with

of

firm

very

electric

of

with

that, this particularpier is

that
space

what

size of the

the

equal

cannot

; but

great

interestingdetail

an

interruptions

generator, and

ether

be

may

electro-magnetictheory

century

pier beneath

strain

recurrent

referred
enthusiastically

been

one

the

the

through

of the
see

in

state

SCIENCE

of electrical

system by

wave

electric

waves

has

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

that

shown

developed
of

OF

STORY

THE

this
one

is
now

whatever

of undulatory
essentially

to

question that

their exact
motions

Be

surmise.

mere

of

all

affinities,

one

uniform

medium.
A

full

century
has

fluids

"

of

thus
our

troversy
experiment, calculation,and consufficed
to correlate the
ble
impondera-

of

"

forebears,

and

reduce

them

all to

man-

CENTURY'S

THE

of

ifestations
first

is

not

each

been

light,

for

fluid

the

produce

parlance

physicist

having

the

imponderable

"

interesting
its
to

physics,

word

the

as

properties,
examine
which

real
as

demands

the

or

our

the

this

or

popular

thinks

has

physicist
of

favor

single

has

view

it

of

the

been

ether
"

scientific

attention

about

sentially
es-

the

Something

assumed,

is

"

universe.

to

verity,
is

discovery

turn

we

he

imponderable

recognized

in

thing

whirls,

all-pervading

and

in

In

vocabulary.

has
"

in

This

then,

effect,

nineteenth-century

to

ether,

"

all-pervading

which

force.

in

kinds

many

ripples,

imponderables

though

considered

which,

the
In

many

his

from

banished

of

terms

weight.

no

dispossessed

most

forms

physicist,

one

waves,

in

might

magnetism

them

manifestations

termed

are

the

quivers,

view.

phrase

of

electricity,
for

of

change

in

change

fluids"

heat,

various

that

nineteenth-century

substitute

to

whose

strains

the

At

matter.

change

considered,
as

the

of

enormous

"imponderable

obliged

fluid,

as

For

the

displacing
one

radical

so

imply.

to

seem

closely

PHYSICS

particles

an

seems

when

IN

among

that

yet,

thought

as

motion

glimpse

And

PROGRESS

we

the

shall

more

have

obverse

in

the

casion
oc-

side
next

of

ter.
chap-

VII

CHAPTER

THE

difficulties

WHATEVER

"

idea

consistent
be

can

that

not

are

substance

the

probably

but

is

ether,

and

by

there

material

largest

which

of

interstellar

the

certainly

body

uniform

most

forming

the

of

occupied

are

which

body

in

have

may

interplanetary

the

empty,

or

we

MATTER

constitution

the

of

doubt

no

spaces

PONDERABLE

AND

ETHER

and

have

we

any

knowledge."
Such

by

ago
of

verdict

the

was

James

Maxwell,

Clerk

of

particle

every

verdict

be

may

tangible
said

to

world

authoritative

physicists

"

matter

them

or

who

plenum

are

something,

and

agreed.

energy.

the
a

of

name

in

deny
of

it, they
230

the

of

this

something

speaking
there

that

which

in
And

accept

are

this

But

matter.

vastly important

Without

existence

this
entire
the

exception,

it with

It is true
to

the

attitude

time

years

greatest

very

universe,

Without

our

manifest

disposed

merits

the

about

they
of

the

is immersed.

day.

our

reason

confidence

same

are

and

verity,

of

the

matter

express

philosophical

as

of

one

in

plenum

all-pervading

an

twenty

some

physicists, regarding

nineteenth-century

of

pronounced

something

allege,

we

of

"

those

plenum
the

of

ble
ponderaamong

all-pervading
that
at

should

it

is

that,
know

all

STORY

THE

something
be

not

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

which

air,for

all,in

at

OF

undulates; and

air exists

the

only

interstellar
But

freely penetrates.

SCIENCE

this

in infinitesimal

spaces,

if not

substance

solids,if not, indeed, of

and

air,what

This

intangiblesomething Young

In the

early days

undulations

"

pulsationscan

the

corresponding to

then?

Why,
air; something
detect

to

thinkingof

the

except

for

the
of

it,yet

space, and

also

transparent liquids

tangible

substances.

rechristened

the

Lu-

be

discovery Young thought of

produce lightand radiant heat as
and
backward
forward
pulsation,

pulsationsof

transmitted

by

sound
a

and

"

as

fluid medium

ordinary fluids,he was

ether as being like a fluid

intangibility.But
Fresnel and Arago with
very

with

in its properties,

its extreme

experiments of
lightmade it seem

such

justifiedin

propertiesof

1818

light

of his

which

being longitudinal

the

which

Ether.

miniferous

the

of all

all

quantity,if

through

clearly,something more
intangiblethan
supersensible,
evading all direct efforts
existingeverywhere in seemingly vacant
the
interpenetrating

could

something

about

ization
polar-

whether

doubtful

the

and it was
vibrations is sufficient,
longitudinal
and
suggested by Young, and independently conceived
tions
undulademonstrated
by Fresnel, that the luminiferous
all the
but transverse; and
not
are
longitudinal,
recent
more
experiments have tended to confirm this
But
it happens that ordinary fluids
view.
gases and
transmit
lateral vibrations ; only rigid
liquids cannot
So it became
bodies
are
capable of such a vibration.
that the luminiferous
ether is a body
to assume
necessary
ble
possessingelastic rigidity a familiar property of tangifluids.
solids,but one quite unknown
among

theory

of

"

"

"

The

idea of transverse

vibrations
232

carried

with

it

an-

light,have

aquiver

set

sensation

the

gives us

in

produced

MATTER

ether,when

the

not

which

vibration

the

PONDERABLE

does

puzzle. Why

other

with

AND

ET1IER

THE

its substance

subordinate

ers,
quiv-

setting out at right angles from the path

perpendicular vibrations
original quiver? Such
not
to exist,else we
a
corner
might see around
explain
but

one

their

absence?

way:

they
It

with

space

which

The

must

physicistscould
that

assume

fill all space

must

human

call

we

at

; how

think

of

is incompres

rate, all

any

deals

knowledge

the

seem

ether

the

"

of

perfectly

"

full.

These
elastic
but

propertiesof the ether, incompressibilityand

are
rigidity,
quite conceivable
by themselves;

difficulties of

thought

appear

the

ether

another

qualitywhich

namely,

frictionlessness.

Per

when

reflect upon

we

clearlymust

"

this

compres
rigid,inimbedding every

hypothesis

body pervades all space,

of tangiblematter; yet it seems
particle

possess

retard

to

not

the

in the

of this matter

degree. This
slightest
difficult to comprehend of the
is undoubtedly the most
The
alleged propertiesof the ether.
physicistexplains
of the ether, in virtue
it as due to the perfectelasticity
of which
it closes in behind
a
moving particlewith a
push exactly counterbalancing the stress required to
movements

penetrate it in front.
To

person

unaccustomed

solid

matter

wide

apart, it is hard

ether

as

reallycomposed

penetrates the
example and, to use
"

have
as

to

think

to

seemingly
particlesrelatively

of

understand

substance

of

Young's

previouslyquoted, moves
the
wind
moves
through

thought, however, presents few

283

the

solids

"

claim
of

that

glass,for

expression, which
among

of

grove

them
of

as

trees.

difficulties to

we

freely
This

the mind

THE

accustomed

to

early

SCIENCE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

STORY

speculation. But
philosophical
in

arose

the

of

mind

Fresnel

whether

considerablyaffected by contact
of his experiments
of solids.
Some
particles

ether

that

the

among

"

with

is not

believe

so

the question

portion

of

of

molecules

the

which

ether

led

the
to

penetrates

is held

tangiblematter

him

the

captive,

along with these parspeak,and made to move

ticles.
He
spoke of such portions of the ether as
bound
to the great mass
ether,in contradistinction
to

"

"

of

free"

Half

ether.

century after Fresnel's death,

hypothesis had
science, experiments were
the ether

when
of

an

et
accepted ten-

undertaken

Fizeau

by

England, to ascertain
to
whether
any portion of ether is really thus bound
of matter
particles
; but the results of the experiments
were
negative,and the question is still undetermined.
still fightingthe undulatory theory of lightwas
While
its way, another kind of evidence favoringthe existence
of an ether was
by Michael Faraday, who,
put forward
of his experimentsin electrical and magin the course
netic
inite
to perceivedefled more
and more
induction, was
of force in the medium
lines or channels
subjectto
Faraday's mind, like that
electro-magneticinfluence.
of Newton
other philosophers,
and many
rejected the
France, and

in

by

Maxwell

become

in

idea of action
the

phenomena

at

of

magnetism

strongly for the

everywhere in space,
the same
plenum that
told

and

radiant

Then,
revolution

which

we

and

existence

felt convinced

he

distance,and

of

of electric
an

that

induction

invisible

plenum

probably be
undulations
of light

which

might

carried

the

very

heat.

about

the middle

of the

century, came

that final

of energy
thought regarding the nature
have already outlined in the precedingchapof

234

THE

with

ter, and

mode

"

of motion
with

combined
action

at

throughout

proof that
through space

universal
the

to most

the

is concerned

"

been

of this

the

physicistsof
forms

same

rate

in

that
their

of

speed

but

may
of

hypothesis would

be

two

at

so,

any

decades.
move

energy
is

one

regarded as
one
plenum

transmission.

"

It

Professor

deed,
has, in-

J. Oliver

ethers,representing the

but
electricity,

hardly claim

of

plenum

recent

of radiant

of

notion

of
"

to

merely a
phrase),

familiar

acceptance

tentativelysuggested,by

Lodge, that there

two
opposite kinds

is

energy

rejectionof

a demonstration
practically

ether

that

necessity of thought

all known
at

idea

considered

was

(toadopt TyndalPs

distance,made
space

MATTER

for ether

case

The

the

rate, it has seemed

The

PONDERABLE

the

that

fullyestablished.

be
"

AND

ETIIEli

even

for it

the
a

author

high

gree
de-

probability.
The most
recent
speculationsregarding the properties
of the ether have departed but little from
the earlyideas
It is assumed
all sides that
of Young and Fresnel.
on
the ether is a continuous, incompressiblebody, possessing
has even
culated
calrigidityand elasticity.Lord Kelvin
the probable density of this ether,and its coefficient
of rigidity. As
might be supposed, it is all but
tenuous
as
infinitely
compared with any tangiblesolid,
and its rigidityis but infinitesimal
as
compared with
In a word, it combines
that of steel.
propertiesof
in a way
known
not
in any
tangible matter
tangible
substance.
Therefore
its
cannot
we
possibly conceive
condition
true
correctly. The nearest approximation,
of
according to Lord Kelvin, is furnished
by a mould
transparent jell}'.It is a crude, inaccurate
analogy,of
resistance
of jellyin particular
the density and
course,
being utterlydifferent from those of the ether ; but the
235

THE

STORY

quivers that
and

OF

strains in the

radiant

which

about, furnish

is twisted

and

under

and

shaken,

placedwhen its
analogy to the quivers
held

are

to constitute

electricity.

of the day being at

great physicists

The

it is

it is

some

ether,which

magnetism,

energy,

SCIENCE

jelly when

the

through

run

elastic tension

the

mass

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

regarding

one

be a
ether, it would
all-pervading
the
manifest
presumption for any one standing without
deed,
And, inpale to challenge so firmly rooted a belief.
in any event, there seems
little ground on which
it may
be altogether
not
to base such a challenge. Yet
amiss
to reflect that the physicistof to-day is no
more
his predecessorof the
certain of his ether than
was
eighteenth century of the existence of certain alleged
he called phlogiston,caloric,
which
substances
corpuscles
It would
electric fluids.
be
of light,and magnetic and
it chance
that before
but
the repetitionof history should

the

existence

of

of another

the close
taken

its

place along

scientific

the

this

century

with

imagination

philosopherof to-day feels

; but

he says

when

He

of demonstration.

space

is

there

"

that
doubt

no

ascribes

not

distance

; he

may

not

perform

to his

know

does

place at
itself

does

an
"

ether

know

functions

ists
ex-

of its existence

the bounds

that action

not

the

The

generations.

sure

very

of

creations

and steps beyond

speaks incautiously,

he

take

earlier

have

should

ether

discarded

these
of

the

that

cannot

empty

which

he

ether.
space-filling

Meantime, however,

the

ether,be

only dream-stuff, is serving an

for modern
furnishinga fulcrum
it

it substance

admirable

physics.

or

purpose
Not

be
in

alone

THE

to the

the

ETHER

student

student

AND

of energy
of matter

HERMANN
From

LTTDWIO

photograph

MATTER

PONDERABLE

has
itself

it
as

proved invaluable,but
well.

FERDINAND

by Loescher

Out

TTELMHOLTZ

and

Petsch.

Berlin

of its

to

hypo-

STORY

THE

thetical

mistiness

theory of
has

the

yet been

will

stand

this

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

been

has

of

suggested

or, at

"

definitive

the

as

the

reared

constitution

SCIENCE

tenable

most

which

ponderable matter
rate, the

any

that

one

nineteenth-century
guess

at

ages." I mean, of course, the vortex

that profound and fascinating
doctrine
theoryof atoms
which
phases,
suggests that matter, in all its multiform
is nothing more
less than ether in motion.
or
vin.
The author of this wonderful
conception is Lord Kel"

riddle of the
"

The

idea

of mathematical

The

to

solve

in

frictionless

medium,

In
unchanged forever.
be Y-shaped, with
may

whirl

We

the medium.
the

bowl

But

in

of

imitate

may

the year

medium

ring,which

circle,or

must

go

limited

its ends
such

the vortex
take

may

which

1858, had

at

such

of

by drawing

vortex
a

ically,
theoret-

surface

the

of water.

cup

whirl

the

on,

medium

quickly through

spoon

limitless

closed

were

happy union
concrete
experiments.
largelythe work of
a

unique problems in vortex

that a vortex
whirl,once
tablished
es-

some

found

Helmholtz

motions.

be

calculations

of

Helmholtz, who, about

von

undertaken

with

calculations

mathematical

Hermann

in his mind

born

was

must

simple

always

form

of

be

contorted,
indefinitely
Whether
looped,or, so to speak, knotted.
simple or
contorted, this endless chain of whirling matter
(the
revolvingabout the axis of the loop as the parparticles
ticles
when
the string is rolled beof a string revolve
tween
the fingers)
must, in a frictionless medium, retain
with undiminished
its form, and whirl on
speed forever.

hoop

or

While

these

theoretical calculations of Helmholtz

fresh in his mind, Lord

was
an

shown

may

by

Kelvin

Professor

apparatus constructed

for
238

(then Sir
P. G.

the

William

were

son)
Thom-

Tait, of Edinburgh,
purpose

of

creating

THE

STORY

And

OF

all the

while

itself consisted
but

NINETEEXTII-CENTURY

the

simply
otherwise

not

Presently the
ring away, and

which

body

of

whirl

SCIENCE

in

thus
the

conducted

air, made

influenced, by smoky

friction of the
it faded

into

surrounding

air

ble,
visi-

fumes.
the

wore

the

general atmosphere"
often, however, not until it had persistedfor many
onds,
secand
a
passed clear across
large room.
Clearly,if
there were
the ring'sinertia must
make
it a
no
friction,
was
Only the frictionless medium
permanent structure.
fulfil all the conditions

lacking to

vortices.

And

of the frictionless

him

at

of Helmholtz's
Lord

once

medium

which

structible
inde-

Kelvin

bethought
physicistshad now

the

ether.
What
if vortex
all-pervading
started in this ether,must
they not have
rings were
the vortex
ited
which
the properties
rings in air had exhib?
And
these
not
are
inertia,attraction,elasticity
Is it not
the propertiesof ordinary tangible matter?
consists merely
probable,then, that what we call matter
of aggregations of infinitesimal
vortex
rings in the

begun

to

accept

"

"

ether?
in Lord
took form
theory of atoms
the world
what
Kelvin's mind, and its expression gave
philosophersof our time regard as the plausible
many

the

Thus

vortex

conception of the
It is only
be

the last person

But

ago.
in

theory,to be sure ;
to claim
finalityfor

Kelvin

dream," Lord

it has

of matter

constitution

said to me,

lay

to, and

claim
makes

it,for

the

that

less than

fascinating. True

of matter

would

it.

only

or

other

it not

long

calculation

and

theory of

ter
mat-

unifying or monistic
philosophicalmind, little
a

false,it

of the nineteenth
240

"It is

referringto

no

it has

tendency
theory

as

lated.
formu-

its author

basis in mathematical

analogical experiment such

can

in

hitherto

is the definitive

century.

THE

MATTER

PONDERABLE

AND

ETHER

in

tion
questionof the exact constituof the ultimate
particlesof matter, questionsas to
their mutual
of such particles,
the distribution
relations,
in for a full share of
and actions,have
come
properties,
attention
during our century, though the foundations
furnished
in a prefor the modern
speculationswere
vious
most
epoch. The
popular eighteenth century
of matter
constitution
speculationas to the ultimate
Italian priest,Roger Joseph
that of the learned
was
phies
Boscovich, published in 1758, in his Theoria PhilosoIn this theory," according to an
Naturalis.
of which
the whole
the
mass
early commentator,
bodies of the universe
are
sist
composed is supposed to conof simple,
of an exceedinglygreat yet finite number
the

from

Quite aside

"

"

inextended
indivisible,

by

the

which

Creator
vary

with

according

These

atoms.

atoms

repulsive and
the

to

distance.

are

endued

attractive
At

forces,

very

particlesof matter
repel each other ;
repulsiveforce increases beyond all limits as

distances
this

distances

prevent

the

small

actual

removed

are

diminished, and

are

for

contact.
to

an

ratio with

sensible

and

the

will

consequently forever
When
the particles
of matter
distances,the repulsiveis exchanged

attractive
the squares

force,which
of the

distances,and

in inverse
extends

comets."
spheresof the most remote
This conception of the atom
of force
centre
as
a mere
was
hardly such as could satisfyany mind other than
made
the metaphysical. No one
a conspicuousattempt
the idea, however, till justat the close
to improve upon
of the century, when
led, in the
Humphry Davy was
of his studies of heat, to speculate as
to the
course

beyond

the

decreases

341

THE

STORY

that

changes
under

the

which

we

Davy,

temperature.

as

manifestation

As

matter.

have

all

of

as

\ve

motion

bodies

with

temperature, Davy

some

particlesof

intimate

of matter

substance

every

"

(incommon

of
particles

matter

at

substance

substance

Such
tions,
vibraperpetuallyin a state of vibration.
believed,
repulsiveforce" which
produced the
with Boscovich) he admitted
as
holding the

he

heat

the

that

be

of

in contact

come

inferred
must

conditions

SCIENCE

intimate

regarded heat
particlesof

seen,

among

in the

occur

altered

have

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

vibration

merely

means

one

another.

increase

the

from
to

rate

To
of

particles;thus also,plainly,increasing
the repulsiveforces,and expanding the bulk of the mass
If the degree of heat applied be sufficient,
as
a whole.
the

of

distance

its

repulsiveforce

become

may

force,and

the attractive

overcome

tend

and
then

to

becoming

Not

much

strong enough quite to

the

from

flyaway

one

will
particles

separate
another, the solid

gas.

attention

paid to
they were

was

these very

suggestive

founded
the idea
on
Davy, because
heat is merely a motion, which
the scientific world
repudiated; but half a century later,when the new

ideas

of

that
then

theories

of

made

their

of

the same
practically
(moleculesthey were

revival
matter

had

advocated.

and

Clerk

of what
"the

had

energy

Maxwell

in

to be

came

familiar

now

of gases

Then

are

due

to

it

was

ideas
now

that

England

known

as

conception
the

up the

that

all

gases

is due

to such
243

investigation,
theory of gases
the phenomena

flightof

of
widely separated molecules
The
composed.
specificidea that

"spring" of

of the

kinetic

helter-skelter

of

came

of
particles
called)which
Davy
in Germany
Clausius

took

the

there

way,

which
the

molecular

the showers

they

pressure

impacts

are
or
was

ETIIER

THE

due

Daniel

to

AXD

Bournelli,who
The

eighteenth century.
revived

been

PONDERABLE

about

Maxwell

taken

early in

little

noticed, had

but

hand

it

J. J.

by

success

gained

Clausius

by

the

Hera-

"Waterston,

distinct footing

no

in

and

1857

by

in 1859.

The

of these great physicists

not
investigations
only
the doctrine, but threw
fully to substantiate
a

served
flood

of

existence
a

up

the

light upon
Soon

the

it

century later by William

in

advanced

idea,then

path,and again with some

of Bombay, about
18i6;
until

MATTER

the

if

as

their individual

subject of

physicistscame

of these

gas

entire

showers

of

could

they

to

molecular

feel

namics.
dy-

certain

as

flyingmolecules
and

actuallysee

of

ing
makwatch

Through study of the viscosity

of gases
that is to say, of the degree of frictional opposition
they show to an object moving through them or
of gas
idea was
to another
current
an
gained,with the
aid of mathematics, of the rate of speed at which
the
of collisions
particlesof the gas are moving, and the number
which
each particlemust
experience in a given
free path traversed
time, and of the length of the average
collisions.
These
between
urements
measby the molecule
confirmed
were
by study of the rate of diffusion
different gases
mix
at which
together,and also by the
of diffusion of heat through a gas, both
these pherate
nomena
being chieflydue to the helter-skelter flightof
actions.

"

"

the

molecules.

It

is

sufficiently
astonishing to

measurements

as

astonishment
from

path, or

have

been

made

when
hears the
one
grows
Maxwell's
calculations
that

distance

collisions in

these

be

traversed

the

by

ordinar}^air,is

about

243

told

that

at

all,but

molecules
one

the

It appears

results.
the

such

mean

free

between

half-millionth

of

THE

STORY
; while

inch

an

each

per

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

SCIENCE

speed of the molecules is such that

one
experiences about eight billions of collisions
second
be hard, perhaps,to cite an illus! It would
tration
of modern
ter
showing the refinements
physics betthan

this ;

the

directly from
such

the

"

these

calculations

themselves.

Clausius

the

the

was

that

lowed
fol-

considered

be

feat,namely, of measuring

molecules
how

result

other

unless,indeed, one

size

of

first to

the

point

might be done from a knowledge of the

made
length of free path ; and the calculations were
by
Loschmidt
in Germany, and by Lord Kelvin
in England,
independently.
out

this

work

The
results

is

speaksof

limits

that
; it

which

of

they

means

show

of

the

Kelvin
a

the

for the

centimetre
of

the

Kelvin
within

ever,
how-

mean,
of

limits

the

cule
mole-

of size within

may

about

lie.
the

maximum,

and

These

one

the

tenone

for the minimum.

centimetre

not

molecule

estimates, are

one-hundred-millionth
Such

of

size of the

does

dimensions

exact

estimate

an

limits,Lord

This

accuracy.

actual

the

millionth

but

course,

regarded as unassailable ; indeed, Lord

them
as
being absolutelydemonstrative

are

certain

of

purely mathematical,

meaning to our blunt

particular
Kelvin has given a tangibleillustration
senses, but Lord
that aids the imagination to at least a vague
sion
comprehenfiguresconvey

of the
estimates

large as
of the
in the
be

unthinkable

that
a

no

if

more

less

be

to

constituent

Several

other methods

molecule.

He

as
glass,about
magnified up to the size
molecule
being magnified
or

"

magnified structure would

a heap of shot, but
bly
probaa heap of footballs."
have been employed to estimate

proportion,the
coarse-grainedthan
coarse-grainedthan

same

of the

of water

ball,say

football,were

earth,each

smallness

244

THE

AND

ETI1ER

PONDERABLE

size of molecules.

the

One

of

MATTER

these is based

the

upon

the
electricity
phenomena of contact
; another
upon
traction
wave-theory of light; and another
capillaryatupon

No

of these

one

due

that

in the

shown

as

methods

the

to

film

tense

gives results

kinetic

of

theory

important thing is that the

different methods
(allof them
with

agree

molecule

another

one

in

somewhere

at

We

feel very

may

definite

more

due

the

than

just outlined

results

fixingthe

about

soap-bubble!

gases,

but the
these

of

obtained

by
Kelvin)

to Lord

dimensions

limits

of

already

the

tioned.
men-

indeed, therefore,that

sure

the ultimate

of matter
particles
formless
pointswhich Boscovich
last century thought them.

the

not

are

and

unextended,

his followers

of the

IV

Whatever

the exact
incessant

subjectto
science
the

molecule,
of

state

by

of

variable

but

rotation,due

Clausius

these

has

of

vibration.

by
to

this

the

plus its

collisions

molecule

of

gas

fifths of

its kinetic

energy.

molecule

(which

call

we

to

the

overcoming

that

"

The

heat

work

that

external

has

been

pressure,
245

ergy
en-

of

tion
vibra-

importance

translational

the
for

only

energy

includes

or

energy

done

on

and

already referred

total

")

in

measured

energy

accounts

factor,namely, potentialenergy,
due

that

entire

not

the relative

estimated

is

molecular

than

The

example, is

quantities,
showing

two

motion

even

nothing in

ordinary circumstances, is

of gas, for

its momentum,
and

to.

but

molecule

all

; for

firmly established

more

under

intense

of

variation

regarded as

is

of the molecule, its outline

form

also

of

threeof

the

another

position,

expanding, in

internal

attraction

THE

STORY

OF

the

between

molecules

"latent

heat"

of

philosophers.It
of

ball

when

It

the

its

the

at

ergy
enment
mo-

varietyof motions, real and

production of the condition
as

we

have

seen,

the

this,too,
of

physicalstate
collectively
compose

gas,

liquid,or

tion
mo-

the

as

; and

temperature

is to say, it shall appear

tential,
po-

is,however, chieflythe translational

that

we

the

greatest height before

that the molecules

substance

state, as

air is latent

obviously determines

most

whether,

that

sense

is measurable

which
which

the

into

heat.

contracts)is
long puzzled the
gas

so

same

the

poisesat

that

appears

enter
term

ball

which

in the

into

the

ergy
potentialen-

fall.

beginning to
It thus

is latent

This

when

Black,

thrown

the

SCIENCE

themselves.

will be recovered

(which
the

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

to

solid.

In

translational

blunt

our

"

ceptions
per-

the gaseous

motion

of

the

is

the
molecules
relativelyenormous,
being
widely separated. It does not follow, as we formerly

molecules

this is evidence

supposed, that

the

between
headed

power.

of

molecules.

The

of

in

virtue

their

of

another, except

one

in virtue
they rebound
in which
approach to collision,

circle about

the

of mutual

range

then

rush

of

of

their

latter

apart again, as

from
collision,

an
elasticity
; or
in
case, coming with-

molecules
circles

comet

the

comet

about

rushes

may
the
from

sun.

It is obvious
the

times

attraction,two

another, as

one

inertia,quite independently

at

which

sun,

ing
repulsivepower actphysicistsof to-day,

by Lord Kelvin, decline to recognizeany such

They hold that the molecules of a gas fly in

straight lines

the

molecules

decreasingthe

that
of

the

length of

gas may

number

the

mean

be increased

of the molecules
346

path of
indefinitely
by
free

themselves

in

THE

STORY

NINETEENTH-CEiNTURY

OF

In the

SCIENCE

perature
example, it is a temthan
four hundred
more
degrees above zero,
grade
Centigrade; while for atmospheric air it is 191" Centibelow
and fiftydethan
grees
a hundred
zero, or more
freezes.
below the point at which
mercury
it high or low, the temperature above
Be
which
any
substance
is always a
gas, regardless of pressure, is
called the critical temperature, or absolute boiling-point,
of that
substance.
It does
not
follow,however, that
is necessarilya liquid.
below this point the substance
This is a matter
that will be determined
by external
stances.

conditions

of water, for

case

the

molecules

far below

Even

of pressure.

have

the

critical

perature
tem-

tivity,
degree of acand
tend
to fly asunder, maintaining what
pears
apto be a gaseous, but what
technicallyis called a
the distinction being that pressure
vaporous, condition
the vapor
alone suffices to reduce
to the liquidstate.
Thus
water
change from the gaseous to the liquid
may
hundred
at four
state
degrees above zero, but under
conditions of ordinary atmosphericpressure it does not
an

enormous

"

do

so

until

the

temperature

degrees further.
it is technicallya
it will be

Below

four

vapor,

not

understood, is

is lowered

hundred
a

three

degrees,however,

gas ; but

in the

hundred

the sole difference,

degree of

molecular

activity.
in a
prevalenceof water
and
permanently
liquidrather than in a
vaporous
incident
here on the globe is a mere
condition
gaseous
of telluric evolution.
Equally incidental is the fact that
breathe is
the air we
permanently gaseous and not
the earth's surface
liquidor solid,as it might be were
to a degree which, in the
temperature to be lowered
the
largerview, may be regarded as trifling.Between

It

thus

appears

that

the

"

"

"

348

"

ETHER

TUE

AND

PONDERABLE

atmospheric temperature
there is often

the
a

of

vapor, and

under

regions

hundred

another
oxygen

grees
de-

hundred,
becomes

gas

would

pressure
would

in arctic
one

reduced

increased

Thirty-sevendegrees more
temperature of nitrogen.
is this

than

more

at which

be reached

point would

Nor

tropicaland

the temperature

were

variation

in

MATTER

be

liquid.

to the critical

bring us

theoretical

assumption ; it is a
of experimental science,quite independetermination
dent
of theory. The
physicistin the laboratoryhas
a

mere

of temperature enabling
produced artificial conditions
of the most
him
to change the state
persistentgases.
the kinetic theory was
Some
in
fiftyyears since,when
acid gas, among
its infancy,Faraday liquefied
carbonic
others,and the experiments thus inaugurated have been
extended
recent
more
investigators,
by numerous
notably
by Cailletet in Switzerland, by Pictet in France, and by
Dr.

Andrews

Thomas
In

England.
has air been

the

"

it has been

gas and

liquidare,

only distant stages of

changes." Of course

still further,the
also has
"

of these

course

The

produced
we

yet

have
the

"

degree

gases,
of cold

Dewar

experiments

long

in the

long

subtle

most

more

ago

temperature
a

solid ; and
of

case

apparent
asserted,

ical
phys-

be lowered
this

of

some

in

only

not

series of continuous

if the

change

the

most

includingair.
"

that

is,of absence

of heat

here

nature

of solidified

absolutelyquiescent.
so

In other
very
249

at

the

which

earth

now,

air,for example,
words, they

low.

But

it is

thus

"

of

relativelyto anything

experience in

temperature, though

and

more

Andrews

as
a

is enormous,

molecules

made

liquidbecomes

effected

been

permanent

James

but hydrogen also,the

liquefied,

of gases ; and
that

Professor

and

are

not

still have

clearlycon-

THE

STORY

ceivable

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

that

stage might

be

SCIENCE

reached

at

which

the

as
absolutelyquiescent,
regards either
Such a heatless contranslational or vibratorymotion.
dition
has been approached, but as yet not quiteattained,
in laboratory experiments. It is called the absolute

molecules

of

zero

became

temperature,

and

is estimated

be

to

equivalent

of water, or
Centigradebelow the freezing-point
ordinary zero.
of temperature) closely
A
temperature (or absence
approximating this is believed to obtain in the ethereal
interstellar space, which
of interplanetaryand
ocean
transmits, but is thought not to absorb, radiant energy.
the earth's surface are
here on
We
posure
protected from exwould
to this cold,which
deprive every organic
solelyby the thin
thing of life almost instantaneously,
which
of atmosphere with
the globe is coated.
blanket
if this atmosphere, exposed to such a
It would
as
seem
there be incessantly
temperature at its surface, must
like rain to be dissolved
thus
fall back
and
liquelied,
it still is many
the
into gas again while
miles above
This may
be the reason
earth's surface.
why its scurrying
have not long ago wandered
off into space,
molecules
and left the world without
protection.
of the air now
whether
But
such
not
or
liquefaction
in our
outer
occurs
atmosphere,there can be no question
in its entire depth were
must
to what
we
occur
as
manently
pershut off from
the heating influence of the sun,
to

273"

as

the astronomers

that

threaten

be in

may

we

future

atmosphere,but of
the entire earth's substance, is kept aquiverby the energy
which
it receives,or has received,directlyor indirectly,

age.

Each

from

the

out

molecule, not alone

sun.

its energy

Left

and

to

of the

each
itself,

molecule

fritter it off into

250

the

would

wear

space about

it,

ETHER

THE

AND

human-made

future

If

the

of

that

age

globe

about

fly

the

to

Yet

the
the
those

fail

rays

pass

the

us,

towards

molecules

of

speed
in

molecular

time
in

the

now

helpless

solids

utterly

the

nature

the

current

some

absolute

drop

quivers

to

which

gas

must

any

temperature

become

turn

properties

on

to

sink

must

their

from

come

inconceivable

take

then,

even

heatless
Its

of

out

no

is

more

the

than

essence

be

still

which

thrills,
as

still

and

stilled,

which

of

of

matter

on,

call

we

by

non-essential

thing

quivers

though

measured

go

subordinate

effect

matter

to

will

those

transitory

were

will

whirl

vortex

transitory

of

according

molecule

dying

state

whirl

shall

not

as

we

surmise.

cannot

life.

the

liquids

perhaps

the

sun's

say,

themselves,

may

it

surely

as

is

power

gradually

to

such

earth

solids

the

is
at

then

must

That

zero.

down,

whose

machine
restored.

time

MATTER

completely

running

ultimately

PONDERABLE

with

uninfluenced
that

by

produced
For

the

physical

crude

incidents;
itself.

instinct

temperature.

determining
our

hypothesis,

of

organs
but

the

sense,
vortex

VIII

CHAPTER

THE

CENTURY'S

SMALL

As

in

case

effort

of

John

Dal

point,

became
and

construct

of

amount

the

recorded
the
in

in
it

fewer

no

for

basis

the

field

of

of

theory
of

structure

outgrowth,
studies

The

rainfall,

in

simple

mind

rain-gauge

the

which

on

is

of

John

casual

whatever.

alliance

no

the

to

test

the
thus

which
eries
discovthis

was

the

pointed
of

generalization

chemistry

the

But

seen.

which,

led

century

our

observer,
The

whole

derful
won-

gigantic

founded,

was

the

Dalton,

of

those

logical
early

meteorology.
it

way

Dalton
of

atoms,

modern
in

epochal

with

have

to

seem

most

have

was

thousand

of

The

science

hundred

two

weather,

we

last

experiments

the

important

most

to

regarding

as

the

and

rain-gauge

the

named

of

close

simple

original

youth

weather,

than

some

beginning.

might

process

to

the

The

meteorology,

to
a

waterfall.

small

Quaker
the

crude

observations

formed

way

use

led

inaugurated

in

interested

"

the

of

came

towards

along

sometimes.

endings

great

back-country

who

ton,

CHEMISTRY

IN

what

note

self-trained

century

only

have

beginnings

to

PROGRESS

happened
turned

evaporation.

this

was

naturally
He

was

353

to
soon

From
the

led

the

studying
complementary
to

believe

that

exists

vapor

since

But
the

bodies

two

cannot

as

independent

an

the

occupy

of discrete

reallycomposed

are

are
particles

ultimate
"

atmosphere

same

time, this impliesthat the various

same

gases

in the

CHEMISTRY

IN

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

indeed,

cannot,

small

so

than

more

that

gas.
at

space

atmospheric

particles.These
cannot

we

them

see

them"

vaguely imagine

example, is just as much

if it were
of the ocean,
a drop out
as
a portion of water
itself. But
again, water
or, for that matter, the ocean
be separated,as
is a compound
substance, for it may
stances
had
Cavendish
elementary subshown, into the two
yet

particleof

each

and

hvdrogen
be

must

Unite

oxygen.

of

composed

together. Imagine

Hence

oxvgren.
"/
o

*/

water

for

vapor,

and

them,

lesser

two

of

atom

an

we

the

have

and

of

one

of

atom

an

joined

atoms

hydrogen

of

atom

water

longer exists ; but whether

of hydrogen and of oxygen
united or separate the atoms
ently
Differand nothing else.
remain
hydrogen and oxygen
mixed
togetheror united, atoms
produce different
never
change
gross substances; but the elementary atoms
their chemical
their distinct personality.
nature
It was
first gained a
about the year 1803
that Dalton
them,

sever

the water

and

no

"

full grasp
he

once

of the

conception of the chemical

that the hypothesis,if true,

saw

marvellous

key

to

the

questions relating to
themselves.

atoms

bulk

certain
of

oxygen

combination
with

one

to

of
gas

It

is

relative

known,

hydrogen

gas

form

water.

to

another

unites

originalmasses

oxygen), then
of hydrogen
203

with

the
of
the

and

insoluble

proportions
for example,

If it be

of
essentially
(each singleatom

of

furnished

hitherto

consists

singleatom

of the

of matter

secrets

At

atom.

union

that

bulk

that
of

the

of

certain

true

"

this

atoms

hydrogen united
relative
weights
of oxygen

must

THE

be

STORY

OF

the

relative

also

atoms.

one-half

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

weights of each of their respective

If one
pound of hydrogen unites with five and
(as,according to Dalton's
pounds of oxygen
the

experiments, it did), then

JOTTN

must

atom

atom.

the

same

be five and

Other

Dalton

way.

compounds

element

known
to take

the

one-half

of

the

oxygen

of the

plainlybe
tests

numerous

found

He

that

times

may

made

before

that

so, for

him, and

weight of

the

254

gen
hydro-

tested

hydrogen
proportions than any

in smaller
to

weight

D ALTON

compounds

publishedhis theory.
into

SCIENCE

in

he

enters

other

mined
convenience, deter-

hydrogen

atom

as

unity.

STORY

THE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

generallyconceded
More

carefullythe
that

that

they

bear

It element
B

element

that

of

to

and

definite

elements

relation

curious

very

with

smaller
Dr.

by

dominating

noticed
the

essential

as

be

to

came

combine

with

to

another.

one

different

two

Wollaston,

of the

one

little later it

influence

in

But

come.

atomic

weights.
point by chemists

strongest confirmation

chemical

what

So
of

by

had

the

to

was

for

of elements
Dalton

led him

confirmation

such

Johan

world

exactly what

early as 1802, and

accurate

chemist, who

this combination

proportions was

relation

most

confirmed

was

the

curious

This

quantity.

Berzelius,the great Swedish

in numerical

the

proportionsof
form
two
compounds, it appeared that the
larger quantityof B is an exact multiple

the

generation to

to

observers,and

Jakob
be

of

noticed

was

chemical

combines

of the

weight
of

it

century

our

towards

proportions.
As the analysts were
led to weigh
that.
quantitiesof combining elements, it was
the proportionsare
not
only definite,but

than

observed

of

that

in fixed

another

followers,and

his

first decade

of the

close

one

and

told for Proust

dence

SCIENCE

had

directly
of

authority gave

this

the

to the atomic

theory.
During these same
years the risingauthorityof the
French
chemical
world, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, was
he had
dertaken
unconducting experiments with gases, which
at first in conjunction with
Humboldt, but
which later on were
conducted
independently. In 1809,
the next
after the publicationof the first volume
year
of Dalton's
New
System of Chemical Philosophy, GayLussac
published the results of his observations, and
other
fact
things brought out the remarkable
among
that gases, under
and

pressure,

the

combine

same

conditions

always

256'

in

as

to

temperature

definite

numerical

IN

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

CHEMISTRY

volumes
of
Exactly two
proportionsas to volume.
with
of
volume
one
hydrogen, for example, combine
water.
to form
Moreover, the resultingcompound
oxygen
relation
to the combining
gas always bears a simple
In the case
volumes.
justcited the union of two

JOSEPH

of

volumes
two

hydrogen
volumes

upon

these

strong support
but the
the

of oxygen

one

the

champions

observations
their

results

in precisely

vapor.
of the atomic

of

Gay-Lussac as
hypothesis all of them,
"

curiouslyself-reliant

atomic
B

to

and

of water

Naturally enough
seized

GAY-I,USSAC

LOUIS

and

theory himself, who

257

theory
lending
that

self-sufficient author
declined

to

accept

is,
of
the

THE

STORY

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

observations

of

the

observations

of

Gay-Lussac

chemists

since

theory of

then

French

have

combination

foundation-stones

of

chemist

valid.

as

correct,

were

demonstrated

by
the

SCIENCE

volumes

Yet

countless

as

and

anew,

became

the

of

one

his

the

atomic

theory,despitethe opposition
of the author
of that theory.
The
true explanationof Gay-Lussac'slaw of combination
was
by volumes
thought out almost immediately by
savant, Amadeo

Italian

Avogadro, and expressed in

of the atomic
terms
theory. The fact must
be, said
Avogadro, that under similar physical conditions every
of gas contains exactly the same
form
of ultimate
number
Each
of these ultimate
particlesin a given volume.
physicalparticles
may be composed of two or more
atoms
pound
(as in the case of water vapor),but such a comconducts
itself as if it were
atom
a
simple and
of space that sepindivisible atom, as regards the amount
arates
its fellows under
it from
given conditions of pressure
and temperature. The
compound atom, composed
of two
or
more
elementary atoms, Avogadro proposed
for purposes of convenience, by the name
to distinguish,

an

It

molecule.

is

to

the

considered

molecule,

as

the

physicalstructure, that Avogadro's law applies.

and
atoms
This vastlyimportant distinction between
molecules,implied in the law just expressed,was published
unit of

in

1811.

Ampere
physicist

Four

later,the

years

outlined

the

law

in his mathematical

the

law

of

similar

the inner

mysteries of

seeking,the

chemists

it fade

the memory

from

the
of

of
it

atoms

the

time

And

sightfor

was

for
cast

the

it

with
a

that

full generation.

key to
they were

very

which

of their science.
258

utilized

theory,and

calculations.

Avogadro dropped out

Little suspecting that

French

famous

aside,and

let

THE

CENTURY'S

This, however,
of

is based

Avogadro

the atomic

theory

balance.

The

acceptance

law

as

lightsof chemistry
the

this

cautiouslysuggested

D.alton's

at

it would

well

be

to

of

planation
ex-

from

Daltonian

of the

"equivalent" instead

word

general
leading

Wollaston, though

acceptance
that

of the

askance

Thus

law

theory,and in 1811
being weighed in the

; but many

still looked

to

the

course

multipleproportionsfound

law.

first he inclined

non-committal

atomic

itself still

was

of

the

on

empiricalfact

an

of

strange, for of

not

was

CHEMISTRY

IN

PROGRESS

view,
use

the

"atom";

and

Davy, for a similar reason, in his book of 1812,

to no
speaks only of
proportions,"binding himself
theory as to what might be the nature of these proportions.
"

least two

At

the atomic

view

had

1807

circulated

and

even

at
tests

Jakob

the

might

be

to

appliedin

the

himself

the determination

These

with
consent

the

the

atomic

for

of the

of these

in

other,

theory,
ist
chem-

theory to
he

years

was

such
an

devoted

combining weights,

of

the
far

different

ments.
ele-

they were
simple expressionsof empirical
came
theory ; but gradually it beany

determinations,

and

atomic

laboratory. He

"proportions"

accuratelymade, were
facts,independent of
more

the

skill,and

utmost

"equivalents,"or

the

The

great Swedish

This

put

analyst of
to

of the

advocate

work

world.

chemical

Berzelius.

set to

once
as

of
noted

more

Johan

was

One

less reservation.

Thomson,

attention

general

with

time, however, adopted

professorat Edinburgh, who in

given an outline of Dalton's theory in a widely
book, which first brought the theory to the

Thomas

was

of the

great chemists

more

plain

that

so

these

as

facts

all harmonize

So by common
theory of Dalton.
proportionatecombining weights of

atomic

259

STORY

THE

the
the
the
of

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

elements

Dalton

known

be

to

came

SCIENCE

atomic

as

weights
"

given them from the first and

a
as
tangibleconceptionof the chemical atom
body
definite constitution
and
weight gained steadilyin
name

had

"

favor.

the outset

From

in the mind

idea

the

had

had

of Dalton.

the utmost

had

He

ity
tangibil-

all

along represented
the different atoms
by geometricalsymbols as a circle
for hydrogen, and
for oxygen,
a circle enclosinga dot
had
and
the like
represented compounds by placing
these symbols of the elements in juxtaposition.Berzelius
by substituting
proposed to improve upon this method
"

"

for the
of

the

geometricalsymbol the initial of the

element
represented O for oxygen,
"

and

the letter

on

so

as

numerical

"

of the

indication

an

in any

given compound.
gained general acceptance,
it is still
is

now

that

of two

the union
of

to

oxygen

formula

would

chemist

before

The
served
atomic

form

have
the

universal

H2O

number

fame

drogen
hy-

follow

of atoms

ent
pres-

Every

is the

no

chemical

of
of

way

hydrogen

meaning

for

of

with

But

water.

boy
school-

the

pressing
exone

such

wisest

of Berzelius.
of

give general
weights,and the
to

for

simple system soon

with
tions
slight modifica-

and

molecule

day

name

This

atoms

had

coefficient to

universallyemployed.

aware

Latin

the

great Swedish
to

currency

his

authority
symbols and

oped
point of view thus develled presentlyto two
important discoveries which
removed
the
last lingering doubts
to the validity
as
of the atomic
theory. In 1819 two French physicists,
covered
Dulong and Petit, while experimentingwith heat, disthat

the amount

the

new

specificheats

of heat

of

solids

(thatis

to

say,
requiredto raise the temperature of
260

THE

IN

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

CHEMISTRY

their
to a given degree) vary inversely
as
given mass
atomic
Mitscherlich,
weights. In the same
year Eilhard
that compounds having
observed
a German
investigator,
of atoms
to the molecule
the same
number
are
disposed
a

to form

the

same

he called

which

angles of crystallizationa property

isomorphism.
"

Here, then,
of

sets

the

were

atoms

of

been

of

"

utterlynovel
which

Dulong

and

substantiated

by

are

weight.
law.

it tells of

and

independent
strangely with

harmonize

substances

determinate

be coincidence
claims

two

empiricalfacts

suppositionthat

BERZEHUS

JAKOB

JOHAN

Petit
other
261

and

composed of chemical
This surelycould not
And
of

so

as

soon

Mitscherlich

observers,the

laws

as

the

had
of the

THE

STORY

specificheat
place as new

of

of these

tools

was

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

atoms, and

levers

new

Dalton, the

an

author

Quaker, working
known

to

isomorphism,took

of chemical

piled about

soon

of

With

science.

their
the

aid

of facts
impregnable breastwork
John
the atomic
theory. And
of that theory, plain,provincial
to

on

SCIENCE

all the

the

end

world

in

came
semi-retirement,be-

for all time

and

as

ter
mas-

of masters.

in

During those earlyyears of our century, when Dalton

was
grindingaway at chemical fact and theory in his
another
Manchester
obscure
laboratory,
Englishman held
of the chemical

the attention

and

brilliant

most

had

Davy
of Count

widely

Rumford,
in

to

come

to

world

with

heralded

the

assume

researches.

in

London

series of the

phry
Hum-

1801, at the instance

chair of chemical

losophy
phi-

the

Royal Institution,which the famous

had just founded.
American
tery
Here, under Davy's direction,the largestvoltaic bathad been put in operation,
and with
yet constructed
most
its aid the brilliant young
experimenter was expected alAnd
indeed he scarcetydisapto perform miracles.
pointed
for with the aid of his battery
the expectation,
transformed

he

into

floated

a
on

in

water,

contact

this

were

the

appearance

What

which

metal

property
came

familiar

so

not

Davy

potash,which

of

but

as

common

ash
pot-

only so light that it

ulous
possessed the seemingly miracnot

wras

bursting
with

substance

into

flames

as

soon

as

it

liquid. If
fire-quenching
had for the popular eye all

that

miracle, it

of the miraculous.

reallyhad
hitherto

had

done
been
262

decompose the
supposed to be elemen-

was

to

THE

one

of
of

OF

STORY

SCIENCE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

Davy's greatest triumphs to prove, in the series

in His famous
Bakerian
lecture
experiments recorded
of elements
did not
1806, that the alleged creation
of

take

found
tery
at the poles of the batplace,the substances
having been dissolved from the walls of the vessels
the water
in which
experimented upon had been placed.
Thus
the same
had
served
to give a
implement which
certain
of
to the fading dreams
philosophicalwarrant

banished

alchemy
domain

of

Though
water

was

to

remained

those

dreams

peremptorily from

the

present science.
the

of the

presence

alkalies and

acids in the

explained,however, their respectivemigrations

the negative and
positivepoles of the battery
for.
to be accounted
Davy's classical explanation

assumed

that

different

elements

differ

among
o

themselves

as

to

their electrical

some
properties,

being

others
negatively, electrified.
positively,
Electricity
he said, apparently are
and "chemical
festations
maniaffinity,"
of the same
force,acting in the one case
on
in the other on
particles. Electro-positive
masses,
ticles
parunite with electro-negative
ical
chemto form
particles
compounds, in virtue of the familiar principlethat
attract
another.
When
one
pounds
comopposite electricities
traction
atare
decomposed by the battery,this mutual
is overcome
by the stronger attraction of the
poles of the battery itself.
This
theory of binary composition of all chemical
and
compounds, through the union of electro-positive
extended
or
molecules, was
electro-negativeatoms
by

Berzelius,and

made

the

basis

his

famous

s}rstem of

ganic
chemistry. This theory held that all inorcomplex their composition,
compounds, however
essentiallycomposed of such binary combinations.

theoretical

are

of

264

For

It

Faraday

when

undisputed

almost

enjoyed
years this view
seemed
what
received
strong

many

sway.

CHEMISTRY

IX

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

T11E

of

the amount

showed

the

confirmation
between

definite connection
and

employed
electricity

so-called

decomposition produced in the

But
its claims were
reallymuch

of

the amount

electrolyte.

comprehensive,as

too

subsequent discoveries proved.

IV

promulgated his binary theory

careful to restrict its unmodified
he was
applicationto
that time,
At
the compounds of the inorganicworld.
stances
and for a long time thereafter,it was
supposed that subthat kept
had some
of organic nature
properties
them
was

first

Berzelius

When

aloof

the domain

from

that

little doubted

of

so-called

here,replacingor modifying
"

It

inorganicchemistry.
vital force

"

ated
oper-

ordinary

action of

the

"

that
affinity."It was, indeed, admitted
compounds are composed of familiar elements

chemical

ganic
or-

"

hydrogen, and nitrogen but

these elements
were
supposed to be united in ways that
in the domain
could
be imitated
of the non-living.
not
It was
regarded almost as an axiom of chemistry that
could
be put together
no
organic compound whatever
from
its elements
synthesized in the laboratory. To
effect the synthesisof even
the simplestorganic compound
it was
vital force"
be in
must
thought that the
operation.

chiefly carbon,

oxygen,

"

"

"

"

Therefore
chemical

world
that

veritable

when,
the

young

sensation
in

the

year

German

was

created

1828, it
chemist

in the
was

nounced
an-

Fried rich

Wohler, formerlypupilof Berzelius,and alreadyknown

365

STORY

THE

NINETEENTH

-CENTURY

SCIENCE

coining master, had actuallysynthesizedthe wellorganic product urea in his laboratoryat Sacrow.
"exception which proves the rule" is something

as

OF

known
The

of

heard

in the domain

ural
logicalscience. Natlaw knows
no
exceptions. So the synthesisof a
single organic compound sufficed at a blow to break
barrier which
the imaginationof the
down
the chemical
never

had

fathers of the science

Thenceforth

nature.

would
chemical
favorable
familiar
chemical

The

laws.

of

wave

had

Foremost

in the

Jean

and

Charles
respectivepupils,

though
the

breath,

same

somewhat

scene

in time

younger
to

take

of the controversies

Several

paved

years

for the

Wohler, too,
also

as

than
chief

that grew

of

this

in

out

the

Gerhardt
in

Pasteur, who,

the others,

part

France,

be named

must

Louis

must

earlier than

study

Frederic

epoch

Liebig in
in

Dumas

Baptiste Andre

Augustus Laurent.

this

Justus

were

and

the

istry
electro-chem-

as

rendered

who

Germany
their

no

precedinggeneration.

the workers

among

could

chemistry.
organicchemistryswept
the study of carbon
soon

organic chemistry memorable

and

and

of

the fashion

much

as

"

vital force

the domain

world, and

became

been

"

interest in

chemical

the

compounds

of

animate

the

chimera

longer gain recognitionin

over

between

erected

ist
chemphilosophical
regard the plant and animal organisms as
laboratories in which
conditions are
peculiarly
for buildingup complex compounds of a few
universal
the operation of
elements, under

inanimate

Now

of

the

came

most

upon

tant
impor-

of their labors.
way

organic substances

had

been

by Gay-Lus-

in 1815, that a certain compound

made
discovery,
has
of carbon and nitrogen,which
he named
cyanogen,
which enables it to retain
a peculiardegree of stability

sac's

266

THE

its

CENTURY'S

identity, and

PROGRESS

chemical

into

enter

IN

CHEMISTRY

relations after the

'

"/

manner

of

ered
simple body. A year later Ampere discovthat nitrogen and hydrogen, when
combined
in certain
he called ammonium,
what
proportionsto form
a

JUSTUS

have

the

property.

same

discoveryof

the

it seemed

conceived
unions
of oxygen,

the

LIKBIG

VON

Berzelius

had

compound radical, as
to

idea

announcing

was

cause
called,be-

theory.

He

nary
organic compounds are bicompound radicals with an atom

that

of various

it

aid to his dualistic

lend

this

seized upon

all

this

theory in

267

1818.

Ten

years

THE

STORY

OF

later,Liebig and
which

resulted

indeed

very

the

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

"Wohler
in

undertook

proving

abundant

seemed

organic chemistry came

of

istic

in the

even

theory

of

day

destined

was

about

came

defined

the

as

chemistry

radicals.

compound
But

be

to

jointinvestigation
compound radicals are
a

Thus
organic substances.
to be substantiated,
and

among

of Berzelius

theory

that

SCIENCE

proved that in
hydrogen may

rude

the dual-

shock.

This

of Dumas,
investigations
atom
an
organic substance

certain

be

seeming triumph

to receive

the

through

its

removed, and

atom

an

of

who
of

chlorine

in its

place without destroyingthe integrity

of the originalcompound
much
stitute
as
a child
might subblock for another
in its play-house. Such
one
a
be quite consistent
with the dualistic
substitution would
substituted

"

it not

theory, were
is

compound
at

In

molecule

itself be at

must

one

"

the entire

place there
as

affinities"

time

electro-positive,
seeming inconsistency

theory into disfavor.

elaborated,chieflythrough the

and

Gerhard

conception of
unitary structure, built up through
various
whose

"

nuclei

structure

were

of

these

Berzelian

was

Laurent

aggregation of
doctrine

drogen
hythe

electro-negativea

of

efforts

fact that

strongly electro-negative. Hence

radical which
united
successivelywith

threw
its

essential

as

another

which

very

while

elements

two

the

element,
powerfully electro-positive

is

chlorine

for

"

atoms,

and

in accordance
is not

nature

the

t, a

doctrine

with

"

the

tive
elec-

yet understood.
of

"

"

ular
types of molectrine
exploited,and, like the doc-

much

useful as aids
compound radicals,became
and guides for the analyst,indicatingsome
memory
the plansof molecular
construction,though by no means
of

penetratingthe mysteries

of

268

chemical

to

of

affinity.They

CENTURY'S

THE

PROGRESS

classifications rather

are

But

unions.

least

at

built of atoms

of
a

from

chemists, as

fixed

gases, under
little

and

was

exalted

it had

in the

had

but

In

the

the

plane of

dealing with

law

atoms

and

not

volumes

mathematics

of

of

t,

Cannizzaro,
Thenceforth
dominant

as

the atom

no

had

come
be-

supposed

where

the

for

example, the
equal spaces made
unite

volumes

gases,
law

with

of

bers
equal num-

volume
the

Since

of oxygen

simplest

lightof Avogadro's law,

of water

of

the

that

must

contain

two

(a point previouslyin dispute),but

originalmolecules

drogen
hy-

as

supposed.

vapor,

the

was

such

it clear

one

hydrogen
269

and

it.

to

themselves

unit

true

been

of water

in the

molecule

had

had

reallybelong

not

had

isolated,
as

displaced,

sense

it plainthat the atom

elementary

hydrogen

two

each

of

case

shows,

atoms

the

of

units

as

in

exist

form

that

be

of

in

was

did

chemists

oxygen,

of molecules

only

are

Gerhard

by

law.
to

idea

of

equal volumes

revived

was

made

soon

the

In the

molecule.

to

in

fixed

itself

atom

cases

many

two

of -the generality

championship

usurped territorythat

do

ing,
mean-

for

conditions,was

the

Avogadro's

atoms

Now

previousepoch.

course

often

ure
struct-

distinct

minds

molecules

conceptionof the molecule

thought in chemistry as the

Of

have

to

the

in

molecular

Avogadro a third
Avogadro's hypothesisthat there

later,under
to

of

purpose

basis of all substances.

came

of these

numbers

chemical

important

an

idea

"atom,"

century before.

equal

the

CHEM1STRV

explanationsof

served

the

molecule

distinct

as

to

as

last the word

at

than

they

giving definiteness

in

IN

oxygen

not

drogen
hythat
must

THE

STORY

have

been

how

OF

volume

one

this

imply

the

mentary
ele-

an

is bound

which

be

to

kind, the

own

and

atom,

all' their

in

atoms

solely among
seizes

atom

oxygen

if other

satisfied

Placed

neighborhood.

mad

of

fellow

on

are

atoms

gen
oxy-

these

dancings

clingtogether possiblyrevolving about

mates

for

atom

an

that

Why,

else

"

"

in the
its

atoms

"

for
"

two

avidity for other atoms, a longing

companionship,an "affinity call it what you
has

atom

will

of

case

supply
oxygen
of water?
volumes

then, does

What,

SCIENCE

of

of two

molecule

each

in

composed

could

every

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

two

one

"

other
an-

in miniature

thing

planetaryorbits. Preciselythe
But
the hydrogen atoms.
among

occurs

the

suppose

various

pairs of

pairsof hydrogen

other

need

Avhich

detain

not

loses its attachment

into

there

presto !
"

there

before,and

were

become

only

are

The

water.

conditions

hydrogen couplets,and"
molecules

two

free

for

and

oxygen

whole

in

atoms,
form
not

studied

chemists

regard

molecules,
all elements

companions.
to take

more

that

and

linked

it

process,

Some

unions

their

satisfied with
ask

others

link

the

forsook

itself with

two

one

upon
same

only

one,

themselves,

two, three, four, or

that under

greater

another.
kinds

another

number
and

to

of

refuse

when

more.

of

that

them

of its
single atom
of hydrogen.
atoms
270

have

in chemical

various

with

dawned

three

every

hydrogen

stated

of

actions

elements

; while

oxygen

the

gradually

are

offers,with
saw

to

atom

oxygen

phraseology,is summed
up in the statement
the oxygen
had
the given conditions
atoms
than for one
for the hydrogen atoms
affinity
As

near

fellow,and flingsitself madly

of the

one

now

come

proper

each

here),then

for its

circuit of

the

(under

atoms

us

atoms

oxygen

same

Thus
own

sion
occawe

kind

Clearly,

STORY

THE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

monovalent, while

is

gen

OF

SCIENCE

is

oxygen

divalent,makes

it

than
three
more
plain that we must
expect to find no
O"
compounds of these two
elements, namely, H
(written HO
by the chemist, and called hydroxyl);
"

H"

O"

(H2O, or water), and H" O" O" H (H2O2,

that in the
or
hydrogen peroxide). It will be observed
first of these compounds the atom
of oxygen
stands, so
of its hands
to speak, with
one
free,eagerlyreaching
out, therefore,for another
companion, and hence, in the
language of chemistry,forming an unstable compound.
are
Again, in the third compound, though all hands
with
pair links oxygen
clasped,yet one
; and
oxygen
unstable
be an
this also must
union, since the avidityof
kind is relatively
for its own
weak.
the
atom
Thus
an
well-known
plained,
propertiesof hydrogen peroxide are exits easy decomposition,and the eagerness
with
the elements
of other compounds.
it seizes upon
which
But

the molecule

of water,

other

the

on

hand,

has

its

all their
equilibrium,
Each
isfied
affinities being satisfied.
hydrogen atom has satits own
atom;
affinityby clutching the oxygen
its bonds
satisfied by
has both
and
the oxygen
atom

arranged

atoms

clutchingback
the

at

trio,linked

reach

out

power

to hold

They

form

for

in

water,

even

the

hydrogen

two

any

other

another
"stable"

companion,
it thrust

should

will retain

though

the

its

from

indeed,

nor,

under

identityas

any

all ordinary

molecule

of which

solid to

to

them.

itself upon

physicalmass

part changes its condition

tendency

no

which

compound,

Therefore

atoms.

bond, have

in this close

circumstances
of

of stable

state

gas

"

it is
from

ice to vapor.
But

consideration

of

in the molecule

at

this condition
once

272

suggestsa

of
new

stable

librium
equi-

question:

THE

Ho\v

CENTURY'S

can

Seemingly
must
physicalproperties,
it

CHEMISTRY

of

atoms,

having

satisfied,take

reactions?

of any

IN

aggregation

an

affinities

PROGRESS

further

any
such

part in chemical
its
molecule, whatever

be

chemically inert,incapable
in point of fact
so
readjustments. And

atomic

is,so long

its

as

clingto

atoms

component

unremittingly.But this,it appears,

atoms

little prone

are

fickle to the
and

are

as

last

to break

prone

flung itself into

Thus

It

the circuit of

partners in
This

in

which

more

others, and

very

their

it is that
fullv

atoms

activity

since

exchange

of

atoms
at

increase

from

incessant

remains

It is

just
the
panions.
com-

change

of molecules
changed
apparently un-

Deville,
which

process

from

molecules

partners, and
its former

cal
physi-

der
temperature)than unsubstances
at ordinary

above

the

absolute

disturbing influence.
having all the valency of

is

atom

in

its

satisfied do

each

than

of

temperature

no

absolutelyfree

"

whole

apparentlyno

temperatures, and
Hence

new

activetyin some
compounds
much
more
activelyunder some

But

others.

are

seeks

reformation

dissociation.

(such as

conditions

zero,

and

like the

and

as

named

much

on

has

first fullyappreciatedby Ste.-Claire

him

by

goes

dissolution

incessant

was

and

which

dance.
rollicking

substance

they are

as

hydrogen atoms,

again

It is for all the world

of

they are
attachments,

bondage
atom

two

free

the

that

seems

from

the oxygen

another

one

is precisely
what

their individual

away

flingsitself

moment

next

do.

to

degree in

into it.

enter

to

all their

lose

not

their

momentarily
may

seize

chemical

free

in

the

different

upon

partners, if those

it

appreciationof

this

prefersare

hand.

While, however,

activityof
s

the

atom

an

is essential to
273

proper

ceaseless

understand-

THE

ing

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

STORY

of its chemical

view

the

whose

from

efficiency,
yet
"

saturated

"

molecule

SCIENCE

another

that

"

is,the

their

have

point of
molecule

be
valency all satisfied may
thought of as a relativelyfixed or stable organism.
Even
though it may presently be torn down, it is for
the time being a completed structure; and a consideration
atoms

valency of

of the
has

hitherto

be

demonstrated

was

Wohler

proved,to
that

world,

chemical

same

of atoms
word

this

anomalous

fact

atoms

at

How

any

more

to

form

random

delicate

kind

"

may

Liebigand
of the chemical

have

preciselythe

number

Pasteur

Berzelius

truths

and

kind

of

express

seemed

of

It

became

to

chemistry.

certain

together haphazard
than

to

means

molecule.

bricks

are

thrown

that

build

to

together

house.

be

may

designin buildinga
1850, when

atoms

things, which

no

clear

thrown

not

molecule,

of the

explainedit,but
that something besides
the
is important in the
atoms

by

made
and

of

by

fundamental

condition

of

are

coined

was

most

was

architecture

same

of its

yet differ utterlyin physical properties.

number

mere

the

"

that

of architecture

1823, when

may

clew

character

matter

as

substances

two

the

best

bewilderment

utter

condition

negative the
Naming the
the

the

isomerism

The

long ago

as

constitution

and

"

to

as

relations

of space

"

gives the

important this

How

molecule

of the

its atoms

obtainable

been

architecture.

"

the

gradationsof

molecule

was

discovered

architectural

well illustrated about

that

some

carbon

pounds
com-

only be distinguished
from
another, when in solution,by the fact of their
one
twistingor polarizinga ray of light to the left or to
the right,respectively.But
no
tion
inklingof an explana"

of

as

certain

these

sugars"

strange

can

variations
274

of

molecular

structure

THE

until

came

much

the

of

plain that
itself

only

chains

may

mystery
fixed

or

are

sometimes
the

to

And

By paying
chemists

plan

of

and

the

to

heed

able to make

are

architecture

of

the

the

two

true

in

course

as

the

hints

as

of

of

"

of

rather
to

to

water

have

oxygen,
that

With

H.

"

position
com-

must

resented
repcules
mole-

atoms, such graphic

linking is

of

the affinities for

no

of

fathers

thought it possibleever

of the

suggestiveor diagrammatic
such

whose

simple molecule
hydrogen atoms

one

supposes

singleplane,can

architecture

it affords

molecule

they could join the

linking must
apparently be

always possible. Of
written

ties,
of the affini-

before

representationof the scheme

difficult,
yet, with

the

definite

in

diagrammatic picturesof

of any

In

another

manner

formula,

to

complex

atoms,

linked

was

hold

can

this matter

to

graphic formula
composed of a large number

other

it

for

occur.

in the

is

away

atoms

Then

valency.

it is

constant

(H2O),for example,
one

of

equally plain that where

the exact
plan of grouping
numerous,
be susceptible
of change without
doing
law of valency. It is in such cases
that

is known.

released

CHEMISTRY

molecule

of

their

is observed

isomerism

in

atom

have

law

cleared

number

groups.

atoms

the

was

each

must

violence

the

discovery of

since

molecules

the

the

IX

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

creasing
in-

guide,it
that

such

possiblyrepresent

molecule

than

course

it is at

best

theless,
pictorial.Never-

the structure

chemistry

of the molecule

would

not

have

attain.

VI

These
may

seem

utterlynovel studies of molecular architecture

of
much
the atom
at first sight to take from
275

STORY

THE

its former

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

of the
all-important
personage
Since so much
depends upon the mere
that comparatively
atoms, it may appear

world.

positionof the
little depends upon
But

such

view

it will appear
its

renounce

the

of the atoms

nature

incorrect,for

is

that at

time

no

closer

on

has the atom

peculiarpersonality. Within

the character
the

the

prestigeas

chemical

SCIENCE

of

molecule

consideration
been

to

seen

certain

be altered

may

themselves.

limits

by changing

its atoms

(justas different buildingsmay

be constructed
of the same
but these limits are
bricks),
sharply defined,and it would be as impossibleto exceed
positionsof

them

as

From

it would

becomes
retain

architecture

remains

at

coal,and
from

one

of

tissue,or

first to

gas

"

there

of

time

yet again

fibre,of animal

in any

brick,whatever

helpsto construct; it never

And
stone.
a
just as closelydoes each atom
its own
of its surroundings.
peculiarproperties,
regardless

the formation

but

bricks.

it

Thus, for example, the carbon

of

buildingwith

stone

last the brick

first to

styleof

the

be to build

last

"

is no

singleproperty

of

atom

may

diamond, again of

particleof
in

sugar,

gas

atom

itself.

every

atom

with

which

of all of the
the

So

modern

of

piece
wood

And

far

as

vibration

all these

association.

the

know, its size,its weight,its capacity for

remain
rotation,and its inherent affinities,
and

part in

atmosphere;
from
tangible
to inglass-cuttinggem
demonstrable
change whatever

of the

unchanged throughout

take

we
or

absolutely

varying fortunes
the same
thing is

of position
true

of

sixty-oddelementary substances
is acquainted. Every
chemist
maintain
its unique integrity,

always to
gaining nothing and losingnothing.
one

appears

All this

being true, it

would
276

seem

as

if the

positionof

THE

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

the Daltonian
and

atom

as

IX

CHEMISTRY

primordialbit

non-transmutable, had

of

been

structible
matter, inde-

put

to

the

by the chemistry of our century, and not found

wanting. Since those early claysof the century when
the electric batteryperformed its miracles and seemingly
test

reached

its limitations

ROBERT

in the

WILLIAM

hands

of

Davy,

many

BUNSEN

elementarysubstances have been discovered,but no

singleelement has been displacedfrom its positionas an
undecomposable body. Rather have the analysesof the
new

277

THE

STORY

chemist
all

seemed

it

make

to

elementary

called

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

atoms

"manufactured

them,

and

more

in truth

are

SCIENCE

certain

more

what

John

articles"

that

Herscbel

-primordial,

indestructible.
changeless,
that hand
And
in
yet, oddly enough, it has chanced
hand
with the experiments leadingto such a goal have
of exactly the
gone other experiments and speculations
In
each
generation there have been
opposite tenor.
chemists

refused
elements

the

among
to

that

admit

at

leaders

all in any

the

of their science

so-called elements
and

final sense,

eagerly for proof which

The

first bit of

was

furnished

Prout,

who

who

have

really
who
have
sought
their scepticism.
are

might warrant
evidence
tending to support this view
by an English physician,Dr. William

in 1815

called

the

to

curious relation

atomic

ous
weight of the varielements.
thorities
Accepting the figuresgiven by the auand Berzelius),
of the time (notablyThomson
it
appeared that a strikinglylarge proportion of the
atomic
exact
weights were
multiples of the weight of
hydrogen,and that others differed so slightlythat errors
of observation
might explain the discrepancy. Prout
to

be observed

between

attention

felt that this could

of

no

tenable

not

be

accidental,and

explanation,unless

he could

it be that

the various

the

think

atoms

of

allegedelements are made up of different

fixed numbers
of hydrogen atoms.
Could it be that the
the one
is hydrogen,
true element
one
primal matter
and that all other forms of matter
but compounds
are
of this original
substance?
Prout advanced
this startling
idea at first tentatively,
in an anonymous
espoused
publication
; but afterwardshe
it openly and urged its tenability.Coming just after
supposed elements, the idea
Davy's dissociation of some
"

"

278

THE

STORY

SCIENCE

-CENTURY

NINETEENTH

OF

a
Subsequently Stas, the pupilof Dumas, undertook
of atomic
long series of determinations
weights, with
the expectationof confirming the Proutian
hypothesis.
But
his results seemed
to disprove the hypothesis,for
differed
from
the
elements
atomic
weights of many
whole
numbers
by more, it was thought, than the limits
of error
of the experiments. It is noteworthy, however,
not
of Dumas
that the confidence
was
shaken, though
he was
led to modify the hypothesis,and, in accordance
with previous suggestionsof Clark and of Marignac, to
self,
recognize as the primordialelement, not hydrogen itone-fourth
half the weight,or
but an
atom
even
the weight,of that of hydrogen, of which
primordial
But
itself is compounded.
the hydrogen atom
atom
form
the hypothesis found
in this modified
even
great
oppositionfrom experimental observers.

In

1864:, however,

weights of

the

called

to

was

John

A.

if the

R.

elements
the

elements

of similar
This

so-called

propertiesat
"law

attention,but
the

observation

Gustav
and

the
under

of other

Lothar

in

discovery fullest
the

title of

Dmitri

that

numerical

curious

rence
recur-

eightelements.

soon

little immediate
came

chemists, notably of

America,

Meyer

noticed

the

attracted

facts it connotes

Professor

by

had

intervals of

of octaves"
the

Hinrichs

chemists
who

the

characteristics

in
arranged serially
weights,there is a

are

of their atomic

order

of

London,

of

between

their other

and

attention

Newlands,

relation

novel

under

Professors

Mendeleeff

in Russia,

in

Mendeleeff
Germany.
gave
expression,expositing it in 1869,

"

periodiclaw."
Though this early expositionof what has since
admitted
to be a most
important discovery was
fullyoutlined, the generalityof chemists gave it
280

been
very

little

From

daguerreotype

made

in

Paris

Abraham

DAGUERRE

MANDE

JACQUES

LOUIS

for

Meade

Bogardus,

Brothers.
New

New

York

York,

now

possession oJ

CENTURY'S

THE

PROGRESS

till a decade

heed

or

IN

later,when

so

CHEMISTRY

three

elements,

new

discovered,
gallium,scandium, and germanium, were
which, on
being analyzed, were
quite unexpectedly
found

lit into

to

three

periodicscale.

in his

In

existence

to

years

to such

system that leads

Mendeleeff

had

the periodiclaw
effect,

predicatethe
before
they were

Mendeleeff
elements

which

gaps

results

is

no

had

the

of

discovered.
mere

left
abled
ennew

Surely a
So

vagary.

periodiclaw took its place as one of the

science.
of chemical
most
important generalizations
This law of periodicity
was
as
an
put forward
sion
expresof observed
relations
independent of hypothesis;
but

of

could
has

the

soon

very

said,it

to

have

the

that

the

Proutian

weights

of this

chemist

Robert

about
of

the

lines which

had

Fraunhofer

as

reference

step from

short

alone

the

alleged
has

the

hardly

Kirchhoff
the

and

the

been

formulated,

spectroscope.
hands

to

have

to

weapon

the

dence
Evi-

elements.

contributed

could

novel

suggesting

in

hypothesiswas

through

ments
ele-

ioned,
originallyfash-

not

instrument, in

Gustav
scientists,
came

"

the

ing
another, accord-

one

are

that

source

that

hypothesis.

kind

imagined when the Proutian

through the addition of a
of the

been

facts

Gladstone

without

It is but

general plan."
atomic

have

these

J. H.

created

they

of

conviction

built up, from

been

end, from

the middle

the

"

us

of
compound nature
of a totallydifferent

Bunsen,

Professor

As

upon

propositionto

But

same

some

bearings

separate bodies

not

or

the

forces

another, but

one

that

theoretical

be overlooked.

not

are

to

the

course

the

mentarium
arma-

The

fection
per-

of two

German

Robert

Wilhelm

towards
investigation,

century, of the meaning of the dark

been

early as

observed

1815, and
283

in the

by

solar

spectrum by

Wollaston

decade

THE

STORY

earlier.
in

It

OF

suspectedby Stokes and by

first brought to demonstration

was

England, but

hoff and

SCIENCE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

Bunsen,

that

these

lines,which

Fox

Talbot
Kirch-

by

known

were

to

definite

dicativ
positionsin the spectrum, are reallyinof particular
elementary substances.
By means
is essentiallya magnifying
of the spectroscope, which
lens attached
to a prism of glass,it is possibleto locate

occupy

lines

the

with

that here

was

new

of

means

It

exquisitedelicacy.

most

the

that

of

sodium

of

detect

important, the spectroscope put

of

only

of

location

that

sufficient

it recorded
the

the

sun

To

secret

be

however,

it

chemical

agency,

process
certain

it

utilityof

unstable

of

the

two-

one
even

more

the

tance
dis-

tested,provided
The

ments
experi-

in the sun,

from

in

or

of

one

wrench

the
the

constitution.
the

to

spectroscope complete,

link

with

namely, photography.
on

example,

upon

it.

to

was

the

presence

was

limit

from

instrument

is based

for

nebulae ; indeed,

or

necessary

was

as

performed

of his chemical
the

render

the

it another

This

now

new

miliar
fa-

compose
property of light to de-

compounds

of

silver,and

thus

that
composition. "We have seen
barely escaped the discovery of
Wedgwood
Their successors
of the photographic method.

alter

their

Davy

and

the value

stars

of the

earliest feats

the

substance

light came

might

distant

most

the

analysisof

what

no

shown

soon

found,

grain. But

was

chemical

infinitesimal

so

hundred-thousandth

it

was

could

spectroscope

quantity

and

great accuracy,

chemical

it until about
Louis J. M.
1826, when
quite overlooked
in hand,
Daguerre, the French chemist, took the matter
and after many
years of experimentation brought it to

perfectionin 1839, in which year the famous

to popular atdaguerreotype first brought the matter

relative

284

THE
tention.
on

In the

the

same

Mr.

year

subjectbefore
the

IN

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

the

Fox

CHEMISTRY

Talbot

read

Royal Society,and

efforts of Herschel

and

philosopherscontributed

advancement

paper
wards
after-

soon

other

numerous

the

to

ral
natu-

of the

method.

new

JOHN

In

Dr.

1843

American

chemist

photography

the

"W.
and

DRAPER

Draper,

the

famous

Fraunhofer

lines in the

mapped

with

absolute

accuracy

the

silvered

film

revealed

many

The

value

the unaided
was

eye.

recognizedat

Englishthat
by

showed
physiologist,

be

might
that

John

W.

once,

solar
; also

lines

of this method

and, as
285

soon

as

spectrum

proving

invisible

to

of observation
the

spectro-

THE

STORY

with
this

By
with
and
be

its use,

in

of

case

chemists

invaluable

the

stars, whole
at

the

to

junction
con-

chemist.
be

spectra may
otherwise

in

made

obtainable;

clusters of spectra may

singleobservation.

and

of

the

or

delighted,according to

amazed

were

sun

witness

preconceptions,to
terrestrial elements

familiar

of

not

accuracy

examination

the

various

of

record

placed on
As

became

comparisons

means

degree

SCIENCE

perfected,the photographic method,

was

scope

NINETEENTfl-CKNTURY

OF

the
be

to

are

stars

proceeded,

proof that
found

their

many

in the

lestial
ce-

perhaps surprisedthem most

the enormous
to observe
was
preponderance in the sideral
bodies of the element
hydrogen. Not only are
in the sun's atmosthere vast quantitiesof this element
phere,
other suns
but some
appeared to show hydrogen
lines almost
exclusivelyin their spectra. Presently it
appeared that the stars of which this is true are those
had been conjectured
white stars, such as Sirius,which
But

bodies.

the

be

to

like

our

what

hottest; whereas
show

sun,

also

includingiron
In

the

Mr.

18T8

the

and

of this series of

here
than

the

on

sun

hydrogen,the

sun

the

of

only red-hot,

are

many

other

ments,
ele-

metals.

Lockyer, in
attention

to

observations.

showing
cool

that

vapors

other

J. Norman

Royal Society,called

the fact of the

stars

fewer

the
He

elements

earth, while

stars

paper

before

possiblesignifican
urged
than
much

are

that
served
ob-

hotter

element,and that one

chieflyone
of known
elements, seemed to give
lightest
show

that our
alleged elements are
possibility
test
reallycompounds, which at the temperature of the hotstars may
be decomposed into hydrogen, the latter
"element
itself being also doubtless
a compound, which
tryingconditions.
might be resolved under yet more
color

to

the

"

286

CHAPTER

THE

IX

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

BIOLOGY

IN

THEORIES

WHEN
have

the

been
rather

chosen
that

the

the

of

poet

that

Wolfgang

Such

laid

Indeed,

despite

Goethe

achieved

that

science
his

It

von

would

had

name

is the

he

in

the

foundations
the

on

the

modified

presently

or

by

that

Goethe
of

his

doctrine

extension

the

that

leaves.
of

the

of

stanza

highest

poetry.

genius.
work

the

published

all

that
the

reputation
in

parts

of

This
doctrine

of

field

recognition

permanent

scientific

very

Johann

the

in

the

est
great-

distracted

distractions,

tion
cau-

the

Muse

of Plants,

metamorphosed
an

taken

successes

marks

Metamorphoses

novel

these

the

was

have

written

never

that

1790

not

insure

versatility

was

work

had

the

yond
be, it is be-

may

actually

easily

might

scientist

who

man

time

as

attention.

for

the

that

however

not

possible

outweighed

friend

the

is

it

might
he

had

time

chemist,

greatest

But

that

rank

highest

pure

the
of

critic.

dispute

his

be

to

his

of

lie

that

Davy

Humphry
poet

greatest

enthusiasm

of

of

said

Coleridge

EVOLUTION

ORGANIC

OF

which
the
was

of

"

he

flower

followed
metamor-

vanced
adare

CENTURY'S

THE

BIOLOGY

IN

kingdom, in the doctrine which

Goethe
and Oken
advanced
tebrate
independently,that the verskull is essentially
and developed vera modified
tebra.
These
possible,
were
conceptions worthy of a poet; imthat had
the poetic
not
indeed, for any mind
But in this case
the poet'svision
facultyof correlation.
ence.
was
propheticof a future view of the most
prosaic sciThe
doctrine
of metamorphosis of parts soon
to
be regarded as
feature in the
came
a fundamental
science of livingthings.
But
had
the doctrine
implications that few of its
If all the parts of a flowerrealized.
early advocates
with
their countless
tions
deviasepal,petal,stamen, pistil,

phosis

the

PROGRESS

to

animal

of contour

leaf,such

and

color

modification

development. To
metamorphosed leaf means,
the long sweep
of time
the
gradations changed
leaf has

this is

as

leaf and
a

become

line of

not

the

possible
"

unlike that
for

the

organism?

from

dream;

but

one

is it

of his studies

in his mind
T

if such

of

Why
of

parent

may

various
stock?

289

between

gap

of

the modification

organism
not

are

thus

fication
modimay
lines

utterly
account

species of beings all

is a poet's
That
too
Goethe
thought not.

only a dream?
of metamorphosis

the belief that the

speak, of a true
a metamorphosis

wide

we

in

successive

along devious

on

an

sudden

or

of
possibility
bounds?
Why

its

parts go

is

stamen

the

does

descendants

development

sprung

Out

of

to

spanned by
find

tion
differentia-

by slow
through

seemingly

"

the remote

until

be

of the

anything,that

means

leaf has

But

organisms where
of organic type

1;hemodification

if it

so
offspring,

if the

may

that

assert

character

stamen.

stamen

its

modifications

marvellous

impliesa

and

generations, until

but

are

"

of

parts there grew

multitudinous

speciesof

THE

STORY

OF

plants and
fewer

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

animals

and

fewer

about

earlier

giant tree drawing

It

root.

the

was

the

at

in Goethe's
mind

bold

and

regarded it

world

Just

time

as

when

brain, the

of another

same

the

coupletsof

widest

from

evolved

from

the

of

primal

same

DARWIN

revolutionarythought;
but the vagary
this

thought

idea

of

was

poet.

taking form

germinating in the
tional
Englishman of interna-

Darwin, who, while

Garden
290

and

was

popularity as

his Botanic

been

parent types, like twigs

philosopher,an

fame, Dr. Erasmus

enjoyed

have

us

their nurture

ERASMUS

SCIENCE

he

lived,

rhymed
being quoted everya

poet,

the

CENTURY'S

THE

with

where

admiration.
makes

which

verse

value

permanent
its
the

PROGRESS
And

BIOLOGY

posterity,
repudiatingthe

the

body

the

book

to

IN

of

the

book, yet grants

itself,because, forsooth,

copious explanatory footnotes furnish

of almost
status
department
every

the

outline

an

of

of

science

of

time.

But

though

he lacked

the

fier,
highestart of the versiDarwin
had, be}rondperadventure,the imagination
of a poet coupled with
profound scientific knowledge;
and it was
his poeticinsight,
ingly
correlating
organisms seemdiverse
in structure, and
imbuing the lowliest
which
flower
vital personality,
led him
with
to susa
pect
even

that

"Can

are

lines

no

of

demarcation

be," he queries,- that

it

has

there

"

developed

from

another

and

there,

grew

; that

into

different

of

organism

speciesare

parent stock?"

one

his mind

and

ured
nurt-

was

belief,which

fixed

of

form

one

descendants
reallybut modified
The
alluringthought nestled in

in nature.

was

given fuller expression in his Zoonomia, and in the

there
But
little
was
posthumous Temple of Nature.
proof of its validityforthcoming that could satisfyany
one

but

the

idea of transmutation

poet, and

when

Erasmus
of

Darwin

died, in 1802,
still but

specieswas

an

substantiate
un-

dream.
It

was

Goethe
more

dream, however,
Darwin.

and
or

worker

"

less
of

Germany,

Robinet, and
had

the

couched

Even

vaguely

great Frenchmen,

another

De

eighteenth century
291

dreamer
and

Buffon

poet, though

artistic prose.

idea had

to

to

come
"

and

several

Maillet, Maupertuis,

naturalist
a

the

great
Kant,

Immanuel

confined

not

was

earlier

including

imagination of

of the

to

the famous

in most

which

Not

Buffon

"

man

his message

long
had

after

the

who
was

dle
mid-

put forward

THE

the

STORY

of

idea

it from
But

transmutation

time

the

And

burst

speciesto

SCIENCE

species,and

then

he reiterated

till his death

on

in 1788.

yet ripe for the idea of

not

was

of

from

time

to

time

of

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

yet this idea,in

tation
transmu-

its bonds.
modified

undevelopedform,
had
taken strange hold upon
the generation that was
the scene
close of the eighteenth century.
at the
upon
of hitherto unknown
Vast numbers
speciesof animals
had
been recentlydiscovered
in previouslyunexplored
were
regionsof the globe,and the wise men
sorely puzzled
for
account
the disposalof all of these at the
to
time of the Deluge. It simplifiedmatters
greatly to
that many
specieshad been developed
existing
suppose
since the episode of the Ark
of the
by modification
originalpairs. The remoter
bearings of such a theory
overlooked

were

animals

for

and
of

descendants

leopard,the
belief

of the

puma

that

the

"

lion,and
of

so

that American
modified

were

the

jaguar

on

became

"

humanity

that

true

idea

example,

forms

class
as

or

time, and

World

statement

any

the

birds, for

Old

with

who

of
a

rent
cur-

accept
with

harmonizes

the

most
al-

their

its implications.
realizing
with eclat that the discovery of
recorded

prejudices,without
it is

Thus
the

close

Asia

proximityof

might easilyhave
ice, and

and

faunas

have

found

been

the

at

all difficulties

removes

Occidental

America

the

to

as

floras,since
their

modified

to

way

as

northwest

the

Oriental

species

America

on

them

bv

the
"

the

"/

well-known

influence

of climate."

expression to this idea

significance. In truth, here

gave

in
were

of

origin

find

we

with

not

nutshell,and,
clear,it seemed

was

292

most

the persons

dreamed

never

because

the

And

the

of its real

doctrine

its ultimate

natural

who

tion
of evolu-

bearings

of doctrines.

THE

But

CENTURY'S

of

most

turned

from

it

limits

be the
here

that

advanced

it would

they have realized

however, only here and there

such

of

there

and

BIOLOGY

aghast could

reasoned

Buffon

IX

who

persons

it was,

As
like

the

PROGRESS

far

enough

assumed

Darwin

there

are

no

Goethe

its import.
a

man

inquirewhat

to

transmutation

or

have

might
and only

reached

the

viction
con-

limits.

ii

And

Goethe

even

that
held

the

tentative

thought

belief,not
was

the

of their

one

and

Darwin

This

was

yond
scarcelypassed be-

stage of conviction

of transmutation

of

in which

speciesas

an

yet ready for full exposition

they
lary
ancil-

There

contemporaries,however, who, holding

conception, was

same

had

the

friend

moved
and

give it full explication.

discipleof Buffon, Jean
to

Possessed
of the spirit
of a poet
Baptiste de Lamarck.
and philosopher,
this great French
had also the widest
man
of technical knowledge, covering the entire field
range
of animate
devoted

nature.

The

first half

chieflyto botany,
distinction.
Then, just at

in

which

of

his

he

long

life

attained

was

high

tury,
beginning of our cento zoology, in particularto the
he turned
lower
forms
of animal
life. Studying these lowly organisms,
and
more
more
existing and fossil,he was
impressed
with
the gradations of form
everywhere to be seen ;
the
linking of diverse families through intermediate
the predominance of low
ones
; and in particularwith
Called upon
types of life in the earlier geologicalstrata.
constantly to classifythe various forms of life in the
of his systematic writings,he found
and
it more
course
difficult to draw
more
sharp lines of demarcation, and at

the

393

STOR\f

THE

OF

SCIENCE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

last the

into a settled conviction

suspicionlong harbored
grew
that there is reallyno such thing as a speciesof
species is a tigment of the
organism in nature ; that
"

"

human

in

imagination,whereas

there

nature

are

only

individuals.
That

certain sets of
than

like

other

individuals
sets

is of
294

are
course

more

like

one

other
an-

patent, but this

STORY

THE

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

SCIENCE

such

increased development of the legsis

slightly
transmitted
to the
offspringof the bird,which in turn
develops its alreadyimproved legs by its individual efforts,
and transmits the improved tendency. Generation
after generationthis is repeated,until the sum
of the
But

infinitesimal

variations,all

the

in the

results
direction,
long-leggedwading-bird. In
same

production of the
similar way, through individual effort and transmitted
a
tendency, all the diversified organs of all creatures have
been developed the fin of the fish,
the wing of the bird,
in

"

the hand

of

man

the
Collectively

even.

man,

and

organism;
be true

must

Whatever
of the

the fish

; nay, more,

what

also of their

might
of

cause

be

evolution

for

extension

of

of

which

thought of
"

Erasmus
he

the entire

individual

organs

Lamarck's

explanation
reallywas that

which

Darwin

contended

conception that

the

the

up

ensemble,the livingbeing.

transmutation

already suggested by

make

organs

is true

the bird,the
itself,

the

"

but

was

American

idea of the

the

logical

animals

are

of European
degenerateddescendants
little prone to follow
But peopleas a rule are
animals.
in this case
the
ideas to their logicalconclusions,and
conclusions
so
were
utterly opposed to the proximal
bearings of the idea that the whole thinking world
the

modified

and

repudiated them

with

acclaim.

The

very

who

persons

of
eagerly acceptedthe idea of transmutation
ited
and similar limspecies,
European speciesinto American
variations through changed environment, because

had

most

of the relief thus

were

the

now

doctrine

given

foremost

in

the otherwise

denouncing

of transmutation

as

overcrowded

such

Lamarck

Ark,

extension

an

of

proposed.

And, for that matter, the leaders of the scientific world

were

equallyantagonisticto
296

the Laraarckian

hypothesis.

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

IN

BIOLOGY

the pupil of Lamarck, but now

once
particular,
than his peer, stood
and in authoritymore
his colleague,
doctrine
with all his force.
out
againstthe transmutation
He argued for the absolute fixityof species,
bringing to
of a mind
bear the resources
which, as a mere
repository
excelled.
of facts,perhaps never
As a final and
was
the
tangibleproof of his position,he brought forward
bodies of ibises that had been embalmed
by the ancient
by comparison that these do not
Egyptians,and showed
differ in the slightest
particularfrom the ibises that visit
ing
the Nile to-day. Lamarck
repliedthat this proved nothperfectlyadapted
except that the ibis had become
to its Egyptian surroundingsin an
earlyday, historically
speaking,and that the climatic and other conditions of
since then
ory,
the Nile Valley had
not
changed. His thehe alleged,provided for the
stabilityof species
under
fixed conditions
tion
quite as well as for transmutaunder
varying conditions.
vier;
But, needless to say, the popular verdict lay with Cutalent won
for the time
marck
against genius,and Lalooked
as
was
as
impious visionary. His
upon

Cuvier

faith

in

wavered,

never

gained a
and

however.

he reiterated
in the

Animaux

the

insightinto

true

his

He

and

to his Histoire

Vertebras,in 1815, and

sans

he had

of animate

processes

hypotheses over

introduction

that

believed

ure,
nat-

over,

in his

Systeme

He
positivesde Vllomme, in 1820.
till 1829, respectedas a naturalist,but almost
as

des

naturelle

des

lived

Connaissances
on

ticularly
par-

ognized
unrec-

prophet.
in

While

the

names

that of

of Darwin

Lamarck,

must
297

and

Goethe, and

always

stand

out

in
in

ticular
par-

high

OF

STORY

THE

relief in this

these

Of

the

conspicuous is

most

should

have

the

of the

of

Organisation des Corps

that

in

Lamarck,

his

appropriate word

the

It is

significantof

the

that

the

time

have

presented

thinkers

need
itself

in different

That

of

It

"

of evolution

the

idea

of

men

But

century.

to

was

of

thought
this

whither

the
the

date,
"

as

an

of

living
thought of

word

should

independent

to

Lorenz

year,

in

time

the concession

University of

outlines

Thus

of

his Philosophie
later

the

during

some

As

the

time

several

first decade

of their

check

soon

of

minds

had

that animals

various

of

the

of

our

cations
expli-

that undercurrent

to

as

this

that

it appears

singular result

conception.

the

developed through

as

species.

for

another

Oken,

theoryof spontaneous generation

give sudden

which

of

unifying

preliminary

germinating

was

ablest

of

sur

countries.

outlined
publications,
and

tion
exposi-

same

biology

tendency
a

1802,

singular,too,

the

simultaneously

Natur, which,

der

is

of

philosophicalnaturalist,professor in
Zurich, published

in

first

general science

such

memorable

same

his views

his Reclierches

suggested
the

Biologie,

expounded,

Hydrogeologie

things.

his

of

Lamarck's

to express

Rein-

Treviranus

in which

Vivants.

independentlyhave

should

that

appeared in

doctrine

same

which

Bremen.

Natur,

in which

of

or
physician,profess-

specieswere

twelvemonth

same

at

others

of Gottfried

first volume

lebenden

transmutation

the

on

lyceum

the

published

Philosophieder

oder

that

idea

this connection.

in

interesting coincidence

an

was

of the

few

naturalist

in the

of mathematics
It

are

altogether overlooked

Treviranus, a German

hold

SCIENCE

exponents

species,there

of

be

not

the

generation as

transmutation
must

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

been
it

may

was

be

ards
settingtow-

made

clear

changed by

THE

their environment
the idea

was

almost

ETIENNE

There

France
Cuvier

gain

and

was,

who
and

had

his

the

Then

for

eration
gen-

and

his

final.

SAINT-HILAIHE

naturalist

one

hardihood

to

who

school,and

hearing,though by

recoil from

absolutelydominant,

GEOFFKOY

indeed,

BIOLOGY

fervid.

generallyconsidered

was

IN

logicallytrend, the

must

instantaneous

was

Cuvier
verdict

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

no

399

means

was

of

authority

stand
in
to

out
a

in

against

positionto

divide

the

fol-

STORY

THE

This

lowing.
many

the

years

Like

Plantes.

Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire,the
for
of the PhilosophicAnatomigue, and
at the Jarclin des
colleagueof Lamarck
Goethe, Geoffroy was
pre-eminently an
the

like

anatomist, and,

impressedwith

been

of

organs
the

the

resemblances

different

that

idea

great German,

this

of

idea

of

classes

had

he

early

between

the

ogous
anal-

beings.

He

ceived
con-

absolute

an

unity of type prevails

as
regards each set of organs.
belief that
gradually formed

throughout organic nature

Out

SCIENCE

Etienne

was

author

famous

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

his

grew

might imply identityof origin"

similarityof structure
oped
that,in short, one
speciesof animal might have develanother.

from

was
Geoffrey'sgrasp of this idea of transmutation
by
no
so
means
complete as that of Lamarck, and he seems
in his own
mind
to have
never
fullydetermined
just

might be the limits of such development of species.

in
includes all organic creatures
Certainly he nowhere
what

line of

one

he held

tenaciouslyto
to

which
but

Academy
the

aroused

so

the

Cuvier, with

the

at

had

descent, as Lamarck

which, in

the

truth

whom

of

he

as

interest and
of

in

it,in open opposition

saw

he held

Sciences

opinion

done; nevertheless

memorable

1830

enthusiasm

nearly every

"

bate
de-

the

debate

of

Goethe,

one

sulted
else,re-

crushing defeat for Geoffroy,and brilliant,

of special
ation
creseemingly final,victoryfor the advocate
and the fixityof species.
in

With
seemed
come

that
to

there

transmutation

all ardent

end,

and

was

of

little book

over

the

subject

for

justa quarter of a century to

published but a single argument for
tention
specieswhich attracted any generalat-

whatever.
a

controversy

called

This

oasis in

Vestigesof
300

desert

the

generation was
Natural
History of

CENTURY'S

THE

Creation, which
the

was

years
work

passed through

subject of no end
The
authorship of
it is

secret, but

of

BIOLOGY
in

appeared anonymously

which

1844, and

IN

PROGRESS

Robert

and

conceded
the

Chambers,

derisive

remained

this book

now

editions,and

numerous

abusive

of

in

England

ment.
com-

for

forty
the

been

to have

well-known

English

as
publisher. The book itself is remarkable
and unequivocalexpositionof a generbeing an avowed
al
doctrine of evolution,its view
being as radical and

and

author

that

comprehensiveas
a

of earlier efforts

resume

to say

bitter

it aroused

main

said

to

critics have

some

But

it

and

while

denied

have

cannot

of

than

more

it

even

been

thought in
the

opinion of

done

was

departure,

new

shortcomings,and,

of

trend
have

undercurrent

creatingan

the

opposition to
can
hardly be

than

animadversions,

effect in

without

rather

of its technical

nothing

himself.

of Lamarck

time, it
deed,
In-

that.

this merit.

After

tion
as
before,the conception of transmutapublication,
of speciesremained
in the popular estimation,both
almost
an
lay and scientific,
forgotten heresy."

its

"

It is true
less

that

repute
"

as

Germany, Bory
and

Matthew

in

here

and

there

scientist of

Yon

Buch, Meckel,

Saint

Yincent

in

England, and

greater

Yon

and

Baer

or

in

France, Wells, Grant,

Leidy

in America

"

had

the doctrine
from
less tentative
dissent
or
expressed more
but
of specialcreation
and immutability of species,
in
their unaggressive suggestions,
usually put forward
obscure publications,
and incidentally,
looked
were
utterlyovervances
and
ignored. And
so, despitethe scientific ad-

along

lines at

the

middle

of

the

century,

had no
transmutabilityof organicraces
cles,
prominence, either in scientific or unscientific cirit had acquiredfiftyyears before.
as
Specialcre-

the idea of
such

many

the

801

OF

STORY

THE

held

ation

the

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

SCIENCE

day, apparentlyunchallengedand

posed.
unop-

IV

But

at this time

even

the

fancied

hypothesis was
it seemed

by

apparently impregnable

beneath

Though

that

of

which,

all

positionwas

fortress

the special-crea

real.

means

no

real

invincible,its

so

securityof

an
beknown
un-

the

garrison,a powder-mine has been dug

and lies ready for explosion. For already there existed
in the secluded
work-room
of an
a
English naturalist,
and a portfolio
of notes
which might
manuscript volume
have
the entire
to shatter
sufficed,if given publicity,
to

ralist
special-creation
hypothesis. The natustructed
who, by dint of long and patienteffort,had conthis powder-mine of facts was
Charles
Robert
Darwin, grandson of the author of Zoonomia.
As
Darwin, then
long ago as July 1, 1837, young
nal,
twenty-eightyears of age, had opened a privatejour-

of the

structure

in
to

came

the

him

roy,

famous
as

purposed

which

point of

moot

Four
that

he

which

or

the

seemed
doctrine

five years

trip around

naturalist

to

the

to

record

to

have

all

any

world

with

Beagle, Darwin

on

of species.
of

course

Admiral
had

that

bearing

of transmutation

earlier,during the
the

facts

Fitz-

made

the

his bewhich
lief
first tended
to shake
personal observations
in the fixityof species. In South
America, in the
imals
"great fossil anPampean formation, he had discovered
like that on the existingarmacovered
with armor
dillos,"
of type
and had been struck with this similarity
of the same
and existingfaunas
between
ancient
region.
also

greatlyimpressed by
closelyrelated speciesof animals
He

was

302

the
were

manner

in which

observed

to

re-

THE

STORY

mind

was

facts

which

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

open

and

might

receptive; he
lead

CHARLES

problem
to

have
It

such

which
feel

him

to

an

about

sure

not

he

had
304

for

understandingof

It
utterlyobscure.
that species have
varied
been brought about?

facts

only

eager

seemed

variations

for

was

DARWIN

ROBERT

long before Darwin

thought might lead to the answer
was

SCIENCE

soon

found
he

; but

clew

sought.

discovered

thing
some-

was

which
In
that

how

he
ing
cast-

the

CENTURY'S

THE

animals, whose
lines

familiar

are

creatures

terrier have
Shetland

tangibly different

so

from

sprung
the

pony,

horse.

In

lias not

developed

Thus
"

varieties

mastiff

the

and

how

the

Why, clearly,
by

draughtthat

less widely

or

has

the

animal

deviating more
Now

and

have

So

domesticated

no

breeding,of seemingly

this been

complished
ac-

preservation,
through
accidental

variations.

horseman, by constantly selecting animals

one

that

is

specific

tion
domestica-

stock.

common

parent stock.
?

selective

within

under
as

thoroughbred,

short, there

the

from

Thus

one.

every

cated
domesti-

lay among

variations

numerous

to

BIOLOGY

IN

field for observation

available

most

PROGRESS

chance"

have

to

finallydevelops a

the

of

race

right

build

and
while

running-horses;

horseman, by selectinga different

series

stamina,
another

of

progenitors,
slow, heavy draught-animals.

developed a race of
So far so good; the preservationof

has

through
which

races

selective

their

man's

supervisionand

form.

original parent

such

selection

be

state

of nature

be

breeding is plainlya
developed that are very

be

may

from

must

solved

"accidental"

direction.

By

brought about
Here
surelywas

before

another

But

different
is under
could

process

in

creatures

among
a

by

means

this

what

riations
va-

puzzle,and

step could

that

one

be

in

taken

this direction.

The

key
mind

essay
had

on

"

to

the

solution

chance

through a
Population

"

publishedalmost

expositingideas

by

which

half
no

at

and
u

fact

reading
Thomas

would

of

Malthus
This

essay,

exclusivelyoriginalwith
that

organisms

tend

successive

overpopulatethe
305

win's
Dar-

famous

the

Robert

geometrical ratio through

hence

into

puzzlecame

century before.

means

Malthus, emphasizes the

increase

of this

earth

to

erations,
genif not

THE

STORY

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

SCIENCE

win
Cogitating this thought, Darkept in check.
gained a new
insight into the processes of nature.
of
He saw
that in virtue of this tendency of each race
beings to overpopulate the earth, the entire organic
and
be
in a state
of
world, animal
vegetable,must
vidual,
perpetual carnage and strife,individual
against indiand life.
fightingfor sustenance
That idea fullyimagined,it becomes
ive
plainthat a selectin nature, since only
influence is all the time at work
of each generationcan
a few
come
individuals,
relatively,
these few
to maturity, and
must, naturally,be those
the particularcircumstances
best fitted to battle with
of which
in the midst
they are placed. In other words,
best adapted to their surroundings will,
the individuals
be those
that grow
the average,
to maturity and
on
mitted
produce offspring. To these offspringwill be transThus
the favorable
these peculpeculiarities.
iarities

somehow

will

become

permanent,

and

nature

will

have

breeder is seen
accomplishedpreciselywhat the human
that
to accomplish. Grant
organisms in a state of
from another
nature
one
(which
slightly,
vary, however
and
that such
variations will be transis indubitable),
mitted
by a parent to its offspring(which no one then
doubted); grant, further, that there is incessant strife
the various
organisms,so that only a small proportion
among
to maturity
can
come
grant these things,said
Darwin, and we have an explanationof the preservation
"

of

which

variations

leads

on

to

the

of

transmutation

speciesthemselves.
This

by
were

wonderful
Here

1839.
the

ideas

in familiar

coign of vantage
was

the

which

speech

full outline

afterwards
in

Darwin

the

came

phrases
306

of his

"

to

had

reached

theory ;

here

be embalmed

spontaneous

varia-

CENTURY'S

THE

would

at

science,so

to

have

once

IN

the

such

After

selection."
man

of

"survival

the

tion,"and

PROGRESS

fittest,"
through

discovery any
through the

run

Eureka

"

speak,screaming

BIOLOGY

!"

ural
"nat-

ordinary
of

streets

Not

win.
Dar-

so

placed the manuscript outline of his theory in

and went
his portfolio,
on
gathering facts bearingon his
discovery. In 1844 he made an abstract in a manuscript
He

of

book

the

showed

He

the

facts

the

gathering of

more

careful

desk, and

data.

This

with

ahead

went

the

was

sion
provideath,

of his sudden

event

his

in

it away

accumulated.

time

that

Hooker, made

in
publication

stored

by

his friend

it to

for its
then

of

mass

unexploded

justreferred.
Twelve
more
elapsed; years during which the
years
of facts,ansilent worker
swered
gathered a prodigious mass
in his own
of objectionsthat arose
a multitude
powder-mine

I have

which

to

and

theory. All this time the toiler

an
invalid,never
knowing a day free from illness
his strength,never
discomfort, obliged to husband

able

to

mind, vastlyfortified
was

work

his

than

more

hour

an

yet he accomplished what

for

half

friends among
his

labors

Charles

be

Lyell was

would

than

half

robust

vast

stretch

Two

health.

day

of

knew

Sir
had

Hooker

to Darwin's

ments
achieve-

botanist, and

the

convert

views.

to publish
urged Darwin
delay,lest he be forestalled.
decided
to comply with this

still sceptical,
yet he

theory without further

At last the patientworker
advice,and in 1856 he set
fuller abstract

had

been

geologist. Gradually

his

And

half at

scientists of the

Joseph Hooker,

more

have
of

men

eminent

Lyell,the

to

come

the

Sir

"

dozen

and

then
been

of the
a

mass

of data

he had

strange thing happened.

at work

on

his

"

abstract

307

another

to make

to work

"

and

gathered.
After

about

two

Darwin

years,

THE

STORY

OF

he

had

been

for

before

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

SCIENCE

to
publisheda line of it,there came
him one
day a paper in manuscript,sent for his approval
Alfred
Russell Wallace,
by a naturalist friend,named

but

who

had

some

ALFRED

Archipelago.
found

He

that

read

time

RUSSELL

the

it contained
308

work

at

in the East

India

WALLACE

paper,
an

and,
outline

to

his
of

ment,
amaze-

the

same

THE

theory

CENTURY'S

natural

"

of

PROGRESS

IN

"

selection

BIOLOGY

which

he

originatedand for twenty years had

on
opposite sides
Working independently,
of the

had

Wallace

and

Darwin

of

abstract

an

upon.

of the

globe,
explanation

same
"

lace's
species. Were Walunpublished manuscript

my

it could

"

1844," said Darwin,

the

had

worked

of

of transmutation

cause

paper
of

hit upon

himself

better

not

express

my

ideas."

Here

was

word

from

wrest

from

do

Darwin

silent?

remain

Keenly

alive

was

left the decision

Needless

counselled
hand

outlined

these

great

justiceto

paper, and

ideas,in

by

of

course

the

the

Wallace's

in

which
in

was

Lyell,
absolutely

action

did

men

the

all concerned.

other

an

to
was

Asa
in

existence.

one

They
the

on

in which

letter

abstract

paper

the

to

and

include

form

exact

author
an

"

on

himself

calculated

Hooker

friends

say,

full

the

to
joint publication,

previous year
before

to

insured

Wallace's

Darwin's

to

as

and

equal to the test.

position,he placed

was

his

before

the

honorably

complicationwell

delicacyof

matter

thing which

paper

to the

and

to them.

friend's

Darwin's

whole

entered

Darwin

soul.

the

could

hand,

no

and
priority,
he
discovery which

co-discoverer

publish his

It

man's

other

than

otherwise

try

the

on

his

before

with

paper

Wallace

give

credit of

the

years

Yet,

field.

publishthis

would

Darwin

made

had

To

dilemma.

one

abstract
it had

Gray
Gray's
This

of
been

in

the

hands

joint

of the facts
production,together with a full statement
of the case, was
presented to the Linnaean Society of
London
and Lyell on the evening of July 1,
by Hooker

1858, this being,by

anniversary of
his

journalto

the

an

day

odd
on

collect facts

coincidence, the twenty-first

which

Darwin

bearing on
309

the

had

opened
"speciesques-

THE

STORY

tion."

Not

in the

Thus

been

the

further

the

science

in

its

adolescence

to

its

into

the world.

great powder-mine had

came

as

to

grew

outline

abstract

an

teen
thir-

after

Darwin,

begun

which

than

more

effort,completed the
first

it

has

nurtured

out

1859, when

theory, which was at

Linnaean
Society,but

his

and

explosion itself

The

of

the

to

later,in November,
months

been

being sent

led

that

fuse

lighted.

year

has

through infancy

legalmajority before

full

SCIENCE

historyof

great theory

brain

author's

before

often
that

happened

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

of
for

the size of

an

independentvolume despitehis efforts at condensation,

and
which
was
title,The
given that ever-to-be-famous
the
or
Origin of Speciesby means
Selection,
of Natural
Races in the Struggle
Preservation
of Favored
for Life.
! The jointpaper of 1858
And
what an explosionit was
had
made
a
flare,causing the hearers, as
momentary
Hooker
yond
said,to
speak of it with bated breath," but be"

that
when

it made

the

Origin

itself

be told.

need

sensation.

no

The

What

appeared,no
rumble

and

one
roar

the intellectual world

have

echo

of reverberation.

after

forty years

not

the
of

result
our

was

tion
genera-

that it made

in

ceased
yet altogether

to

To

the

Charles
for

that

our

the

vast

second
be

could

revolution

which

race

not

few

Origin of Species,
then, and to
Darwin, must
always be ascribed
the fundamental
about

come

been

that
effected

such

no

had

notable lieutenants,who
310

it

author,

chief

credit

beliefs of

since 1859, and

half of the century memorable.

overlooked

have

has

in

its

sudden
not

been

But

made
it must

metamorphosis
for the aid of

rallied to the standards

of

CENTURY'S

T11E

leader

the

immediately

Darwin
in the

in

letter

about

the

about

fossil shells

of

felt that

Lyell and

few

he

could

Thomas

"Our

thought

posterity,"

of

that

make

for

as

the

all-essential.

was

of Hooker

converts

Henry Huxley

do

we

the championship

transmutation
science

much

as

be created

to

fullyrealized

theory of

leaders

if he

of

been

But

of his

confidence

utmost

[in specialcreation]as

having

them."

see

present success
He

belief

current

gin.
Ori-

the

will marvel

"

Hooker,

to

BIOLOGY

publicationof

after the

along felt the

triumph of his ideas.

ultimate

now

IN

all

had

he declared

we

PROGRESS

and

.all would

at once,

be well.
His

in this

success

in

regard,as

others,exceeded

his

ardent
from reading
was
an
disciple
expectations. Hooker
the proof-sheetsbefore
the
book
was
published;
his former
beliefs and fell into line a
Lyell renounced
few

months

later ; while

the

that
so

central

idea

Huxley,
of

soon

so

natural

as

he had

tered
mas-

selection,marvelled

a thought had
simple yet all-potent
escaped him
long,and then rushed eagerly into the fray,wielding

the

so

keenest

dialectic

entire

controversy.

found

in

Sir John

the
while

war

Herbert

of transmutation
Darwin

himself
that

America,
been

of the

ardent

"

that

drawn

was

during

Then, too, unexpected

Lubbock

and

John

recruits

Tyndall, who

the

were
ried
car-

eagerly into their respectiveterritories;

had
advocated
doctrine
a
Spencer, who
fore
on
philosophicgrounds some
years be-

and who
publishedthe key to the mystery
barely escaped independent discovery of
"

had

key

blade

influence

lent his masterful

the

famous

botanist

Asa

the

to

Gray,

who

cause.

had

long
advocacy

correspondent of Darwin's, but whose

became
new
theory had not been anticipated,
propagandist; while

in
313

Germany

Ernst

In

an

Heinrich

THE

STORY

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

SCIENCE

took
Haeckel, the youthful but alreadynoted zoologist,
up the fightwith equal enthusiasm.

ASA

Againstthese
there

another

of

few

GRAY

doughty champions

less

"

with

here

and

was
arrayed, at
generalrenown
the outset, practically
all Christendom.
The interest of
the question came
home
to every
person of intelligence,
whatever
his calling,
and the more
deeply as it became
and more
the real bearmore
are
clear,how far-reaching
"

314

THE

ings

CENTURY'S

doctrine

of the

should

that

seen

favored
there

his

in the
mankind
this
but

from
The

from

recoiled

selection.
of

the

radical

as

had

whole

it

survival

in

change
come

supposed

of

existence

Copernicus and
its

Soon

in

was

the

win,
man's

the

day

Galileo,the

central

conservative

position
majority of

this

And
necessitywith horror.
conservative
majority included not laymen merely,
vast preponderance of the leaders of science also.
a

With
the

universe.

it

BIOLOGY

struggle for

efforts of

dethroned

was

the

IX

position as

own

the

natural

doctrine

with

when, through
world

the

come

of

estimate

of

through

races

must

PROGRESS

the

the

open-minded minority,on

theory of

natural

bounds.

Its

selection

made

other

its way

hand,

by leaps

delightfulsimplicity which at first

neither
new
nor
important coupled
sightmade it seem
with the marvellous
comprehensivenessof its implications,
secured
it
gave it a hold on the imagination,and
other theories of transmutation
of spea hearing where
cies
had
been
who
Men
had found
utterly scorned.
fort
Lamarck's
conception of change through voluntary efgether
ridiculous,and the vaporings of the Vestigesaltowhose
scientific cautions
held
despicable,men
them
back from
Spencer's deductive
argument, took
of
eager hold of that tangible,ever-present principle
and
led on
and
to its goal.
natural selection,
on
were
Hour
ards
by hour the attitude of the thinking world towbefore was
this new
so
principlechanged ; never
great a revolution wrought so suddenly.
the times were
this merely because
Nor
was
ripe
Darwin
minds
men's
or
prepared for evolution."
that this was
not
himself bears witness
altogetherso.
this theory
All through the years in which
he brooded
and

"

"

"

"

"

he sounded

his

scientific

friends,and could
315

find among

THE

STO1IY

them

not

OF

acknowledged a doctrine of
reaction
from
the standpoint of

The
Erasmus

and

when

he

Darwin

Charles

and

In

contempt.

to

openly avowed

had

have

of

but

tation.
transmu-

Lamarck

complete,
conviction

ridicule

authority in

the

or

speaking

man

one

world

who

species that
Origin of Species

belief in transmutation

own

with

it met

was

been

his

avowed

there

1857

large degree

any

Goethe

Darwin

expected always

with

SCIENCE

who

one

and

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

of

"

being Herbert Spencer. But the

as Huxley has said,like a flash in the darkness, enabling
came,
the benighted voyager
The score
to see the way.
of years during which
its author had waited and worked
man

had

been

well

years

himself

says,

his riches

spent. Darwin
veritable Croesus,

in facts

"

facts of

"

had
"

become,

overwhelmed

zoology, of

he

as

with
cial
artifi-

selective

breeding,of geographicaldistribution of animals, of

embryology, of paleontology. He had massed his facts
his theory,condensed
about
them and recondensed, until
his volume
of five hundred
was
an
paedia
encyclopages
in scope.
During those long years of musing he
had
thought out almost
objectionto
every conceivable
in his book
his theory, and
every such objection was
stated with fullest force and candor, together with such
It was
reply as the facts at command
might dictate.
the

of

force

mind

that

current

Once

those

made

this breach

and
capitulated
of years

score

become

sudden

years
breach

of effort of

master

in the breastwork

of

thought.
rapidly on.

went

The

the

twenty

the

effected, the work

was

passed the doctrine

working hypothesisof the

revolution

had

had

conquest

by day squads of the

their arms.
By the time

Day

struck

of

been

effected.
316

enemy
another

of evolution

had

scientific world,

And

the

forth

the

perhaps the

to

take

him

what

he

victory
"

1882, he died,friend and

in
the

greatest

all the

of

sons

felt it

world
should

Darwin
close

beside

be

the

there

for all in
and

was

the

rested

fittingthat
entombed

honored
who

belief

and

alike

what

the

of

one

labors,and

remains

of Isaac

grave

that

his

did,

When,

of Charles

Westminster

in

acter,
char-

he

century.

from

the

by

all,for

foe alike conceded

had

men

unsullied

figureof

Socratic

most

opinion

Darwin, calm, turbable,

imperridicule,
contumely, abuse ;

success

for
intellect,

for

of

BIOLOGY

Charles

figureof

ultimate

unspoiled by

IN

wreckage

scatheless

serene;

strife and

the

amid

from

stands

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

THE

Abbey,

Newton.

Nor

would

ley's
dispute the justiceof Huxestimate
of his accomplishment :
He found
a great
truth trodden under foot. Reviled
by bigots,and ridiculed
by all the world, he lived long enough to see it,chieflyby
were

many

"

his

efforts,irrefragablyestablished

own

incorporatedwith
and

only hated

dare

and

feared

the

by

separabl
science, in-

thoughts of

common

those

in

who

men,

revile,but

would

not."

VI

Wide

as

the

are

Darwin

and

leaves

quite

those

"favored

That

such

causes

no

his

implicationsof
co-workers

untouched

one

the

understood

his

originalexpositionof
sumption as to what these
observed

fact of variation

example, in
"

and

problem

the
went

to

fixed

better

than

his doctrine
causes
"

as

differences
ahead

are.

317

and

the
it

origin of
operates.

determinate

Darwin

; but

this

in

he

made

He

accepted the

no

constantlywitnessed,
between

from

of

which

upon

due

are

it

established,however,

variations"

variations

the great truth which

parents

assumption.

and

as-

for

spring
off-

STORY

THE

But

as

search

came

for the
of

purposes

validityof the principleof natural

to be acknowledged, speculators
began to
explanationof those variations which, for
provisionallycalled

been

Herbert

spontaneous."
this phase of
on

Spencer had all along dwelt

subject,expounding the Lamarck-

the

ment
conceptions of the direct influence of the environhad especially
(an idea which
appealed to Buffon
and of effort in response
to Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire),

and

environment

to

had

argument,

"

ian

SCIENCE

the

as

soon

selection

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

and

stimulus

as

*-

organism, and

al

of natural
of
school

this
of

thus

supplying the

selection.

idea, and

Haeckel

basis for the

also became

presentlythere
which

neo-Lamarckians,

the individu-

modifying

arose

an

tion
operacate
advo-

so-called

developed particular

strength and

ship
prominence in America, under the leaderof Professors
A. Hyatt and E. D. Cope.
But justas the tide of opinion was
turning stronglyin

this

direction,an

utterlyunexpected obstacle appeared

in the form
of the theory of Professor
August Weisin 1883, which
antagonized the Laput forward
mann,
marckian
ian,
conception (though not touching the Darwinof which

is

Weismann

firm

to

show

upholder)by denying
that individual
variations,however
ture
acquired by the maThe flurrywhich
this
organism, are transmissible.
denial created
has not yet altogethersubsided, but subsequent
observations

Professor

ian

appears

factor of
of the
the

Even

real merits

the

to

of evidence

seem

Weismann's
to favor

the view

factor

transmutation

though

this

of

the

it

proportio
quitedis-

was

standing
Notwith-

case.

the
objections,

acquiredvariations

Darwinian

that

that

stands

of natural

as

balance

the Lamarckthe

ment
comple-

selection

in effecting

of

species.
partialexplanation of
318

what

Pro-

STORY

THE

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

SCIE.N'CE

given by experiment. Recurring to a former belief,and

earlier experiments, the director
of the
repeating some
Museum
of Natural
History at Rouen, M. F. A. Pouchet,
the conclusion
that organic beings are
reached
neously
spontagenerated about us constantly,in the familiar
known
were
to be due
processes of putrefaction,which
the
of microscopic bacteria.
to
But
in 1862
agency
Louis
Pasteur
proved that this seeming spontaneous
in
generation is in realitydue to the existence of germs
the air.
of these
Notwithstanding the conclusiveness
revived
in Engwere
experiments,the claims of Pouchet
land
ten

experiments
results
"

later

years

of

of

Professor

by

John

Pasteur, gave

for the

is not
Lamarck

and

through
which

The
the

between

the
the

chains

of

chemists

almost

But

gap.

bridges,has

not

Until

appear.

evolution
stands

of

to-day it
our

can

is not
is the

done

have

320

to

Meantime,

organic worlds,
been

plained.
ex-

with

the
biologists,

gap

which

rowed.
constantly nar-

throw

bridge across

builds
small

so, the

stupendous

century.

end

causes"

linked

descent.

quite complete:
most

the

development,

been

yet spanned the chasm,

it shall

of

proximally

science, which

inductive

claim

But

their

been

and

has
infinite,

the

"secondary

of

the

Already philosophy
that

the

formulated.

of life have

inorganic and

seemed

once

those

forms

unbroken

efforts

then

here, and, thanks

are

Darwin,

of

to

rests.

matter

nature, has

of

lowest

highest in

through

and

quietus

hitherto

as

flora

and

operation

call laws

we

"

the

Wallace

the

final

moment

Fauna

yet.

; but

Tyndall, fully corroborating the

spontaneous generation
There

Bastian

its

though

bridge
yet

own

even

of
as

it
ganic
or-

it

scientific structure

CENTURY'S

THE

CHAPTER

PROGRESS

IN

AND

ANATOMY

PHYSIOLOGY

THE

focal

the close

of the

but

as

had

Spallanzaniand

the

fresh
in

were

minds

capable

with

Thus

fashion.

had

shortly

Cuvier's
"

familiar

student

of

the

in

it

was

that

of science
animal

in very

recent

before

field,it
have

with

three
since

recent

but

years

by

studies

and

to

come

ward
for-

came

minor
to

the

further

of

lower

desirable.
321

latter

of

"

bone;
back-

the

vertebra
in-

zoology, has

division,which
of

tinction
dis-

this division,

supplanted,and
forms

he

radiates.

without

And

groups.

all students

been

dom,
king-

broad

the

those

divided

was

being, which

established

classification

ever

life

several

as

Cuvier

of

great types

animals

into

by revolution,

lines

classification of the animal

brand-new

between

make

many

were

the

peculiarlypropitious,

was

classification,
and,
task

land,
Eng-

away

vertebrates, molluscs, articulates, and

Lamarck

only

the

passed

generalizationsshould

establishingfour
called

time
in

for

of

such

that great

quite the

data

need
of

The

towards

Italy and

were

Hunter

advances

recent

which

be

France.

to

brought

natural

physiologicalworld

eighteenth century

when

shifted

scene

the

of

points

then

the

life seemed

not

orate
elabto

THE

STORY

In the

his

led to

was

called

parts

in each

with

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

of those

course

which

of

OF

of the cat

tribe

"

extends

ganism, and

victim, and
from

did

aid

draw
a

"

in his studies of

to Cuvier

does

Cuvier, nor

fullythe

to reconstruct

of

anatomist, from

animal

extinct

to

parts of the

diverse

the skilled

ures.
creat-

parts of the animal

all the

of the entire

enable

not

of herbivorous

that

of

particulartype

singletypicalpart, to

to the structure

of vast

the

to the most

enables

of

tion
atten-

"

adaptationof

another

one

my
anato-

peculiarco-ordination
individual organism. Thus
animal
an
for catching livingprey
as a member
has also sharp teeth,adapted for tearing

stomach, quitedifferent
This

comparative

Cuvier's
classification,

new

the flesh of its

up

of

studies

constantlyto

sharp talons

SCIENCE

or

servatio
the ob-

inferences
fact

which

as
was

paleontology. It

it enable
animal

any

from

one

else,

observation

been asserted,but
singlebone, as has sometimes
it reallydoes establish,
in the hands
of an
what
expert,
is sufficiently
astonishing.
this entire principle,
in its broad outlines,is
Of course
something with which every student of anatomy had
a

been

familiar

studied,but
as

from

the

Cuvier

before; and

time

when

expressionof

called

it,had

never

anatomy

the

"

law

been

was

first

of co-ordination,"

made
explicitly

notwithstandingits seeming obviousness,the

expositionwhich
to

full

the

his classical

Cuvier
work

made

of it in the introduction

comparative anatomy,

on

which

publishedduring the first decade of the century,

of those generalranks as a great discovery. It is one
izations
which
serve
as
guide-poststo other discoverwas

ries.
Much

the

same

thing may

regarding the

animal
322
"

be said of another

body,

which

the

ization
generalbrilliant

PROGRESS

IN

callingattention to
includingman,

has

From

end

of

"

locomotion,the

control,and

servingthe

other

and
digestion,
assimilation,
sets of

the

d'

sets of

Angers

removed

the

ism,
organ-

control,and servingthe

of the

ends

vertebrate

in

BICHAT

by David

volitional

made

quitedifferent

XAVIER

medallion

set under

one

each

reallytwo

FRANCOIS
a

PHYSIOLOGY

FranpoisBichat

the fact that

MAHIE

organs

AND

physicianMarie

French

young

ANATOMY

"

like.

from

vital
He
the

volitional

processes"of
called

these-

organic system,
respectively.The division thus pointed out was
for Grimaud, professorof physiologyin
not quite new,
the universit}^
what
of Montpellier,had
earlier made
the same
classification of the functions
was
substantially
into " internal or digestive
and external or locomotive
";
organs

animal

system

323

and

THE
but

STORY

it

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

Bichat's

was

SCIENCE

that
exposition

to the

currency

gave

idea.
Far

important,however,

more

which

Bichat

the

publishedjustat
of

the division

few

system
a

The

to

the

Thus

conceive

that

almost

Bichat

himself

was

form

that it

it could

have

one

glandularorgans

fourth,and

all

up

rather

seems

been

so

overlooked

on.

cult
diffi-

by
only

of the

indebted

somewhat

be, it

may

have

anatomists

value

advances

distinction

between

the

various

Bichat

to

were

show

tissues is

supposed,but

value
practical

of

that

of the famous

the tis

of the animal

in their studies

Subsequent

the

ter,
mas-

subsequent

classification

functions.

as

that all

is certain

Bichat's

found

utmost

fundamental

for it to his

Pinel.
alienist,

Howeverthat

from

really

but,in point of fact,it is

because
it has been familiarlytaught for
now
been given explicit
It had never
pression
exa century.
before the time of Bichat, though it is said that

the famous

sues

another

was

Bichat

are

organs

obvious

earliest anatomists

obvious

what

body, making

mechanism

so

This

there

that

the

anatomy,

on

into

muscular

organs

vascular
is

in

tion
classifica-

century.

structures

of these

; membranous

distinction

the

pointing out

organs.

third ; the

in his work

beginning of

the

kinds

diverse

the

forward

all animal

and
tissues,

called

only

put

another

was

not

takes

that

the

reallyso
nothing

classification.

ii

At

the

same

time

when

these

being drawn
strivingto go even

were

who

were

of the animal

mechanism

broad

there

were

deeper into

with the
324

tinctions
dismicroscopical

other

workers

the intricacies

aid of the

microscope.

PROGRESS

IN

AND

ANATOMY

undertaking,however,

This

beset

was

for

PHYSIOLOGY

with

great

very

long time little advance

of preceding generations.
the work
made
upon
technicallyas spherical
great opticalbarriers,known

and
optical difficulties,
was

Two

through

breaking

lens in

the

to

plane when

one

failure

focalized

dispersiveaction of
ors
light into prismatic col-

of

microscopic lenses,and

white

makers

the

confronted

"

the

due

one

to

lens,the other due

the

"

fall all in

lightto

the rays of

of

aberration

chromatic

and

the

making of achromatic
been
lenses for telescopeshad
accomplished,it is true,
in the previous century, by the union
of
by Dolland
lenses of crown
glasswith those of flint glass,these two
persion.
materials having different indices of refraction and disall but

seemed

insuperable.

requiredfor

by

introduced

are

lightis

of

with

use

mechanical

the

the

fact that

in order

to

gain

to

these

overcome

(afterwards Sir David) Brewster,

suggested that
physicist,
the

use

of

such

of

use

dimensions

to

wide

pencil

mination
sufficient illu-

be secured.

the
difficulties,

physicalphilosophersof the time

the best opticians. Very early in

from

difficulties

microscope,other perplexities

large magnificationis

In the attempt

of

the

desideratum,

when

the

the lens is of the minute

when

arise

which

from

aside

But,

The

the

to

came

the

most
fore-

the aid

century, Dr.

renowned

Scotch

certain

gems

crue
advantages might achave
as
high refractive
place of lenses made of

dispersiveindices,in
of diamond, of
made
glass. Accordingly lenses were
of success.
measure
sapphire,and so on, and with some
But in 1812 a much
duced
more
important innovation was introof the greatone
Hyde "VVollaston,
by Dr. William
est
and

low

and

by far

most

the most

and
versatile,

since

the death

of Cavendish

of Englishnatural philosophers.
eccentric,
325

TilE

This

STORY

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

SCIENCE

the

suggestionto use two plano-convex lenses,

gle
placed at a prescribeddistance apart, in lieu of the sindouble
lens generallyused.
This combination
convex
it
the sphericalaberration,and
largely overcame
Wollaston
the
fame
doublet."
as
gained immediate
obviate
loss of light
To
was

"

in

such

doublet

from

crease
in-

of

Dr.

reflecting
surfaces,
ing
Brewster
suggested fillthe

the

of

interspacebetween
lenses

two

having

the

refraction

as

themselves

by
in
WILLIAM

HYDE

the

to

of the anterior

thus

Wollaston

equipped,Dr.
Dr.

Brewster

lens.

called the

suggested that

ment
ce-

lenses

ment
improvetage.
advan-

yet
made

was

himself,
of the

introduction

limit the

of vision between

instead of in front

the

Wollaston

diaphragm

WOLLASTON

index

improvement

important
Dr.

same

manifest

An
more

an

"

ot

with

the

pair of

field

lenses,
lenses

scope.
microperiscopic

in such

lens the

ing
objectmight be attained with greater ease by grindan
equatorialgroove about a thick or globularlens
and filling
the groove with an opaque
This arcement.
rangement
found much
favor, and came
subsequentlyto
be known
as
a Coddington lens,though Mr.
Coddington
laid no claim to being its inventor.
Sir John
Herschel,another of the very great physicists
proving
of the time, also gave
attention
to the problem of imwhat
and in 1821 he introduced
the microscope,
same

336

STORY

THE

of lenses

OF

of

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

glass with

crown

SCIENCE

others

of

flint

glass,so

of one
corrected
were
adjusted that the refractive errors
or
compensated by the other, with the result of producing
of definition;
lenses of hitherto unequalled powers

capable of showing an
free from
those
yet relatively
lenses

that

color

of
had

Lister
but

heretofore

had

i-t was

been

until 1830

not

experiments. Soon
opticianswho had long
that of

Amici,
to

after

And
the

attention

requiredbut the
experienced observers
it

research

lens

in

contributed

this

various

1821,
to

detailinghis

terpret
in-

the

theories

Continental

working along similar lines

their expositions,
in particular
the improved compound
croscope
miof microscopistseverywhere.
casual

most

that

been

to

convince

implement

new

placed

trial

in their

hands

of scientific

which

of the
the observation
long step nearer
intimate
physical processes which lie at the foundation
For
the physiologist,
this perfecof vital phenomena.
tion
of the compound
microscope had the same
cance
signifihad for the fifteenththat the discoveryof America
century geographers it promised a veritable world of
Nor
of
the fulfilment
was
utterlynovel revelations.
that promise long delayed.
carried

them

had.

the

to true

been

introduced

the

he

paper

up, and

matter

that

famous

and

the

disastrous

so

magnified structures.
begun his studies of

Royal Societythe

took

image highly magnified,

distortions and fringesof

"

in

Indeed, so
now

the

rise of

and

numerous

made

so

important

in the realm

histologyto

the
328

rank

of minute
of

an

were

coveries
the dis-

anatomy

that

independent sci-

PROGRESS
be

ence

may

ever

since

had

IN

ANATOMY

said to

date

from

there

PHYSIOLOGY

this

period. Hitherto,
magnify ing -glasses,there

discovery of

the

here and

been

AND

such

man,

Leuwenhoek

as

or

Malpighi, giftedwith exceptional vision,and perhaps

who
made
unusuallyhappy in his conjectures,
important
contributions
to the knowledge of the minute
structure
of organic tissues ; but now
of a sudden
it became
sible
posthe

for

veriest

observations

confirm

to

tyro

hitherto

of the fourth
physiologists
rushed as eagerly into the new
their

example,
of the

the realm

had

had

discoveries,the

most

of
of

the

of

our

of the

to-day are

century

microscope
exploring

become

an

eager

perfected,made
notable

being
question as

long -mooted

interrogator
tant
impormany
his
to

final
the

tlement
settrue

In
blood.
corpusclesof the human
cave
as
reality,
everybody knows
nowadays, these are bicondisks,but owing to their peculiarfigureit is easily
possibleto misinterpretthe appearances
they present
when
seen
through a poor lens,and though Dr. Thomas

Young
the

was

the

realm

of

ray.

he

instrument

decade

successors

himself, who

Lister

form

borious
la-

of these

the

of the

the

pioneers,while the skilled

could step easilybeyond the barriers of vision
quite impassable. And
so, naturallyenough,

observer

as, for

refute

or

and

red

various

other

observers

had

come

very

near

truth

regarding them, unanimity of opinion was possible

only after the verdict of the perfectedmicroscope
given.

These

blood

something

This, of

so

like five millions

cubic millimetre
each

corpusclesare
of the

had

them

are

blood, yet they

having, so

course,

of

infinitesimal in size that

been

to

speak, its
known
329

to

are

found

in each

isolated

ticles,
par-

personality.
since
microscopists
own

THE

the

STORY

OF

the

of

days

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

earliest lenses.

too, by here

and

solid tissues

seemed

texture,

if

as

lenses

and

the

particles.And

of

the

for

case

cells,are

as

now,

better and

ter
bet-

idea

gained ground
its full signifa time
no
one
saw
icance.
vegetabletissues,
indeed,the fact

of

particlesencased

called

noticed,

to

constantly,though
that little

been

observer, that certain

an

constructed,this

were

In

It had

present something of a granular

they too, in their ultimate constitution,

up of

made

were

there

SCIENCE

the

in

membranous

covering,

visible units

ultimate

long been known.

was
supposed that

had
But

of structure

it

tissues differed radically

animal

from

this construction.

of
elementary particles
vegetables were
regarded
The

"

to

certain

extent

which

hand,

In the year

JAK01!

of

who,

in the
of

spot,"which
"spot"

had
but

component

course

in

elementary

1833

cells "an

the

further

often

seen
was

part of the

enough

the

same

servers,
by other obrecognize it as a

before

first to

vegetable cell,and
330

opaque
the

Doubtless

the nucleus.

he named

Brown

view

English microscopist Robert Brown,

of his microscopicstudies of the epidermis

orchids,discovered
been

the

insightinto the nature of the

ultimate
particlesof plants
servatio
was
gained through the ob-

SCHLEIDEX

the

the

animals."

parts of

MATTHIAS

on

such

no

taken of the

was

viduals
indi-

composed

plant,while,

entire
other

as

to

give

it

PROGRESS

ANATOMY

IN

PHYSIOLOGY

AND

be
must
newly recognizedstructure
of the cell was
recognizedby
important in the economy
Brown
himself,and by the celebrated German
Meyen,
a

That

name.

who

this

with

dealt

his work

it in

it remained

; but

afterwards

publishednot long

vegetablephysiology,

on

for

other
an-

professorof botany in the university

to
of Jena, Dr. M. J. Schleiden, to bring the nucleus
popular attention,and to assert its all-importancein the
the

German,

of the cell.

economy

his

freely acknowledged

Schleiden
Brown

for

carried

his studies

its discoverer.

of that

He

the

of

knowledge

first

far

that

believe

to

beyond
the

to

he

nucleus, but

structure

came

indebtedness
soon

those

of

nucleus

is

reallythe most important portion of the cell,in that it

is the originalstructure
from
which
the remainder
of
the cell is developed. Hence
he named
it the cytoblast.
his views

outlined

He

Miiller's Archives

in

in

epochal paper published in

an

1838, under

title of

"

Beitrage zur
value,yet the

Phytogenesis." This paper is in itself of

most
important outgrowth of Schleiden's observations of
his own
the nucleus did not springfrom
labors,but from
those

of

the year
Dr.

friend to whom

of

His

attention

to

shown

when

him

by
and

observations

he

the

strange resemblance

from

Schwann

cells of
which

the

the

himself
331

could

certain

clearly

not

vegetable cells
dorsalis (the embryonic

to

chorda

spinal column
had

municated
com-

Miiller,had called

great teacher,Johannes
the

were

puzzling over

was

histologywhich

certain

cord

these

Schwann

animal

explain.

was

Louvain.

moment
to

details

discoveries

publication. This friend

Schwann, professor of physiology in

universityof
the

his

mentioned

their

previousto

Theodor

At

he

discovered

is developed),
a

corre-

STORY

THE

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

the branchial

spending similarityin

animals

are

of

matter

be

Then

nucleus.

reallyis

in

at

of

also be found

researches

this

of

Schleiden

of

minute

his

not
to

attention

reasoned

to

if there

that

in the ultimate

of
particles

of the

assumption.

described

closer

really

are

forming,indeed,
The

structure.

regular

stud\r of animal

location

intervals

shown

to

walls that
another

be

the

separatedsuch
in

were

found

to

some

be

the

suggested

sues
tis-

unlike

the ultimate
the

in their

botanists

that

as

in

phase
at

paratively
com-

they

are

Schleiden
the

vegetables; indeed,
compartments

one

from

with

Particularlywas
embryonic tissues, and

convinced
study of these soon
had
been correct,
originalsurmise
are

nuclei

the

visible.

cases

the

tissues

there

of the tissue, as

cell-like

case

found

characteristic

of. these

with

case

be

to

most

in de'finitecompartments

found

the entire correctness

showed

soon

the

abundance"

what

to

come

in
microscope showed, particularly
embryonic tissues,that "opaque spots" such

under

this

he

once

had

tissues.

Schwann's

had

epidermis of
Indeed, the

could
similarity
gained no clew

called

Schleiden

had

mal
and anicorrespondence between
\7egetable
that he suspected,and if the nucleus is so important
the vegetablecell as Schleiden
believed,the

should

animal

had

he

Henle

students

this

pole.
tad-

the

tissues

nucleus

the

tissues

among

felt that

insight until

further

case

note

common

coincidence, but

mere

the

animal

of certain

Sch\vann

anatomy.

up

cell-like in appearance.

very

cell-like character
be

make

that
particles

the

that

shown

cartilageof

of Friedrich

researches

Then, too, the

SCIENCE

Schwann
and

that

that

his

all animal

incipiencycomposed of particlesnot
particlesof vegetables in short,of
termed
cells.
Adopting this name.
"

332

KAKL

ERNST

VON

BAEK

THE

The

OF

main

thesis

of

of

became

Of

without

the

closelyalong

from

the
other

quoted. Moreover,
earlier than

work

of its

workers

there

whom

at

various

were

of these had

any

as

have

we

science,it

is

one

another

germinal of

to

other

the

forward

seen

cation.
publiputed
dis-

once

of

matter,

himself

the cell theory

Treviranus

other

the close

about

1807.

departments

of

discovery,it
expression and make

foreshadow
full

And

that
for

had

who
physiologists

Wolff, towards

many

discoveries.

explicitclaim
development

that

foreshadowed

so

thing to
give it

principleof
organisms, however
formation

in

so, for

Schwann

notably Kaspar Friedrich

the previous century, and

quite

multitude

Henle, Turpin, Dumortier,

But,

moment

But

lines.

same

all of
Purkinje,and Miiller,

of

which

to

others, as

numerous

were

supported by

was

of discovery,
in lar
priority
particuEnglish microscopistValentin, who asserted,not
of justice,that he was
show
some
working
claim

Schwann's
the

both,

evidence

various

course

the cellular nature

confirmed, so Schwann's

once

classic almost

similarityof development

of

carefullygathered

at
microscopists

SCIENCE

tissues,and

constitution

of the ultimate
mass

the

to

as

animal

vegetableand

of

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

STORY

"

Schwann

when

there is

the

one

this
a

it

universal

is
principle

doctrine

is

put

elementary parts

different,and

cells,"he enunciated

which

of

the
was

practicalpurposes absolutelynew, and opened

A most
up a novel field for the microscopistto enter.
important era in physiologydates from the publication
for

all

of his book

in 1839.

rv

That

Schwann

should

for the establishment

have

gone

of his ideas
336

was

to

embryonic
no

doubt

tissues

due

very

PROGRESS

largelyto
Baer,

von

first

part

IN

ANATOMY

the influence
who

about

AND

of the

great Eussian,Karl

ten years

of his celebrated

JOHANNES

PHYSIOLOGY
Ernst

earlier had

work

on

published the
embryology, and

MULI.ER

rapidlygaining ground, thanks largely

Miilto the advocacy of a few
notably Johannes
men,
B. Carpenter in England,
ler in German}7, and William
whose

and

ideas

were

to the fact

minute
it

anatomy

plain that the

cell is here, and
The

improved microscope had made

made
researches
popular. Schwann's
best field for the study of the animal
the field.
host of explorers entered
a

that the

result of their observations

Y

337.

was,

in the

main,

to

con-

THE

STORY

firm

the

OF

claims

of the

of

contended,

of the

walls

of

some

the

of

as

the

depositfrom

animal

the

substance

of the

the wall

structurejthat

the
seem

very

their attention
of

the

themselves

ask

the

of

contents

whether

between

the

the

part

the

two

And

for

that

on

was

servers
ob-

many

acteristics
peculiarchar-

cell,and

led

were

to

these

portant
immight not be more
than
been
had
supposed. In particularDr.
von
Mohl, professorof botany in the universityof

Hugo

of his exhaustive
Tubingen, in the course
impressed with the
vegetable cell,was

characteristic

studies of the

peculiar and

of the cell contents.

appearance

He

an
universallywithin the cell
opaque,
fluid,having granules intermingled in it,"which
"

impressed him
could

be

seen

into

Yon

1774

by

to

because
be

called

under

which

certain

served
ob-

viscid
made

ly
particular-

conditions
its

it

parts separated

streams.

attention

cell contents
Bonaventura

cell,and

activelyin motion,

filamentous

Mohl

of the

of the

substance

up the main

as

the

essential

the matter

to

cell

natural,so

pronounced.

called

of cells

from

was

went

full

the

different

divergence

vessels
blood-

Schwann

Yet

the most

the

was

had

animal

so-called

composes

cell,it

conception of
uniformly accepted. But as time
time

this

animal

considered

was

classes of cells should

a

fact of

that

alence
prev-

the

cells,for which

plants is manifestly very

limitingmembrane
long

of

that

between
classes
the two
affinity
time generallyapprehended.

since

Indeed,

universal

universallyaccepted.

was

for

of

the

long-currentidea
sort

SCIENCE

to

as

discarded, and

now

plant-like
growth

not

The

only as

was

was

Schwann

cell.

tissues grow

measure

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

had

to

been

Corti, and
338

the fact that this

observed

as

rediscovered

long

tion
mo-

ago

in 1807

ANATOMY

IN

PROGRESS

the
'

from

this

within
not

substance, and

He

contended.

had

too, that the chlo-

saw,

of

the

cell

all

and

granules,

rophyl
other

cell wall

to the

attached
Schleiden

as

that

cell lies

of the

nucleus

contents,

incorporatedwith

are

viscid

"

opaque,
he

had

impressed

with

in

1846

Of

name

of

that

become

the

so

tance
impor-

Cell

he

WILLIAM

Photographed by

Elliot

and

Fry,

London

it

gave

demonstrated

that

the

cell walls

of all vegetables,

stance,
composed largely of one subtended
to strengthen the
cellulose,
positionof
cell wall as the reallyessential structure, of which
were
protoplasmic contents
only subsidiary products.
or

low,

are

Meantime, however, the students

were

more

and

more

impressed

of cell contents

they
a

CAKPK.VTKR

BK.VJAMI.V

tion
protoplasm. Yet in so doing he had no intensubordinatingthe cell wall. The fact that Payen

high

the

fluid,"and

of

in 1844, had

the

the

Universal

this

substance
the

recognizedthat

Mohl

was

asserted

He

sap.

of

name

different

quite

something

described

unsuitable

most

Yon

sap.'

had

observers

"

"

cell

of the

the

streaming substance

the

the

under

phenomenon

rotation

these

that

by Treviranus, and

PHYSIOLOGY

AND

studied.

They

too

viscid,slimy fluid,capable

jardingave

the

name

the

histology

seeming
in the

ponderanc
pre-

tissues

the cell to be filled with

of

of sarcode.
339

with

cell walls

over

found

of animal

motion.

To

this Du-

Presently it

came

to

THE

be

STORY

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

known, through the labors

choff,and

various

of animal

forms

others,that
life which

sarcode, without

thing

seemed
as

the

of cells that

to be true

certain

of

BisKolliker,ISfageli,

there

seem

wall

of certain

are

be

to

lower

numerous

composed

whatever.
cells of

The

of this
same

higher organisms,

blood

in the case
corpuscles. Particularly
change their shape markedly, moving about
of the

in consequence
seem

cell

any

SCIENCE

that

its role must

no

streaming of

their

cell wall is present ;

sarcode, did
or

it

that,if present,

be

insignificant.
And
to questionwhether, after
so
came
histologists
rather than the enclosingwall must
all,the cell contents
the weight of
not be the reallyessential structure, and
increasingobservations
finallyleft no escape from the
that such
But attention
conclusion
is really the case.
being thus focalized on the cell contents, it was at once
apparent that there is a far closer similaritybetween
mals
the ultimate
particlesof vegetablesand those of anihad
been
than
supposed. Cellulose and animal
membrane
by-products,the
regardedas mere
being now
clear for the recognitionof the fact that vegwas
etable
way
protoplasm and animal sarcode are marvellously
The closer
and generalproperties.
similar in appearance
ity
the more
the observation
strikingseemed this similardemonstrated
about
by
1860, it was
finally,
; and
Schultze that the two
are
Heinrich de Bary and by Max
to

mak

all intents and

had

reached

purposes
a

similar

identical.

Even

conclusion,and

earlier Re-

appliedvon

protoplasm to animal cell contents, and

forth
Thenceuniversal.
became
this application
soon
now
the utmost
this protoplasm was
to assume
tance
imporin the physiological
world, being recognizedas the
universal " physicalbasis of life,*'
vegetable and animal

Mohl's

word

340

MAX

SCHULTZE

THE

STORY

OF

by a multitude
notwithstanding von
there
are
reallybut

SCIENCE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

of

years

Mohl's
two

gained currency

observers,and

ways

reiterated
in which

contention
the

that

formation

ion
place,namely, "first,through divisof
of older cells ; secondly,through the formation
secondary cells lying free in the cavity of a cell."

of

new

cells takes

HUGO

VON

MOHL

But

observ.
gradually the researches of such accurate
ers
as
linger,Nageli, Kolliker,Reichart, and Remak
Molil that cells
the opinion of von
tended
to confirm
Virchow
cells,and finallyRudolf
spring only from

brought the

matter

to

demonstration
344

about

1860.

His

IN

PROGRESS

cellula

Omnis
the

cellula

accepteddata
little later

when

still
that

shown

ANATOMY

physiology. This
by Fleming's Omnis
of

of

methods

part of the cell which

the

change preparatory
essential

that

from

became

refined

more

PHYSIOLOGY

AND

Thus

nucleus.

to

nucleus

of

one

ed
supplement-

nucleus

nucleo,

observation

always

had

first undergoes

cell formation

new

the

was

time

is the all-

restored

was

to the

and
Schleiden
had
Schwann
important positionwhich
given it,but with greatly altered significance.Instead
of being a structure
generatedde novo from non-cellular
its function
of
as
substance, and disappearingas soon
cell-formation
now
was
accomplished,the nucleus was
known

central

the

as

cell,indestructible
of
division
The

of

its

and

while

the

feature

other

substance, of

the

every

parent,by

generationsof
definition

final

of

cell lives ; itself the division-produc

nucleus, and
pre-existing

cell received

word

permanent

as

nuclei.

"a

small

of

protoplasm supplied with a nucleus."

In this widened
and culminating general view of the
cell theory it became
clear that every animate
organism,
mass

animal
of

vegetable,is but

or

which, in

of

each

individual

are

of the

all
cells,

the direct descendants

ovum.

In

oped
the devel-

of

of cells

of

cluster of nucleated

case,

singleprimordial cell
individuals

and

higher organisms the successive

become
marvellously diversified in

erations
genform

in

division
specificfunctions; there is a wonderful
nite
labor,specialfunctions being chieflyrelegatedto defigroups

function
way,

of

cells; but

developed

in every

that

from

first to

last there

is

no

is not

present,in a primitive
veloped
isolated; nor does the de-

cell,however

cell,however

ever
specialized,
primordial functions

forgetaltogether
of its
or
capacities.All
any one
becomes
physiology,then, properly interpreted,
merely
345

THE

STORY

OF

NINETEENTH

-CENTURY

SCIENCE

study of cellular activities ; and the development of

the cell theory takes its place as the great central generalizati
in physiologyof our
century. Something of
shall see in anthe later developments of this theory we
other
a

connection.

Just

at the

time

when

paths that were

theory,another novel

up

the

the

microscope
lead

to

the

to

opening

was

wonderful

of
interrogation
organism was
by a
put forward

line of

of

set

the other

T\vo

logical
physio-

in Germany,

dominated

the great French

Jean

master

Lie-

BaptisteDumas.

big had

at

the
and

ent
differ-

of

Wohler

Liebig and

by

being

chemistry had arisen

under
guidance of

one

"

the living

observers.

schools

great

cell

one

time contemplated

study of medicine,
had achieved

Dumas

with

in connection
Prevost
JEAN

at

Geneva

tinction
dis-

in

the

DUMAS

BAPTISTE

fore
physiologybeto chemistry. Both
especially

field of pure

he turned
these

his attention

masters, therefore,and
interest in those

to

do

with

the

largelythrough

as

well, found

sorbing
ab-

phases of chemistry that have

it was
of living tissues;and

their efforts and

the

labors

lowers
of their fol-

prevalentidea that vital processes are

by unique laws was discarded and physiology

that
dominated

functions

Wohler

the

346

PROGRESS

IN

within

brought

was

chemist.
had

So

taught

of the

ANATOMY

the

about

at

that

AND

the

recognized province

the

expression of

chemical

miniature

short, a

this combined
this union

point

inroads

that

were

change

had

that

"

stand
to underis

reallythe

each

of anatomist

cell

effected towards

was

chemist,
made

fields of

the middle

is,in

it

and

forces,that

unexplored

the

structure

come

organism

of

microscope

laboratory.And

dissociated
the

the

reallyessential

of the

of view

into

when

chemists

chemical

of hitherto

the

One

function

every

time

cell is the

livingorganism, the
that

PHYSIOLOGY

of

sible
pos-

ology
physi-

our

tury.
cen-

of the first

and brought
subjectsreinvestigated
to proximal solution
the long-mooted question of
was
the digestion of foods.
had
Spallanzani and Hunter
shown
in the previous century that digestionis in some
sort

upon

solution

work

their

of

foods ; but
until

little advance

Prout

1824, when

was

detected

made

the

hydrochloricacid in the gastricjuice. A

of
decade later Sprott and Boyd detected the existence
and
membrane;
peculiarglands in the gastricmucous
ered
Cagniard la Tour and Schwann
independently discovthat the reallyactive principle
of the gastricjuice
is a substance
which
named
was
pepsin,and which was
shown
of hybe active in the presence
to
drochlo
by Schwann
of

presence

acid.
Almost

coincidently,in 1836,

it

was

discovered

by

Pappenheim that another organ than the

has a share
in digesstomach
the pancreas, namely
tion,
it came
and in the course
of the ensuing decade
to
be known, through the efforts of Eberle, Valentin, and
Claude
Bernard, that this organ is all-importantin the
It was
of starchy and fattyfoods.
found, too,
digestion
Purkinje and

"

"

347

THE

STORY

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

that the liver and

the intestinal

share in the

work

forces

is necessary

taken

into

And

for the

digestionof
discovered

soon

different kinds
all

between

each

that

the

has

and

be

it must
to the

In
as

and

the

added

that

method

of

of the

age

clear,but
the

of

the

is
on

property,
of

ments,
fer-

as

of

these

is

action, mark

riddle

of

dark

strange activity.
the

outside

organism.
furnished
by

obscurityabout

taken
world

Another

the

lungs,

the exact

of the revival of

oxygen

digestion,

digestiveorgans,

the time

That

enzymes,

still quite in the

are

the

much

functioningat

acid

carbonic

acting

spoken

cells of the

was

chemistry.

of the

between

gateway

also there

here

of

strange

of

of their

equally important gateway

and

this

mode

we

nature

intimate

more

blance
point of resemdigestiveagents

were

their

comprehensive view,
are

pepsin,though

The

isolation

the solution

real ultimate

whole,

of

The

enzymes.

long step towards

but

virtue

appreciationof

an

stance
sub-

one

recently it is customary to distingush

as
organized ferments
nating
yeast by desig-

such

them

to

least

of

one

which
quantitiesof the substance
itself being destroyed or apparently

In

more

from

of

ordinary foods

property

the allied substances

but

all

is at

essential

remarkable

altered.

pepsin and
them

of food.

these

relativelyenormous
it can
digestwithout
even

tion,
absorp-

that in each

essential

on

for

portant
im-

an

stomach.

the

the chemists

acting

each

that,in short,a coalition

"

digestivejuicesthere
having certain resemblances

the

as

glands have
preparing foods

of

also has the saliva

as

SCIENCE

iologica
phys-

is consumed

and

given off during respirationthe chemists

Priestleyand Lavoisier had indeed made
mistaken
in
notion prevailedthat it was

lungs themselves

that the
848

important burning of

fuel

PROGRESS

occurs,

of which

that

now

carbonic

attention

the ultimate
its

ANATOMY

IN

had

PHYSIOLOGY

AND

acid

been

is

chief

called

the

to

product. But
importance of

this misconception could

cell,

ground, and

his studies

of

as

early as

animal

Liebig,in

1842

heat, became

long

not

the

convinced

hold
of

course

that it is

in the

lungs,but in the ultimate tissues to which

they are tributary,that the true consumption of fuel
tions
takes place. Reviving Lavoisier's
idea, with modificaand
additions,Liebig contended, and in the face
of opposition finallydemonstrated, that the source
of
not

animal
in

heat

is

through

the

that

all the

reallythe consumption
stomach

activities

and
of

the

life

in the

liberated

cells of the

ultimate

Further

from
liberation
whose

lungs. He showed
reallythe product of

are

solely through
amounting, broadly speaking, to
energy

researches
the

time

in the

function

ultimate
had

been

destructive

processes,

combustion

occurring

organism.

showed
of its

of the fuel taken

that

absorptionin
tissues,are

supposed

carriers of oxygen,

the

to

the

the
be

lungs tillits
red corpuscles,

the

mechanical

of

It transpiredthat the red

mixing of the blood.
which
corpusclesare composed chieflyof a substance
first isolated
in crystalline
form
in 1865, and
Kiihne
which
named
which has
was
haemoglobin a substance

one

"

affinityfor oxygen,
seizingon it eagerly
at the lungs,yet giving it up with
equal readiness when
cells of the
the remote
coursing among
body. When
it becomes
freighted with oxygen
oxyhaemoglobin,and
a

marvellous

is red

in color

purple hue;
arterial and

freed

; when

hence
venous

the

from

widely

its oxygen

different

blood, which

so

it takes

appearance

of

puzzled the early

physiologists.
This proof of the vitally
important role played by
349

the

THE

red

may

both

infinitesimal

greatly in

vary

life of

the

and

developed

may
red
more

the

It

number

found

was

different

at

in

the

left

no

destroyed

observations

studies
that

they

periodsin
they may

adult

the
be

organism.
doubt

to

reason

corpuscleformation and destruction

be a perfectlynormal
one
; that, in short, every
its course
and
blood
dies like any
corpuscle runs
elaborate organism. They are formed
constantly

in the

of

process

red

of

marrow

liver,where
such

of

seats

of the

themselves

to

as

be

to

that

with

without

must

be

that

the

the

chief

puscles
cor-

histolo-

corpuscles
cells,or merely as
cell for

true

there

case,

function

of

is not

the

red

the
puscle
cor-

oxygen.
is taken
the

there

chiefest

of

to

the

combustibles

saying that

carried

either

the

blood

from

out

in

the

true

are

the

other

are

of

Nor
red

of

there

destruction

regarded as

but,

oxygen

combining

Whether

whether

cells budded

is to carry
If the

formation

yet fullydetermined.

are

fragments of
specialpurpose
slightestdoubt

the

and

in the

destroyed

are

to

bile.

manufacture

is not

gists agreed

and

bones,

contribute

they

coloring matter

goes

bodies.

renewed

individual,proving that

same

Indeed, extended
that

SCIENCE

corpusclesled, naturally,to

blood

these

of

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

STORY

these

ultimate

these

it is to

could

it

consume,

combustibles

Nor

also.

cells before

ultimate

themselves
it be

tissues,as

in doubt

regards
general

A
quantityof fuel required,are the muscles.
and comprehensive view of the organism includes,then,
digestiveapparatus and lungs as the channels of fuelsupply ; blood and lymph channels as the transportation

system
the

; and

muscle

cells,united

consumption furnaces,

energy

transformed

and

where

rendered
350

into

muscle

fuel

fibres, as

is burned

available

and

for the pur-

STORY

THE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

in

passing through the

peculiarforms of which had
tion

Henle,

starchlike

substance

of

this

have

clew

to

of

In

such

the

pioneer
come

the

the

come

to

vital

its chief

of

alterations

that

that

are

this
This

have

organ

in

was

ing
giv-

between

gestion
di-

known

now

to

of the

facts

importance of

in
food-supplies

ganism.
or-

this

elapsed since

numerous

the extreme

the

important

the economy

Bernard,
of

an

and

processes

that

forty-odd years

intermediate

into

the discovery

importance

in
significance

observation

to

power
them

cells ; hence

same

intermediate

lightshowing

to

that

have

quite independent of

final assimilation

and
be

1838)

cells is

But

those

(the
by Purkinje,

described

glycogenic function showed

than
one
more
pronounced

specificfunction.

liver cells

glycogen, and to store

needed
by the organism.

till it is

away

The

called

compound

capacity of the liver

bile-makingpower of
may

been

certain of the substances

convert
a

liver.

about

Dutrochet

and

SCIENCE

have
such

the blood

as

that
performed by the liver. It has been shown
the pancreas, the spleen,the thyroid gland, the suprarenal
each in its own
capsules are absolutelyessential,
way, to the health of the organism, through metabolic
that

capable of performing;
changes which they alone seem
and it is suspected that various other tissues,
including
even

the

muscles

themselves,

have

similar

somewhat

tions.
capacitiesin addition to their recognizedfuncBut
so
extremely intricate is the chemistry of

metabolic

the

substances
nature

been

involved

of the

fully made

that

in

metabolisms
out.

Each

singlecase has
wrought by these
no

is in

laboratoryindispensableto the
organism, but the precisenature
352

its way

the

act
ex-

organs

chemical

of the
right conduct
of its operationsre*

PROGRESS

of

organs

ANATOMY

inscrutable.

mains

IX

these

The
intermediate
of

consideration

collectively

known

for

later

chapter.

of

importance

vast

organs
the

PHYSIOLOGY

AND

functions

as

the

is

the

tions
opera-

unquestioned.
of

nervous

that

other

set

system

is

of

served
re-

CHAPTER

THE

CENTURY'S

PROGRESS

ALTHOUGH

lacking
that

in

selecting

influencing

whole.

Yet
in

Consul

and

to

Emperor,

fame
the

telling
The

His

than

First

the

patient

within.

enough

of

in

in

our

and

only

science

question

method

elicit

has

one

but

perhaps
physicians

at

the

the
354

being

in

of

his

pupils,

world

who

but

de

Corvi-

startling
the

diseased
done

the

to

selection.

more

beginning
of

some

in

this

seen

tice,
prac-

indirect

Nicolas

of

man

method

tapping

indicative

sounds

day,

of

procedure

the

Napoleon's

nothing

was

First

the

through

the

Jean

was

justed
ad-

medical

the

promulgate

to

of

subsequently

medical

familiar

Every

Corvisart,
the

to

and

Consul,

Hence

novel
now

him

as

effect

For
in

to

was

science

act

effect.

came

he

and

method

new

realize

not

medical

simple

not

was

needs

cause

are

impracticable.

physician

sart.

of

did

o\vn

of

unexpected

him

to

his

this

which

enabled

value

for

progress

that

very
envoy

otherwise

way

the
the

physician

affairs

that

was

the

Consul,

First

probably

strangely

so

human

had

chosen

he

physician

MEDICINE

SCIENTIFIC

Bonaparte,

self-appreciation,

markedly
a

IN

Napoleon
in

XI

chest

of

tissues

commonly
the
were

century

bly
proba-

resorted

to

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

SCIENTIFIC

IN

MEDICINE

procedure. Hence
Napoleon's
calling in Corvisart,after becoming
dissatisfied with his other
physicians,Pinel

this

simple and
surprise when, on
somewhat

useful

and

Portal, his physical condition

this

strange

With

manner.

interrogatedin

was

characteristic

shrewdness

of the method, and the physiutility

cian
thus attempted to substitute scientific method
who
found
for guess-work in the diagnosisof disease at once
cal
favor in his eyes, and
installed as his regular mediwas

Bonaparte

the

saw

adviser.
fifteen years

For

before

this Corvisart

had

practised

the chest-tappingmethod
is called,without
as
percussion,
succeeding in convincing the professionof its value.
method
The
it should
be added, had
not
itself,
nated
origiwith Corvisart,nor
did the French
physicianfor a
claim

moment

practice was
published a
had

it
the

oook

been

even

la

other
to

his

The

own.

German
about

translated

of international
de

as

physician Avenbrugger,
it

as

into

early as

1761.

French,

then

communication

either

Corvisart

originalor

however, when

appears

This

the

to have

translation.

It

1770 ; but

paid any
was

far

the
who

book

language

everywhere, by

Chassagne,of Montpellier,in
than

originatorof

true

Roziere
no

one

attention

otherwise,

Avenbrngger'swork
with important additions
in 1808.
of his own,
anew,
By
this time a reaction had set in againstthe metaphysical
ing;
methods
in medicine
that had
previouslybeen so allurthe scientific spirit
of the time was
making itselffelt
in medical
with Corvisart's
practice;and this,combined
of percussioninto immediate
fame, brought the method
dation
and
well-deserved
popularity. Thus was laid the founfor the method
of so-called physical diagnosis,
which

is

one

Corvisart

translated

of the corner-stones
355

of modern
,r

medicine.

THE
The

day

STORY

OF

method

of

by

was

work

of

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

SCIENCE

physicaldiagnosisas practisedin
means
completed, however, with

no

Corvisart.

Percussion

alone

tells much

our

the

less

than

half the story that may

be elicited from the organs
of the chest by proper interrogation.The remainder
of
the
to

story can only be learned by applying the ear itself

the
chest, directly or indirectly.Simple as this

seems,

no

one

after

Corvisart

Then,

in

thought
had

of

practisingit

shown

1815, another

Paris

laid the foundation

also

the

for

value

some

of

years

percussion.

Rene
physician,
Theophile
almost by accident,that
Hyacinthe Laennec, discovered,
the sound of the heart-beat could
be heard surprisingly
through a cylinderof paper held to the ear and against
the patient's
chest.
Acting on the hint thus received,
Laennec
substituted
hollow
a
cylinderof wood for the
himself provided with an instrument
paper, and found
through which not merely heart sounds, but murmurs
of the lungs in respiration,
could be heard with almost
distinctness.
startling
of associating
the varying chest sounds
The possibility
of the organs
with diseased conditions
within appealed
vistas in
of Laennec
to the fertile mind
as
opening new
to enter
to the fullest
which
he determined
therapeutics,
of
extent
practicable.His connection with the hospitals
and his
Paris gave him full opportunityin this direction,
lish
labors of the next few years served not merely to estabaid to diagnosis,
method
the value of the new
an
as
but

In 1819

anatomy^
labors
a

work

in

work

which

medicine.
the

By

forms

one

mediate

of
interrogation

the

the

Traite
of

landmarks

auscultation

356

results of his

cTAuscultation

the

chest

of morbid

science

publishedthe

Laennec

called

for

with

is meant

of

M^diate^
scientific
of

the aid of the

course

little

LAKNNEC,

INVENTOR

OF

THE

STETHOSCOPE,
PARIS

AT

THE

NECKElt

HOSPITAL,

OF

STORY

THE

gendie in
workers

; and

France

led

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

the

and

often

and

the

irrational

like

"

that

jointefforts

the

presentlyto

SCIENCE

of these

abandonment

depletivemethods

had

various

of those
"

vere
se-

ting
blood-let-

previouslydominated

ical
med-

practice.To this end also the statistical method,"

uted
introduced
by Louis and his followers,largelycontribby the close of the first third of our century
; and
peutics
the idea was
gaining ground that the province of therain combating disease,and
is to aid nature
that
often be better accomplishedby simple means
this may
hitherto
than by the heroic measures
thought necessary.
In a word, scientific empiricism was
beginning to gain a
hearing in medicine, as againstthe metaphysical preconceptions
of the earlier generations.
"

ii

I have
as

of

justadverted
First

Consul

parte,
Napoleon Bonathe victim
Emperor, was

to the fact that

and

as

malady which caused him to seek the advice of the

most
distinguishedphysicians of Paris. It is a little
sensibilities to read that these
shocking to modern
physicians,
except Corvisart,
diagnosedthe distinguished
that is to say,
patient's
malady as
gale repercutee
in idiomatic English,the itch "struck
It is hardly
in."
that no
to say
physician of to-day would
necessary
make
of a royal
inconsiderate
in the case
so
a diagnosis
patient. If by any chance a distinguished
patientwere
afflicted with the itch,the sagacious physician would
carefullyhide the fact behind circumlocutions,and proceed
to eradicate
the disease with all despatch. That
the physiciansof Napoleon did otherwise
is evidence
that at the beginningof the century the disease in quesa

"

"

"

360

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

IN

SCIENTIFIC

MEDICINE

At that time,itch,
enjoyed a very different status.
instead of being a most plebeianmalady, was, so to say, a
It enjoyed a circulation,
disease.
in high circles
court
and in low, that modern
therapeuticshas quite denied
it ; and the physiciansof the time
it a fictitious
gave
added
importance by ascribingto its influence the existence
of almost any obscure
under
malady that came
their
observation.
Long after Napoleon's time, gale
continued
to hold this proud distinction.
For example,
the imaginativeDr. Hahnemann
did not hesitate to affirm,
of all the
that three-fourths
as
a positivemaxim,
ills that flesh is heir to were
in realitynothing but various
forms
of
gale repercutee."
tion

"

All of which

show

to

goes

how

easy

it may

be

for

masked

pretenderto impose on credulous humanity ; for

edge
knowlclearlyestablished in modern
nothing is more
than the fact that
gale repercutee was simply a
such disease exto hide a profound ignorance; no
ists,
name
did exist.
Gale itself is a sufficiently
or
ever
ble
tangito be sure
reality,
; but it is a purelylocal disease of
the skin,due to a perfectlydefinite cause, and the dire
internal conditions formerly ascribed to it have reallyno
"

"

causal connection
as

every

than
the

hence

it has

physicianthat
that

speedily.
of
cause

the

insect,and

that

Kill

he
But

be

an

the itch is

one

to

come

positivelyis
it

first third
of the disease

the

of

was

an

is

disease

no

of the

three

or

absolute
361

lodgment

the

to

less

or

with

able

cause,

cure,

and

with

the
to

mystery.

on

home

itself at

century, because

our

more

axiom

far otherwise

was

found

made

and

burrowed

has

nothing

has

which

microscopicinsect

skin, and

there.

is

nowadays knows,

one

This definite

it whatever.

with

more

"

modern
four

that

eases
dis-

very

physicians
them

the

THE

STORY

It is true
to find

OF

that here and

insect

an

itch,and

two

or

that

was

the

this

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

lodged
three

it

1833

in

stated

was

an

physician had
skin

the

the

of

cause

in the

times

quite ignored by

were

there

the

SCIENCE

of

claim

sufferer

had

from

been

made

such

views

but

malady,

claimed

and
general profession,

authoritative

medical

in

treatise

But
gale is absolutelyunknown."
it curiouslyhappened, there were
at this time, as
even
certain
ignorant laymen who had attained to a bit of
from
withheld
the inner
medical
knowledge that was
circles of the profession. As the peasantry of England

that

the

before

pox

of

"cause

Jenner

known

had

the

small-pox,so

over

the curative

of

peasant

value

of

cow-

of Poland

women

annoying skin disease from which

caused
they suffered was
by an almost invisible insect,
and, furthermore, had acquired the trick of dislodging
had

learned

that

the

little creature
with the pointof a needle.
pestiferous
From
them
a
by
youth of the country, F. Renucci
He
learned the open secret.
conveyed it to Paris
name,
he went
when
there to study medicine, and
in 1S3"
the

it to his

demonstrated

master, Alibert.

This

physician,

at first

soon
was
convinced, and gave out the
sceptical,
discoveryto the medical world with an authority that
led to early acceptance.
Now
the importance of all this,in the present connection,

all that it gave the clew

What
makes
singledisease.

is not
of

of

cure

epochal
into

the

run,

to

that

may
and

be

is the

minute

the

that

fact

medical

prove

to

at

ranks

itself
and
cause

important human

"

it

dropped

an

the

discovery

brand-new

method

idea

destined,in the long-

idea

veritable

the

bomb

"

the

idea,namely,

parasite
quite unsuspected animal
of a well-known, widely prevalent,
disease.
362

Of

course

the

full force

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

could

of this idea

IN

only

SCIENTIFIC

MEDICINE

appreciatedin

be

the

lightof
coming it

of its
at the time
knowledge ; but even
sufficed to give a great impetus to that new
medical
had
knowledge, based on microscopicalstudies,which
made
accessible
but
recently been
by the inventions
later

the lens-makers.

of

turbid

very

The

medical

pool,and

clarification of many
Almost

at the

knowledge clarified
pointed the way to

new

that the Polish

time

medical

demonstrating the itch mite

chanced, curiously enough, that another

in

was

this

the

others.

same

this time

one

dent
stu-

Paris, it

medical

dent,
stu-

covery,
Englishman, made an analogous disof perhaps even
greater importance. Indeed,
dated
Englishdiscoveryin its initial stages slightlyantean

other, for

the

it

in

was

that

1833

the

student

in

Paget, interne in Saint Bartholomew's

Hospital,London, while dissectingthe muscular tissues

question,James
of

human

matter, which, when

aid of the

taken

Richard

anatomy,
hitherto

little

subject,found
Owen,

microscope,to
unknown

to

earlier

of

cocoon

Owen

named

suspected,or,
Nor

but
investigators,
at

the full story of

was

long time

after

that the

American

no

Owen's

the

anatomist

Dr.

the cysts of trichina in the tissues

decade

or

so

chief among

ker, proved

elapsed after
whom
that

were

the

that

It

insect Trichina

observed

by
previously

their
made
was

nature.

out
not

for

till 1847

Joseph Leidy found

of pork ; and another

before

German

workers,

Leuckart, Virchow, and

parasitegets into
363

and

published,it

had

one

trichina

discovery.

minute

the

rate, demonstrated

any

tive
compara-

ascertained,with the

spiralis. After the discovery was

transpired that similar specks had been
several

extraneous

professorof

were

the

be

insect.

the

of

specks

the

human

Zen-

sys-

THE

OF

STORY

through ingestionof

tern

causes

definite set of

had

and

other

for

time

been

mistaken

maladies.
over

of

the

pork

disease,which

it

hith-

VIKCHOW

rheumatism, typhoid fever,

for
Then

the

subjectof

was

of

that

pork,and

infected

symptons

KUDOLF

erto

SCIENCE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

world

trichinosis ;

established
364

medical

in

some

was

agog

government
parts

spection
in-

of Ger-

CENTURY'S

; American

many

; and

France

the

publicattention.
proved

IN

PROGRESS

its

on

attention

MEDICINE

excluded
pork was
altogetherfrom
whole
subjectthus came
prominentlyto
But important as the trichina parasite
in the

account

own

after

SCIENTIFiC

in the

all,was

at the

time

of

end,

share

its

portance
greatest im-

it

played in
its discovery in 1833

ing
directto

the

subjectof microscopicparasitesin general.

The

decade

that

that followed

great activityin the study of

and microscopictissues,
and such

of

and

Henle

Bory

tansky

and

bounds

of

that

Saint

Reraak

knowledge
be

cannot

more

of

Kolliker

Dujardin
this

new

of the

by

and

Roki-

widening the
subject with details
were

referred

than

crowning achievement
the discovery made
was
lein in 1839, that

and

Yincent
and

discoverywas a time
microscopicorganisms
men
as
Ehrenberg and

here.

to

period

in

the

direction

J. L. Schoen-

the German
and

this

But

distressing
disease of the scalp,known
to the
as favus,is reallydue
presence and growth on the scalp of a vegetableorganism
of microscopic size.
it was
Thus
made
clear that
but also vegetableorganisms of obscure,
not merely animal
microscopic species have causal relations to the
diseases

with

of the

which

very

common

mankind

most

is afflicted.

This

edge
knowl-

tion
long step in the direcof scientific medical knowledge; but the heights to
which
this knowledge led were
not
to be scaled,
or
even
tered
recognized,until another generation of workers had enthe

parasiteswas

another

field.

in

Meantime,
were

in

field of medicine, events

quite another
developing which led presentlyto a revelation of

greater immediate

importance to humanity
365

than

any

THE

OF

STORY

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

discovery that

other
in any

had

in the

come

whatever.

field of science

SCIENCE

century, perhaps

This

the

was

ery
discov-

of the

of the vapor
of sulphuric
pain-dispelling
power
ether,inhaled by a patientundergoing a surgical
operation. This discoverycome
solelyout of America,
and
it stands
since apparently no
curiously isolated,
in any other
minds
trending towards it
country were
even
vaguely. Davy, in England, had indeed originated
of medication
the method
and carried out
by inhalation,
most
some
interestingexperiments fiftyyears earlier,
doubtless his experiments with nitrous oxide
and it was

gas that

the clew

gave

but this

century, when

the

matters,
the

until

line

same

sole contribution

made

the

Davy's experiments to
be

that

of

all

preceding
beginning of

the

to

slightestadvance
dentist
had

that

been

other

along

renewed

the

in
nothing-

surgicaloperation

painless in this way ; and, indeed,

cord
Europe had acknowledged with one ac-

hope

desirable end

surgeon'sknife
and

of

his attention

there

show

gators;
investi-

rendered

the surgeons

most

since

American

an

investigation. Moreover,
might

of the American

one

and
subject,
Davy turned

had

one

no

the

was

the

generationsto

to

must

must

indescribable

chanced

that

leader of

English

Sir

of

to
finding a means
be utterlyabandoned

remain

ever

By

torture.

a
an

"

synonym
odd

this

secure

that the
slow

for

coincidence

it

Brodie, the acknowledged

Benjamin

publiclyexpressed this
his deliberate
as
though regretted opinion at a time
when
the quest which
he considered
futile had already
led to the

most

surgeons,

brilliant

had

success

in

America, and

the announcement

of the

had

transatlantic

to

its way

to

the Old

cable

discovery,which then
it,was actuallyon
convey

while

World.
366

no

CENTURY'S
The

dentist

American

world

conceive

to

that

SCIENTIFIC

MEDICINE

just referred to, who was, with

in the
presently,the first man

be noted

exceptionto

one

IN

PROGRESS

the

administration

of

definite

and to
drug might render a surgicaloperation painless,
Dr. Horace
was
Wells, of
give the belief application,
The drug with which
he experiHartford, Connecticut.
mented
nitrous oxide; the operation which
he renwas
dered

painlesswas
of

tooth

no

than

it sufficed to mark

yet

"

important

more

the

tion
extrac-

principle;

the

year of the

1844.
experiment was
portant,
experiments of Dr. Wells, however, though imdemonstrative
not sufficiently
to bring the
were

The

prominently to the attention of the medical

he experimented proved
The drug with which
world.
and he himself
not
seems
always reliable,
ultimatelyto
have given the matter
up, or at least to have relaxed his

matter

But

efforts.

meantime

his

with

up, and

that

Morton,

of

and

energy

with

drug

he had

municated
com-

belief and

took the matter

expectations,
unremitting zeal carried forward
experiments

destined

were

friend

This

friend,to whom

another

was

Boston, then
enthusiasm.
which

Wells

lead

to

had

sults.
tangible re-

more

dentist,Dr. W.

young

He

to

man,

seems

full of

to have

T.

G.

youthful

felt that the

experimented

not

was

the

for several
for the purpose, and
so
one
practicable
other allied drugs,until
months
he experimented with
finallyhe hit upon sulphuricether,and with this was
able to make
experiments upon animals,and then upon
lutely
absoto him
patientsin the dental chair,that seemed
most

demonstrative.
Full of eager

results,he
foremost
2

at

confident of
enthusiasm, and absolutely

once

surgeons

went

of

to Dr.

Boston,
369

J. C.
and

Warren,
asked

one

his

of the

permission to

THE

test

the

.STORY

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

discoverydecisivelyon one
Boston
Hospitalduring a severe
was
granted ; the test was made
of

presence

awoke

to

was

over.

The

Swiftly

think

world.

It

steam

held

to

could
"

received

believe
the

before

vanished

which

the next

outcry

from

not

and-cry

to

that

tient
pa-

plied,

was

the

the

many
moral

hence, on

But

the

we

to all the

heralded

was

with

Europe

ether, a drug

all

few

Then

of

any

"

new

"

But

did

came

Then, too,

ing
lingerthe

beneficial to

the

Dr.

method

make

of

notably some
as

the

scepticism
might

surgeon

there

pain was

anesthesia
the

miracle.

long
of

the world

over

surgeons,

shock

had

that

armamentarium

which

tests

weeks.

advised.

be

slowly enough

"

subordinate

christened

from

renounced.

that

patient,hence
had

The

students.

it

news

in

surgeons
few

Parisians, that

Holmes

of

surgeons

surgeon'sknife

physician,could accomplishsuch

within

16,1846,

incredulity,
repeated experiments. Surgeons

before

place in

make, and

foremost

carry

the

to-day

it
was

loath

were

October

on

comprehension that the ordeal

the miraculous,had been accomplished.
impossible,

vanished

which

patients at
quest
operation. The re-

of medical

the

the

astonished

as

should

of

of the

several

city and of a body

slept quietlywhile

and

and

SCIENCE

his

in the

the

OF

Wendell

Oliver
"

there

was

came

ure
proceda

hue-

pulpitthat pain was God-given,

grounds, to be clung to rather than

outcry

of the

antediluvians

of both

pulpitquicklyreceived its quietus; for soon

did not
suffer the
it was
clear that the patient who
shock of pain during an operationrallied better than the
all humanity outside
did so suffer,while
who
the
one
kind
manpulpitcried shame to the spiritthat would doom
hospitaland

to

suffer

needless

agony.

37(T

And

so

within

few

CRAWFOKD

After

crayon

portrait

taken

at

properties

LONG

W.

the
of

time

of

his

sulphuric

of

discovery
ether
.

the

anaesthetic

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

IN

SCIENTIFIC

after that initial operation at

months
in

18-i6,ether had

MEDICINE

the

Boston

pital
Hos-

made

good its conquest of pain

Only by the most
tive
acthroughout the civilized world.
of the imagination can
of this present day
we
use
realize the full meaning of that victory.
It remains

that in the

be added

ings
subsequentbickerthe discovery such bickerings
follow every
over
as
other
into prominent
two
names
came
great advance
method.
notice as sharers in the glory of the new
Both
to

"

"

these
of

Americans

were

As
to

seems

have

propertiesof

Jackson, it

Dr.

to

W.

T.

Jackson,
bama.
Long, of Ala-

is sufficient to say

that

he

inkling of the peculiar

vague
before Morton's
discovery. He even

had

some

ether

suggested the

the one, Dr. Charles

other, Dr. Crawford

; the

Boston

"

of this

drug to Morton, not knowing

that Morton
had
alread}^tried it ; but this is the full
of his association with the discovery. Hence
it
measure
is clear that Jackson's
claim to equal share with Morton
in the discovery was
surd.
unwarranted, not to say abuse

Dr.

far different,
was
Long's association with the matter
and altogetherhonorable.
dences
By one of those coinciin the historyof discovery,he was
so
common
neously
experimenting with ether as a pain-destroyersimultawith
knew
Morton, though neither so much
as
of the existence
he

had

other

once

medical
under

of the

inhaled

While

other.

for the

ether

students

wont

were

medical

intoxicant
to

do, and

student
as
effects,

when

tially
par-

drug he had noticed that a

blow
chance
to his shins was
painless. This gave him
the idea that ether might be used in surgical
operations;
and in subsequent years, in the course
of his practicein
a

small

influence

of the

Georgia town,

he

put
373

the

idea

into

successful

There

execution.
he

two

three

or

that

; hence

be

to

appears

minor

successful

performed

some

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

STORY

THE

the

doubt

no

whatever

Morton's

merit

ether

final demonstration

first

of

using the drug,

But
belongs to him.

drug, in this way

unfortunatelyDr. Long did not quite trust
of his own
experiments. Just at that time
indeed

or

that

operations under

before

years

SCIENCE

any

the evidence
the medical

of experiments in which
full of accounts
journalswere
said to be performed through
painlessoperations were
practiceof hypnotism,and Dr. Long feared that his own
success
might be due to an incidental hypnoticinfluence
he delayed announcing
rather than to the drug. Hence
his apparent discoveryuntil he should have opportunity
and opportunitiesdid not come
for further tests
every
while he waited,
day to the country practitioner.And
Morton
made
anticipatedhim, and the discoverywas
"

known

the

to

world

caution

the caution
have

the

cost

months

Scotch

Long

to this

him

the

credit,which

might

after the

surgeon

effects;that

similar

anaesthesia
that

divided

drugs ;

the

has

science

J. Y.

Sir

in

it

more

world

fact,of

advantageously

of the first
the merit
upon
had
Even
anaesthesia.
some

quitebanished

ether, the

has

374

of

general,
that

merits

with

cases

than

even

more

duce
proether.
or

of the

less
two

bearing whatever

discoveryof

honor

manity.
hu-

discovered

been

no

other

greatest

upon

would, indeed,in many

course,

otherwise

administered

day tillthis surgeons have

opinion as to the relative

but this

delay,but

became

Simpson
be

entific
sci-

true

of the

one

of ether

could

was

conferred

ever

use

drug, chloroform,

another

From

Dr.

his,of giving to

been

few

It

that actuated

blessings that
A

his aid.

without

the method

of

drug subsequently

the

discoveryof

the

upon

OF

STORY

THE

in 1854

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

aimed

were

that had

at

the

SCIENCE

solution

of

versy
contro-

been

waging in the scientific world with

varying degrees of activityfor a quarter of a century.
in the day of the earlyenthusiasm
Back in the thirties,
over
the perfectedmicroscope,there had
arisen a new
est
interforms

in the minute
some

of the

other

described,and

of life which

early workers

which

now

were

Leeuwenhoek

with

the lens

shown

to

be

and

had

first

of almost

universal

prevalence. These minute organisms had

less by a host of observers,but in
more
or

studied

by

the Frenchman

Cagniard

of

men,

cell-theoryfame, Theodor
had
working independently,
about

more

Latour

These

the

1837, that the micro-organismsplay

important

role in the economy

of nature

ticular
par-

the German,

and

Schwann.
reached

been

sion,
conclua

vastly

than

any

previouslyhad supposed. They held, for example,

that the minute
stance
specks which largely make up the subof yeast are
livingvegetableorganisms,and that
the growth of these organisms is the cause
of the important
and
familiar
of fermentation.
They
process
to hold, at least tentatively,
the opinion that
even
came
the somewhat
similar micro-organismsto be found in all
lation
putrefying matter, animal or vegetable,had a causal reto the process of putrefaction.
This view, particularly
of putrefacto the nature
as
tion,
was
more
expressed even
outspokenly a little later
botanist Turpin. Views
so
by the French
supported
naturally gained a following; it was
equally natural
should
be antagonized. In
that so radical an innovation
of the most
this case
it chanced
that one
dominating
scientific minds
of the time, that of Liebig,took a firm
In 1839
doctrine.
and aggressivestand against the new
doctrine
of fermentation, in
he promulgated his famous
one

376

THEODOU

SCIIWANN

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

stood

he

which

of

IN

SCIENTIFIC

Helmholtz,
later

when

which

entered

Pasteur

no

planation
ex-

presence

causal.

sense

chemist

in

was

his

observations

it had

of

but

Schwann,

the vitalistic conception

rallied

not

the field.

compatriot

experiments confirmed,

authoritygave

from

blow

earlier

combined

in

the

"

stances
putrefyingsub-

by experiments of

contradicted,the

ones

this

and

whose

and

great German

the

of

substantiated

measure

vitalistic

phenomena, allegingthat

the

opinion

This

"

firmlyagainst any

out

micro-organisms in fermenting
was
merely incidental,and

of

MEDICINE

the

at

Indeed, it

was

time

ly
current-

regarded as settled that the early students of

the importance of
subjecthad vastlyoverestimated

the

cro-organ
mi-

And

it came

so

as

scientists of the

revelation

time, when,

half-decade, Pasteur
in which

in 1857

the

published

to the

of
generality
the succeeding

and

results

of

his

searches,
re-

the

questionhad been put to a series

tests, and
brought to unequivocal

altogethernew

of

new

demonstration.
He
most

proved that the micro-organisms do all that his

imaginativepredecessorshad suspected,and more.

Without
no

the

tion,
proved, there would be no fermentaputrefaction no decay of any tissues,
except by

them,

he

"

slow

of

process

oxidation.

It

yeast plant which, by seizing on

is the

certain

microscopic
atoms

of the

in the form
of
remaining atoms
carbonic
acid and
alcohol,thus effectingfermentation;
it is another
microscopicplant a bacterium, asDevaine

molecule,

liberates

the

"

had

christened

destruction

of

which

we

the amazement

it

"

which

in

similar

way

effects

the

tion
organic molecules, producing the condicall putrefaction. Pasteur
showed, to
of

that
biologists,
379
.

there

are

certain

forms

THE

STORY

of these

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

bacteria

life
unstable

which

molecules

from

the

in which

in short,has
putrefaction,

word, Pasteur

of

processes
forms

of

the

is combined

from

free

activities

many

familiar

that all the

tissues are, in

organic
would
the

of

will

germs,

other

or

conditions

place at all
livingmicro-organisms.

dry

phere
atmos-

an

gradually,without

up

which

to

effect,

take

not

slightestsign of putrefaction,
regardlessof

the

; that

in the

meat, for example, suspended in

piece of

of

presence

ganic
or-

bacteria.

fermentation, and

except for the

all

air,but by breakingup

oxygen

showed

decay

which

oxygen

its foundation

of these so-called anaerobic

In

the

secure

requires,not

SCIENCE

it may

the

have

perature
tem-

been

subjected.
There

the

upon

one

to

questionof

finished

were

field of
start

afresh

the

to

the animal

disease

that

made

the

cost

had

1850, Devaine

of animals

blood

at that
to

the

time

who
think

disease.

loss

had

before,in

of
of

died

of them

as

or

sheep
of

of

Pasteur's

that

the

new

cattle.

and

bacteria

anthrax, but

having

In

in

the

he

did

causal

tion
rela-

however, in 1863, stimulated

revelations

regarding
bacteria,he returned to the subject,and
convinced,through experiments by means
by

reference

splenicfever, a
Europe millions of

anthrax,

multitudes

Now,

sufficed

the role

years

farmers

seen

than

more

they

very outset

to

ten

called

annually through

francs

not

disease.

disease

in

progress

cro-orga
played by miIn particular,
they led the
to return
to some
interrupted

inquiryas

he had

bearing directly
diseases,yet before they

the

At

physician Devaine

studies which

studies

stimulated

pathology.
in

French

animal

had

they

these

in

nothing

was

microscopic organisms he
380

the

power
became

soon

had

of

of

tion,
inocula-

discovered

CENTURY'S

the veritable

were

and

the

SCIENTIFIC

sole

MEDICINE

of the infectious

cause

anthrax.

disease

of
publication

The
of

IN

PROGRESS

this belief in

That

controversy.

aroused

1863

microscopic vegetable

furor
could

systemic disease was an idea altogether

to be accepted in a day, and
the generality
too startling
and physiciansdemanded
of biologists
more
convincing
cause

virulent

proofs than Devaine

Naturally a host
Dr.

German

had

that Devaine
further

Robert

in the

being made
inoculated
Such

at

the

such

unconvinced, and

was

still at its
the

in
and

more

thesilk-worm
and

in

eighth

that animals

thus

disease.

1876, while

hand.

was

The

the

controversy

prevailed upon

great chemist

was

exclusivelya biologistas

more

passed,and

years

in

height,Pasteur

matter

the

tions
inocula-

demonstrative, yet the world

seem

was

take

of the

to

all

of successive

cultures

pure

the

experiments

media,

astonishingresult

experiments

the

in artificial

succumbed

once

carried

the cultivation

of

the

over

these was
among
corroborated
soon

who

bacteria

from

generation,with

Foremost

observed, and

the

to offer.

all
investigators

Koch,

direction

generations of

able

was

of other

the field.

entered

world

yet

as

recent

his famous

years

which
diseases,

he

studies

to

coming
bethe
of

fection,
to bacterial in-

proved due

of

had
theqnestionof spontaneous generation,
in microscopical
givenhim unequalledresources
technique.
And
so
when, with the aid of his laboratory associates

Duclaux
mooted

the

Chamberland

anthrax

issue with
was

came

and

question,the
bated

ready

forward
"

to

with

breath.

report
such

Eoux, he took

and

on

scientific world
And

when,

his studies

wealth

of

teur
1877, Pas-

anthrax, he

of demonstrative

experiments the rigid accuracy

381

in

up the
awaited

of

which

periments
exno

THE

STORY

would

one

for

the

prove

plant
mind

is due

animal's

an

all time

could
of

true

also of

the

the

contagious

introduction

would

other, perhaps of all,forms

logical

no

day

some

scopic
micro-

"

that what

doubt

infectious disease

one

that

exclusivelyto

reasonable

come.

specificgerm
And
develops there.

which

"

to

"

doubt

system of

have

true

could

one

anthrax

disease
into

no

questioning going to
anthrax, that scepticism

origin of

quietedfor

Henceforth

SCIENCE

think of

moment

bacterial

at last

was

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

of

is
be

proved
proved

infectious

maladies.
Hitherto
maladies
a

total

the

spread from

individual

and

there

Henle, had guessed

is far

enough

time, the world

giganticstride

Meantime

in

the

knowing.
the

medicine

terms

vague

like cloaks

prophet of science,as

knew, and
towards

the

by

the secret;

from

certain

individual,had been

to

"humor," "virus," and

Here

which

contagion, by

mystery, quite unillumined

"miasm,"
and

of

cause

but

heightsof

for

taken

exact

noranc
ig-

wann

guessing,in

Now,
had

Sch

of

the

ence,
scifirst

another

science.

different,though allied,field

of

cine
medi-

complementary growth that led

results of even
to immediate
more
importance.
practical
I mean
in surgery.
the theory and practiceof antisepsis
This advance, like the other,came
as a direct outgrowth
studies of alcoholic beverages,
of Pasteur's fermentation
Struck by
though not at the hands of Pasteur himself.
of Pasteur's
revelations
the boundless
garding
reimplications
the
bacteria,Dr. Joseph Lister (the present
Lord
of Glasgow, set about
then
as
early as
Lister),
there

had

been

382

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

to make

1860

MEDICINE

applicationof

wonderful

SCIENTIFIC

IN

these ideas.

If

development,he
well to living as to dead tissues
in
the putrefactivechanges which
occur
; hence
wounds
and after operationson the human
subject,from
lutely
which
blood-poisoningso often follows,might be absoprevented if the injured surfaces could be kept
of decay.
free from
of the germs
access
In the hope of accomplishing this result,Lister began
experimenting with drugs that might kill the bacteria
without
to preinjury to the patient,and with means
vent
putrefactionis always due
argued, this must apply as

further

access

them.

How

from
knows

; how

of

to

bacterial

once

germs

well

he

wound

succeeded, all

freed

was

world

the

antagonized for about a

of years, most
of the world
has already forgotten.
score
As
able
to publish results
early as 1867, Lister was
credulou
in his great project; yet so inpointingtowards success
bitterlyhe

were

later the
so

much

Paris

surgeons

was

in

leadingsurgeons
heard

as

died, as

generalthat
across

of his efforts.

the
In

even

some

Channel

1870

years
had

not

the soldiers of

in
old,of hospital
; and when
gangrene
1871 the French
Alphonse Guerin, stimulated
surgeon
idea
of dressing
the
by Pasteur's studies,conceived
wrounds

with

of

hope of keeping germs from

that a British conentering them, he was quite unaware
temporary
had preceded him by a full decade in this effort
at prevention, and
had made
long strides towards
Lister's priority,
complete success.
however, and the
superiorityof his method, were
by the
freelyadmitted
French
Academy of Science, which in 1881 officially
crowned
his achievement, as the Royal Society of London
had

By
SB

done

this

cotton

in the

the year

time, to

before.

be sure,

as

385

everybody knows,

Lister's

STORY

THE

had

methods

new

the

of

terror

earth

the

these

And

thousands

made

of

that

and

surgeon

and

surgery,

maladies

bedside

SCIENCE

their way

practiceof

the

from

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

the

tionizing
everywhere, revolubanishing
practically

hitherto

opprobrium

studies,conducted

who

had

had

in

been

the

of his

art.

the

end

by

knowledge of microscopy,
had
the general belief in
a
large share in establishing
the causal relation that micro-organisms bear to disease,
which
by about the year 1880 had taken possessionof
world.
But
the medical
they did more
; they brought
into equal prominence the idea that, the cause
of a diseased
condition
be
being known, it may
possible as
tion.
before
eradicate that condito grapple writh and
never
The

controversy

thanks
to

be

men

Pasteur

to

spontaneous generation,which,

over

Tyndall, had just

and

where

an

that

it clear

termination, made

feared

no

in surgery
had
lodgment ; Listerism
much
might be accomplished towards
of

access

in

As

which

those

other

organism by
as

was

which,
found

that

germs

which

way

first and

for

their

now

it

find

had

the

not

found

shown

how

preventing
the

body,

the

and

found

became

so

How

victims.

the

way

the

of those

cause

last,claim

their
and

of the mouth

anxious

animal

and which,
nostrils,

contagiousdiseases

thought

working

happened, the

world

was

Almost

the

before

into the

kind
large a proportionof mansuch
means
might be

every

physician,of
As

already

those

clear,are

now

now

of

surfaces

abraded

had

need

lodgment
yet, however, there was no inkling of a way
correspondingonslaught might be made upon

destroying
there.

to

germs

brought

bacterium

no

bacterium

antecedent

been

not

of

micro-

every

biologist.

kept long

proposition had

aginative
im-

taken

in

pense.
sus-

shape

CENTURY'S

PROGRESS

minds

in the

the other

Guided

solution.

he, like

of

and

found

French

the

of

that, when

germ

so

it

as

"chicken

of Jenner,
empirical success
long practisedinoculation experiments,
of

February, 1880, he

into

produced only
sufficed

the

In

the

the

method

he

virus,"as

October

ceptible
sus-

of the disease,

against

the

protects against

termed

"

generalization

that

same

been

brought

in artificial

germs
did

year

this "attenuation

it,had

would

his belief that the method

the

which

by cultivation of the disease

media, exposed to the air; and he
of

disease

of

form

of

by

"

assert

of

protect

vaccinia

nounced
an-

that he had

system

mild

to

exactly as

cholera."

announced

of
about

particulardisease experimented with

infectious
malady of poultry known
familiarly

that

Pasteur

found

The

small-pox.
was

form

had

Academy of Science
reducing the virulence

which, however,
virulent

MEDICINE

leaders,Pasteur

introduced

animal,
usual

SCIENTIFIC

9th

the

on

method

the

by

others, had

many

to

IN

hesitate

not

"

prove

to

ble
suscepti-

is to say, of

applicationto
other diseases than the particular
in question.
one
months
he made
Within
a few
good this prophecy,
for in February, 1881, he announced
to the Academy
"

the

that, with

before, of

aid, as

the

virus

of

could

protect sheep,and
announcement

way

that

world.

The
the

to

attenuated

an

of

which

he

presumably cattle,against that

decisive

the

it to

president of
that his

immediately challenged in

was

brought

enormous

Pasteur
to

MM.

malady.

This
a

associates

Roux, lie had produced

anthrax
microbe, by the use
and

Chamberland

fatal

his

an

attention

of

the

entire

izing
agriculturalsociety,real-

importance of the subject,proposed

ted
alleged discovery should be submit-

publictest.
387

He

proposed

to

furnish

THE

STORY

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

fiftysheep,half

of

drove

OF

the attenuated

with

SCIENCE

of which

virus

to be inoculated

were

Pasteur.

by

Subsequently all

with
virulent virus,all
to be inoculated
sheep were
being kept togetherin one pen, under preciselythe same
The
conditions.
remain
to
"protected" sheep were
to die of anthrax
healthy ; the unprotected ones
; so
the

the

read
the

of

the

proposition. Pasteur
permitted a change

challenge; he even
by which two goats were
the sheep,and ten cattle added
his

that since

cattle,these
the

within
It

try the

to

test

looked

proved

in the

substituted
;

for

soul

of any

askance, prepared

on

Not

baseless.

as

even

for all the

man,

to deride

the

his claim

soon

as

the

fame

of

maker

should

for
as

the

for all the world

time

the

Pasteur

second

weeks

must

unattenuated

in the

anthrax
since

of the

termed

it,was

17th; and

made

on

the

5th

interval

another

ure,
procedtion,
vaccina-

"preventive" inoculation,or

the

on

informed

There

of
of

May,
two

elapsebefore the final inoculations with the

virus.
Twenty-four sheep,one goat, and

tions.
preliminaryvaccinamals
Then, on the 31st of May, all sixty of the aniwere
inoculated,a protected and an unprotected
with
an
alternately,
extremely virulent culture of

five cattle

one

first

to be

be

could

Pasteur

believe
publicat large,lay or scientific,
of what
he proposed to accomplish.
possibility
was

two

however,
stipulating,

the

make

gramme
pro-

of the test.

preposterous a claim

so

accepted

to
experiments had not yet been extended
should
be regarded as fallingrigidly
not

terms

was

world
of

of

terms

were

microbes

187T.

This

submitted

that

had

to

been

the

in Pasteur's

accomplished,the

together in one enclosure,to await

Two
days later,the 2d of June,
388

animals

laboratory
were

left

the issue.
at the

appointedhour

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S
of

rendezvous, a

IN

SCIENTIFIC

crowd, composed

vast

MEDICINE

of

veterinary surgeons,

correspondents,and farmers
gathered to witness the closingscenes

from

newspaper
and

near,

What

scientific tourney.
dramatic

which,

scene

in

scenes

they saw

the

declared

the

assembly." Scattered
dying,or manifestlysick unto
animals,
animal

and

one

of this

of the

one

most

history of peaceful science

Pasteur

as

was

far

afterwards,

about

the

"

"amazed

enclosure, dead,

death, lay the unprotected

all; while each

and

"protected"

every

stalked

unconcernedly about with every appearance

of perfect health.
Twenty of the sheep and the
one
already dead ; two other sheep expired
goat were
under
the eyes of the spectators; the remaining victims
lingered but a few hours longer. Thus in a manner
theatrical enough, not to say tragic,
was
proclaimed the
science.

unequivocalvictoryof
unbelievers
terms

virus

struck

their

the

Naturally enough,

colors

and

surrendered

without

; the

principleof protectivevaccination, with

was
experimentallyprepared in the laboratory,
beyond

That

new

of

scientific

memorable

of

reach

the

tablished
es-

controversy.
battle

in medicine.

era

It

marked
was

the

beginning
clusion
foregone con-

thus established would

be still
principle
further generalized
it would
be applied to human
; that
it would
cessfully,
maladies; that, in all probability,
grapple sucthat

the

expectationhas

That

subject in
which

time

largely lost
mad

advanced

himself

Pasteur

by

later, with

or

sooner

that

the

made

disease

hitherto

its terrors.

many

infectious

diseases.

tion.
realiza-

rapidly towards
the applicationto

man
the hu-

hydrophobia, in 1885,
most

Thousands

fatal

of
of

maladies

*389

fatal

the

has
bitten

persons,

from
the
dogs, have been snatched
of that mishap by this method, at

since

quences
conse-

Pasteur

THE

STORY

OF

Institute in
the model
all

New

Paris,and

York

parent one, that

world, in regions as

and

SCIENCE

the similar

at

of this

the

over

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

built
institutes,

have

been

on

established

widely separated

as

Nha-Trang.

VI

the

production of the rabies vaccine Pasteur and

his associates developed a method
of attenuation
of a
virus quite different from that which
had been employed
In

in the

of chicken

of the vaccines

case

The

rabies

virus

cholera

inoculated

was

and

of

thrax.
an-

into the system

cultivated in
guinea-pigsor rabbits,and, in effect,
The spinalcord of these
systems of these animals.
of

animals

to

be

rich in the

when

attenuated

rapidlybecame
the

found

was

the

cord

the
fected
in-

virus,which
was

dried

in

was
preventivevirus,of varying strengths,
of these cords at varying stages of
by maceration

air.

made

The

This

desiccation.

cultivation

organism, suggested,no
method

nerian

of

virus within

the

mal
ani-

doubt, by the familiar Jen-

of

securingsmall-poxvaccine,was at the
time a step in the direction
of a new
same
therapeutic
of
destined
procedure which was
presently to become
all-absorbingimportance the method, namely, of socalled serum-therapy,or the treatment
of a disease with
the blood serum
of an animal
that has been subjectedto
"

protectiveinoculation
of
The
possibility
the familiar
other

animals

virulent

method

by
of

disease.
was

Pasteur
different

suggested by
and

numerous

speciesdiffer

maladies ;
to various
susceptibility
become
of a given disease may
more
when
passed through the systems of

in their

that the virus

more

such

observation,made

workers, that

widely

against that

390

and
and
suc-

THE

the

STORY

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

SCIENCE

luring
investigations
along the line of this althe leaders perhaps being Drs. Behring
possibilit\r,
and his asKitasato,closelyfollowed by Dr. Koux
sociates

world

and

made

of the

Pasteur

announced

were

of Paris.

Institute

by Behring

important diseases

in 1892

Definite

sults
re-

regarding two

and

diphtheria but the

into general notice until 1894,
did not
method
come
when Dr. Roux
read an epoch-markingpaper on the subject
at the Congress of Hygiene at Buda-Pesth.
In this paper, Dr. Roux, after advertingto the labors
scribed
deof Behring,Ehrlich,Boer, Kossel, and Wasserman,
in detail the methods
that had
been
developed
Institute for the development of the curaat the Pasteur
tive
serum, to which Behring had given the since familiar
for

in

injectedin

is

system of
amount

treated
blood

will
of

honor
the

of

coverers)
its dis-

development
in

disease

certain

in

diphtheria.In

curative
or

not

of

blood

other

taken

does

course

animal,

another

of mechanical

increasingdoses

being

care

portion of
act

but

animal

the

that

After
that

found

the

bouillon,for

small

animal,

an

so

disease.

of

diphtheriabacillus

bacillus,in

toxine,after certain details

This

the

the

form.

virulent

an

artificial

an

of the cultivation,
consists,first,
of

months,

some

"

powerful toxine capableof giving the

with

method

Klebs-Loeffler

(calledthe
of

The

antitoxine.

name

tetanus

"

the

graduate

succumb

of
if

human

into

to

this treatment

serum

way

to

ment,
treat-

the
the

it is

the animal

injectedinto

so

the

patient,suffering

words, according to theory,

developed in the system of

animal
subjected to the progressive inoculations
In
Dr. Roux's
the diphtheriatoxine.
experience
antitoxine

animal

has

best

been

suited

for the
392

purpose

is the

horse,

though

almost

the

serve

the

of

any

Roux's

of the

had

with

met

it clear that

had

means

had

strange that

months

Paris

coping

made

made

fully
success-

virulent

most

of childhood.

his paper

cases

He

success.

of

of the

one

numerous

that
applications

"

found

practicalapplicatio

Hence

sensation

it

in all

and
was

circles,

lay alike.

and

all

the

flocked

secret, and

open

serum-therapy

new

standing with

the world

over

of the

details

the

been

of

of

been

diseases

Physicians from
learn

hospitalsof

gratifyingmeasure

of the

intractable

medical

will

stop with the description

not

the treatment

to

the

what

with

not

animals

It told also of the

serum

diphtheriain

of

MEDICINE

domesticated

did

paper

laboratorymethods.

of

SCIENTIFIC

purpose.

Dr.

But

IN

PROGRESS

CENTURY'S

had

Paris

to

within

to

few

acknowledged
professioneverywhere. What
of
regarded as but an earnest

the medical

it had

an

accomplishedwas
method
what
the new
might accomplish presentlywhen
appliedto the other infectious diseases.
Efforts at such applicationswere
immediately begun
in numberless

directions

had, indeed, been

"

laboratory for some

early yet to speak of the results
in

has

many

been

done

of the

show

to

widest

that

sift that

to

which

permanent

Behring
in

does

not

addition

the

and

aggregate

which

to

the
of

general death-rate.

enough

also is susceptible
is not

great
that

an

at

easy
from

the
that

authorityas

to-day we

sess,
pos-

diphtheria antitoxine, equally

tetanus, cholera, typhus -fever,

tuberculosis
account

so

affirm

to

But

is tentative

; but

hesitate

specificantitoxines
pneumonia,

this method

way

It is too

before.

in detail.

generalization. It

present stage
will be

years

under

for
Then

"

set

of diseases

startlingproportion of

it is known
393

which

that

Dr.

in
the

Yersin,

with

include

the

bites

what

the

are

little

is

It

the
the

with

thirties,

rigidly
from

rational

the

decide.

to

of

and

promise

is

that

the

tentative

in

logical

begun

microscope
and

it

level

by
the

represents
method

experimental
a

those

of

outgrowth

of

experimental

of

therapeutics

fanciful
science.

our

stand

our

predecessors

which

empiricism

culmination
has

snake

brought
to

just

there

experimental

present

ready
al-

questions

are

will

treatment

serum

has
of

event,

any

by

Australia.

these
in

to

poisoning

effects

India

methods

tute,
Insti-

that

lethal

in

But,

achievement

culminating

which

-therapy

serum

"

question

suc"

Pasteur

antitoxine

the

present

of

the

an

persons

of

limits

future

the

the

with

plague

the

of

treatment

from
of

much

how

Just

and

immunity

thousands

to

used

the

of

of

developed

has

given

microbe

range

prevention

and

venoms,

has

and

graduate

the

extended

has

for

another

Calmette,

Dr.

of

colleagues

China.

ravaged

recently

the

from

antitoxine

an

cess,

former

developed,

has

Institute,

Pasteur

his

of

collaboration

the

SCIENCE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

STORY

THE

the

seems

as

the

century.
studies
of

the

of

the

cine
medi-

plane

of

XII

CHAPTER

THE

CENTURY'S

PROGRESS

IN

CHOLOGY
PSY-

EXPERIMENTAL

over

LITTLE

As
in

for

where

at

The

ham

Pinel,

in

the

raised

men

which,

spurning

had

condemned

and

the

than

the

should

be

the

into

with

the

about

his

chain

light

never

his

aid

neck

years

of

held

was

together

penetrated

in

mon
com-

these
custom

cell

it other

chained

perhaps
band

riveted

to

manently
per-

nate,
unfortu-

an

limits

narrow

iron
"

chains,

"maniac"

the

Many

to. the

sometimes
395

by

thought

and

waist.

or

Philippe

outcasts,

that

iron

an

gurated
inau-

dungeons,

had

events

dungeon,

Dr.

demon-haunted

people

of

Tuke

traditional

to

the

Syden-

the

independently,

the

as

few

manacled,
for

Moved

unfortunates

course

thrust

wall

thus

insane

Hitherto

natural

way.

fell

was

"

William

France,

against

the

water

in

was

quickly

Rush,

Dr.

quite

acting

these

lash.

the

led

revolt

and

single-handed,

the

Benjamin

England,

movement

spirit, though

to

Dr.

humanely

France
of

sane.
infirst

elsewhere

and
side

the

itself

were

treatment

this

on

ment
move-

of

interests

showed

England

leader

America"

of

the

unfortunates
their

but

Philadelphian,

famous

in

reform

ago

movement

when

brutal,

line.

into

world

these

time

than

worse

the

years

fitting, the

was

America,

cared

in

afoot

was

hundred

which

full

being

of

dav-

expen-

STORY

THE

sive

"

could

the

OF

chain

NINETEENTII-CENTURY

was

short

so

that

SCIENCE

the

wretched

victim

the

rise to

shift his
upright posture, or even
positionupon his squalidpalletof straw.
In America, indeed, there being no
Middle
Age precedents
into established
to crystallize
ment
customs, the treatnot

the

accorded
this level.

had

insane

seldom

or

sunk

never

to

this reason,

perhaps,the work of
Dr. Rush, at the Philadelphia Hospital, in 1784, by
of which
the insane came
to be humanely treated,
means
of banishingthe lash,has been
to the extent
even
the work
of the European leadbut little noted, while
ers,
though belonging to later decades, has been made
And
famous.
perhaps this is not as unjustas it seems,
for the step which
Rush
bad
to
took, from relatively
far easier one
the leap from
to take than
a
good, was
which
atrocities to good treatment
the European reformers
In Paris, for examwere
ple,
obligedto compass.
Pinel was
ties
obliged to ask permission of the authorithe attempt at liberating
to make
the insane
even
from
their chains, and
notwithstandinghis recognized
positionas a leader of science,he gained but grudging
assent, and was
regarded as being himself little better
lunatic for making so manifestly unwise
and
than
a
hopelessan attempt. Once the attempt had been made,
however,

Partly for

and

carried

wrought

to

in the

patent that the fame

successful

condition

of Pinel's

the

Salpetrierewent abroad
many
years to complete it
effort

on

to extend

the

part

the reform

turning-pointhad
the

of

closingyears

Pinel's
to

been
of the

the

of

the

work

apace.
in

issue,the
at

It

insane

ration
ameliowas

the Bicetre

so

and

indeed,
required,

Paris,and

lifetime

of

pupil Esquiroland others

provinces; but the epochal

reached

with

Pinel's

eighteenth century.
396

labors

of

THE

STORY

NINETEENTH

OF

liever in the

validityof

The

itself,taken

system

faulty,yet
later

as

the
as

The

paper

which

Pinel

and

French

the

to

1808.

itself

had

condemned

least

at

It

failed to realize.
brain

is the

of

man

no

of

organ

whom

it

of

to

author

which

paper

Science

committee

The

merit

band

in
of

verdict of
the

which

tem
sys-

its detractors

of scientific
porters,
sup-

Dr.

Kaspar Spurzheim, a
became
the propagandist

was

who
abilities,

mean

the

justlyso; yet

one

truth,

popularizedthe conception
of mind.
Moreover, by

its insistence it rallied about

chief

by

members.

adverse, and

was

of

firmly its

referred

were

originated.
hopelessly

germ

Academy

was

Cuvier

this committee

the

How

in it is evidenced

believed

contributed

that

its latent

show.

to

were

SCIENCE

system he had
a
whole, was

without

not

was

studies

himself
he

it

-CENTURY

Of course
England and in America.
and
popularitystimulated oppositionas
well,and out of the disputationsthus arisingthere grew
presentlya general interest in the brain as the organ of
of

phrenology
such
advocacy

in

mind, quite aside

to the

who

appeared

now

Louis

Antoine

brilliant }'oung

Desmoulins,

the famous

with

classical work

Spurzheim.
unprejudiced class

the

was

tutorage of
him

in 1825.

studied

who

Magendie, and
the

on

Desmoulins

of

of

as

and

the

among

preconceptionswhatever

any

of Gall

doctrines

Prominent

from

epochal importance.
persons dying in old age

He

Frenchman,

first under

system of

at least

observed

were

workers

the

publishedjointly

nervous

made

of

one

tebrates
ver-

ery
discov-

that the brains

lighterthan

the

age,
aver-

of atrophy, and
he reasoned
gave visible evidence
that such decay is a normal
accompaniment of

and

senility. No
of

this

one

nowadays

observation, but
400

would

the

question
scientific

the

world

racy
accuwas

PROGRESS

IN

PSYCHOLOGY

EXPERIMENTAL

nounced
anquiteready for it in 1825 ; for when Desmoulins
his discovery to the French
Academy, that
moved
to
patriarchalbody was
august and somewhat
the young
clast
iconoquite unscientific wrath, and forbade
it
which
the privilegeof further
hearings. From
is evident that the partiallyliberated spiritof the new
freed itself altogether,
at
psychology had by no means

not

the

close

of the

first

metaphysicalcobwebs

quarter of
of its

century,

our

from

the

long incarceration.

ii

While
the

studies

of the

nervous

between
was

brain

system, which
the

brain

being interrogatedwith

thus

were

even

The

being inaugurated,

is the channel

and
more

the

outside

of

munication
com-

world,

tangibleresults.

in 1811
made
by Dr.
inaugural discovery was
(afterwards Sir Charles)Bell, the famous
geon
English surand
experimental physiologist. It consisted of
the observation
that
the anterior
of the spinal
roots
the function
of conveying
to
nerves
are
given over
motor
the
impulses from the brain outward, whereas
posteriorroots convey solely sensory impulses to the
brain
from
it had
without.
Hitherto
been
supposed
that all nerves
have a similar function,and the peculiar
distribution of the spinal nerves
had been
unsolved
an
puzzle.
Bell's discoverywas
epochal; but its full significance
its
not
was
appreciated for a decade, nor, indeed, was
In Paris, in particular,
then
at first admitted.
validity
the court
leged
of final appeal in all matters
the alscientific,
discovery was looked at askance, or quiteignored.
But in 1823 the subjectwas
taken up by the recognized
2c

401..

OF

STORY

THE

leader

of

the

course

the

nervous

to the

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

French

SCIENCE

in
physiology Fran"ois Magendie
of his comprehensiveexperimental studies of
were
ed
subjectsystem, and Bell's conclusions
gether
most
rigidexperimental tests, and found alto"

"

valid.

Bell

meanwhile, had
attention

cranial

had

proved

that these also

are

into two

sensor}7 and

the
are

sets

"

divisible

Sometimes, indeed,

motor.

two

of

sets

filaments

into

combined

one

origin,these
arise from

Thus

By permission of

G.

it

hitherto

duality
CHARLES

found

different

centres.

that

are

of

nerve

to their

cord, but,if traced

SIR

his

turned

the

to

and

nerves,

himself,

was

to

brain
clear

nized
unrecogfunction

BELL

Bell

and

Sons,

pertainsto

London

cranial
from

the entire

extra-

system.

nervous

the

peripheryto the brain must

be conveyed along a perfectly definite channel; the
from
the
to the peripheral
out
brain, sent
response
muscles,must traverse an equallydefinite and altogether
different course.
If either channel
is interrupted as by
the section of its particularnerve
the correspondtract
ing
is denied
transmission
as
as
an
effectually
message
electric current
is stopped by the section of the transmitting
Any impulse

sent

"

"

wire.
vations
Experimenters ever}7 where soon confirmed the obserof Bell and
Magendie ; and, as always happens
after a great discovery,a fresh impulse was
given to in402

IN

PROGRESS
in
vestigations
elapsedbefore

of

EXPERIMENTAL

allied fields.

Nevertheless,a

full decade

another

discoveryof comparable importance

Then
made.
was
MarshaU'Hall, the most famous
his classical observation
English physiciansof his day, made
the phenomena that henceforth
on
to be
were

known

reflex

as

In

action.

FRANCOIS

one

PSYCHOLOGY

day

with

headless

longer be

certain

would

limbs
stimuli.

experimenting

MAGENDIE

decapitatednewt,

creature's
to

1832, while

Such

he

observed

contract
a

in

response

that
direct

could

the
sponse
reno

supplyinga part
Hence
it was
severed.
clear that responsivecentres
were
exist in the spinalcord capableof receivinga sensory
and
of transmitting a motor
impulse in
message,
reply a function hitherto supposed to be reserved for
secured

if the

spinalnerves

"

403

STORY

THE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

studies went

Further

the brain.

range

short, they

the

on

are
itself,

brain

in the

and

to show

part of
of consciousness,both

of reflex action
the

have

the

common

always stand as one of the great

of neurologicalscience.
advance

natural

was

the

to

that

; and

all the

and

the leader

in

of

no
microscopicalresearch, was
and
Schwann.
Through his efforts,

aid

of

such

characteristics
to be

of

nerve

known

fibre

that
thread

perfected

study of
other

many

other

than

with

own.

the

the

lines

Theodor
invaluable

Purkinje,Henle,
mystery as to the general

as

the rest, all the

Miiller,and

came

workers

other

so

the

the

as

in themselves

fields for its

upon

here, as

and

science,it

tracts

in that

entered

soon

of the

stimulated

nerve

claiming all

just now

was

in the

discovery

of

become

these

every

currents

nerve

natural

more

troop of observers

nerves;

of

of

mile-stones

knowledge

should

interest

character

exact

microscope

stock

becoming

tracts

nerve

to

as

that,in

share

Hall's

Hence,

considerations

activities

must

these

phenomena
side
lying outspinalcord

in the

important

most

total of vital movements.

All

that such

centres

extremely

constantlyinto

enter

livingorganism, and
sum

SCIENCE

Remak,

tracts

was

cleared

in its essentials

nerve

It

away.

is

tract

of

tween
protoplasm,stretchingbeterminal points in the organism
of such
two
one
termini
being usuallya cell of the brai'n or spinalcord ;
the other,a distribution point at or near
the periphery
for example, in a muscle or in the skin.
Such a fibril may
have about it a protective
as the
covering,which is known
a

tenuous

or

"

"

sheath
nerve

of Schwann
tract

; and

the
case

of the

; but

in many

sheath

nerves

is

the fibril itself is the essential

covered,
presentlydisdispensed with, particularlyin
cases,

as

of the so-called
404

Remak

sympatheticsystem.

IN

PROGRESS

EXPERIMENTAL

PSYCHOLOGY

sympathetic system of ganglia and nerves, byIts

the-bye,had long been a puzzleto the physiologists.
This

ganglia,the seeming
size,and

in

of

centres

never

the

these

from

and

everywhere
particularare gathered

long

matter

mere

about

chief function

one

thus

much

bands

of

early as

the

at

of

lightwas

time

not

of

made

confirmed

Waller, Budge,

and

for

surd
ab-

ure
conjectleast

at
to

cause

system,

given part.

any

the

Ten

existence

of

hitherto
arterioles,

several
fibres

was

tentative

had

tions
explana-

been

made, ticularly
par"Weber, by Stilling,
who, as

ventured

thrown

were

after

these

to

by Schiff,who

the

where,
every-

arterioles of the

fibres in the

brothers

the

sole

the great Frenchman

demonstrated

question,and

1840, had
and

nerves,

soon

of

had

the action

by

them

substituted

1851, when

of muscle

mooted

to

conclusivelyproved that
the sympathetic fibrils is

walls

earlier Henle

annular

ity,
cav-

brils
organisms. Fijoin the cranial

accompany

regulatingthe blood-supplyof

years

track

not

was

year

of

of the

contraction

the

Bernard

Claude

body

represents the

seen

to

the

specialfunction
they subserved
of conjecture,
and led to many

speculations.Fact
until

were

and
fibrils,

what

within

non-vertebrated

ganglia

spinalnerve
but

the

of

system

found

large,are

very

through the organism, but in

chain which
lies
into a long double
the spinal column, and
outside
nervous

nute
system, usuallymi-

was

Bernard's

speak
hard

of "vaso-motor"

upon

discovery.

the
But

same

clear

periments
subjectuntil Bernard's exThe
1851.
experiments were
extended
by Brown-Sequard,

the

on

in
and

others, and

numerous

how
felt that they understood
phj'siologists
supply of any given part is regulated by

system.
405

henceforth
the

the

bloodnervous

THE

STORY

In

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

however, they
reality,

story, as Bernard

himself

are

certain

that organ

cause

the heart

heart

and

the
later

years

there

which, if

lated,
stimu-

beating.

than

an

As

tion
aggrega-

utterlypuzzling
precedent in the experience of physiologists
nerve
impulse travellingalong a motor

without

been

half

that

cease

is

An

had

the

relax

to

few

he discovered

1858

essentially
nothing more
muscles, this phenomenon

of

and

in

only

quite unsuspected chapter.

supplying

nerves

learned

proved only

and

by opening up a new
While
experimenting

had

SCIENCE

supposed
and

do

to

able

be

to

to

was

cause

nothing else; yet

muscular

here

such

traction
conan

pulse
im-

exactly the oppositeeffect. The only tenable

to be that this particularimpulse
explanation seemed
had

arrest

must

inhibit

or

of such

action

the heart

ordinarilycause
idea

the

inhibition
and

utterly novel,

at

muscles

of

of

the

impulses that

impulse by

one

But

to contract.

another

the
was

difficult to

first

comprehend.
rent
place in the cur-

Gradually,however, the idea took its

physiology,and in time it came
knowledge of nerve
that what
to be understood
happens in the case of the
is only a particularcase
under a very
heart nerve-supply
action.
ing
Growgeneral,indeed universal,form of nervous
initial discovery came
the final unout of Bernard's
derstanding
entire

nervous

subordinate

and

that
of

action

centres

of

annulled

the

the

one

in effect

of which

by

the

may

action

system
centres

be

is

ism
mechan-

superior,the

counteracted

of the other.

This

and
plies
ap-

beats
physical processes as heartand
and arterial contraction
relaxing,but to the
intricate functioningswhich have their counterpart
most
of
Thus
the observation
in psychicalprocesses as well.
the inhibition of the heart's action by a nervous
impulse
not

merely

to

such

406

STORY

THE

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

SCIENCE

According to his experiments,first performed

the frog,the nervous
travels less than
current
hundred
feet per second.
Other experiments performed
afterward
soon
by Helmholtz
himself,and by

bearer.

upon
one

EMIL

various

mond,

modified

not

Thus

be

far

something

BOIS

rate, from

HAYMOND

whom

among

somewhat

early results.
any

DU

followers,chief
but did

at

"

"

the

change
the

the

was

Du

tained,
figuresat first obgeneral bearings of the

exact

different,as

impulse was
regards speed

the

current

nervous

electric
408

Bois-Re}T-

to

shown
of

which

to

transit,
it had

IN

PROGRESS

been

so

likened.

often

PSYCHOLOGY

EXPERIMENTAL

An

electric

would

current

half-way round the globe while a nervous

travel the length of the human
body
"

flash

impulse could
man's

foot

hitherto

had

from

his brain.

to

The

tendency

bridge

to

the

that

gulf

separated the physicalfrom the psychical world was

in the followingdecade
further evidenced
by Helmholtz's
remarkable
but highly technical study of the sensations
and

of sound
causes,

of color

in the

of which

course

vision

of color

which

Thomas
physicist,

The

before.

that

Young,

had

with

he

other

tendency

same

the appearance,
Medizinische

in connection

revived

physical

the

doctrine

and
great physiologist
advanced

was

half

further

1852, of Dr. Hermann

in

their

century

evidenced

by

Lotze's famous

Psychologic,oder Physiologicder Seele,

vital force."
with its challenge of the old myth of a
definitive expressionof the new
But the most
movement
Fechner
Gustav
in 1860, when
was
published
signalized
called Psychophysik. That
title introduced
his classical work
word
into the vocabulary of science.
a
new
Fechner
explained it by saying, "I mean
by psychospirit
physics an exact theory of the relation between
between
the physical
and bod}% and, in a general way,
and the psychic worlds."
The title became
famous, and
"

the

brunt

phrase
book

"

which

christened

controversy.

Fechner

introduced

So

also did another

in the

course

of

his

ing
psychology." In makphrase physiological
virtually
happy collocation of words Fechner

the

that

The

of many

"

chief

new

science.

purport

of this classical book

was
psycho-physiologist
of experiments based on
twenty years earlier by

the
a

elaboration

method

and

introduced

his countryman
409

of the German

E. II.

explication
more

than

Weber, but

THE

STORY

which

hitherto

had

The

method

consisted

and

of the measurement

ingdegreesof

stimuli of vary

it deserved.

the attention

failed to attract

the definite relation

analysisof

SCIENCE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

nal
exterexistingbetween
(varioussounds,
intensity

Weber's
example) and the mental states they induce.
experiments grew out of the familiar observation that the
nicety of our discriminations of various sounds, weights,
visual images depends upon
the magnitude of each
or
of a sensation in its relation with other
particularcause
for

the
see
example, we cannot
then
stars in the daytime, though they shine as brightly
seldom
notice the tickingof a
at night. Again, we
as
almost painbecome
clock in the daytime, though it may
fully
audible in the silence of the night. Yet again,the
difference
between
ounce
an
weight and a two -ounce
weight is clearlyenough appreciablewhen we lift the
similar

two, but

in the

discriminate

cannot

one

five-pound weight and

a
over

for

Thus,

causes.

pounds.
last example,and
clew

the

similar

to his novel

Weber

tion

upoti every- day experiences made

that whenever

consider

we

auditorysensations,or
of

keenness

varies,as

Weber

our

determined

to

be

method

to

is

ounce

be

weight, in

that

him
two
parison
com-

limit to the

this

degree

of

weights just cited,

common

of
410

as

periences
ex-

pale of a general
periments
making long series of ex-

within
of

these

the

determination, in each

spoken

to

sensations,or

always

whether

see

consisted
the

TCeflec-

excitingcause.

brought
at

it clear

of

of the

case

of the

aimed
came

in the

magnitude
could

His

sensations

two

discrimination,and

keenness

the

experiments.

visual

two

another, there

with

one

what

one

tween
be-

for the other senses,

ones

gave

law.

of

weight

way

five

This

with

same

case, of

the least observable

dif-

EXPERIMENTAL

IN

PROGRESS
ference

between

weight

in each

the stimuli.

Thus

has

hand, and

difference

grain,he

; but

does

does

how

now

this

least

have

the

have

effect,we

holds

an

first

at

ounce

addition

been

of

which

weight
when

appreciable difference

added

to

one

perceivea
certain

of the difference.

aware

grains

many

not

the

on
presently,

become

if one

tiny weights added

them, grain by grain,one

of

PSYCHOLOGY

Noting
produce

to

represents the

the

standard

is

one

ounce.

experiment,but let the weights be

shall be
each of five pounds. Clearly in this case
we
ence
obliged to add not grains,but drachms, before a differthe two
between
heavy weights is perceived. But
Now

repeat

whatever

the

the

the stimulus
of difference

added,

amount

exact

that

amount

sents
repre-

sensation
producing a just perceivable

the standard

when

is five

And

pounds.

so

weights of varyingmagnitudes.
curious discovery. Not only did he
Now
Weber's
came
find that in repeated experiments with the same
pair of
of "just perceivable
difference" remained
weightsthe measure

on

for indefinite series of

approximately fixed,but
a

remarkable

different

fixed

in the
an

detected,he

found

weights,that

the

to

one-fiftieth

producing the
weights ; the amount

of five

added

relation

to

found

that

the

case

to

the

same

411

of

pounds

result.

same

used, be that magnitude great

Weber

before

one

appreciabledifference"

mathematical

the stimuli

And

it

add

one-

difference

was

the
must
so

produce the
always bore
magnitude of
or

of

found

weights,to

ounce

also,in the

before

"least

exists between

of the

case

ounce

found, further,that

If,for example, he had

magnitude.

necessary,
fiftieth of

relation

he

five-pound
be

added

of all other
stimulus
the

the

of

same

weight

small.

thing holds good

for the

STORY

THE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

of

stimuli of the sensations

stimulus

magnitude of
had sought.
results

Weber's

enough, yet they

of

attention

sightand

of

hearing,the

bearing always a fixed ratio to

the stimuli.
Here, then, was the

total
he

SCIENCE

definite

were

failed to attract

any

until

revived

they

and

enough,

were

the
law

striking

considerable
and

ferential
dif-

ure
meas-

extended

by Fechner, and brought before the world in the famous

work on psycho-physics. Then
table
veria
they precipitated
melee.

Fechner

(with certain

results

had

limitations
had

but
consideration),

to mathematical

honor

and,
of the

assured, for

be

of the
of the
of the

it

was

fine

widely

Law.
mulae,
for-

heads

the

commotion,
bulletin

heralded

to

of mind"
fact had

Hardly

the methods
intimate

the

invade

the

press,

steps

of the

which

being

were

physicistin yet

processes of the mind.

412

ritory
ter-

tangible objective
barred.

Fechner's

While

made.

ment
move-

sounded, however, before

been

was

uncertain

of the sacred

be forever

supposed to

of

the iconoclastic

heart

very

territoryfrom

the alarm

movement
from

proof that

was

been

had

skirmishes

border

mere

"

meant

fresh

it Weber's

psychology in its march upon the strongholds

time-honored
metaphysics. The accomplishments
had been
and the nerve
physiologists
microscopists

preliminary
import. But here

new

tion
ques-

new

but

the first

of

mathematical

in

It made

world.
psychological

ent
pres-

whole

it full tilt at

say, launched

to

so

to the

pronounced Weber's
psycho -physics. In

of

and

earlier

methods

the

christened

in words

the law

clothed

He

He

law

the

new

reduced

treatment.

discoverer,he

the

of

invented

fundamental

discovery the

verified

essential

not

had

tests, and

similar

making

alone

not

As

taken

another

Helmholtz

book
to

way
had

was

extend
to

the

shown

the
be

rate

of

nervous

measurable,

time

EXPERIMENTAL

IN

PROGRESS

it

requiredfor

was

impulsion along
no\v
sought to

the

central

of receiving

its work

This

of

The

mind.

Bonders,

in

after

was

Irost of observers.
has

stood

attempt

in the

years
The

message

and

to

to

the

also

to perform

sending

out

very threshold

the

first made

definitive

of

were

on

these,and

of the
413

by

results

experiment

chief

forefront

measure

mechanism

down

was

of

tract

nerve

FECHNKU

coming

1861, but
many

the

nervous

THBODOR

GUSTAV

response.

PSYCHOLOGY

new

the
the

Professor

only

tained
ob-

part of
man

movement,

who

and

STORY

THE

has been
of the

OF

NINETEENTH

its

task

not

was

learned

was

time.

Thus

it

found

of their

rate

the

long

it shown

was

time

that

central

it

run,

that

the

was

nerve

for its

operations,but
that
modify this

conditions

to

as

was

but, in

easy,

accomplished. Not alone

centre
requiresa measurable

the

SCIENCE

recognizedleader throughout the remainder

Wundt, of Leipzig.
century, is Dr. Wilhelm

The

much

CENTURY

different persons

which

activity

nervous

vary

"

in
plained
ex-

"personal equation" that the astronomer

Bessel had noted
a
half-centurybefore. It was
found,
too, that the rate of activityvaries also for the same
under
different
conditions, becoming retarded,
person
the

for

influence

example, under
of

certain diseases

the

fact emerges,

that the
volition

as

the central
all other

physical processes,

that

old

school

more

for the

body

as

of

human

thus

was

have

than

head

the

these

the

sential
es-

such

"

a
was

activities

of

like
activities,

time

for

demonstrated

whatever

But

aside,the

of

sensation,apperception,

"

who
psychologists,

the mind

case

experimental demonstration,

an

and that
tissues,

nervous

only in

details

irrevocablywith

linked

are

in

fatigue,or

All

brain.

intellectual processes
"

of

element.

To

scarcely cared

the

heels

"

being

terested
in-

linkingof mind and

naturallydisquieting.

inferences,there

was

no

ing
escap-

the facts.

Of
to

this

course

Germany.
Thus

new

movement

Indeed,

it had

in

England,

has

long
a

full

not

been

confined

where.
exponents elsecentury earlier,Dr.
had

dissolub
Hartley had championed the theory of the close and inthe
brain, and
dependence of mind
upon
vibration theory of association that
formulated
a famous

still merits
at the

careful

consideration.

beginning of

Then, too, in France,

the century, there

414

was

Dr.

Cabanis

THE

STORY

Breslau,and
of the

and

method

apparent.
in the
of

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

Most
main

host of other

experimenters. The

in the

of

of

study

Braid's

his results

hypnotism,or

JEAN

self-induced

SCIENCE

mental

states

experiments

were

confirmed.

were

artificial

value
soon

was

repeated,
His explanation

somnambulism,

as

CIIARCOT

MARTIN

state, independent of any

occult

or

sensible
super-

gained general credence.

due
to fatigueof
initial stages are

influence,soon
belief

that

the

centres, usuallyfrom
been

excessive

stimulation,has

though supplemented by
supplanted,
416
.

notions

His
vous
ner-

not

grow-

IN

PROGRESS

of

ing out

in
centre

the

EXPERIMENTAL

PSYCHOLOGY

knowledge as to subconscious
general,and the inhibitoryinfluence
new

in the central

another

over

tality
men-

of

one

mechanism.

nervous

rv

of

studies

the

psychologistsand pathologists
bring the relations of mind and body into sharp relief.
definite in this regard was
But even
the work
of
more
Chief of these,during the midthe brain physiologists.
dle
the
who
is someman
times
period of the century, was
father of brain
spoken of as the
physiology,"
These

"

Marie

Flourens, of

Pierre

Jean

Jardin

pupil and worthy successor

physiology were
experiments in nerve

Paris,the

of

His

first

quarter of the century, but

1842.

aimed,

afresh,and

out

in

of this troublesome
In the

of these

course

connects

that

without

and

criminal

forced

size which

causing

upon.
is reached

So

the

It may

by

that
is

studies

of

the

of

Flourens

were

of

be added

that

of the
centre

same

process

named

importance,as

the

of

this
is

now

417

the

it is this

which

brain

spinalcord, there
be injured in
cannot
death

that

discovered

tne

is

tre
cen-

the

animal

least

ated
oper-

spot which

cutions,
garroter in Spanish exe-

also is destroyed when

"successfully" hanged,

intrusion

about

phrenology had

Flourens

instant

the needle

Flourens
extreme

with

organ

of minute

until

topic.

the part
olblongata,

in the medulla

of

gation
scientific investileast,at the strictly

at

part

his

studies

Plantes

Magendie.
begun in the
local experiments

disputeover

the

des

culminated

not

were

the old

this time

At

broken

itself

brain

the

upon

the

of the

this

second

time

by

cervical

the
tebra.
ver-

Its
spot the "vital knot."
understood, is due to the

STORY

THE

it is the

that

fact

; but

heart

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

of

nerves

"

the cerebellum

is the

Flourens
of the

seat

and
activities,

muscular

that

supply the
this simple explanation,
ception
annulling the connot
at once
a specific life centre," was
parent.
apcentre

experiments of

Other

of

SCIENCE

seemed

show

that

that co-ordinate

centres

that the

to

higher intellectual

ulties
fac-

But beyond this,

relegatedto the cerebrum.
as
experiment faltered. Negative
regards localization,
obtained
from
were
results,as regards specific
faculties,
are

all localized

irritations of

forced

was

conclude

to

being undoubtedly

the

that

cerebrum,
the

of

seat

with

its functions

the

and

cerebral

Flourens

lobe, while

higher intellection,
forms
per-

its entire structure.

This

clusion,
con-

which

incidentally
gave a quietusto phrenology,
the stock doctrine
accepted generally,and became
cerebral
for a generation.
physiolog}r

was

of

It will be seen,

had

double

cerebral

the

that

bearing. They

functions,but

of certain

brain.

however,

nervous

these studies of Flourens

denied

localization

demonstrated

they

processes

in other

the

of

tion
localiza-

portionsof

the

for
whole, then, they spoke positively
principleof localization of function in the brain,for

which
their

On

the

certain

There

felt that this

of

students

against cerebral

evidence

negative.

number

was

here

and

localization

there

negativetestimony was

; while

contended

an

not

was

observer
conclusive.

only
who
In

had
anatomist
the German
Meynert, who
particular,
of nerve
in the cerebrum,
studied the disposition
tracts
led to believe that the anterior portionsof the cerebrum
was
have motor
functions in preponderance; the
must
lar
simiSomewhat
posteriorportions,sensory functions.
also by Dr. Hughlingsconclusions
reached
were
418

EXPERIMENTAL

INT

PROGRESS

PSYCHOLOGY

England, from his studies of epilepsy. But

no
positiveevidence was forth-coming until 1861, when
cine
Broca
Dr. Paul
brought before the Academy of Medihe regarded as
of brain lesion which
in Paris a case
bral
having most important bearingson the questionof cerein

Jackson,

localization.
The

twenty

that of

was

case

been

had

years

loss of

seemingly through

patientdied, and

this

totallydestroyed by disease,the
brain
being intact. Broca felt that
pointed strongly to a localization of
in

definite

transpiredthat the
long ago as 1825

of

area

case

Dr.

locate

articulation

of words

in the

there

observers

had

other

direction.

Boillard

had

to

in

through

numerous

others

having a strange
frontal

has

lobe
That

the

it

was

the

its seat

of

the

over

that

led, through
for the
here

in the

the

and
same

matter

ready

to

up
listen

that
to

rose

veritable

lowed
fol-

fever-

centre

of articulate

the memory

of

the

sphere.
cerebrum, usuallyin the left hemi-

part of the brain has

the
a

precedent. As

third convolution

in the

of

Broca, Boillard,and

of

proved

his

memorj'

half -decade
interest

efforts

domination

not

was

of

Moreover, it

tentatives

announcements,

heat,and

the

been

followed

world

words

had

made

with

Broca's

had

observation

a centre
definitely
frontal lobe,and

even

but the
pertinacity,
him.
Now, however,

this

without

Boillard

studies,to
pathological

certain

remainder

brain.

the

not

was

1861

lobe of his cerebrum

been

words

that

for

speech,

In

of words.

autopsy revealed

an

of

the power

memory

left frontal

of the

convolution

Bicetre,who

the

patientat
deprived of
a

since

been

known

to

of Broca,
world as the convolution
English-speaking
which, strangely enough, the discoverer's compatriots
name
have

been

slow

to

accept.
419

,'

THE

STORY

This

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

discovery

subjectof

that

the inference

there

It

the

clew

entire

short step

definite

observers

various

In 1867

them.

but

was

be other

must

seeking, and

the

worth

naturallyreopened

very

localization.

brain

SCIENCE

to

centres

about

set

gained by Eckhard, who, repeatinga forgotten experiment of Haller

and Zinn
of the previous century, removed
portions of

searching for

the

brain

But

convulsions.

the

definite
These

most

of muscles

small

of

repeated and

in

and

extended

not

mals
ani-

contraction

of

first

at

body.

at first with

by Dr.
by a

afterwards

everywhere,

and

Pitres

in

inent
prom-

France,

Horsley and Schafer

detailed
results, naturally enough,
all in harmony.
Some
observers, as

in

The

workers

of the

in 1873

soon

Franck

were

Goltz

England.

were

independent

whom

among
Munck

of

of the

Ferrier,of London, and

army

producing

the cortex

oppositeside
important experiments,received

were
incredulity,

David

of

areas

galvanic current, produced

sets

result of

made
reallyvital departure was
Fritsch and Hitzig,
investigators

by the German
definite
who, by stimulating.

in 1870

with

was

animals, with the

of

cortex

Germany,

and

validityof the conclusions in toto.

of exBut a consensus
of opinion,based on
multitudes
periments,
soon
placed the broad generalfacts for which
Fritsch and Hitzig contended
beyond controversy. It
Goltz,even

denied

the

found, indeed, that

was

activities have
them

by

after

the

some

not

the

centres

at
quitethe finality

observers,since

destruction

cerebral

of

it may

centre, with

of

motor

first ascribed

to

happen that
attending loss of

often

gradual restoration of the lost

function,proving that other centres have acquired the
capacity to take the place of the one destroyed. There

function,there

are

may

limits to this

be

however,
capacityfor substitution,
420

and

PROGRESS

with

this

of motor

IN

EXPERIMENTAL

the
qualification
functions

acceptedpart of

is such

of the localization

cortex

has

become

an

physiology.

PAUL

Nor

definiteness

in the cerebral
brain

PSYCHOLOGY

localization

BROCA

confined

to

centres.

motor

and

of

Munck,

Later

Ferrier

in their

equallyrestricted
posteriorlobes of the

of
experiments,particularly
proved that the centres of vision

location, this time

in the
421

are

THE

STORY

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

brain,and that hearing has

Indeed, there is every reason

likewise

SCIENCE

its local habitation.

believe that each

to

form

of

ly
primary sensation is based on impressionswhich mainlocalized goal in the brain.
to a definitely
But
come
all this,be it understood,has no reference to the higher
All experiment has proved futile
forms of intellection.
to

localize these

of

corroborating the

upon
the

the

functions,except indeed

anterior

lobes

dependence
problematically,
upon

of the cerebrum

what
precisely
insightinto the nature

be

of mental

main

these

in particular.

expected,for
processes

But

the clearer

makes

it plain

"

alleged faculties are not in

localized.
themselves
Thus, for example, the
faculty"
of language is associated
irrevocablywith centres of
vision,of hearing,and of muscular
activity,to go no
tion
further,and only becomes
possiblethrough the associaof these widely separatedcentres.
The destruction
of Broca's centre, as was
gether
early discovered,does not altodeprivea patientof his knowledgeof language.
be totallyunable
to speak (though as
to this
He
may
and yet may
there are all degrees of variation),
hend
comprewhat is said to. him, and be able to read,think,and
write correctly. Thus it appears that Broca's centre
even
bound
late
is peculiarly
up with the capacityfor articuspeech,but is far enough from being the seat of the
facultyof language in its entirety.
of the supposed isolated
ulties"
facIn a similar way, most
ysis
clearer analof higher intellection appear, upon
as
complex aggregationsof primary sensations, and
and scattered
hence necessarily
dependent upon numerous
in

the

should

the extent

fact of their

brain, and, somewhat

this is

that

familiar

to

"

"

"

centres.

be said in

Some
a

sense

"

as
faculties,"
memory

to be

and

volition,
may

primordialendowments
433

of every

STORY

THE

The

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

of all these

ground

common

SCIENCE

various

vestigat
lines of in-

of

anatomist, physiologist,
pathologist,
icist,
physand
psychologist is, clearly,the central nervous
The importance
system the spinalcord and the brain.
"

of these

structures

has

been

the secrets

of their

For
of

recognized more
knowledge, and

of

accretion

new

the

available.
the inner

earlier

These
secrets

and

most

the

the

efforts
has

to

been

crude

tivities
ac-

each

fathom
ing.
unceas-

methods

and

something,but of course
keener insightof the mi-

for him

even

for
facile,

delicate

with

more

structure

reveal

And

difficult of

the most

and

mental

microscopicalinspectionwere

for

were

far from

was

and

nervous

students, only the

could

croscopistalone.
the

intimate

dissections

gross

are

the foci of

as

the task

the central

and
fragile,

manipulation of

on

any

of investigation
tissues

nervous

accounts

many
in the

body.

for this essay,

needed
Specialmethods, therefore,were
and
brain
histology has progressed by fitful impulses,
of some
genious
ineach forward
jet marking the introduction

improvement
placed a

new

of

mechanical

in the

weapon

hands

of

technique, which
the investigators.

made
in 1824
beginning was
by Rolando,
who
first thought of cuttingchemically hardened
pieces
of brain tissues into thin sections for microscopicalexamination
The

very

"

the

the

basal

later advances

structure

have

been

upon

which

conducted.

almost
Miiller

all

ently
pres-

tion
potassium in solumakes
the best of fluids for the preliminary preservation
in 1842,
and hardening of the tissues.
Stilling,
of cutting
by introducingthe custom
perfectedthe method

discovered

that

bichromate

series of consecutive

of

sections
424

of the

same

tissue,

IN

PROGRESS
in order

to trace

Then

details of

better

made

time

hardened

pieces of
with

PSYCHOLOGY

and

tracts

nerve

from

fresh

added

EXPERIMENTAL

time

to

of

tions.
spacialrela-

mechanical

improvement.

tissue

It

ingenuity
found

was

that

be
delicacycan
manipulation by being impregnated

subject to
collodion

establish

extreme

and
celloidine,

or

embedded

in par-

Latterlyit has become usual to cut sections also

fresh tissues,
unchanged by chemicals,by freezing
suddenly with vaporized ether, or, better,carbonic

affine.
from
them
acid.

these

By

microtomes, the worker

of brain

sections

of

and

methods,

with

of recent

tissues

of

the

of

aid

perfected

periodsavails

which

tenuousness

himself
the

could not approach.

earlyinvestigators
than the cuttingof thin
But more
important even
is the process of making the different parts of

visible,one

section

tissue

thin section, as

The

early workers

the

colorless,and
practically
structure

made

were

as
cellular,

advance
was

The
of

from

process

itself

was

nothing
with

wonderful,
the

through
taken
were

on

nerve

when

beautiful

embedded

tissue is
the

in

this

sudden

no

same

great

impulse

introduced

treatment

of carmine.

of

But

microscopical
the

result

was

placed under
longerappeared homogeneous. Sprinkled

for

its substance
a

the brain

by Gerlach.
essentially
simple,consisting

process

the

of its

Remak
difficult}^.

that

when

it,was

details

Ehrenberg

1858,

most

solution

lens,it no

new

than

more

examined

but beyond
fibrillar,

until

made

was

received

section

1833, and

early as

the

another.

from

crudest

extreme

discover

to

that it is also

saw

year

the

even

with

out

did, indeed, manage

differentiated

tions
sec-

such

were

section

seen

color,while

remained

cell had

sprung

irregularbodies

suddenly

In

that had

in which

the matrix

unstained.

425

was

word, the

into clear view.

they
tral
cen-

STORY

THE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

it

interestingbody

most

it

came

exceedinglyminute
microscopeto make

in

ganglion cell,as

SCIENCE

proved,this

be called.

to

It

cell,or

nerve

was

to be

seen

size,requiringhigh powers

it visible.

of the

It exists in almost

numbers, not, however, scattered

at random

nite
infi-

through

the brain and

those

to

the

naked

wanting
mass

spinalcord. On the contrary, it is confined

which
to
masses
portionsof the central nervous

of

eye

appear

in

gray

in the white

substance

the

Even

brain.

color,being altogether

which

in the

makes

up the chief

matter, though

gray

sometimes

thicklydistributed,the ganglion cells are

in actual contact
with another; they always
never
one
in intercellular tissues,
which
lie embedded
to be
came
known, followingVirchow, as the neuroglia.
Each
to
be irregular
in contour,
ganglioncell was seen
and to have
nute
juttingout from it two sets of mishort, indefinitely
fibres,one set relatively
ous,
numerand branching in every direction ; the other set
and
limited in number, sometimes
even
single,
starting
the cell as if bent on a longerjourney.
out directlyfrom
The

filaments

numerous

to

came

be

known

the other
fibre was
processes;
discoverer,the axis cylinderof Deiters.

inference,though

that these filamentous

links between
channels

It

was

processes
the different nerve

of communication

between

are

in

the

cells,and

nerve

plasmic
proto-

after

named,

clearlydemonstrable

not

as

its

natural
the

tions,
sec-

ing
connect-

also the

cells and

the

peripheryof the body. The white substance of brain

and cord, apparently, is made
up of such connecting
fibres,thus bringingthe different ganglion cells everywhere
into communication

In the

attempt

through this

white

to

trace

with

one

the

substance
436

another.

tracts
connecting nerve
or
by either macroscopical

IN

PROGRESS

EXPERIMENTAL

PSYCHOLOGY

methods, most
important aid is given by
microscopical
Earlier than
originatedby Waller in 1852.
a method
had

that, in 1839, Nasse

degenerates in

cord

that
cell

nerve

its

every

to

fibre,sensory
which

that

it

with

that

nutrition,so

that

severed

peripheralportions.

nerve

from

or

its connection

its

discovered

can

it

only

or

"Waller discovered

motor, has

leads,which
retain

its

cell is intact.

nerve

dominates

vitalitywhile
Such

cells he

cells of the anterior

Certain
trophic centres.
part of the spinal cord, for example, are the trophic
Other
of the spinal motor
centres
nerves.
tres,
trophic centracts in the spinalcord itself,
are
governing nerve
in the various
to
regions of the brain. It occurred
that by destroying such centres, or by severing
Waller
at various regions between
the connection
a
nervous
tract and its trophiccentre, sharply defined tracts could
their location could subsequently
be made
to degenerate,and
be accurately defined,as the degenerated tissues
take on
a
changed aspect, both to macroscopical
and
microscopical observation.
Recognition of this
the experimentera new
thus gave
of
principle
weapon
in tracing nervous
connections.
over,
Moregreat efficiency
the same
principlehas wide applicationin case of
the human
subjectin disease,such as the lesion of nerve
of centres
tracts or the destruction
by localized tumors,
by embolisms, or by traumatisms.

named

All

these

combine

to

various

make

methods
the

of anatomical

conclusion

almost

examination
unavoidable

tres
ganglion cells are the veritable "cenof nervous
activityto which so many other lines
research
have pointed. The conclusion was
ened
strengthtion,
localizaby experiments of the students of motor

that the

central

"

of

which

showed

that

the
427

veritable

centres

of their

THE

STORY

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

discovery lie,deraonstrably,in
in the

brain,not
from

pathology.
it

of

white

the

shown

was

the

the

hands

the full

of

of

cortex

gray

But

matter.

At

SCIENCE

proof came

multitude

of

that in certain well-known

spinal cord, with

that

found

are

sufferers

be

to

is the

destroyed.

chronic

from

servers
ob-

diseases

it
resulting paralysis,

ganglion cells themselves

of
Similarly,in the case

the

ties,
insani-

ganglion cells of the

found
of the brain are
to have
cortex
undergone degeneration.
The
brains of paretics
in particular
such
show
in strikingcorrespondence with their mental
degeneration,
decadence.
The
positionof the ganglion cell as the
yond
of nervous
ultimate centre
activities was
thus placedbewith

marked

dementia,

the

dispute.
Meantime, general acceptance being given
logicalscheme of Gerlach, accordingto which
of

the

white

intercellular
the

in

way

substance

of

brain

the

is

the

ganglionic

who

higher mental processes.

beautifullywith the ideas

activities

had

Such
of

dominant

become

the

the

mass

of

attainable

and, through association,built up,

into the

histo-

mesh-work

a proximal idea seemed

fibrils,

which

the

are

to

so

of

lated,
corre-

speak,

corded
conception ac-

association

ists,

in

psychology. But
one
standing puzzleattended this otherwise satisfactory
observations
correlation of anatomical
and psychic analyses.
It

with

be

take

this:

the

histologist,
intercellular fibres,along which
veyed,
impulses are conbrain cell,directly or
each
connect
indirectly,

the

how

now

was

every
is it

shut

other

Since, according

brain

possiblethat
off from

place,for

quiteas

various

one

all normal
much

cell in

upon

an

to

endless

mesh-work,

sets of cells may

another?

Such

at times

isolation

ideation

for its

the

of

428

depends
shuttingout

the

must

rity
integgivnt

PROGRESS

EXPERIMENTAL

IN

associations

mass

of

other

associations.

mathematical

as

PSYCHOLOGY

the

upon

For

inclusion
student

example, a

of
in

certain

solvinga

for the
moment
problem must
the specialassociations
to
that

quite oblivious
do with
geography, natural history,and
does histologygive any clew to the way
be effected

isolation may

Attempts
of

the very

supply in the
twigs of

the

to

But

like.

in which

find

to

an

such

through

answer

peculiarcharacter

brain.

have

made

were

the

become

Here,

arteries

nowhere

as

arranged

are

of the

sideration
con-

blood-

else,the

minal
ter-

in closed

tems,
sys-

anastomosing freelywith neighboringsystems.

not

Clearly,then, a

restricted

of the brain

area

controllinginfluence of the
flushed with arterial blood, while
the

anaemic.
relatively

And

may,

vaso-motor

through
be

nerves,

neighboringparts
vital activities

since

main
re-

questionably
un-

depend in part upon the supply of arterial

anism
blood, this peculiararrangement of the vascular mechproperly be supposed to aid in the
very
may
localized activities of the central nervous
ganglia. But
in particular
this explanation left much
to be desired"
when
in
it is recalled that all higher intellection must
of widely scattered
all probability
involve
multitudes
centres.

No
until

better
the

cleared
this the

year

1889, when

of

sudden

the

mystery

was

by a fresh discovery. Not long before

covered
Italian histologist,
Dr. Camille
Golgi, had dissues
tisbrain
method
of impregnating hardened
a
a

solution

stainingthe
better

lach,or

forth-coming,however,

was

away

with

of

explanation

by

nerve

than

any

of nitrate

of

silver,with

the

result

finitely
their processes almost inof Gerpossibleby the method

cells and
was

of the

multiform
429

methods

that

other

STOKY

THE

workers

introduced.

had

possibleto
visible

rendered

Now

by

any

SCIENCE

for the first time

the cellular

trace

termini,for the

their

to

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

it became

ly
prolongationsdefinite-

finer fibrils had

previous method

of

been

not

treatment.

as
Golgi himself proved that the set of fibrils known
ties,
protoplasmicprolongations terminate by free extremi-

and
the

have

which

from

one

direct

no

connection

with
He

they spring.

cylindersgive off multitudes

hitherto
suspected. But here
real import of the discoveryof

the axis
not

the

the track.

on

Dr.

S. Ramon

means

of

an

staining,and

It remained

is

an

with

cell

he

paused, missing

which

he

hard

was

branches, though

in
prolongations,

entity.
a

In

cell,with

nerve

Instead

multitude

physicalconnection

direct

of lateral branches

times
some-

nate,
great distance,yet finallytermi-

free extremities.

central

isolated

to

other

the

having

that each

also that

the

for

all their collateral

extending
fibrils

save

Spanish histologist,
by
y Cajal,to follow up the investigation
of Golgi'smethod
of
improved application
that the axis cylinders,
to demonstrate
together

with

like

cell

any
showed

of

of other
with

word,

arborescent

it

shown

was

its fibrillar

offshoots,

nection
being in physical connerve

any

cells,it
other

has

nerve

no

cell

whatever.
his discovery,in 1889, his
Cajalannounced
the mass
revolutionary claims not unnaturally amazed
few of them, however,
There were
of histologists.
some
who
not
were
quite unprepared for the revelation ; in
His, who had half suspectedthe independence
particular
ciated
dissoof the cells,because they seemed
to develop from
based a similar suspicion
centres
; and Forel, who
able actuallyto
been
the fact that he had
never
on
Dr.

When

trace

fibre from

one

cell to another.
430

These

observers

T11E

STOUY

This

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

conception,founded

basis,enables
ideas

be

ical
tangibleanatom-

most

the

answer

isolated,and

are

question as to ho\v
Dr. Cajal points out,

also, as

other mental
One
lighton many
processes.
ble
imagine, for example, by keeping in mind the flexitrains of thought may
nerve
prolongations,how new
engendered through novel associations of cells ; how

throws
can

to

us

on

SCIENCE

new

facility of

thought

of

or

action

in certain

directions

is

*/

acquiredthrough

the

habitual

making

of certain

cell

how

certain

bits of

knowledge

connections;
our

escape

of

because

make
If

the

memory,
a

temporary

each
office,

of

wire, he
the

modus

that

connections

and

so

nerve

time,

cells to

on

ephone
processes and of the telconnections
at the
utilityof new

be

of

the

made,

the

perhaps even
jangle of sounds

all these

"

and

when

mechanism
"wires
the

message,

your

desire

you

the

for

may

nervous

cannot

wires,bringing you
what

to

found

indefinitely.
cell to a central
each
nerve
telephoneits filamentous
phone
prolongations to a telecan
imagine a strikinganalogy between

operand! of

retard

be

incapacityof

system. The
the uselessness
office,

central

the

refuse

connections;

proper

likens

one

and

nerve

in

use"

crossingof

far different

from

of
multiplicity

other

to every
things that will suggest themselves
telephone may be imagined as being almost

user

of the

ludicrously

in the operationsof the nervous

mechanism.
paralleled
Arid that parallel,
startlingas it may seem, is not a mere
futile imagining. It is sustained and rendered
plausible
of knowledge of the anatomical
by a sound substratum

conditions

under

and
exists,

in default

with

no

the

which

the

central

nervous

mechanism

pathology demonstrates
less certitude, its functioningsare futile to produce
normal
manifestations
of higher intellection.
of

which,

432

as

CHAPTER

SOME

IN

the

story of the

various

fields

within

impossible

the

be

might
of

the

of

large

At

of

sweep

best

of

of advance
the

rank

and

the

upon

In

the

of

"the

only

about

only
2E

the
lead

which

weapons
Facts

guidon
on

tle
bat-

the

the
of

movements

brigades

and

lesser fluctuations

gallantry of

band

the

last

at

of

have

progress.

stronghold has fallen, the

been
achieved
solelythrough the destructive
facts
or
newly marshalled
newly discovered

for.

cares

marize
sum-

interest
has centred
particular,
the various
specialstrongholds of

such

where

case

of

agency

as

individual

triumphantly occupied by
each

but

at

eye-witness,telling

prejudiced opposition,which

or

victoryhas

or

and

been

In

file.

storming

ignorant
been

recession

or

could

in
tempt,
at-

hint

to

somewhat

leaders

divisions,but necessarilyignoring

line
out-

an

course

even

action, of
of

names

of

one

distant

broad

so

has

to

century

our

In

progress

by

direction
the

masses,

of

details,or

upon

described

general

endeavored

spacial limits,it

discovery.
broad

have

science.

pure

dwell

to

PROBLEMS

achievements

of

such

minor

every

SCIENTIFIC

preceding chapters

the
the

UNSOLVED

XIII

to

of

the
be

must
a

warrior

the
433

science
of

marshalled,

hypothesis,but

victory if

of

facts

that

seeks
course,

guidon

themselves

can

support

STORY

THE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

SCIENCE

Once

it.

the conquered ramon

parts,
planted victoriously
the hypothesis becomes
a
theory a generalization
of science
marking a fresh coign of vantage, which
be successfully
assailed unless by a new
host
can
never
of antagonistic facts.
Such
with the
generalizations,
events
pied
leading directlyup to them, have chieflyoccu"

"

attention.

our

But

of
and

reflection makes

moment's

science,thus
ended.

never

unsettled

many

it clear that the battle

considered,is ever
shiftingground
Thus
at any given period there are
under

skirmishes

way

the

yet only strugglingtowards

are

to attain it ;
theory,perhaps never
the hosts of antagonisticfacts seem

that

few

hazard

the

facts
is

have,

for

available

field.

the most

and
the

unsettled

of them

part, been

it would

But

story without
some

war

to

ignored in
be

not

do

with

important questionswith
aggregate number

fair
at

the

to

our

as

these

survey

conclude

of
our

least in brief ; for

comprehensive

most

which

of facts

is often

directions

so

controversies

adverting to them,
have

in many

evenly matched
appears uncertain ; or, again,so
that as yet no attack worthy the

possible. Such

name

the

are

of

hypotheses
strongholdsof

; many

science

deals,and

in these

involved

ished
unfin-

though as yet the

marshalling has not led to final victory for any faction.
In some
cases, doubtless,the righthypothesisis actually
its supremacy
in the field,
but
not
yet conclusively
or
proved perhaps not to be proved for many
years
battles

great, even

"

decades
our

to

come.

century have

of the chief scientific results of

Some
been

but

hypotheses that were

with
generalcontempt,
centur}'came

to

the

gaining of
forlorn

mere

if at all
a

close
434

"

supremacy
hopes,looked

heeded, when
witness

the

for
on

teenth
eigh-

the doctrines

of

UNSOLVED

SOME

the

great

age

of the

SCIENTIFIC

earth, of

undulatorj'character
icy, of organic evolution.

of the

to

until

the

shall

say,

may

not

that

facts

new

had
drove

then, what
be

the

dare

one

these

all of

ideas

hypotheses that
ground.

SOLAK

the

immaterialityof heat,
light,of chemical atom-

of

Contrariwise, the opposite

them

conquering

from

hope
host

is to cite the

struggling over

are

AND

safe supremacy

seemingly a

forlorn

attempt

PROBLEMS

TELLURIC

the

of

field.

Who

to-day'sscience

of to-morrow

pretensionsof
the

?
a

All
few

stillcontested

PROBLEMS

ble,
being only a minor atom of the stellar pebstellar probsolar problems in generalare of course
lems
But
there are certain
also.
garding
specialquestionsrewhich
able to interrogate
the sun because
we
are
of his proximity,and which
have, furthermore, a peculiar
interest for the residents of our
little globe because
One of the
of our
star.
dependence upon this particular
most
far-reachingof these is as to where the sun gets
We
the heat that he givesoff in such liberal quantities.
that
have already seen
Dr. Mayer, of conservation-ofthe first to ask this question.As soon
energy fame, was
of
the doctrine
of the persistence
and convertibilit}'
as
was
grasped,about the middle of the century, it
energy
became
clear that this was
of the most
one
puzzlingof
that the
questions. It did not at all suffice to answer
is a ball of fire,
for computation showed
sun
that,at the
if the sun
a solid mass
were
present rate of heat-giving,
sand
of coal,he would
in about five thouconsumed
be totally
As no such decrease in size as this implies
years.
Our

sun

435^

STORY

T11E

had

taken

place within

other

some

Dr.

himself

at the very

SCIENCE

historic

times, it

be

sought.

explanationmust

Mayer

solution

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

hit

what

upon

seemed

Startingfrom

outset.

clear that

was

tenable

the observed

fact that

hurled into the

are
myriads of tiny meteorites
atmosphere daily,he argued that the sun must
these visitants in reallyenormous
quantities

earth's
receive

"

sufficient,
probably, to
limits.

observed
about

maintain

There

his

nothing

was

at all unreasonable

this

assumption, for the amount

swiftlymoving body capable of being
heat if the

body

it is calculated

the

from

In

that

produce

engender

other

words,

from

infinitywere

sun's

surface

for;
of

same

if

each

of coal

burned

little over
to

fall into

at

would

be

in

into

transformed

Thus

times

the

the

sun's

heat

it

surface.

of material

two

pounds

each

square }Tardof the

be acheat would
counted

hour, his observed

almost

energy

dropped into the sun

ity,
infinstarting-point,

six thousand

merely

of

enormous.
relatively

favorite

some

whereas

stationaryfuel

the

if

is

pound

mathematician's

would
could

be arrested

the

at

temperature

seven

tons

requiredeach

yard
produce

per square
hour

to

effect.

peltingwhich our littleearth receives,

excessive
not
it seemed
an
requisition
upon the meteoric
of matter
supply to suppose that the requisiteamount
fall into the sun, and for a time this explanation of
may
his incandescence
was
pretty generallyaccepted. But
calculations as to the
astronomers
soon
began to make
this assumption added
which
of matter
to our
amount
it aggregated near
the sun
solar system, particularly
as
then
clear that no
it was
in the converging radii,and
could be there without
of matter
such mass
interfering
of the interior
demonstrably with the observed course
In

view

of the

436

UNSOLVED

SOME

another

planets. So
be sought.

was

found

forthwith

who

pointed

which

through

well

as

It

within

be

words, that

is

sufficient

quite

heat

the

in other

PROBLEMS

of the sun's

source

Helmholtz,

German,
matter

SCIENTIFIC

be

may

substance

that

the

falling
generated might just
out

sun

keep

the sun's

of the

would

of contraction

amount
to

total substance

furnace

be

at par,

heated

body
long-sustainedheat-

burning of any Known

supply which the mere
could
not
approach. Moreover, the amount
the sun's centre
thus fallingtowards
being
namely, the

without

as

of the sun's
for

account

by

of the

contraction

to

had to
energy
that other great

substance
of

matter

enormous

"

small
relatively
sufficient
theoretically
to speak.
so
sun

"

a little puzzling
sightthis explanationseemed
ply,
to many
to imexperts, for it seemed
laymen and some
Lord Kelvin
as
pointed out, that the sun contracts
it is getting cooler,and
because
gains heat because it
But this feat is not
contracts.
reallyas paradoxicalas

At

first

it seems,

of heat in the sun's

there is any

implied that

for it is not
mass

as

but

whole,

real

quitethe

gain

reverse.

of
sought is an explanationof a maintenance
unchanged for a long,but
heat-givingcapacityrelatively

All

that

not

an

is

interminable,period. Indeed, exactlyhere

in the

novel

and

According to Mayer's
were

no

sun's

data

estimate
up
for

at hand

of the

implied an

somewhat

a
a

time, but

matety

to

for any

since

permanency,

be the limits

of LTelmholtz's

startlingfeature

no

one

meteoric

whatever

could surmise

supply.

incandescent

lation.
calcu-

there
hypothesis,

meteoric

estimate

comes

But

as

what

to the

might

Helmholtz's

body cooling keeping

"

equable temperature through contraction

ultitime only ; destined
for a limited

become

solid
liquid,

of incandescence

"

to
437

; to

cool

die.

Not

below

only

the

perature
tem-

so, but

it

STORY

THE

became

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

calculate

possibleto

which

this culmination

only
which

could

system

in

"

to

be

would

calculate

to

necessary

the

limits

of time

within

probably occur.
the

generated by

SCIENCE

total

the total

It
of

amount

of

mass

Assuming, then, that

the

present observed

heat
solar

our

fallingtogetherto the sun's centre from

find the total heat-supply
to be drawn
rate

was

"

finity
in-

upon.

of heat-

in the past, a
giving has been the average maintained
of years for which
the
simple division gives the number
hausted,
originalsupply is adequate. The supply will be ex-

observed, when

it will be

stable

equilibriumas

contraction, about

short,as
This

our

the

earth

calculation

solid

the

body, no

sun's

centre

mass

into

comes

longersubjectto
such a body, in

"

is at present.
made

was

by

Tait, and others,and the result

was

Lord

Kelvin, Professor
of the most

truly
transpired

one

dynamitic surprisesof the century. For it

that, according to mathematics, the entire limit of the
sun's heat-givinglife could not
exceed
something like
The
of that
twenty-fivemillions of years.
publication
of authority,brought a
estimate, with the appearance
about
veritable storm
the heads of the physicists.The
and biological
worlds were
entire geological
up in arms
in a trice.
Two
or three generations
before,they hurled
brickbats

at any

might

be

one

who
than

more

that

hinted

even

six thousand

the solar system

years

old ;

now

they jeered in derision at the attempt to limit the lifebearingperiodof our globe to a paltryfifteen or twenty
millions.
The
one

controversy

of the

most

as

to

to

the

earth ; for

The
a

thus

raised

proved
tations
interestingscientific dispu-

and

curious

of the century.
sun

solar time

scene

soon

shifted from

little reflection
438

made

the

it clear

STORY

THE

about

being piledup

of course,

of
a

earth's

crust

But

total

and

of

the

since

first

an

show

factors

still in

work

formed.

mountain-high
indeterminate.

being

that
the

could

they

constructive

evidence, to say nothing

revolutions,could

in less than

were

of the

age

were

stand

geologistscontended
case
a
proving that

out

the

continents

"ifs"

these

essential

destructive

anterior

to

would

calculation

Nevertheless, the

easily make

be

deposit in the past, and if the

sedimentary deposits of past ages

the

all

at

is,
ate
proportionrate

unfortunately

here,

Gulf

sediment

average

simple

known,

The

and

denudation

thickness

in the

out

SCIENCE

years.

be assumed

If,then, this

rate.

of

in six thousand

foot

one

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

have

not

been

plished
accom-

twenty-fiveto fiftymillions

from

of

years.

This

computation would
the physicists
had it not

with

of their

own

It thus

method.
estimate
the earth

hundred

the result

seemed

to

formed

millions

With

the

was

very
that

fraction

is the

patent, that

based

on

guesses.

any

Long

data

of

putation
com-

had

even

heat

by

before

the

hundred

one

ceased, for
content

is

are

more

to

the

most

himself
the

little better

definite estimates

had proved
geologists
440

in

new

the final crust

to

of
two

ing
graspwith

that

the

earth

ever,
point,howhave

these

hand

the

estimate

varying estimates
computations of the age of the
at

Lord

by

efapsed.

What

fact, which

made

weight

for the
different,

since

would
biologist

of that time.

loss

from

has

this all controversy

geologistor

of

previous solar

period of

of years

which

computation,made

the

prove

little

that another

made

rate

resembled

But

chanced

This

results.
startling
based on
Kelvin, was

carried

soon

was

more

earth.

have

earth

rough

than
were

taken,
under-

is venT,

very

SOME

UNSOLVED

it

old, and

added

be drawn

hypothesis,to
far

as

If the
direct

much

that

of

nothing

long

in

however,

the

over

which

earth's

he
have

the

moon's

made

had

tidal

that

proving

or

the

least the

earth's

thousand

it does.

crust

miles

fluid

interior

his claim

made,
not

us

failed of their

by

have

no

means

mention

this

but

controversy

to resist

Hopkins had, indeed,

early

as

be

at

as

least

1839,

eight

thickness; but geologists

in

geological doctrine.

could

nebular

steel in order

must

orthodox

was

of

computation in
structure, as a whole,

estimate

on

estimate

the

carried

utterlyignored this computation, and

a

period

his famous

thin crust

earth

the

To

by

telluric

similar

the

led

rigidityof

pull as

somewhat

hundred

at

that

results.

was

make

to

age

proved

must

to that proposition.

common-sense,

question have
they have been

Kelvin

these, Lord

putations
com-

ago.

computations

purpose,

of

attempted

infinite;but

lacking in important collateral

one

the

of definiteness

is not

upon

say

that

as

said

PROBLEMS

have, indeed, proved that

They
to

be

hardly

can

have

time

SCIENTIFIC

had

continued
Lord

Since
that

idea of
be

to

the

mass

the

Kelvin's

final crust

the

until

formed

the

was

of the
solid

throughout,or at least until a honeycomb of solid matter

had been bridged up from
to circumference, has
centre
an
gained pretty general acceptance. It still remains
however, as to what proportionthe lacunas
open question,
of molten
bear at the present day to the solidified
matter
portions,and therefore to what extent the earth will be
surface
subject to further shrinkage and attendant
contortions.

That

dailyby
all,the

crust

theory

the

some

lacuna?

phenomena

theory
rather

such

has
than

been

do

exist

of volcanoes.

is demonstrated

So, after

supplanted by a compromise
completely overthrown, and
441

THE

STORY

still far
If

much

questions

more

the

to

as

Darwin's

Yet

of

earth's

that

all

into

its

earth

moon

earth

back

The

century

is

point

is
out

prophecy

prophecy

left

for

more

is most

and

that

rob

fly

the

been

not

forsake

us,

year-long;
filter

space,

leaving

atmosphere

the

as

friction,

ultimately bring

But

must

in

leave
the

of

evil

all

the
to

the
cosmic

another

exact

terms

be

fulfilled.

or,

that

results

exact

science
be

in

of
an

our

evil.

generation
in

in

cations
prognostifactors

if annihilation

of

exist,

these

"

science

likely

gested
sug-

if it

and

clearly

made

it has

into

is

ether-friction,

sun.

of

the

ultimately

off
of

ments
ele-

thing
been

then

must

devoid

as

word

last

air

are

same

heat

to

day.

there

possible compensating

are

estimates

the

doubt.

it

and

the

to

globe

all the

that, meteoric

of

there

But

and

the

and, finally, that

default

vitiate

of

dry

as

sun's

fessor
Pro-

to

some

have

Thus

month-long,

water

depths,

our

the

become

the

the

the

that

fate.

should

even

will

day

ultimate

that

involved

estimates

still

are

threatens
force

Much

certainty.

it is not

future

moon

urges

data

fundamental

according

destructive

the

all the

perhaps

that,
our

all

of

her

the

himself

fallibility in

the

to

is

depths

present,

how,

seen

with

Darwin

computation

as

earth

Professor

true

have

these

to

as

computations,

to

of

telluric

and

past

problems
We

back

the

of

attends

earth's

open

numerous.

come

condition

uncertainty

that

strange

SCIENCE

definite.

from

so

the

of

knowledge

our

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

which

to

the

UNSOLVED

SOME

PROBLEMS

SCIENTIFIC

ii

PHYSICAL

In

be

as

from

turn

if

But

form

to

and

cosmic

always

the

law

of

the

and

problems,
same
appeal to one
gravitation. When
it would

appear
in the

introduced

were

action

of chemical

of molecules

that it is sible
posconceptionof the forms and space

Lord

such

telluric

to microcosm

of interaction

of cohesion

atoms.

"

macrocosm

forces

new

powers
and

is

there

seen,

rule of action

central
we

all these

regard to

it will

PROBLEMS

Kelvin

has

argued

that their
of matter
particles
attractions
be explainedby invoking that
mutual
may
which
holds the stars and planlaw of gravitation
ets
same
in their course.
What, then, is this all-compassing
which occupiesso central a position
power of gravitation
of mechanical
in the scheme
things?
is that no
The simple answer
knows.
The
wisest
man
lutely
absophysicistof to-day will assure
you that he knows
nothing of the why of gravitation that he can
no
more
explain why a stone tossed into the air falls
than can
back to earth
the boy who
the stone.
tosses
relations of the ultimate

"

But

while

this statement

puts in

nutshell

the

scientific

of

from

explanations of gravitation,yet it is not in

that speculativescientists should
nature
refrain
the effort to explain it. Such
efforts have
been

made

status

human

number

yet, on the whole, they are

but two
; indeed, there are

attention

here, and

historical interest.

based

on

the vortex

one

One

of

these

of these

that

has

need

claim

hardly

is the

more

so-called

hypothesis of Le Sage;
theory of matter.
443

in

few
surprisingly

our

than

mundane-cor
ultra-

the other

is

STORY

THE

The

OF

of

theory

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

Le

is filled with

rightlines
Every mass

Sage assumes
minute
infinitely

direction with

in every

SCIENCE

that

the

particlesflying in

inconceivable

rapidity.

of

in the universe
tangible matter
bombarded
but any
by these particles,
masses
(whether separated by an

shielded

by

or

space

by

another

one

and
particles,

the limits of the

thus

from

impelled towards

of bombardment

excess

appliesto

two

of

number

masses

To

universe.

make

it is necessary

to

texture,

that

assume

the

absolute

It is also necessary

to

pass

mutually

number

of

the

another

by

the

What
to

course,

k'

in

matter

degree

say,

ticles
par-

that

they

loss of

all

that

assume

the

"

without

collision

unthinkable

almost

to

ultra-mundane

so
elasticity,

any

tangible
sieve-like

proportionof the coercive particles

they
entirelythrough the body of any mass
without
world, for example
a star
or
really
that

so

encounter

an

contiguous
non-

mal
infinitesi-

hypothesisworkable, so

on

has to

matter

the

one

all the

short, to

another

from

speed.

in

possessed of

are

rebound

"

one

applies also, of

masses

two

opposite sides.

their

on

is incessantly

universe)are
certain

verse
uni-

entire

the

vast

"

"

touching any part

of its actual

substance.

This

tion
assump-

gravitationtakes no account
ultimate
of mere
or
corporeal bulk, but only of mass
solidarity.Thus a very bulky object may be so loosely
few of the corpuscles,
that it retards relatively
meshed
is necessary

and

hence

adopt a
weight.
This

reckless

more

because

of

mode

familiar

feebleness

or,

"

to

is lightin
expression,

certainlyheaping hypotheses together in a

it is perhaps not surprisingthat Le
way, and

is

Sage'sconception did
amount

relative

gravitateswith

of interest.

not

It

was

first

at

arouse

put forward
444

any
about

very
a

great

century

UNSOLVED

SOME

but

ago,

for

two

SCIENTIFIC
three

or

unnoticed.

PROBLEMS

generations remained

tically
prac-

The

philosophersof the first half of

to have
our
despairedof explaininggravicentury seem
tation,
though Faraday long experimented in the hope
of establishing
between
tricity
a relation
gravitationand elecor
magnetism. But not long after the middle of
science of dynamics was
the century, when
ing
claimnew
a
importance,and physicistswere
paramount
striving
in terms
to express all tangiblephenomena
of matter
in
revived
and given a
motion, the theory of Le Sage was
of attention.
It had at least the merit of
large measure
with any known
explainingthe facts without conflicting
mechanical

law, which

other

any

the

at

guess

was

than

more

could

that

question

be said of

had

been

ever

made.
another

recently,however,

More
found

which

also

based, like

this

meets

other

most

explanation has

condition.

It is

been

tion
concep-

physicalspeculationsof

the

generation,upon the hypothesis of the vortex atom,

and was
suggested,no doubt, by those speculationswhich
and
consider
magnetism to be conditions of
electricity
last

strain
In

twist

or

word,

strain

in

which

suction

ether
the

not

due

"

from

push

merit

of

so

much

account.

be

may

supposed

According

without, but

matter

this

form

likened

ocean

But

light,as
of

which

soluble
indis-

conception has
of

tricity,
electhat

physics takes

here, again,clearly,we
445

on

within

and

condition

modern

view, gravitation

inherent
The

of
to

exert

to

pullfrom

an

itself.

to

is

correlatinggravitationwith
and

magnetism,
strange ethereal

is

but
influences,

to exterior

further

atom

it lies.

property of
the

that

ether.

universal

the

gravitationalso

strain

vortex

the ether in which

is not

that

it supposes

this

of

substance

in the

are

but

THE

STORY

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

SCIENCE

before.
as
a
Still,
heaping hypothesisupon hypothesis,
law and has the warrant
hypothesis that violates no known
of philosophical
probabilityis always worthy of a
hearing. Only we must not forget that it is hypothesis
only, not conclusive theory.
The same
caution applies,manifestly,
to all the other
speculationswhich have the vortex atom, so to say, for
their foundation-stone.
Tait's inferences
the

on

and

of

the

Dolbear's

same

and

Stewart

of matter, based
destructibility
the ether is not quitefrictionless,

suggestions as

the

to

development of new
thinker's speculations
to
as

through

the

temperature, based

ether
an

of

ripples,

upper

limit

conception of
vortex
ring,not

the mechanical

on

creation

possiblevibrations of a
less fascinatingspeculations
other more
to mention
or
based on the vortex
ever
hypothesis,must be regarded,whattheir intrinsic interest,
as insecurely
grounded,until
such time as new
experimentalmethods shall give them
another
footing. Lord Kelvin himself holds all such
speculationsutterlyin abeyance. "The vortex
theory."
it can
he says,
is only a dream.
Itself unproven,
prove
founded
nothing,and any speculations
upon it are mere
a

limit to

Professors

to the

as

suppositionthat

Professor
matter

Thus

the

"

dreams
That

about

certainlymust
the

be

considered

regarding the only

pronouncement
of

dream."

constitution
fact

of

matter

imagined; yet the

theory,the great

contribution

the

world-old

workable
that

certainlyholds
of

unduly

an

our

has
that

modest

sis
hypotheever

been

the vortex

century towards

ried
problem,has not been carand must
be passed
beyond the stage of hypothesis,
of interesting
to another
corollaries,
on, with its burden
generation for the experimental evidence that will lead

solution

of

446

TI1E

STORY

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

explain with certaintyjust what

word

just

what

bowl

one

drops
We

his

chemical

water, without

dismissing this

mechanical

Mendeleef

with
active

that

the

on

fessor
Pro-

of

the molecules
other

the

explanation,we

of

hand,

may

say

is the

of solution

process

or

molecules

most

incessant

phenomena, involving that

chemical

of

the

salt

of

believe with

may

; or,

knows

one

lump

between

action

no

say,

followers,that

merely glideeverywhere

sugar

iar
the famil-

by

meant

is to

of water.

and

Ostwald

is

That

when

happens

into

sugar

itself.

soluble

SCIENCE

But
dissociation.
known
these
as
interplayof atoms
two
explanationsare mutually exclusive,and no one can
is
one, if either one, is right. Nor
say positivelywhich
for
than a half-explanation,
either theory at best more
ties
activithe why of the strange mechanical
chemical
or
postulatedis quiteignored. How is it,for example,

that the molecules

molecular

of water
of the sugar

bonds

But,

for that

bonds

temperature,

are

enormous
a

sugar

of

in

bowl

our

will

than

at

forces, and

of

to

Yan

For

't Hoof
of

is the

only

case

of these

nature

in-

be sure,

the

of

under

are

ten

of Amsterdam

followers,has

anything

or

made

of

like

day
toble
tena-

much

intermolecular

that
years

structures.
are

full of

Professor

with
Berlin),

the space
448

way

made

know

molecular

fifteen

(now

we

of

nature

mechanism

past

but

be

may

possiblewhen

be

present of the
the

And

Guesses

of water?

last,studies

this

promise.

in any

riddles,to

solutions

As

to

why, at the same

held
substances
some
together with
others
does
so
loosely? Why
rigidity,
iron dissolve
as
readilyas the lump of

lump

at these

more

particles,
enabling them

what

matter,

termolecular

not

the inter-

apart?

scamper

such

able to loosen

are

pany
com-

relations of atoms

UNSOLVED

SOME

specialstudy, with

has

PROBLEMS

SCIENTIFIC

the

attained

result
firm

so-called

that

position.

chemistry
stereo-

ing
trulyamaz-

gained into the space relations of

of carbon
and
the molecules
compounds in particular,
under
other compounds are
sults,
investigation.But these rewhen
the intricacy
wonderful
though they seem
of the subject is considered, are, after all,only tentative.
insighthas

been

that

It is demonstrated
in

arranged

atoms

perfectly definite

just how
pictured whether

these

but

schemes,
what

to

determine.

not

It appears,
realm

of

and

atom

mysteries.

In

discoveries

been

made

else do

there

nowhere

no

unalterable
be

to

are

cally
mechani-

field of

finds it

have

science

lie wider

to

seem

in the
land

of

startling

more

here ;

than

century

our

turns

one

way

molecule, one
in

and

their

planetarysystems
of the future
investigators

then, that whichever

the

have

miniature

for the

remains

"

systems

as

"

or

molecules

some

realms

yet

yet
un-

fathomed.

in

LIFE

In the life

historyof

systems there
of the

one

have

minor
been

constitute
at

even

vaguely

once

least

one

time

when,

into

ours

The

question has

relative
groups

also

their

on

myriad

the

star

surface

of

of matter
group, atoms
such
associations as to
A

living matter.

suggests itself
the

of the

of the

is called

than

2v

aggregated

different star
have

come

at

members

what

that

the

has

PROBLEMS

to

any

uniformity

is

as

to

449

of

whether

complement

interested

who

one

of

question
conceives

conditions
other

in

worlds

living forms.

speculativescience

more

STORY

THE

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

OF

century than

perhaps in our
hardly be said

that

definite

answer.

that

all the

much

worlds

has

first blush

known

matter, subject

same

before,but

ever

progress

At

SCIENCE

to

us

the

to

been

it

can

made

ards
tow-

the demonstration

are

same

composed of the
general laws, and

probably passing through kindred stages of evolution

and decay, would
it the reasonable
to carry with
seem
that

presumption
similar

all

to

primary planets,such

life-bearing
stage

reflection shows

that

must

do
probabilities
Living matter, as we

safelyso far as this.

notwithstanding its capacity
Xow

it is

peculiarconditions have
other of all the myriad
have

globesmust be of
term
livingmatter
such.
more

of

Some

diversified
the

to

thing

on

that

them
in

which

should

any
more

from

cooling

what

we

recognizethem as
be infinitely
more
complex,
more
sponsive
widely recapacities,

we

may
their

influences

about

yet

apply

we

these

suppose

all

on

different

so

it,

tioned
condi-

those

must

we

degree

some

character

earth, and

our

conditions

in

built up

been

know

duplicatedon

which

atoms

carry

that

If not, then

worlds.

complex aggregationsof
to

been

never

roundings.
physical sur-

to

as

be conceived

easilyto

not

variation,is

limits

narrow

very

for

ours,

moment's

scientific

one

within

But

come.

as

them,

not

as

not

than

respond
of the

tests

any

at

living

all to

the

existence

of

life.
This

is but

limitations

of

characterize

our

relative
the exact

way

of

saying

that

specializedaggregationsof
what
term
we
living matter

details ot the evolution

incidental

group,

another

particularplanet

magnitude

in

even

the cosmic

detail of outline

of
450

some

of

the

peculiar
which

matter
may

be

mere

particularstar
such
having some
order as, for example,
our

"

leaf
particular

of

UNSOLVED

SOME

bears

tree

the

on

other

though never
through so

in

similar
is

that

of

ours,

at some

pass

stage

epoch that on each and every one

developed something measurably comparable,
an

what

to

terms,

\ve

here

know

differingwidely,perhaps,from

matter;

the conditions

position to

absolutelyidentical,
yet

human

form

it is also conceivable

planets comparable

there
in

PROBLEMS

subjectof vegetable life. But,

entire

hand,

all

on

of them

the

to

SCIENTIFIC

living being here, yet

ing
liv-

as

particular
conforming
any

still

broadly to a definition of living things. In that case

the life-bearing
be considered
stage of a planet must
as
having far more
as
general significance;perhaps even
constituting the

of

time

fruitage of the

"~J

cosmic

orsran-

ism, though nothing but

human

egotism

giveswarrant

to

this

particularpresumption.
Between
these
two
opposing

views

every

is free

one

choose

according to his preconceptions,for as

science is unable
to give a deciding vote.
Equally
is that other
to discussion
question,as to whether
to

evolution

of universal

atoms

occurred

but

our

whether

vital

such

was

many
It

century,
"

so

been

"vital"

diversified

forms

the

as

it goes,

the

primitive

evolved, or

"

far

open

association

shiftingfrom the so-called non-vital

times repeated perhaps still goes
that
the testimony
is quite true

to the
on

of

cessant
inour

against the idea

existingconditions.

is all

"

generation under
clearly enough demonstrated

spontaneous

has

globe,forming

all the

which

from

mass

on

once

into

yet

that

the

of
It

bacteria

formerly were
ferent
supposed to originate"spontaneously" had a quite diforigin. But the solution of this specialcase leaves

and

other

the

general problem

what

are

low

forms

of familiar

still far

the conditions

life which

from

necessary
451

solved.
to

Who

the evolution

knows

of the

STORY

THE

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

into

ever-presentatoms
extreme

for

aught

be

may

pressure

"

of

generation
place incessantlyat

associations

of these

one

knows

man

any

"

vital

"

SCIENCE

the

to

bottom

Perhaps

conditions

and,

taneous
contrary, the "spon-

livingprotoplasm

the

of

be

may

taking
of

ocean

every

the

globe.
This

of

It may

is

course

be

evolution

of

but

since

once,

which

conditions

time

been

the

fall within

that

of science

The

to

the

whether

assumption

on

that

one

does

not

above

as

traband
con-

in

conditions

exact

pertainedbut
in the

fulfilled

from

I mention

the

speaking of the originof worlds.

of life on
our
globe is only an incident
relativelyinsignificant
period of time, and

existence

limited

to

of life

current

stream

this

category which

to
possibilities,

necessary

entire

Observe, please,that

source.

possibilities.

IUIVQ been

may

diversified

of
of

statement

here

livingmatter

has

globe

our

bald statement

mere

by another
perhaps the

met

effect that

the

second

one

of

fact,the

million

does

years

is

as

But, in any
this

status
"

vital."

about

by

working

to

evolved

was

time
as

the
is

an

one

that

assumes

universe

said,the question
life

on

our

globe

answer.

"

vastlymore

from

of
interruption

in the

porary
tem-

important than
duration
of time in which
living
cal
comprehension of the philosophi-

of this evolution
If

other, being

originof

cannot

is

the

I have

as

of

yet

event, what

question as

matter

But,

to the exact

questionscience

condition,like

one

incidental.

and
of fact

in

its evolution

philosophical
analysis. It is
merely a question of fact,just as the particulartemperature
of the earth's surface at any given epoch is a question
not

least matter

hundred

or

to

necessary

"non-vital"

this evolution
the

that
453

the

play

was

of forces

the correlation

to

the

brought
hitherto

of forces

SOME

involved

UNSOLVED

SCIENTIFIC

unique,actingthen

PROBLEMS

only by that
the questionof the originof life
assumption he removes
the domain
of science
utterly from
sumption
exactly as the asof an
initial push would
the question
remove
the domain
of the originof worlds from
of science.
But
was

then

and

"

"

the

science

of

to-day most
assumption. Every

such

facts,who

think

can

the field of what

driven
vital

scientist

clearlyand

is known

believe

that

with

wide

to

any
of

grasp

without

prejudiceover
be
evolution,must

of cosmic

alleged wide gap between

non-vital
and
matter
is largelya figment of prejudiced
human
understanding. In the broader view there
to

no

seem

break

the

in

those

part

the

scheme

be

atoms

And

how

cosmic

evolution

no

"

reciprocityof atomic actions,

floatingas a "fire mist" out in

it

into the

the

brain of

within

well

seems

expectationthat

will learn

of

aggregated

or

part.

scientific

the

incessant

of space,

in another

future

in

gaps

whether
one

emphatically demurs

the

man

range

laboratory worker

of

of the

duplicatetelluric conditions
that the play of universal
forces will build livingmatter
out of the inorganicin the laboratory,
as they have
done,
and
perhaps still are doing, in the terrestrial oceans.
To

the

timid

seemed,

century

to

that

reasoner

startling.But

seem

may

so

ago,

assumption
assuredlyit is no

the

assumption

evolved, through the agency

from

the

lowest

elder

day

has

adapt

to

of events.
of

its

conceptions to

some

be

the

possibilities

more

that

"natural

organism. Yet
been
obliged by the

to-day will

step which
if not

And

of

of

only,

timidity of
of

our

than

has

man

laws"

progress

that

so

that
tury
cen-

assured

sequence
ity
in all probability,
the timid-

day,
obliged to

to-day'sknowledge

present necessity.
453

take

that

foreshadows

final
as

logical
future

THE

STORY

Whatever

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

future

science

be able to

may

afield

its hands

finds
than

existingforms

among

of the doctrine

that

quite full,without

observe

to

accomplish in

be admitted

"this direction,
however, it must
science

SCIENCE

the

of
the

Since

farther

going

succession

of life.

present

generations

establishment

of

ity,
organic evolution,questionsof heredhave
been at the very
always sufficiently
interesting,
of the biologicalworld.
These
focus of attention
tions,
quesmodern

under
since

mechanism

the

have

treatment,
of

resolved

such

selves,
them-

transmission

proximatelyunderstood, into problems of

has been learned
about
much
as
activity. And
still offers
of late,that interestingmicrocosm

has

cellular

been

the

cell

tude
multi-

for solution.

of intricacies

of the most
ary
elementthe very threshold,some
construction
of the cell are
of mechanical
principles

Thus,

at

of

still matters

typicalcell

of the

like,comparable

to

walls

of the

and

cell is due

minute

hand,

one

it is held

that the substance

alveolar,or
essentially

emulsion,

of the

reticular structure
of the

an

is

the

his followers

Biitschli and

O.

Professor

by

On

controversy.

that
to the

ultimate
school

equally authoritative

the observed
intersections

globules.
of

foam-

workers

But

other
an-

holds

to

and
Arnold,
expressed by Frommann
is reallya system of threads, which
that the reticulum
constitute the most
important basis of the cell structure.
the

view,

It is
and

held

even

connect

reticulum.
between

Columbia

first

that

these

fibres

that

the

there

is

adjoiningcells,so
For

these
has

the

moment

opposing

penetrate

views.

suggested that

both

cell Avails

entire
no

Professor
may

the

body

is

final decision

Wilson

contain

of

ure
meas-

of the truth.

Again,

it is

questionwhether
454

the

finer

granulesseen

THE

the
The
most
not

STORY

OF

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

SCIENCE

of a highly differentiated adult being.

potentialities
fact that it does
contain
such
is the
potentialities
familiar of e very-day biological
observations,but
the fact is as yet
even
a proximal explanation of

attainable.

Turning from the

the
organism which
with its fellows,one

cell

as

individual

an

cell

the

to

mature

when

aggregated
finds the usual complement of open
the
questions,of greater or less significance,
focalizing
of working biologists.Thus
the evolutionist,
attention
is his general position,
is yet in doubt
when
secure
as
it comes
to tracingthe exact
lineageof various forms.
He

does

invertebrates

of

just

to

as

the

exclusive

the

type from

several

of the

hotly

rest,are

uncertaint}7and

is like

there

example, exactly

contains

though

sprang,
each

for

know,

not

composes

which

order

of

there

and
whales, the elephants,

lower

lines of
revealed

more

by

immediate

brates
verte-

contested

of

vertebrates

opinions,
Again,
opinion
formed

the

Among

orders, such

mals
mamas

himself, whose

man

even

which

difference

several

are

order

in the field.

direct ancestry of the mammals.

themselves

which

ancestry

present paleontology as

are

not

as

the
act
ex-

fully
fully

is to

be

hardly

take

rank

noticing.

There

desired.
All
with

these,however,
the

details that

are

that

generalproblems

questions,however,

are

other

and

present evolution

of

man

we

are

concerning
himself,that

the
are

history
of wider

seeming!}7
greater importance from
decades have
within
which
recent
a human
stand-point,
tive
for the first time within the scope of truly induccome
science.
the problems of anthropology
These
are
science of such
wide scope, such
a
far-reachingcolscope,

or

at

least of

"

456

lateral

not

are

The

future.

discoveries

of

view

of

To

this

to

their

physical
their

and

sorting

all

time

"

the

still

of

fact

fixed

plane

its

interest

of

the

is

the

hierarchy

to-day exactly

Its

position to-day

of

May

paleontology
its

promise

at

close

the

find

the

unsolved

anthropology

science.

as

will

full

perhaps

hardly
which

of

is

perhaps

of

the

fruition

In

has

to

alization.
gener-

that

is
not

word,

science

in

immature

an

unlike

eighteenth
!

nied
de-

importance

important
it

be

problems

great

because

great

tion
evolu-

assured

problems.
most

it
social

and

in

social
But

of

of

probably

human

can

with

moral

process

science.
it

as

religions.

in

government,

that

perhaps

and

of

study

veritable

the

yet

as

are

the

or

of

part

the

effort

questions

side

studied

and

this

the

welfare.

mental

and

of

from

"

are

generalizations,

race,

sciences

human

hand,

anthropology,

small

upon
it

engage

of

this

No

depends

of

broader

questions
are

"

rank

promise

that
deal

sociologj7,
the

to

the

is

Out

near

correlate

to

on

men

their

at

useful

of

so

languages,

already

in. the

is

and

of

races

correlating.

bringing

and

history

customs,

is

ognized
rec-

"

characteristics,

manner

relations,
as

data

be

to

collateral

medicine,

human

manners,

of

mass

of

and

generally

as

science

range

observable

all

end

traits,

come

of

or

new

field

specific

destined

this

wide

biology,

paleontology,
point

of

province

its

defined

probably

are

PROBLEMS

yet

as

clearly

as

they

as

that

implications,

functions

the

SCIENTIFIC

UNSOLVED

SOME

that

century.

INDEX

the

his

JOHN,

ADAMS,

moon's

of

48

Neptune,

in reference

Laplace

corrects

of

determination

location

exact

of

all

the

to

of

Professor, his investigation

of meteor
showers, 59.
and

currents,
the laws

governing them,

and

182-

Agassiz,
belief

the

328-336

establishment

of the cell theory,

of the procinvestigations
esses
;
and
digestion
respiration

of

and
of

and

the

functions

Rodolphe, his
organs, 346-353.
pothesis,
Anthrax, discovery
special-creationhy-

of

the human

of

its

cause

and

tablishment remedy,
380, 381, 387-389.
; his advocacy and esof the glacial theory, Anthropology, its
far-reaching sibilities
posand
its unsolved
entific
the reception of scilems,
prob-

105

134-136; on
truth, 153.
Louis,
Alibert, Jean
and

cause

tion
inven-

the

compound microscope,
rise of histologyand
its

Louis

Jean
in

origin

sues,
tis-

in microscopes

development

336-346

Aerolites, study of their

character, 157-162.

the

triumphs,

191.

lenses, and

division
into

the

324-328

classification

their

his

structures

improvements

;
and

acceleration, 51.

; and

323

animal
324

Adams,
Aerial

322,

organs,

cure

456, 457.
makes
of

known

Anti-cyclone, description of, 190.

Antisepsis, the theory and practice
of, 382-386.

the itch,362.

tance
comparative disfrom
the earth, 66.
Antitoxine, its discovery and
cation,
applition
390-392.
Amici, Giovanni
Battista, his invenof
the
and
reflectingmicroscope, Anti-trade-winds, their cause
327, 328.
effects, 178, 185, 186.
Marie, establishes the
Fran9ois, his pioneer
Ampere, Andre
Arago, Dominique
of magnetism
work
in celestial photography,
connection
and electricity,
the
atomic
207 ; confirms
76 ; champions
Fresnel's undulatory
of
theory
theory of Avogadro, 258 ; discovers
lightand the feud which
his advocacy engendered, 202-204,
the properties of ammonium,
267.

Alpha

Centauri,

Anaesthesia,

its

discovery of

the

method

225

of, 365-375.
eighteenth century progAnatomy,
ress
in the science, 36.
omy
See AnatAnatomy

physiology.
and
physiology, their

in

321-353;

the

nineteenth

Cuvier's

the

animal

of

co-ordination,"

chat's

kingdom

may

be

69.

ress
prog-

"

magnets

produced by
its comparative brightness,

century,
his

that

Arcturus,

ries
discovery and theo44-48.
regarding,
its development
during
Astronomy,
the eighteenth century,
5-17; the
"nebular
cation
hypothesis," its amplifiand completion, 13-17; progress
of
the
science
during the

Asteroids, their

classification
and

discovers

electrical induction,208.

and

of
law

Bi321, 322;
generalization of the animal

459

INDEX

nineteenth

coveryAuenbrugger von
vention
century, 44-87 ; disAuenbrog, his inof the percussion method
Ceres, by Piazzi,44 ; of
Pallas
and
for studying disease,355.
Vesta, by Olbers, 44,
of Juno, by Harding, 47 ; Aurora, the, speculations regarding
47 ; and
Hencke's
teroid
cause
discovery of a fifth asof, 162-167.
of

is

followed

by

velopment
thorougli Auscultation,its discovery and deaid to diagnosis,
as
an
sys

of
investigation

the asteroidal

tern, 47

the

how

accounted

for,47,

asteroids

48 ;

356,

are

discoveryof

Neptune, predicated by Bessel

of
;

the

numbers
in volumes

invention

of the

the

of

as

of

moons

the

to

trans-Neptunian planet,

discovery of
by Professor

his

hypothesisas

of

ultimate

Avogadro, Amadeo,

and

Leverrier, is accomplished by Dr.

Galle,48, 49 ; Leverrier's predication
49

359.

258,

unit

ticles
par-

his
of gases, and
molecule "
term
"

physical structure,

269.

covery
Hall, 49 ; disring,49, BACTKRIA, investigations
relatingto,
crape
and
379-386.
50; Saturn's
rings discussed
ries
his anatomitheir nature
cal
Baer, Karl Ernst
determined,50 ; theovon,
regarding the acceleration of
researches,337.
and
how
it is accounted
the moon,
Anton
covery
de, his disBary, Heinrich
of the identityof the animal
for, 50-53 ; speculationsregarding
and
the discoveryof their
comets
and vegetablecell,340.
and
nature
constituents,53-60 ; the Bastian, Henry
Charlton, revives
Pouchet's
study of double stars by William
spontaneous
theory of
and
and
John
Herschel
others,
generation,"320.
distance
63-65
determined, Beaumont, Elie de, his contention as
; star
and
65-69
star
to the originof mountains, 130, 145.
motion, mass, and
;
brightnessreckoned, 69, 70 ; solar Behring, Dr., his discoveries in serumand
sidereal
investigations bv
therapy,392.
of the spectroscope, 70"76 ; Bell, Sir Charles, his epochal psymeans
chological
dark
or
discovery of "invisible"
discovery,401, 402.
Mars

of Saturn's

"

stars, 74-76

triumphs of celestial Bernard, Claude, his study of the

347 ; his discovery of the
photography, 76-83, 285, 286;
pancreas,
Lockyer's "meteoric
hypothesis," glycogenic function of the liver,
83-86

speculationsas

of

86, 87

the

solar

unsolved

some

telluric

to

351, 352; his discoveries

relating
tentialities
po406.
to the nervous
405,
system,
and
Bernoulli, Daniel, originatorof the

the stellar universe,

problems, 435-442.

Atomic

theory,discovery and
of,"252-262.

Atom?,

Boscovich's
241

the

garding,
speculationsretheir
combining

weights determined
of expressing them
255, 259, 260;

opment
devel-

kinetic theory of gases, 242, 243.

in
Louis, aid*
Berthollet, Claude

and

the method

development of
his

32 ;

theory

chemistry,

new

chemical

bination,
com-

255.

Jacob,

Berzelius, Johan
and

invented, 254,

of

law" of the specific

Dalton's

advocates

confirms

atomic
of

256, 259; his extension

theory and establishment

ory,
thethe
of

heat of, 260-262

of
; establishment
the law of valency,269-275
their
;

theoretical chemistry,264, 265, 267,

character

268.

and

gated,
properties investiFront's
theory of
;
and
compound
weights
the elements,278-280,

275-278
the

atomic

nature

283-287;

of

binarv

some

unsolved

Wilhelm,

Bessel, Friedrich

problems

regarding,447-449.

the

existence

planet,48

of

his successful

the

predicts

trans-Urani.-ui

parallaxof a
his discoveryof invisible"
of

"

460

ment
measure-

star, 66 ;
stars,

71

Frar^ois Xavier, his

generalizationof the animal organs,

Bichat, Marie
323;

322,

liis classification

of

all

into

tissues,324.
his
of
discovery
Biela, Wilhelm
von,
his
the
comet
58;
bearing
name,
animal

and

structures

its

after

and

career

tion,
destruc-

58, 59.

Bii:ary composition of all chemical

compounds, theory of, 262-265.

Biology,

the

advances

great

in

the

made
possible through
eighteenth-centuryexplorations, 35,
teenth
36; its progress during the ninecentury, 288-320; eighteenthof

theories

288-293

tion,
organic evolu-

Lamarck's

action
See

and

functions

of, 414,

Psychology.

Bredichin's
theory, 54, 55.
cometary
Brewster, Sir David, refuses to accept
the theory of the conservation
of
his
provement
im218;
suggested
energy,
of lenses, 325, 326.
Broca, Paul, his discovery of cerebral

localization,
419, 422.
Sir Benjamin, his untimely
diction
preregarding anaesthetics,366.
lie acBrongniart, Alexandre, how
counted

Brodie,

science

century

the
415.

for

the

bowlders

on

Jura, 131;
study
Paris,138.
7'ifanother
Brontotheridce,or
his

of

the
strata

around

theory

line

ex, their

of

descent, 121.
of
transmutation
of the
species, Brown, Robert, his discovery of the 1111293-297
cleu.- of the vegetablecell,
theory of special
330, 331.
; Cuvier's
;ind
of
creation
Charles
fixity
species, 297Brown-Sequard,
Edouard, his
302 ; Oken's
theory of
investigations of the nervous
neous
spontasys;

"

"

generation and of evolution

Darwin's
species, 298, 320;
the
of
species by
origin
theory of
of

.tem, 405.

Bruno,

of
Giordano, believed
some
the planets inhabited, 12; burned
stake
for
at, the
teaching that our

natural

selection, or the "survival

earth is not
of the universe,
the centre
fittest,"302-310;
triumph
and
how
it
of Darwin's
16.
was
theory
effected, 310-317; theories regardBuch, Leopold von, his conception of
ing
the
and
of the
the origin of mountains
"origin of the fittest,"
the
erratic
of
the
consideration
bowlders
next
on
317-319
Jura,
130;
;
dissents
from
320.
doctrine
of
the
in
special
organic evolution,
step
creation, 301.
Biot, Jean
Baptiste, his investigation
his discovery of
of the
William,
L'Aigle aerolite, 158 ; opposes Buckhmd,
fossil bones
at Kirkdale, Yorkshire,
the undulatory theory of light,
of

the

and
his deductions
therefrom, 95 ;
203, 223.
he
accounted
how
the bowlders
of
latent
for
Black, Joseph, discoverer
the Jura, 131 ; adopts the glacial
on
heat, 34, 171.
theory, 135.
Blood, the, discoveries
relating to,
de (Georges Louis LeBuffon, Comte
329, 349, 350.
his
his
of
early advocacy of the
Boerhaave, Hermann,
clerc),
theory
of species,
the respiratory function, 39.
theory of transmutation
in cere291, 292, 318.
bral
Boillard, Dr., his researches
Robert
with
the
Wilhelm,
Bunsen,
physiology,419.
his
of
assistance
the
Emil
Kirchhoff, perfects
du,
psychoBois-Reymond,
physiologicalresearches, 408.
spectroscope, 70, 283.
his
S. W.,
enthusiastic
William
Bond,
C., his discovery of Burnham,
search for double
Saturn's inner
ring, 49.
stars, 65.
Boscovich, Ruggiero Giuseppe, his Biitschli,Professor, his theory of cell
stitution
conformation, 454.
speculation as to the ultimate
.

of matter,

Braid,

James,

his

hypnotism,
Brain, the, Cabanis's

241.

investigation of

415.

conception

of

JKAX
his
CABANIS, PIERRE
GEORGE,
of
the
action
and
tions
funcconception
of the brain,414, 415.

461

INDEX

Carnot, Sadi,discovers
mechanical

work

that

and

heat

mutually

of the

probable compound

nature

of the

elements, 278-287.
213.
Chladni, Ernst F. F., his theory of
Carpenter, William
Benjamin, his
meteorites,159, 160, 161, 162.
of
oceanic
theory
circulation,180; Chloroform, discovery of its anaesthetic
his advocacy of Baer's
anatomical
properties,374.
theories,337.
Christol,M., his discovery of human
fossils in the south of France, 111.
Catastrophisin,discussions regarding
the theoryof, 97-99, 126, 130.
Christy,Henry, his important find in
the caves
of Dordogne, 113.
Cavendish, Henry, discovers hydrogen
and
the
of
composition
gas
water, Clark, Alvan, Jr.,his discovery of a
"dark
31, 34, 253.
star," the companion of
Cell theory, the, its conception and
Sirius,75.
of its Clausius, Rudolph Julius
development, 330-346
Emanuel,
; some
unsolved
aids in establishingthe doctrine of
problems, 454-456.
of energy,
the conservation
Chambers,
223Robert, his anonymous
for
of
the theory
mutation
trans226 ; investigates
the kinetic theory
argument
of species,300, 301.
of gases, 242-244
the
; points out
are

vertible,
con-

Charcot, Jean Martin,his revival of

hypnotism, 415.
Charpentier,Jean
de, first ridicules
and

then

advocate

becomes

an

of

glacial theory,

the

enthusiastic

to

way

which
how

and

29-35

century,

it gave

contest

its advances

theory,29-31

rise to

in the

that

affect

of

it, 172-182

northern

theories

India

oxygen,
gas,
which led to the development of the

and

of

their

origin,53-60;

79.
chemistry," 31-35; solving
Conservation
the mysteries of respiration,39-41
;

is affected
their

regarding,and

determination

discovery of

31 ;

cules,
mole-

191.
by the monsoons,
classification
Clouds,
of, and
169-172.
formation,

eighteenth
phlogiston
;
Comets,
gen
; discoveryof hydrothe

size of

the energy of
; measures
molecule
of
a
gas, 245.
ences
Climate,and the study of the influ-

134.

Chemistry,the

the

measure

244

the

character

photographed,

"new

the

of

energy,

of the science
of,209-221.
during
progress
covery Contagion, its cause
nineteenth
century, 252-287
; disand
382.
development of the

theory,252-255; discovery of
of atomic weights,the specific

atomic

the laws

heat of atoms,

and

compounds

the

of theoretical

of

discovered,380"

Cuvier's
Co-ordination,

law

Cope, Edward

his

phism,
isomor-

255-262; studyof the theory

cal
binarycomposition of chemi-

of the

265

of

and

discovery

the law

ment
establish-

chemistry,262-

Drinker,

important
Rocky Mountain
114story they tell,

discoveries

in the

region,and

the

121

; advocates

the

originof

of, 322.

Lamarck's
favored

theory of

species,318,

319.

Corpuscles, red blood, discovery of,

try
; discoveries in organic chemisof the law
and the establishment

349, 350,

duces
Nicholas
de, introCorvisart,Jean
into
the percussion method
discovery of the law of valency,
and developmedical
and the establishment
ment
practice,354-356.
of
of isomerism, 269-275
termination
Couper, A. S., his investigations
; deof

molecular

structure, 265-269

of

properties of
275-278
atomic
octaves

the

atoms

character
and

discoveryof
weights and of
;

"

lead

to

an

the affinities of

and

molecules,
the

law

of

the "law

of

different

elements,

271.

Croll, James, his

investigation
462

86 ;

ages,

136;

"

pre-nebular

contends
his

for

estimate

many

of

ory,"
thelee
the

INDEX
Dubois, Eugene, his
fossil in

man

find of

the

the

island of

236-240

ape-

Java,

120.

Dujardin,

Felix, his

theories

histologicalre

and

dimensions

245

also

as

bution,
to the distri-

relations,
properties,
of molecules, 241their outline,acto
tion,

mutual

as

searches, 339.
temperature, and energy, 245251 ; the
tex
Dulong and Petit's discoveryof the
hypothesis that the vorof matter
whirl
is the essence
heat of atoms,
260, 261.
specific
See Chemistry.
Jean
itself,251.
Dumas,
Baptiste Andre, his
work
in organic chemistry, 266, Euler,Leonhard,his extraordinary conclusion
347.
the
as
to
midnight temper268, 279, 280, 346,
ature
at the equator,
175.
Dunn, Sergeant,bis principalwork in
ing
in makweather
observation, 190.
Evans, John, aids Prestwich
the
Joachim
Henri, his
paleolithic imDutrocliet,Rene
report on
study of the processes of digestion, plements found at Abbeville, 109.
.

theories
Evaporation and precipitation,
and
the
tion
determinaregarding,

352.

EARTH, the, Thomson's

74, 154;
longevity,

of their causes,

310, 317-320

putes
Gottfried, dis-

Christian

Mohl's

cell

the

some

unsolved

302-

lems
prob-

regarding,454"456.

covers
; dis-

theory,343

fibrillar

167-172.

Evolution, theories of, 288-297,

unsolved

regarding,435-442.

problems
Ehrenberg,

brain

of its

estimate
some

character

of

FALCONER,

HCGH,

find of

tissue, 425.

verifies the

Perthes

lithic
paleoAbbeville,

at

109.
Electricity,conception of, in the
how
fected
af24
Michael, attributes the aurora
Faraday,
eighteenth century,
;
the
of
to
Volta,
by
magnetism, 164; establishes and
discovery
its
develops the science of magneto28, 29 ;
relationshipto galvanism
demonstrated, 204, 205 ; the
208, 209, 226 ; refuses
electricity,
of

cause

action

chemical

and

demonstrated

to

and

the

science

electrical
be

of

to

of

the

servation
con-

ception
energy, 218; his conof an
ing
invisible,all-pervadcarbonieplenum, 234 ; liquefies

magneto-

electricityestablished, 206-209
its first use
in signalling,
207.

accept the doctrine

of

cal,
identi-

;
acid

gas, 249

confirms

Berzelius's

covery
distheory of binary combinations, 2t"5.
discovered, 365.
through the experiments of Favus, its cause
and Carlyle,28 ; Davy's Fechner,
Gustav
Nicholson
searches
Theodor, his reof
in
the
science
206.
new
theory of,
409Helmholtz
and
Electro
physiologicalpsychology,"
magnetism,
412."
Hertz's
study and development of,
tigation
invesand
Fermentation
putrefaction,
227, 228.

Electro-chemistry, its accidental

"

Franz, determines

Encke, Johann

of the

the

orbital movement

Espy, James
wind

Ether,

of comets, 57.
Pollard, his theory of

Ferrel, William,
the

storms, 190.

sulphuric, discovery

of

processes

of, 375-

380.

its

cause

of

his

rediscovery

atmospheric

of

tion,
circula-

183, 184.

369-374.
Ferrier, David, his experiment* in
properties,
brain
localization,420, 421.
Ether, the, and
ponderable matter,
its displacementof the
Fizeau, Hippolyte L., his experiments
ables,"
imponderon
228, 229 ; its discovery,and
light,222 ; his experiments on
its
constitution
ether, 234.
speculationsas to
Jean
periments
Pierre, his exand
Flourens. Marie
ments
properties,230-236
; experiand
Thomson
in
of Helmholtz
nerve
phvsiologv,
to prove the vortex theoryof atoms,
417, 418.
anaesthetic

"

464

INDEX
James

Forbes,
the

David,

heat

radiant

and

that

proves

lightconform

labors

laws, 223, 225.

same

but

remarkable

his

the

prove

his

Theory of

123-156;

to

of

Neptunists

in

the

Frankland,
difference

of

to the

leads

different atoms,
law of valency, 271.

Franklin,Benjamin, tries to account

for evaporation,168.
fracting
Fraunhofer, Joseph, perfectsthe retelescope and invents
heliometer, 65 ; suggests the

of

of

and

153;

discovery

of
garding
re-

evidence

growth

which

of

tains
moun-

for

believingin the
of changes in
the earth
owing to

diminution
of

its refrigeration,153-156.
Gerhardt, Charles FiedeVic,working in
the field of
268

organicchemistry,266Avogadro's law,269.
of the
scheme
histological

; revives

brain,428.
Germ

JOSEPH, originates the

Neptune,

theory,Pasteur's and Tyndall's

advocacy of, 320, 386.
Gill,David, photographs a comet, 79.
Glacial theory,the establishment
of,

the invention

and

work

; the

130-136
in New

49.

of the

ice-sheet

England,
Wolfgang von,
of the metamorphoses
150.

Goethe, Johann

galvanicbattery,

doctrine

his
of

parts, 36, 102, 288-291.

27, 28.
Gulvanic

theory

dences
continents,145-150
; evithe .glacialepoch, 150,

the surface

the

system of phrenology,399, 400, 423.

Gottfried, directed by
Galle, Johann

Leverrier, discovers

the

age and

reasons

Gerlach's
of

skull, 110.

applicationof the

of

gradual

light,

cell formation, 454.

Galvani, Luigi,and

the

provement
im-

ing
Fritsch,Gustav, his researches relat420.
to brain localization,
Frommann,
Professor,his theory of

GALL, FRANZ

the

and

discussion

the latter,123-125;

the

225.

Neanderthal

garding
re-

phenomena,
of

the establishment

shows

of the spectro?cope, 70.

gations
investi-

Fresnel,Augustin Jean, his

of the phenomena

Fuhlrott, Dr., his

the

Plutonists

faces,
changes in land surwhether
cataclysmic or
gradual, 125-130; establishment
of
the
glacial theory, 130-136;
study of the earth's strata, and
their classification,
sideration,
con136-145;

the

discovers
Edward,
in combining
power
which

200-204,

the

the

chemistry,32.

new

and

terrestrial
voisier
Fran9ois,aids Ladevelopment of a

between

controversy

light,222.
Fourcroy, Antoine

the Earth

ence
England, 90 ; progress of the sciduring the nineteenth century,

lites,
aero-

nature

science,

is pronounced
William
;
of
geological map

first

Smith's

experiments

undulatorv

his

the

heretical,19-23

161.

Foucault, Leon,

systematize

to

matic
cli-

Forster, George,
observations, 176.
Forster, Thomas, his theory of

Hutton

eighteenthcentury, 17-19;

to

battery, the

far-reaching Golgi,Camille,.his method

cellsand their
nerve

effects of its invention,27-29.

ing
Galvanism, its discoveryand far-reach-

effects,27-29;

its

kinship

to

of

ing
stain-

processes,

429, 430.

Gravitation, its

cause

an

unsolved

demonstrated, 204-206.
electricity
problem, 443-446.
Friedrick,his first test Gray, Asa, an ardent propagandist of
the Darwinian
of the electric telegraph,207.
theory,313.
Gulf
his
Louis,
Stream,
ments
experithe,
speculationsas to
Gay-Lussac,Joseph
its effect on
lead to the
with gases, which
climate,178-131, 182.

Gauss, Karl

discovery
258

; his

266, 267.

molecule, 256discovery of cvanogen,

of

the

'

Geology,its ghostlycharacter
2G

t.EY, JOHN,

in

the
465

his

explanationof

trade-winds, 178.
Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich,an

the

enthusi-

INDEX

advocate

astic

of

the

Darwinian

; favors
of the

theory, 313, 414

marckian
theory

352

his

La-

the

study of

the

nervous

tem,
sys-

404.

origin of

Herbart, Johann

Friedrich,founder
psychology,407.
Christian Samuel
FriedHahnemann,
Herschel,Caroline,aiding William in
his investigations,
rich, his belief in the prevalence
6, 7.
of the itch,361.
Herschel, Sir John, his study of
double stars, 63, 64, 65 ; refuses to
Hall, Asaph, his discovery of the
favored

of mathematical

species,318.

Mars,

of

moons

services

Hall, Marshall,
practice of medicine, 359,

important

accept the doctrine of the

of energy, 218; his

49.

his

in

the

ment
improve-

of the microscope, 326, 327.

psychologicaldiscovery, Herschel, Sir William, his improvement
360

his

of

404.

403,

tion
conserva-

the

Haller,Albrecht von, his idea of the

39.
function of respiration,
his
of
Lilienthal,
Harding,
discovery

astronomical

Juno, 47.
Hartley,David, his associational

his

telescope

his

and

discoveries,

12,

"

hypothesis,13; his nebular

16 ; his theory of the asteroids,47 ;

226

of

study
of

ory
the-

double

of

their

stars

relative

and

covery
dis-

change

of

psychology,414.
positions,63, 65 ; his unsuccessful
efforts to solve the problem of star
Heat, how regarded in the eighteenth
distance, 65 ; his study of suncentury, 24 ; Thompson's vibratory
the
27
theory of, 26,
investigation spots, 166.
;
of, helps to solve the problem of Hertz, Heinrich, confirms Helmholtz's
electro- magnetic theory of
171 ;
evaporationand precipitation,
light,
tion
Humboldt's
study of its distribu227, 228.
surface
of the globe, Hinrichs, Gustav, his investigations
the
on
of
its nature
law of octaves," 280.
confirm
the
175-177; discovery
and properties,
222-224
Histology. See Anatomy and Physiology
; the source
of animal
heat discovered,349.
; Psychology.
his
Hooke, Robert, his happy guess as to
Heidenhain, Rudolf,
ments
experiof light,198.
the nature
in hypnotism, 415, 416.
nand
FerdiSir
Hooker,
Joseph Dalton, his aid
Helmholtz, Hermann
Ludwig
crepancy sought by Darwin
in the
to the discation
publivon, his theory as
of
of his Origin of Species,
between
the motion
of

"

the

and

earth
of

theory
his

in

share

of

doctrine

the

solar

51 ; his

jnoon,

74, 437

energy,

the

discoveryof

the

conservation

the
of

214, 217, 221, 225, 437;

energy,

his
307, 809, 310; becomes
and disciple,313.
Howard, Edward, his conclusion

227,
the

; his calculations

228

the

vitalistic

fermentation, 379
discoveries

and

amateur
fifth

astronomer,

Huggins, William,

Henle, Friedrich
anatomical

covers
dis-

his

Astronomer

star's

spectroscopic

to

al
Roy-

Hunter, John,
of

fully
success-

parallax,66.

eries
von, his discov-

magnetism, 167;

his study of heat distribution

its climatic effects,175-177.

asteroid,47.

Scotland, the first

measure

mation,
for-

dew

researches

researches,70, 80.
in psycho-physics, Humboldt, Alexander

Henderson, Thomas,
of

theory of their
170; his theoryof

in terrestrial

an
a

his

formation, 170.

238;

407-409.

Hencke,

to

Luke, his classification of

and

169.

conceptionof

; his

clouds

prove

theory of atoms,

vortex

opposes

to

as

aerolites, 158.

Howard,

electro-magnetic
theory of light,

his

vert
con-

Jakob, his
researches, 332 336,
466

the processes

discovers

digestion,
39, 347.

Hutton,

Gustav

and

James,
and

his
his

tigations
geologicalinves-

Tlieory of

Earth, 19-23, 123, 129, 153;

the

gen-

INDEX
eral

acceptance

that

"time

of his proposition Keeler,Professor,his conclusions

as
of nebulae, 83.
to the character
long," 97, 102; his
known
followers
lead to
as
Plutonists,123 ; Kekule, A., his investigations
their
in proving
the
final success
and
establishment
of the law
of
the igneous origin of rocks, 125;
271.
valency,
See Thomson, William.
his theory of rain, 169, 172.
Kelvin, Lord.
Henry, the lesson he Kinetic
Huxley, Thomas
theory of gases inrestigated
the evidence of paleondraws
from
by Clausius and Maxwell, 242-245.
tology,
is

his

117, 118;

estimate

of

Darwin, 317.

Huygens, Christian, originatorof the

undulatory theory of light, 198;
conceives

the existence

as

to

the

the

true

invents

the

the

of

theory

originof

favored

species,318.
Hydrogen gas, discoveryof, 31.
Hydrophobia, discovery of its

Kirwan,

spectrum

England,

fossil bones

Richard,
the

in

cave

calculates

temperatures

covery
dis-

at,

cally
empiriall latitudes,

of

175.

Kitasato,Dr.,a

cure

leader

in the

ment
develop-

of serum-therapy, 392.
gations,
Robert, his bacterial investi-

415-417.

381.

the, discussion
130-136; Ihe effects

THKORY,

in New

the
Kolliker, Rudolf Albert, confirms
431.
garding,
retheory of isolated nerve
cells,
of

LAENNEC, RENE THEOPHILE

HYACINTHE,
England,
tation
"Imponderables," the, eighteenth- discovers and practises the ausculin diagnosing dismethod
eases
regarding the
century controversy
of the heart and
nature,
of, 24-27 ; the study of, in
lungs,356,
the

ice-sheet

of

95.

by protectivevaccination,389, 890.
Hypnotism, investigation of its nomena,
phe- Koch,

ICEBERG

method

analysis,70, 283.
Kirkdale, Yorkshire,
of

ether, 231.
Hyatt, A., advocates
Lamarck

of

Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert, with Bunsen, perfects the spectroscope and

150.

the

nineteenth
192-228;
century,
their abolishment, 228^ 229.
Inhalation
originated by Davy as a
of medication, 366.
method
in treatment
Insane, the, reform

and

accelerated

motion

of the

moon,

50.

the
Lamarck, Jean Baptiste,opposes
theory of specialcreation,103; his
of
transmutation
theory of the

Isomerism, discoveryof, 274.

Isomorphism, discovery of, 261.
its
("gale repercutee''),
cure
discovered,360-363.

Lagrange, Joseph Louis, systematizes

Newton's
hypothesis of universal
for the
gravitation,15; accounts

of,

395-401.

Itch

359.

cause

species,293-297 ; his selection of

the word
"biology to express the
science of livingthings,298.
Pierpont, spectroLangley, Samuel
"

to
JACKSON, CHARLES
T., his claims
anaesthetic
the
of
the
scopic researches of, 70.
discovery
of
373.
ether,
Laplace, Pierre Simon
properties
de, solves the
of
of
universal
Jenner, Edward, anil his discovery
problems
gravitation,
nebular
15; completes Herschel's
vaccination, 42, 43.
Prescott, discovers the
hypothesis, 15, 16; his theory of
Joule, James
law
Saturn's
of the mechanical
he accounted
equivalent
rings, 50 ; how
for the moon's
of the law
of heat, the corner-stone
acceleration,
of energy,
for aerolites,
he accounted
of the conservation
50 ; how
213,
Fresnel's undulatory
158; opposes
214, 217, 218, 221, 223, 225.'
theory of light,203.
KANT, IMMANUEL, conceives the idea of Lartet,Edouard, his important find in

the transmutation

of

the

species,291.
467

caves

of

Dordogne,

113.

INDEX
Latour,Cagniard, discoverer of pepsin,
347 ; his microscopical researches,

of the
328
of

376.

compound

microscope,327,

; his discovery of the true

red
blood corpuscles,329

form
; liis

in organic
Augustus, his work
discoveryand development
in surgery, 382-386.
chemistry, 266, 268.
Laurent, his chem- ! Lockyer, J. Norman, his "meteoric
Lavoisier,Antoine
ment
ical experiments and
discoveries,
hypothesis," 83-86 ; his endorsethat
of
the
his
fate
and
the
our
sotheory
tragic
26, 31-33;
have
called
elements
of
his
33-35
a
compound
doctrines,
triumph
;
his experiments on
40.
respiration,
nature, 286, 287 ; his theory of
solar heat, 439.
Law
of octaves," the, its discovery
and development, 280, 283.
Lodge, J. Oliver, his theory of two
his microscopical
ethers, 235.
Leeuwenhoek, Antonius
von,
vestigatio
376.
researches,329,
Logan, William I.,his geologicalinin
of
139.
discoveries
the
Canada,
Leidy,Joseph, his
W., his investigaLong, Crawford
Tertiaryperiodin the Rocky Mounof
tions of the anaesthetic properties
tain regionand the truth they teach,
his investigation
of the!
ether, 373. 374.
114-121;
Trichina spiralis,
363.
jLotze, Rudolf Hermann, his advocacy
409.
first
of
Lenz, Professor,
proposer
j of psycho-physiology,
Charles
Pierre
of oceanic
Alexandre, his
Louis,
gravitationas the cause
statistical
of
the
introduction
circulation,180.
of antisepsis

Laurent,

"

"

icine,
method
into the practiceof medof
Sage's hypothesis of the cause
443-445.
360.
gravitation,
dolf, Lubbock, Sir John William, advocates
Leuckart,Karl Georg Friedrich Ruthe
his
the
of
Darwinian
theory of natural
investigations
selection,313.
stpiralis,
363, 364.
Leverrier, Urbain Jean
Joseph, his Lyell.Charles, the apostleof uniform"

Le

lead

calculations
of

the

to

"itarianism,
99-102,

discovery

culations convinced
48, 49 ; his further calthe
transmutation
location of a
to

Neptune,
as

hypotheticalplanet known

as

313

von,

foremost

the

of

source

opposes

animal

Pasteur's

heat,
of

349

and

unsolved

of

century, 24

the

his

in

services

practice of medicine,
his

studies

of

the

vous
ner-

system, 400, 402.

eighteenth Magnetism, its

establishment

FRANCOIS,

rational

359, 360;

mic
cos-

449-453.
telluric,

Light,how regarded in

is undisputed,

sought by

the

in

mentation,
ferMAGKNDIE,
the

problems

aid

publication of his
307, 309.
Origin,of Species,

Darwin

376, 379.
Life, some

his

153;

; discovers

doctrine

Playfairwhich

from

fact

among

organic chemistry,
his
ical
important chem;

266, 268, 274

researches,346, 347

the

his

in

the workers

endorses

theory, 107, 108,

advocacy of the glacial
theory,131, 132; his citation of a

can,
Vul-

49.

Liebig,Justus

125, 126, 130;

by Darwin,

of

relations to electricity

discovered,and

the

of magneto-electric

the science

founded, 207-209.
undulatorytheory of, 192-204, 223;
lishes
estabory
Faraday
Magneto-electricity,
electro-magneticthe-

Helmholtz's

of, 227,
gas,

and

228.

Liquefactionof

air,of

hydrogen,and

carbonic-acid

of other

Malthas,

nent
perma-

gases, 249 ; the question as to

the liquefactionof air in our
outer

atmosphere,
Sir
Lister,

250.

Joseph,

his

develops the

science

of.

208, 209.

improvement
468

Thomas

Robert,

formulating his theory

originof species by natural
in

305, 306.

his

how

Population aided

Darwin
of

the

tion,
selec-

INDEX

Marais, M., his descriptionof

miracle, 157.
tli-century
of
its seven
Mars, discovery

"

teen
nine-

"

moons,

Norman

49.

Marsh,
of

Othniel

83-86.

See Aerolites.

discovery
Tertiary species in the Meteorology, its eighteenth-century

new

25,

ory
Fontaine, his theof the Gulf Stream, 178-180.
the
Maxwell, James Clerk, determines
of Saturn's rings,50; his
character
Matthew

theories

in

reference

to

magnetism, and to
electro-magnetism,227 ;
and

to the

as

existence

failures

in

15V-191

von,

of

the

its

ables,
imponder-

triumphs

and

the nineteenth

century,
determination

study and

of aerolites,
origin and nature
157-162; speculationsregarding
the aurora
162-167; problem

of

the

of

dew

formation

his
of

and

mony
testi-

influences

all-

an

182,

191

solved, and

of

his

doctrine

to

the

affect them, 172aerial currents

gated,
investitheir

laws

determined,

; the

greatest triumph of
practicalmeteorology, 191.

share
of

speculationsas
which

and
182-191

establishingthe

26 ;

electricity clouds, rain, snow, and hoar-frost,

ditions,
167-172;
study of climatic conlight and

pervading plenum, 230, 234 ; his

of the kinetic theory
investigation
of gases, 242-244.
Mayer, Julius Robert

views

students'

119.

Maury,

Loekyer,

Meteorites.

Charles,his

region, and what

Rocky Mountain
they signify,114-121.
Mastodon, the Warren, descriptionof,

in

sociation
periodiclaw," 280, 283 ; his distheory of atoms, 448.
Meteoric
hypothesis," the, of J.

of their

Meteors,determination

the

origin

and

character,59, 60.
of
Meyer, Lothar, his confirmation
217, 221, 225, 435, 436.
law of octaves," 280.
Medical
the
science : Jenner's eighteenthprovements
of
Microscope, nineteenth
century imcentury discovery of the method
324-328
the
tion
invenin,
preventingsmall-pox,42, 43 ; prog;
ress
conservation

of

214,

energy,

215-

"

of the science

during the
354-394

of

teenth
nine-

ery
; discov-

the

compound

microscope,

327,
Allen, his spectropercussion Miller, William
and auscultation
in the diagnosing
scopic investigations,70.
of disease,354-359
Eilhard, his discovery of
Mitscherlidi,
; introduction of
the
"statistical
method,"
360;
isomorphism, 261.
of
causes
gale re percutee
(itch),Mohl, Hugo von, his discovery of
of
covered, protoplasm, 338, 339 ; his theory
trichinosis,and of favus dis360-365
of cell formation, 343, 344.
discovery of
;
of
anaesthesia,365-375 ; processes
Mohr, Karl Friedrich,his share in the
fermentation
and
vestigated,
putrefaction indiscovery of the doctrine of the
century,

and

328.

of

development

''

"

375

contagion
discovery

and

antisepsis

in

380

discovered,

discoveryand

of

cause

380-382

establishment
surgery,

of

conservation

221,
Molecules, theories

of

the

method

of

of

octaves

"

under

the

the

sun-

"

title

their iso-

265-269, 272-275

some

solved
un-

448, 449.
problems regarding,
counted
Moon, the, how its acceleration is acfor,50-53.
Morton, William, T. G., demonstrates

spots, 166.

Mendeleeff,Dmitri, confirms

tribution,
dis-

morphous property,

curing

the effects of

their

to

ment
261 ; establishof the law of molecular
ure,
struct-

by virus prepared
laboratory 386-390
;
development of the

discoveryand
serum-therapy
disease,390-394.
Meldrum, Mr., on

as

etc., 242-251, 275-278;

tective
pro-

vaccination
in

214, 215,

energy,

properties,dimensions,

382-386;

development

of

225.

law
of

469

benefit
and
practicability
anaesthesia,
369, 370, 375.
tlie

of

INDEX
the new
Morveau, Guyton de, and
chemistry,32.
Miiller,Johannes, his discovery of
the

resemblance

between

Olbers, Heinrich

animal

his

vegetablecells,331, 332, 337;

study of the nervous
system,
404 ; his discoveryof the means
of
hardening and
preserving brain

54

Impey, combats
of Lyell,130;

his classification of transition

into

chronologicalgroups,

rocks

138.

Wilhelm

Matthias,

discoveryof

character

true

tissues,424.'
Roderick

of

Pallas, 44, 47 ; his

explosion theory of the asteroids,
and
the objections to it, 47
; hi.-*
discovery of Vesta, 47 ; teaches the

his

the uniformitarianism

generation
species,298.

spontaneous

of the evolution

and

and

Murchison,

of

theory

; his

of

theory of

the comet's

tail,

158.
aerolites,

Olmsttd, Denison, determines

the

cos-

mical

originof shooting-stars,
161.
Origin of species by natural selection,
theory of, 302-310.
Origin of the fittest,"
speculations
regarding,317-319.
Owen, Sir Richard, sustains
Lyell's
hypothesisof special creation, 105;
his discoveryof the Trichina
spi"

NAPOLEON
of

BONAPARTE, how his choice

physician influenced the progress
of medical
science,354, 355,

360.

Neanderthal

skull, its discoveryand

ralis,363.

110.
description,

Nebulae,investigation
of,and theories
concerning,13-17, 79-87.
Nebular
hypothesis,"the, its conception
and
completion,-13-1 7, 84.
Neptune, how it was
discovered,48,
"

Smith's
89-91

Neurons, the theory of,430, 431.

New
photography, the,2, 5, 284-286.
Newburg, New York, description of
the mastodon

Newlands.

there, 119.

found

John

the

R., discovers

A.

"

character

true

of

the

showers,

meteor

and

Lagrange, 15 ; pronounced
impious and heretical in

1700, 16;

his

blow

character

at

the

of comets,

natural
super54.

paleontology,

Kirkdale
96; Buckland's
the
contention
discovery and
garding
reies,
it,95 ; other fossil discoverthe

general acceptance of
time is
propositionthat
of
the
cataslong," 95-97;
theory
"

Hutton's

CURRENTS,

their effects

97-102

regarding

climate, 178-182.
Hans
Oersted,
Christian,his discovery
of the deflection of the magnetic
needle by electric currents, 207.
of the
Oken, Lorenz, his extension
of parts
theory of metamorphoses
the

animal

kingdom,

289

; his

470

the

theory

tablished,
es-

controversy
of

special

Origin
; Darwin's
and
the
general ance
Specie*,
acceptof his transmutation
theory,

creation,102-105
of

fossil discoveries

of

coner,
Faland

Fuhlrott, Schmerling,

to

on

the doctrine

and

unifonnitarianism

of

105-109

speculationsas

therefrom,

91-94,

Sir Isaac, his hypothesis of

universal gravitation,
systematized

to

his deductions

of vertebrate

Newton,

by Laplace

the

William

Vinci, 88;

trophism overthrown

59.

tigations,
inves; Cuvier's studies and
which result in the lishment
estab-

and

law of octaves," 280.

Newton, Professor, determines

teenth-ce
eigh-

eries
discovearlypaleontological

and

lating
re-

to, 401-407.

its
23

during the
story of its progress
nineteenth
the
century, 88-122;
of fossils first recogtrue character
nized
by Da

Neptunists,theory of the, 123-125.

Nervous
system, the,discoveries

of

devotees,

49.

OCEAN

the work

PALEONTOLOGY,

others,

which

demonstrate

the

of

istence
ex-

109-

paleolithicman,
Tertiary
discovery of new
species in the Rocky Mountain
114;

region, and of
elsewhere, which
of

fossils

vertebrate

prove

evolution,114-121.

the

truth

INDEX

experimental,its advances
Psychology,
the

during

; the

-432

of

present
reform

in the

insane,

the

the

eries
discov-

nervous

system,
and

establishment

of gravitation,64.

Scheele,Karl
of oxygen,

establishment

of

development

establishment

ogy,
histol-

brain

423-432.

Psycho-physics, discoveries
Putrefaction

relating

of

the

and

fermentation, their

of so-called

375-380.
investigated,

regarding,and

Andrew

Crombie,

for

of

many

how

free-cell

discoveries at

he

Schultze,Max

lake

tant
imporEngis,Westphalia,

his researches
conservation

John

animal

Schwann, Theodor,

the law of the

prove

of

Macquorn,

energy,

cause

character

discoveryof

225.

of

cells,340.
cell

his

theory,

337, 338, 343, 345;

331-336,

223, 224,

the

covers
Sigismund, dis-

identical

vegetableand

William

formation,
his

von,

Johann

the

basins,153.
Rankine,

the cell

343.

the determination

the

covery
dis-

his discovery

of its causes,
167-172.
111.
discoveries relating Schoenlein, J. L.,discovers
of favus, 365.
to nerve
cells,430, 431, 432.

accounted

his

of

Cajal,S.,his

Ramsay,

cometary

function

Schmerling,Anton

the

nucleus, 331, 332, 345;

RAIN, theories
Ramon

Virginio, his

of

origin of meteors, 59.

Schleiden,Matthias Jakob,

to, 407-417.
processes

Wilhelm, his discovery

31 ; his physiological
periments,
ex-

40.
psycho-physics,
discoveries in brain physGiovanni
iology,Schiaparelli,

417-423
and

Saturn,discoveries relatingto,49, 69.

for the elliptical
Savary, M., accounts
orbits of double
stars
by the laws

of

development
407-417

395

treatment

395-401

regarding
401-407

century,

his

croscopical
pepsin, 347 ; his mi404.
researches, 376,

unsolved,
Professor,his microscopical Scientific problems, some
and
researches of the brain and nervous
433-457
; regarding the sun
earth, 435-442; in physics, 443"
system, 404, 425.
its processes
investigated, 449 ; of life and the evolution of
Respiration,
pology,
350.
349,
livingmatter, 444-456
39-41,
; of anthroand
the
X
457.
456,
Rontgen, Professor,
ray,
ing
1, 2, 228.
Scrope,G. Poulett, his work accountfor
of
the origin
volcanoes, liM.
Rosse, Lord, his studies of nebula)
80.
Secchi,Father Angelo, his researches
through his six-foot reflector,

Remak,

in spectrum
analysis,70, 72.
Roux, Dr., his services in the cause
of serum-therapy, 392, 393.
Sedgwick, Adam, his classification of
transition
rocks
into chronological
BenRum ford, Count, see Thompson, jamin.

138.

groups,

Rush, Benjamin,

his

reform

in the

Serum-therapy,discovery
of

of the insane, 395, 396.

treatment
Rutherford, Daniel, his discoveryof

nitrogen,34.
his

Ruthorford, Lewis

Morris,
troscopicresearches, 70, 72.

spec-

of

the

cacy
104 ; opposes

transmutation

Cuvier's

hypothesis,and
the Lamarckian

his

system

opment
devel-

of,

390-

394.

of their
determination
Shooting-stars,
60.
origin,59,
Simpson, Sir J. Y., his discovery of
chloroform

SAlNT-HlLAIRE, GEOFFROY,

the

and

Sirius and

as

its

"

an

anaesthetic,374.

invisible

"

74, 75.
Six,
ation
special-creMr., his theory of dew

companion,

theory,

formation,

171.

endorses
partially
theory,300, Small-pox,

318.

means

473

discovery of the
of its prevention,
42, 43.
Jenner's

INDEX
"

Smith, William,

the father

of English Talbot,
paleontological

geology," his
discoveries

and

therefrom,

89-91

strata

as

kev

his

to

137, 138.
South, James, aids

deductions

his

the

William

study

in

285.

of

Temperature, the,

nology,
earth's chro-

Herschel

absolute

zero

of,

250.

Tetanus, the
John

vices
Henry Fox, his serperfectionof raphy,
photog-

the

in

treatment

serum

Theory of

the

Earth,

for,392.

James

Hut-

of double stars,64.
ton's,20-23.
investigation
the procand how
the science
Abbe, discovers
Thermo-dynamics,
Spallanzani,
esses
of digestion,
224.
periments
39, 347 ; his exoriginated,
223,
on
respiration,40.
Thompson, Benjamin (Count RumSpecial creation,discussions
relating
ford),his vibratory theory of heat,
tion
the
to
hypothesis of, 91-97, 104,
26, 27 ; he proves the transformahis

of

105, 297-302.

Spectroscope,its perfectionby

Kirch-

Thomson,

labor

into heat, 210.

Thomas, advocates Dalton's

atomic
Bunsen, and its solar and
theory,259.
analyses, 70-76, 283, 284 ; Thomson, William
(Lord Kelvin),his
its
estimate
of
the
earth's
its necromantic
76;
longevity,
po\ver,
aids
Joule
80.
441
in establishing
to
74, 154,
application nebula;,
;
its
of
the
closures,
disthe doctrine
vation
conserSpectrum analysis, remarkable
of
70-76, 283-287.
218-223, 225;
energy,
of the dissipationof
his doctrine
the Darwinian
Spencer, Herbert, advocates
224 ; his studies
in
theory, 313, 316 ; favors the
223,
energy,
of
the
gin
oriLamarckian
224,
thermo-dynamics,
227;
conception
223,
his calculation of the probable density
of
favored
species, 318; his
and
o
f
theoretical study of psychology,415.
rigidity ether, 235 ; his
theory of
conceptionof the vortex
Spontaneous generation, Pouchet's
and
his verifying experiments,
atoms,
hypothesisof, 320.
advocates
calculates
the
nology,
phre238-240;
Kaspar,
Spurzheim,
of
dimensions
400.
a
molecule, 244,
245 ; refuses
to
pulsive
recognize any reStars, double or multiplestars, and
of
in
246
the
stiir clusters,
molecules,
investigations
power
;
hoff

and

sidereal

the

nineteenth

century

relatingto,

60-76.

his estimate

of

of the sun,

438.

the

heat-givinglife

tion
evoluTitanotheres,or Erontotheridce,
of, 121.
Stethoscope,its invention and ment,
improve- Tournal, M., his discoveryof human
fossils in the south of France, 111.
359.
356,
and
189.
Toxine
Storm-centre, description
antitoxine,their discovery
of, 186,
and
Struve, F. G. W., his discovery of
introduction,390-394.
double
Trade-winds, study of their origin
stars, 64 ; solves the problem
of star distance, 66.
and effects,177/178,182.
of species,doctrine of,
discovered
by Transmutation
Sun, the, its elements
Helm70-72
analysis,
105-108, 293-297, 302-310, 317spectrum
;
74 ;
holtz's theory of solar energy,
320.
unsolved
some
Reinhold, his
problems regarding, Treviranus, Gottfried
of
transmutation
of
the
estimate
to its heatas
435-442;
theory
in
species published the same
giving life,438.
year
first appeared,
which
Lamarck's
Sun-spots,effects of, 166.
398 ; foreshadows
the cell theory,
336.
PETER
his
ment
measureGPTHRIE,
TAIT,
Ti-i"-hina spiralis,
its discovery,
of the free path of molecules,
363"'

Statistical method,"
into medical

the,

its introduction

practice,360.

365.

247.

473

INDEX
of the

Trichinosis,character
and

its

disease

Waller, Professor, his discovery

trophiccentres," 427.

Tuke, William, inauguratesreform in

of the insane, 395.
treatment
Tyndall,John, his advocacy of Mayer's
of the conservation

doctrine

energy, 221, 223; and

of

theory

natural

his endorsement

of

and

at

Water,

of

34,

its

253.

Weather

cupation,
bureaus, their principaloc-

186, 191.

Weber,

320, 386.

Heinrich,his experiments
discovery in psycho-

Ernst
and

ULTRA-GASEOUS

fourth

or

of

state

theory of, 247.

ment
Undulatory theory of light,establish-

physics,409-412.
a
Eduard, makes
Weber, Wilhelm
electric
graph,
teleof
the
test
practical
207 ; his study of the nervous

matter,

of, 192-204.

Uniformitarianism, Sir
ell's advocacy of the
99-102, 127, 131.

Charles

system, 405.

Ly-

Wedgwood,
a

photography,
Weismann,
August,

preventing small-pox, 42 ; its

application as a preventative of
other diseases by virus prepared in

experiments

2, 5.
marck's
La-

opposes

ations
vari-

acquired
theory
favored
the origin of
of

in

elaborates

species, 318;
law

the

his

Thomas,

in

means

of

the laboratory,386-390.
of

rometer,
py-

24.

VACCINATION, its discoveryas

Valency, development

the

Josiah, invents

of, Wedgwood,

doctrine

mastodon

the

to

Newburg, N. Y., 119.

com
discovered,31,
position

ory,
the-

germ

C., mounted, described,

name

gave

found

Darwin's

the

John

Warren,

selection, 313;
of

of

"

discovered, 363-365.

cause

scheme

of,

269/275.

intracellular

of

the

thetical
hypo-

relations of

units,455.

W., his solution of the

study Wells,
of pancreas,
347.
problem of dew formal ion and of
Van
the precipitationof \vatery vapor
't Hoof, Professor, his establishment
in any form, 170-172.
of stereo-chemistry,
448, 44S.
and
believer
in
Venetz, M., an
Horace, the first to administer
Wells,
early
in a surgicaloperaanaesthetic
advocate
of the glacialtheory, 134.
an
Vertebrate
ment
establishation, 369.
paleontology,

Valentin, Gabriel

Gustav,

C.

his

Werner,

of, 91-97.
Vinci, Leonardo
da, his early recognition
of the true

of

character

sils,
fos-

his

Virchow, Rudolf, his demonstration

of Schwann's
cell theory,344, 345
his

researches

which

lead

of the voltaic
Vortex

the

solids of

364.

tion
inven-

Winds.

prove,

an

solved
un-

problem, 446, 447.

Vulcan, a hypothetical planet located
49.
by Leverrier,

WALLACE,

ALFRED

markable
RUSSELL, his reconception of the theory

natural

selection

with

Darwin,

theory

266

of

dew

currents.

Friedrich,his

28.

236-240

his

See Aerial

pile,27,
Wohler,
of urea, 265,
theory of atoms, the, experiments
to

of

in

Neptunian theory,
the aqueous
origin

Wilson, Patrick,
formation, 171.

to

363,
discoveryof trichinosis,
Alessandro, his
Volta, Count

belief

pro-

the

of

the earth's crust,

in
his
belief
the uniformity of
123;
thewhole
strata
over
earth,136, 137.

of

88.

the

Gottlob, the

Abraham

pounder

synthesization
investigation

his

binary theory of
Berzelius, 268 ; his discovery of
vices
isomerism, 274 ; his important serto physiology, 346, 347
Wolff, Kaspar Friedrich, founder of
substantiates

the

the

of

science

foreshadows

embryology,

36 ;

the cell theory, 336.

Hyde, discovers

Wollaston, William

ously
contemporane307-310.

the
474

identityof galvanism

and

elec-

INDEX

tricky,

205

chemical

his

atomic

Datum's
his

observation

combinations

of

theory,

259;

lenses,

of

improvement

256,

Thomas,

325,

of

establishment

his

undulatory

192-204,

of

theory

225;

galvanism

confirms
and

practising

327.

326,

Young,
the

confirms

of

light,

the

electricity,

medicine

27,

identity

and

205;

studying

J.

Wortrnan,

L.,

edentates,

the

fossil

lineage

Max,

discoveries,

414,

of

Egyptian
real

121.

Wilhelm

Wundt,

his

his

ical
psycholog-

RAY,"

1,

2,

228.

his

KARL

JOHANN

theory,

cometary
of

YOUNG,

CHARLES

troscopic

AUGUSTUS,

researches,

206

the

the

ether

231,

415.

discovery,

its

of

232.

Z6LLNER,
"

hieroglyphics,

discoverer

70.

his

spec-

spectra

of

stars,

the

FRIEDRICH,
54,

55;

diversities
73.

his
in

terpretation
in-

the