Iron Ore Pellets and Pelletizing Processes

Iron ore pellets and Pelletizing processes
Pelletizing is a process that involves mixing very finely ground particles of iron ore fines of size
less than 200 mesh with additives like bentonite and then shaping them into oval/spherical lumps
of 8-16 mm in diameter by a pelletizer and hardening the balls by firing with a fuel. It is the
process of converting iron ore fines into Uniformed Sized Iron Ore Pellets that can be charged
directly into a blast furnace or into a furnace used in the production of Direct Reduced Iron
(DRI). The pellets are shown in Fig 1
Fig 1 Iron ore pellets

The typical properties of the pellets is given in Table 1
Table 1 Properties of Pellets
Chemical analysis(On dry basis)
Fe
FeO
SiO2 + Al2O3
CaO
MgO
Basicity
Phosphorus
Physical properties
Bulk Density
Tumbler Index
Abrasion Index
Cold Crushing Strength (Avg)
Size analysis
8 16 mm
-5 mm
+16 mm
Metallurgical properties
Porosity
Reducibility
Process technology
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Unit
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
Value
65
0.3
5
0.03
0.06
65
0.05
Tolerance
Minimum
Maximum
Maximum
0.01
0.01
Maximum
Maximum
t/Cum
%
%
Kg/P
2.2
93
3
250
0.2
Minimum
Min 0.5 %
Minimum
%
%
94
2
4
Minimum
Maximum
Maximum
%
%
18
62
Minimum
Minimum\
There are four stages involved in the production of pellets. They are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Raw material preparation.

Formation of green balls or pellets
Induration of the pellets
Cooling, storage and transport of pellets
During the process for pelletization iron ore concentrate from iron ore beneficiation plant is dried
and heated to about 120 deg C. The dried material is fed to the ball mill for grinding. Concentrate
/ ground iron ore of typical size 80% sub 45 microns is required to be at 9% moisture. Suitable
binder (Bentonite) is added to the concentrate and is thoroughly mixed in high intensity mixer.
The wet material is fed to the disc pelletizer which is rotated at a pre determined rpm and at an
inclination. Additional water is sprayed on to the disc in which the material is coagulated and by
continuous rotary motion forms into nodules/ pellets. These pellets are called green pellets as
they do not have the required strength. The process of making of pellets consists of:
Ball Formation Surface tension of water & gravitational force creates pressure on particles, so
they coalesce together & form nuclei which grow in size into ball. The forces responsible for the
agglomeration of iron ore fines are surface tension and capillary action of water and gravitational
forces of particles due their rotation in balling unit. When the solid particles come in contact with
water, the ore surface is wetted and coated with water film. Due to the surface tension of water
film, liquid bridges are formed. As result of the movement of particles inside the balling unit and
of the combination of the individual water droplets containing ore grains, first agglomerates,
called seeds, are formed. The liquid bridges in the interior of these seeds hold them together as in
a network. With the further supply of water, the agglomerates condense and become denser.
Capillary forces of liquid bridges are more active in this stage of green ball formation. The
optimum of this ball formation phase is attended when all the ports inside the balls are filled with
liquid. When the solid particles are fully coated with water, the surface tension of water droplets
becomes fully active dominating the capillary forces. Besides this effect, the rolling movement
of grains and movement or shifting of particles relative to each other plays an important role.
Pelletizing in discs Green pellets with a size range of 8-16 mm are prepared in balling drum or
discs. Discs are preferred to produce quality green pellets as these are easy to control operation
with minimum foot space. The disc is an inclined pan of around 5 to 7.5 meters diameter rotating
at around 6 to 8 rpm. The inclination of disc is around 45 Deg. and it can be adjusted in the offline between 45 deg. to 49 deg. The pre wetted mix is fed into the disc at a controlled rate. Ore
fines are lifted upwards until the friction is overcome by gravity and the material rolls down to
the bottom of the disc. This rolling action first forms small granules called seeds. Growth occurs
in the subsequent revolutions of the disc by the addition of more fresh feeds and by collision
between small pellets. As the pellet grows in size, they migrate to the periphery and to the top of
the bed in the discs, until they overflow the rim. Pellet growth is controlled by the small amount
of water sprayed in the disc and the adjustment in the disc rotational speed. The green pellets are
then screened in a roller screen and the required size material is fed to the traveling grate.
Induration (Heat Hardening) Pellet induration consists of three main steps:
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1. Drying of green pellets.

2. Firing of pellets at around 1300 Deg. C to sinter the iron oxide particles.
3. Cooling of hot pellets before discharging.
During drying (180-350 deg C), moisture content in the green pellet is evaporated. Surface and
interstitial moisture evaporates at lower temperatures where as chemically combined water (as
goethite or limonite) or any hydrate or hydroxide combinations lose their water at slightly higher
temperature. During pre-heating stage (5001100 deg C), decomposition of carbonates and
hydrates takes place. Gasification of solid fuels like coal or coke and conversion of iron oxides
like goethite, siderite to higher oxide state, hematite, also takes place. Commencement of solid
oxide bonding and grain growth are the important steps in this stage. During firing stage (1250 1340 deg C), the temperature is below the melting temperature of major oxide phase but within
the reactivity range of gangue components and additives. Formation of oxides and slag bonds is
decisive in this stage. Bonding of mineral grains developed during induration of pellets is
affected by the following factors:
1. Solid oxide bonding: Oxidation of ferrous iron oxides to ferric iron oxides results in
bonding and bridging, but only to limited amount.
2. Re-crystallization of iron oxides: Essentially a physical process in which smaller particles
consolidate into larger ones with the loss of surface energy. Continued growth of iron
oxide crystals imparts sufficient strength. Grain growth for hematite starts at around 1100
deg C.
3. Slag bonding: Gangue by forming melt transport medium for ferrous or ferric oxides
facilitate grain growth and crystallization of oxide grains. It also enables the mechanism
to proceed at lower temperatures than would be required in its absence.
This treatment (Induration) causes certain chemical reactions to occur that change pellets
specific metallurgical properties. These reactions may include the oxidation of magnetite and
dehydration of earthy hematite. For BF grade fluxed pellets are produced by additions of
limestone, dolomite, silica, etc. to the balling feed. These additions react with the gangue in the
iron ore to enhance the performance of the pellets in certain downstream processing steps.
Pellet cooling and handling The pellets are then cooled and screened. The over size is crushed
and along with the undersized is sent to the stock house bins where they are reprocessed.
Pelletization processes
There are several iron ore pelletizing processes/technologies available. Some of them are Shaft
Furnace Process, Straight Traveling Grate Process, Grate Kiln Process, Cement Bonded Process
(Grangcold Process, MIS Grangcold Process, Char process etc. and Hydrothermal Processes,
(COBO Process, MTU Process, INDESCO Process) etc. However, currently, Straight Traveling
Grate (STG) Process and Grate Kiln (GK) Process are more popular processes
The Straight Travelling Grate process (Fig 2) developed by former Lurgi Metallurgie accounts
for worlds major installed capacities. In this process a double deck roller screen ensures right
size of green pellet (8-16 mm) is evenly distributed across the width of the travelling grate. The
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grate carries the green pellets on a bed 300 mm to 550 mm thick through a furnace with
updrafting, downdraft drying, preheating, firing, after firing and heating zones.
Fig 2 Straight Travelling Grate Process- Typical flow sheet

The Grate Kiln Process was developed by Allis Chalmer and the first plant on this technology
was constructed in 1960. In the Grate-Kiln process (Fig 3) the traveling grate is used to dry and
preheat the pellets. Material moves on straight travelling grate till it attains the temperature of
800C to 1000C. Thereafter it is transferred to refractory lined rotary kiln for induration where
the temperature is further raised up-to 1250 1300C. At 800C, the Magnetite iron Ore gets
converted into Fe2O3 in an exothermic reaction. The liberated heat hardens the green balls which
is helpful to withstand the tumbling impact in the rotary kiln. A circular cooler is used for
cooling of the fired pellets.
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Fig 3 Grate Kiln process Typical flow sheet

A comparison of the two processes is given in the Table 1
Table 1-Comarison between Straight Traveling Grate (STG) and Grate Kiln (GK) Processes
Sl No. Straight Traveling Grate (STG) process
Grate Kiln (GK) Process
1
Drying , preheating, Induration and cooling
Drying , preheating, Induration and cooling
cycle is carried out in a single unit
cycle is carried out in different units
Entire process takes place in three equipments
2
namely travelling grate, rotary kiln and
Green pellets remain undisturbed during the
circular cooler hence pellets transfer takes
process
place.
3
Grate cars moves at the same speed in the
Independent control of the three zones hence
drying , induration and cooling zones. Any
have better operational flexibility
disturbance in one zone affects the other zones
4
Fines generation is negligible since there is no Since material transfer takes place at several
transfer of materials
places hence higher generation of fines
5
There is no strength requirement of
Before transfer to the Kiln the green pellets are
intermediate product
to be sufficiently hardened
6
Process availability is higher
Lower process availability
7
Higher specific energy consumption
Lower specific energy consumption
8
Lesser Maintenance
Higher Maintenance
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9
10
11
Lower dust generation

Higher investment cost
Suited both for hematite and magnetite ores
Higher dust generation

Lower investment cost
Process is more suited for magnetite ores..
A comparison of temperature distribution during the two processes is shown in Fig. 4
Fig 4 Temperature distribution during the two proce

Advantages of Pellets
Iron ore pellet is a kind of agglomerated fines which has better tumbling index when compared
with the iron ore and it can be used as a substitute for the same both in the blast furnace and for
DR production.
1. Pellets have good reducibility since they have high porosity (25-30%). Normally pellets
are reduced considerably faster than sinter as well as iron ore lumps. High porosity also
helps in better metallization in DRI production.
2. Pellets have a uniform size range generally within a range of 8 -16 mm.
3. Pellets have spherical shape and open pores which give them good bed permeability.
4. Pellets have low angle of repose which is a drawback for pellet since it creates uneven
binder distribution.
5. The chemical analysis is uniform since it gets controlled during the beneficiation process.
Fe content varying from 63% to 68% depending on the Fe content of Ore fines. Absence
of LOI is another advantage of the pellets.
6. Pellets have high and uniform mechanical strength and can be transported to long
distances without generation of fines. Further it has got resistance to disintegration. High
mechanical and uniform strength of pellets is even under thermal stress in reducing
atmosphere
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Understanding Pellets and Pellet Plant Operations

Pelletizing is an agglomeration process which converts very fine grained iron ore into balls of a
certain diameter range (normally 8mm to 20 mm, also known as pellets. These pellets are
suitable for blast furnace and direct reduction processes. Pelletizing differs from sintering in that
a green unbaked pellet or ball is formed and then hardened by heating.
Iron ore pellets can be made from beneficiated or run of mine iron ore fines. Lean iron ores are
normally upgraded to a higher iron ore content through beneficiation. This process generates
iron ore filter cake which needs to be pelletized so that it can be used in an iron making process.
Also during the processing of high grade iron ores which do not need beneficiation, generated
fines can be pelletized and used instead of being disposed of.
Pellet plants can be located at mines, near ports or can be attached to steel plants. Equipped with
advanced environmental technology, they are virtually pollution free, generating no solid or
liquid residues.
History of pelletization
The history of pellets began in 1912 when A.G.Andersson, a Swede, invented a pelletizing
method. The commercial use of pellets, however, began in the USA after World War. Various
studies were conducted in USA with the aim of developing the vast reserves of taconite (a low
grade iron ore) in the area around the Great Lakes. The process of enriching taconite ore
involved grinding the ore to remove gangues and upgrading the iron ore (i.e., an ore
beneficiation process). The resultant high grade ore is in the form of fine particles, as small as
0.1 mm or less, which are not suitable for sintering. This issue led to the development of the
pelletizing process.
In 1943, Dr. Davis, a professor at the University of Minnesota, Mines Experiment Station, and
his associates invented a method for processing taconite containing low grade iron ore. Their
invention showed that it was possible to ball or pelletize fine magnetite concentrate in a balling
drum and that if the balls were fired at sufficiently high temperature (usually below the point of
incipient fusion) a hard, indurated pellet well adapted for use in the blast furnace, could be made.
Consequently, despite the unquestioned benefits of sinter on blast furnace (BF) performance,
intense interest in the pelletizing process had developed because of the outstanding performance
achieved by steel plants in extended operations with pellets as the principal iron bearing material
in the blast furnace burden.
Pelletizing plants are expected to play an important role in an era when the global reserve of high
grade lump ore is shrinking. The plants promote the concentrating of low grade iron ores into
upgraded pellets, which will be increasingly used by blast furnaces and direct reduction furnaces
in coming years.
Iron ore pellets
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The iron ore pellets may be acid or basic pellets. Acid pellets are also called as DRI (direct
reduced iron) grade pellets while basic pellets are also known as BF grade or fluxed pellets.
DRI grade pellets Basicity of these pellets is usually less than 0.1. The fired pellet
strength is, to a certain degree, due to the hematite bridges of polycrystalline structure.
These pellets normally have large volume of open pores. The reduction gas quickly
penetrates through these pores into the pellet core and simultaneously attacks the
structure in many places. This results into an early structural change which begins at low
temperatures over the entire pellet volume.
BF grade pellets Basicity of these pellets is greater than 0.1 and can vary. Basicity of
normal basic pellets range from 0.1 to 0.6 and have low CaO percentage. During the
firing of these pellets, a glassy slag phase consisting of SiO2, CaO, and Fe2O3 of varying
percentage is formed. Due to increased flux addition, there is formation of some slag and
due to it, there is to a certain extent slag bonding with iron ore crystals. High basicity
pellets have a basicity level greater than 0.6. These pellets contain higher level of CaO.
These pellets not only have glassy phase consisting mainly of SiO2, CaO, and Fe2O3, but
also calcium ferrites (CaO.Fe2O3). During firing of these pellets, the availability of CaO
considerably favours the crystal growth of hematite. These pellets normally have a high
mechanical strength after pellet firing. Fluxed pellets exhibits good strength, improved
reducibility, swelling and softening melting characteristics. Because of these properties
these pellets give better performance in the blast furnace.
Quality of the pellets is influenced by the nature of the ore or concentrate, associated gangue,
type and amount of fluxes added. These factors in turn result in the variation of physicochemical
properties of the coexisting phases and their distribution during the pellet induration. Hence
properties of the pellets are largely governed by the form and degree of bonding achieved
between the ore particles and the stability of these bonding phases during reduction of iron
oxides. Since the formation of phases and microstructure during induration depends on the type
and amount of fluxes added, there is an effect of fluxing agents in terms of CaO/SiO2 ratio and
MgO content on the pellet quality.
Mineralogically pellets comprise essentially hematite (original surviving) particles of iron ore,
crystalline silica (quartz, cristobalite and tridymite) and forsterite (Mg2SiO4). The principle
variation in pellet mineralogy is in the proportion of gangue phases present in the product. These
will vary depending upon the pellet feed material and the type and the amount of any additives to
feed such as limestone, dolomite, olivine and bentonite etc.
The strength of iron ore pellets is important in minimizing degradation by breakage and abrasion
during handling and shipping, and in the blast furnace. Strong bonding in pellets is believed to be
due to grain growth from the accompanying oxidation of magnetite to hematite, or
recrystallization of hematite. Although slag bonding may promote more rapid strengthening at
slightly lower firing temperatures, pellet strength is normally decreased, especially resistance to
thermal shock. Pellet strength is most commonly determined by compression and tumble tests.
Compressive strengths of individual pellets depend upon the mineralogical composition and
physical properties of the concentrate, the additives used, the balling method, pellet size, firing
technique and temperature, and testing procedure. The compressive strengths of commercially
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acceptable pellets are usually in the range of 200 to 350 kg for pellets in the size range of 9 mm
to 18 mm. In the tumbler test 11.4 kg of +6 mm pellets are tumbled for 200 revolutions at 25 rpm
in a drum tumbler(ASTM E279-65T) and then screened. A satisfactory commercial pellet should
contain no more than about 5 % of minus 0.6 mm (minus 28 mesh) fines, and 94 % or more of
plus 6 mm size, after tumbler testing. A minimum of broken pellets between 6 mm and 0.6 mm
in size is also desirable. Other important properties of the pellets to be used for blast furnace feed
are reducibility, porosity, and bulk density. With some concentrates these can be varied within
certain limits.
Palletization process
A pelletizing plant normally has four process steps namely (i) receipt of raw materials, (ii)
pretreatment, (iii) balling, and (iv) induration and cooling. These process steps are described
below.
Receipt of raw materials
The location of a pelletizing plant affects the method of receiving raw materials such as iron ore,
additives and binders. Many pelletizing plants are located near iron ore mines. This is because
these plants are installed to pelletize the iron ores which are beneficiated at these mines. Such
plants receive the iron ore by rail and/or slurry pipelines. Many other pelletizing plants are
installed away from the iron ore mines. These plants are independent of iron ore mines. These
plants receive iron ore mostly by rails. some plant may receive by long distance slurry pipeline.
In pelletizing plants located at port which are dependent on imported iron ore, the receiving
method involves the transportation of the ore in a dedicated ship, unloading the ore at a quay and
stockpiling it in a yard. Iron ore is usually shipped for such plants in bulk for maximum
economy.
Pretreatment process
In the pretreatment process, the iron ore is ground into fines having sizes required for the
subsequent balling process. The pretreatment includes concentrating, dewatering, grinding,
drying and pre-wetting. Generally low grade iron ores are ground into fines for enriching the
quality of the ore, for removing gangues containing sulfur and phosphorus, and for controlling
the size of the grains. In the case of magnetite ores, magnetic separators are employed for
upgrading and gangue removal. On the other hand , with hematite ores, these operations are
accomplished by gravity beneficiation, flotation, and/or wet-type, high intensity magnetic
separators. The grinding methods can be categorized roughly as per the following three aspects.
Dry grinding or wet grinding
Closed circuit grinding or open circuit grinding
Grinding in single stage or grinding in multiple stages
These methods are used in combination depending on the types and characteristics of the iron
ores and the mixing ratio, as well as taking into account the economic factors. Wet grinding
systems need dewatering units with a thickener and filter, while dry grinding systems requires
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pre-wetting units. Pre-wetting is usually associated with dry grinding. Pre-wetting includes
addition of an adequate amount of water homogeneously into the dry-ground material to prepare
pre-wetted material suitable for balling. This is a process for adjusting the characteristics of the
material that significantly affect pellet quality. Occasionally, the chemical composition of the
product pellets is also adjusted in this process to produce high quality pellets.
Binders, such as bentonite, clay, hydrated lime or an organic binder, are generally used to raise
the wet strength of green balls to more acceptable levels for handling. Bentonite consumption at
the rate of 6.310 kg per ton of feed is a significant cost element and adds to the silica content of
the final product.
Addition of lime and/or dolomite to the ore adjusts the pellets so as to have the target chemical
composition.
Considerable efforts have been made for the reduction of the bentonite usage and for the
development of cheaper substitutes. The ballability and strength of green balls are influenced by
the additives and by the moisture content and particle size distribution of the concentrates.
Optimum moisture content for good balling is usually in the range of 9 % to 12 %. It appears that
balling characteristics are relatively independent of the chemical composition of a concentrate,
but are strongly affected by its physical properties. For example, specular hematites are more
difficult to ball than magnetite concentrates because of the plate like structure of the specular
hematite particles. In any case, satisfactory pellet formation is usually achieved by grinding to
about 80 % to 90 % minus 43 micro meter ( minus 325 mesh). Normally, any material
considered for pelletizing should contain at least 70 % minus 43 micro meter (minus 325 mesh)
and have a specific surface area (Blaine) greater than 1200 sq cm/gram for proper balling
characteristics.
Balling process
In this process, balling equipment produces green balls from the pre-wetted material prepared in
the previous process. The balling drum and the disc pelletizer are the most widely used devices
for forming green balls. Both of the units utilize centrifugal force to form the fine materials into
spheroids.
The green balls produced by a drum are not uniform in diameter. A significant portion of the
discharge (about 70 %) is smaller than target size and are usually returned to the drum after
screening. It is difficult to adjust the drum operation for varying raw material conditions. The
operation, however, is stable for uniform raw material conditions (chemical composition, particle
size, moisture, etc.).
Compared with the balling drum, the disc pelletizer has the advantages of lighter weight and
greater possibility for adjustment. Its inherent design averages out the effect of instantaneous
fluctuations in the feed, whereas the drum cannot. The disc pelletizer classifies green balls by
itself, reducing the amount of pellets returned. The classifying action of the disc promotes
discharge of balls of more uniform size, which simplifies screening of the product. The operation
of the disc pelletizer can easily be adjusted for varying raw material conditions by changing the
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revolution, inclined angle and depth of the disc. However, the capacity of the discs is low and
discs generally require closer control than drums.
Best control of ball size is achieved when the balling device is in closed circuit with a screen to
remove and recycle the undersize material. Both the drop and compressive strengths of green
pellets are important.
Induration process
The firing of pellets establishes the binding of hematite particles at an elevated temperature
ranging from 1250 deg C to 1350 deg C in oxidizing condition. Slag with a low melting point
may form in the pellets during this firing step, if the raw material contains fluxed gangue, or if
limestone is added to it. In these cases, the product may have an intermediate structure with both
hematite binding and slag binding. The firing process is characterized by process temperatures
lower than those required by sintering which requires partially melting and sintering fine ore
mixed with coke breeze, a fuel which generates combustion heat.
Three systems are normally used for the induration of pellets. They are namely (i) vertical shaft
furnace system, (ii) straight grate or travelling grate system, and (iii) grate kiln cooler system.
Each system has been used commercially to make acceptable quality pellets and thus, capital and
operating cost factors are usually involved in choosing one or the other system.
Oxidation of magnetite to hematite during pelletizing will provide a significant proportion,
around 100 M cal per ton of the heat requirement in all of the systems. For pelletizing of
hematites, the use of coke breeze (or some carbon source) in the pellet feed mixture has become
a common practice to provide the additional indurating energy normally provided by magnetite
oxidation.
Vertical shaft furnace system is the most traditional facility. However, vertical shaft furnaces are
not as common as the traveling grate or grate kiln systems. There are several variations in shaft
furnace design but the most common is the Erie type, shown in Fig. 1. Green balls are charged at
the top and descend through the furnace at a rate of 25 to 40 mm per minute countercurrent to the
flow of hot gases. About 25 % of the total air enters the furnace through the hot gas inlet at
temperatures from 1280 deg C to 1300 deg C. Pellets in this zone of the furnace reach
temperatures of 1315 deg C or higher because exothermic heat is released when the magnetite
oxidizes to hematite, increasing the temperature. The remaining 75 % of the furnace air enters
via the cooling air inlet. Pellets discharge at about 370 deg C, and the top gas temperature is
around 200 deg C. Typical furnace capacities are 1000 to 2000 tons per day.
Shaft furnaces are more energy efficient than the traveling grate or grate-kiln systems. The shaft
furnace is well suited for pelletizing magnetite, but not hematitic or limonitic ore materials.
Disadvantages of shaft furnaces are low unit productivity and difficulty in maintaining uniform
temperature in the combustion zone. Hot spots may occur which cause pellets to fuse together
into large masses, producing discharge problems. It is also very difficult to produce fluxed
pellets in a shaft furnace. Typical schematic diagram of vertical shaft furnace system is shown in
Fig 1.
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Fig 1 Typical schematic diagram of vertical shaft and grate-kiln systems

A straight grate system emerged in the industry soon after the shaft furnaces. It is essentially a
modification of the sintering process. The green balls are fed onto the grate continuously to give
a bed depth of around 300 mm to 400 mm and are dried in the first few wind boxes by updraft air
recuperated from the firing zone, followed by downdraft drying using recuperated air from the
cooler. This arrangement of hot air flows limits pellet damage resulting from condensation of
moisture in the bed. Following drying, the pellets are preheated by downdraft air from the
cooling zone. Firing is done downdraft in the combustion zone by burning fuel oil or natural gas
with hot air from the cooling zone. The cooling zone follows the combustion zone and uses
updraft fresh air.
The traveling grate system for producing pellets consists of a single unit which moves a static
layer of pellets. The system has a simple structure for drying, preheating, firing and cooling
pellets. Due to its relative ease of operation, along with ease of scaling-up, makes the system
used by many plants.
Fuel consumption in the traveling grate system is about 85-140 M cal per ton of pellets produced
from magnetite and up to 240 M cal per ton when pelletizing hematite. The system offers good
temperature control in the firing zone. Pellet consistency throughout the bed may be achieved by
recirculating some fired pellets to form hearth and side layers on the grate. The large grate
machines are 4 m wide and are capable of producing more than 3 million tons of pellets per year.
Circular grate machines have also been designed and are in operation. A typical schematic
diagram of the straight grate system is shown in Fig 2.
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Fig 2 Typical schematic diagram of straight grate system

The grate-kiln system depicted in Fig 1 consists of a traveling grate for drying and preheating the
pellets to about 1040 deg C, a rotary kiln for uniformly heating the throughput to the final
induration temperature of 1315 deg C, and an annular cooler for cooling the product and heat
recuperation. Heat for firing is supplied by a central oil, gas, coal or waste wood burner at the
discharge end of the kiln. Hot gases produced in the kiln are used for downdraft preheating of the
pellets. Hot air from the cooler is used to support combustion in the kiln and is also recuperated
to the traveling grate for drying and tempering preheat.
The grate-kiln system offers excellent temperature control in all stages of the process and
produces a consistently uniform quality pellet. Fuel consumption is 75 M cal to 100 M cal per
ton of standard pellets produced when using magnetite ore, and up to 170 M cal per ton of
standard pellets produced when the feed is hematite. These fuel consumption numbers increase
by 60 M cal per ton when producing fluxed pellets. Power consumption, from balling to pellet
load out, is around 23 kWh per ton.
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The grate-kiln system is easy to control, and the product pellets have a uniform quality. It can
also be scaled up to a fairly large degree. Grate-kiln systems can be designed for production
capacities up to 6 million tons per year per line. These systems are used by many plants.
Pelletizing processes are being improved constantly. The production of self-fluxing pellets is an
example of an innovation that has been accepted on a commercial scale and has led to major
advances in blast furnace performance. Other articles on pellets and pelletization process are
available under following links.
Use of Iron Ore Pellets in Blast Furnace Burden
Pelletizing is a process that involves mixing very finely ground particles of iron ore fines of size
less than 200 mesh with additives like bentonite and then shaping them into oval/spherical lumps
of 8-20 mm in diameter by a pelletizer and hardening the balls by firing with a fuel. It is the
process of converting iron ore fines into uniformed sized iron ore pellets that can be charged
directly into a blast furnace. Fig 1 shows iron ore pellets.
Fig 1 Iron ore pellets

There are several iron ore pelletizing processes/technologies available. However, currently,
straight traveling grate (STG) process and grate kiln (GK) process are more popular processes.
The physical properties of iron ore pellets are given below.
Size 8-20 mm
pH (40 gm/L, 20 deg C; slurry in water) 5.0 8.0
Melting point 1500-1600 deg C
Bulk density 2.0 -2.2 t/Cum
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Tumbler index (+6.3 mm) 93-94 %
Abrasion index (-0.5 mm) 5-6 %
Compression strength (daN/p) Around 250
Porosity > 18 %
The chemical analysis of iron ore pellets is given below.

BF grade
DRI grade
Fe
63 65.5
65 -67.8
SiO2 + Al2O3
<5
<5
CaO + MgO
Up to 3
Up to 0.10
P, max
0.05
0.05
S, max
0.01
0.01
Basicity, min
0.5
Disintegration (-3.15 mm) %
Swelling Index
13-18
Reducibility
65
Different ISO standard tests for pellets are given in Tab 1

Tab 1 ISO standard tests used for BF pellets
ISO standard test
Measurement values Purpose
ISO 4700 /Crushing strength
daN
Pellet cold strength
ISO 3271 /Tumble strength
Fractions +6.3 mm and - Tendency for abrasion
0.5 mm
ISO 13930 / Low temperature
Fractions +6.3, -3.15 and Tendency for low temperature
reduction disintegration
-0.5 mm
degradation
ISO 4698 /Free swelling
Volume %
Increase Tendency for swelling
ISO 4695 / Reducibility
Reduction rate at 40 % Reducibility
reduced
ISO 7992 / Reduction under load 1. Reduction rate at 40 %Reducibility, Softening / melting
reduced
behaviour
2. Pressure drop at 80 %
reduced
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3. Bed shrinkage at 80 %
reduced
oxides in the blast furnace. Since the formation of phases and micro structure during induration
depends on the type and amount of fluxes added, there is an effect of fluxing agents in terms of
CaO/SiO2 ratio and MgO content on the pellet quality.
History of use of iron ore pellet in blast furnace
The history of pellets began in 1912 when A.G. Andersson, a Swede, invented a pelletizing
method.
The commercial use of pellets, however, began in the USA after World War 2. Various studies
were conducted with the aim of developing the vast reserves of taconite in the area around the
Great Lakes. In 1943, Dr. Davis, a professor at the University of Minnesota, Mines Experiment
Station, invented a method for processing taconite containing low grade iron ore. His process
involved grinding taconite to remove gangues and upgrading the iron ore (i.e., an ore
beneficiation process). The resultant high grade ore is in the form of fine particles, as small as
0.1 mm or less, which are not suitable for sintering. This issue led to the development of
pelletizing of these fine particles. Pelletizing plants today play an important role in an era when
the global reserve of high grade lump ore is shrinking. The plants promote the concentrating of
low grade ore into upgraded pellets, which are increasingly being used by blast furnaces and
direct reduction furnaces.
The US iron making has historically been based to a large extent on pellets primarily because all
the local iron ores needed beneficiation (up grading) by grinding it to fine particles (< 0.1 mm)
and agglomerating these fines into pellets but also because sinter plants are not used due to
environmental reasons.
Iron ore pellets are now the single largest source of iron for North American blast furnaces.
Pellets constitute about 70 % of the blast furnace burden. Initially acid pellets (DRI grades) were
produced and used in blast furnaces.
In the mid 1980s, a number of pelletizing and blast furnace trials were conducted to evaluate the
benefits of limestone dolomite fluxed pellets. Towards the end of the decade, fluxed pellets had
been firmly established as a major product, accounting for about 30 % of North Americas pellet
production.
The transition to fluxed pellets involved many changes in plant equipment (e.g., flux grinding
mills, pre-heat burners) and practices. Each pellet plant has customized the fluxed pellet
chemistry to meet its customers blast furnace operation. As a result, there are pellet plants
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producing as many as four grades of pellets. In North America, pellets have changed from a
commodity in the early 1970s to a custom made product, meeting a customers specific most
demanding specifications in the 1990s. North American fluxed pellets are now equivalent to the
best sinter in terms of reducibility and softening meltdown properties and are superior in terms of
strength and low temperature breakdown (LTD/RDI).
Advantages of pellets
Iron ore pellet can be used as a substitute to sinter and calibrated lump ore in the blast furnace
burden due to the following properties.
Spherical shape and open pores of pellets gives better and uniform permeability resulting
in smoother furnace operation. Pellets have a uniform size range generally within a range
of 8 20 mm.
Pellets have very high cold crushing strength resulting in negligible generation of fines in
stock house.
High porosity (greater than 18 %) leads to faster reduction
High strength of pellet (around 250 daN/p ) provides good resistance to disintegration
during the descent of burden. It has better tumbling index when compared with the
calibrated iron ore.
Uniform chemical composition compared to calibrated lump ore. Absence of LOI is
another advantage of the pellets.
The swelling index of pellets is an Important of metallurgical property. Swelling indicates
volume change of pellets during reduction. The volume expansion of pellets during the reduction
results in lower compressive strength of pellets. High swelling inside the furnace causes increase
in volume of the pallet which in turn decreases voids in charge. This Impedes gas flow in the
furnace and results into pressure drop. This in turn causes burden hanging and slipping inside the
blast furnace. The addition of dolomite is favorable for the improvement in swelling property of
pellets. Maximum allowable swelling of pellets for the blast furnace ranges from 16 % to 18 %.
Acid pellets (DRI pellets) and MgO free pellets exhibit higher swelling.
Fluxed pellets can be produced as equivalent to the best sinter in terms of reducibility and
softening meltdown properties and are superior in terms of strength and low temperature
breakdown (LTD/RDI). Fluxed pellets exhibit good strength, improved reducibility, swelling and
softening melting characteristics. Because of these properties fluxed pellets give better
performance in the blast furnace.
Metallics in BF burden
Sinter, pellet and the calibrated lump ores are the three iron bearing metallics normally used in
the blast furnace burden. Uses of all the three metallics in blast furnace burden can vary from
zero to hundred percent with adjustment of the furnace parameters. These three metallics can be
used in any combination of two metallics or three metallics. There is no standard formula for the
choice of metallics. The choice of metallics depends on several factors varying from plant to
plant. Some of the factors influencing the choice of metallics are given below.
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Availability of the metallic material of correct specification

Metallurgical properties of metallic materials such as the reducibility, thermal
decrepitation properties and softening properties
Relative cost of the metallic material
Effect of the use of metallic on the overall production cost of hot metal
Possibility of adjustment of various furnace parameters such as distribution pattern, fuel
rate etc.
Possibility of adjustment in process control parameters
Facilities available in furnace stock house
Availability of captive sinter plant
Type of iron ore available in the captive mine or nearby area of the blast furnace
Issues related with the smooth operation of the BF without hanging and slipping
Issues related to environment
Pellets in blast furnace can be used from 0 % to 100 %. There is no standard solution for
increasing the pellet content in the blast furnace burden. Every location and each furnace will
have different issues which need to be identified, analyzed and solutions are to be found for to
arrive at the maximum amount of the pellet content which can be used in the BF burden. The
objective should always be to have trouble free blast furnace operation at the lowest possible cost
of production for the hot metal.
Iron ore pellets

Iron ore pellet is a type of agglomerated iron ore fines which has better tumbler index when
compared with that of parent iron ore and can be used as a substitute of lump ore for the
production of direct reduced iron (DRI) and in blast furnaces for the production of hot metal. The
term iron ore pellets refers to the thermally agglomerated substance formed by heating a variable
mixture of iron ore, limestone, olivine, bentonite, dolomite and miscellaneous iron bearing
materials in the range of 1250 deg C to 1350 deg C. Iron ore pellets are normally produced in
two types of grades namely DRI grade and BF grade. BF grade pellets have higher basicity than
the DRI grade. The general identification details of iron ore pellets are given Tab 1.
Tab 1 Identification details of Iron ore pellets
Chemical name
Iron ores, agglomerates
Other names
Iron ore pellets, iron oxide pellets
CAS No.
65996-65-8
EINECS No.
265-996-3
Molecular formula
Fe2O3
Molecular weight (gram/mole)
159.7
Synonyms
Di iron trioxide
Mineral of identical or similar
Hematite
composition
Other identity code: Related CAS No. Hematite (Fe2O3) 1317-60-8
01- 2119474335-36-0013
REACH (Registration, Evaluation,
Authorization, and restriction of
Chemicals) registration No.
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DRI pellets donot contain CaO while BF grade pellets are fluxing pellets containing CaO. For
BF grade pellets reducibility and swelling index are important properties while for DRI grade
disintegration is an important property. The properties of pallets are given in Tab 2.
Tab 2 Properties of pellets
Size
8-20 mm
Appearance
Granular
Colour
Dark grey
Odour
Odourless
pH (40 gm/L,20Deg C; slurry in 5.0 8.0
water)
Melting point
1500-1600 deg C
Bulk density
2.0 -2.2 t/Cum
Water solubility
Insoluble
Oil solubility
Insoluble
Tumbler index (+6.3 mm)
93-94 %
Abrasion index (-0.5 mm)
5-6 %
Compression strength (daN/p) 250 min
Size distribution (+8mm -18
95 % min
mm)
Size distribution (-5 mm)
1.50%
Porosity
18%
The chemical analysis of pellets are given in Tab 3

Tab 3 Chemical analysis of pellets
BF grade
DRI grade
Fe
%
63 65.5
65 -67.8
SiO2 + Al2O3 %
<5
<5
CaO + MgO
%
Up to 3
Up to 0.10
P, max
%
0.05
0.05
S, max
%
0.01
0.01
Basicity, min
%
0.5
Disintegration (- %
2
3.15 mm)
Swelling Index %
13-18
Reducibility
%
65
oxides. Since the formation of phases and microstructure during induration depends on the type
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and amount of fluxes added, there is an effect of fluxing agents in terms of CaO/SiO2 ratio and
MgO content on the pellet quality. Other factors which have effect on pellet quality are given
below.
Cold crushing strength of pellets found to increase with increasing firing temperature.
Decrease of mean particle size (MPS) does not have a relationship with the pellet
strength, but it reduces the porosity of the pellet.
Fluxed pellets exhibits good strength, improved reducibility, swelling and softening
melting characteristics. Because of these properties these pellets give better performance
in the blast furnace.
Swelling indicates volume change of pellets during reduction. Higher swelling reduces
the strength of the pellets after their reduction thereby resulting in high resistance to gas
flow, burden hanging and slipping indiside the blast furnace. Maximum allowable
swelling of pellets for the blast furnace ranges from 16 -18 %.
Acid pellets (DRI pellets) and MgO free pellets exhibit higher swelling at 0.6 basicity
and decreased thereafter.
Mineralogically iron ore pellets comprise essentially hematite (original surviving) particles of
iron ore, crystalline silica (quartz, cristobalite and tridymite) and forsterite (Mg2SiO4). The
principle variation in pellet mineralogy is in the proportion of gangue phases present in the
product. These will vary depending upon the pellet feed material and the type and the amount of
any additives to feed such as limestone, dolomite, olivine and bentonite etc.
The mosaic image of cross section of a pellet is shown in Fig 1. The radial variation of phases,
especially pores, is readily visible in the image.
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Fig. 1 Mosaic image of pellet cross section

Advantages of Pellets
Iron ore pellet has the following advantages.
1. Pellets have good reducibility since they have high porosity (25-30%). Normally pellets
are reduced considerably faster than sinter as well as iron ore lumps. High porosity also
helps in better metallization in DRI production.
2. Pellets have a uniform size range generally within a range of 8 -18 mm.
3. Pellets have spherical shape and open pores which give them good bed permeability.
4. Pellets have low angle of repose which is a drawback for pellet since it creates uneven
binder distribution.
5. The chemical analysis is uniform since it gets controlled during the beneficiation process.
Fe content varying from 63% to 68% depending on the Fe content of Ore fines. Absence
of LOI is another advantage of the pellets.
6. Pellets have high and uniform mechanical strength and can be transported to long
distances without generation of fines. Further it has got resistance to disintegration. High
mechanical and uniform strength of pellets is even under thermal stress in reducing
atmosphere.
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Iron Ore Pellets and Pelletization Process

Pelletizing of iron ore was started in the 1950s to facilitate the utilization of finely ground iron
ore concentrates in steel production. For the pelletizing of iron ore there are two main types of
processes namely, the straight travelling grate (STG) process and the grate kiln (GK) process. In
the STG process, a stationary bed of pellets is transported on an endless travelling grate through
the drying, oxidation, sintering and cooling zones. In the GK process, drying and most of the
oxidation is accomplished in a stationary pellet bed transported on a travelling grate. Thereafter,
the pellets are loaded in a rotary kiln for sintering and then on a circular cooler for cooling.
The pelletizing processes are discussed in the article under the link http://ispatguru.com/iron-orepellets-and-pelletizing-processes/.
The pellets may be acid or fluxed pellets.
Acid pellets Basicity of acid pellets is usually less than 0.1. The fired pellet strength is,
to a certain degree, due to hematite bridges of polycrystalline structure. These pellets
normally have large volume of open pores. The reduction gas quickly penetrates through
these pores into the pellet core and simultaneously attacks the structure in many places.
This results into an early structural change which begins at low temperatures over the
entire pellet volume.
Fluxed pellets These are also known as basic pellets. Basicity of fluxed pellets is
greater than 0.1 and can vary. Basicity of normal basic pellets range from 0.1 to 0.6 and
have low CaO percentage. During the firing of these pellets, a glassy slag phase
consisting of SiO2, CaO, and Fe2O3 of varying percentage is formed. Due to increased
flux addition, there is formation of some slag and due to it, there is to a certain extent slag
bonding with iron ore crystals. High basicity pellets have a basicity level greater than 0.6.
These pellets contain higher level of CaO. These pellets not only have glassy phase
consisting mainly of SiO2, CaO, and Fe2O3, but also calcium ferrites (CaO.Fe2O3).
During firing of these pellets, the availability of CaO considerably favours the crystal
growth of hematite. These pellets normally have a high mechanical strength after pellet
firing.
Pellets plants are normally integrated with the iron ore beneficiation plants. In case they are not
integrated then concentrated iron ore in slurry form is usually pumped to the pellet plant by
slurry pipelines. Pellets plants based on rich iron ore fines are rare and not very economical. The
entire pelletizing process can be divided into two main segments of sub processes namely (i) the
segment of the cold sub processes and (ii) the segment of the hot sub processes.
The segment of the cold processes has the following sub processes.
Slurry tank for storage of concentrated iron ore slurry from beneficiation plant. The
particle size of iron ore in the ore slurry is less than 45 micro meter for around 80 % of
the particles.
Additive materials (such as dolomite, limestone, lime or olivine etc. depending on the
quality of the pellet to be produced) is added to the slurry.
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Majority of the water is removed from the slurry by use of filters. The water content of
the iron ore after filtering is around 9 %.
A mixer is used for the addition of the binder (bentonite or organic binder) for obtaining
sufficient mechanical strength of the green pellets
Pelletizing discs or balling drums are used for the production of green pellets. Pelletizing
discs are more popular for the production of green pellets.
Vibrating screens are normally used for separating different fractions of green pellets.
Undersized pellets are recycled back to the process, while the oversized pellets are
crushed before their recycling.
The rest is on sized (8 mm to 16 mm) pellets which are transported on a conveyor to the
drying process in the segment of hot processes.
The segment of the hot processes has the following sub processes.
Drying furnace to remove most of the water content of the green pellets by flow of hot air
through the bed. Dried pellets then enters the pelletizing furnace.
The dried pellets are fired (1250 deg C to 1300 deg C) in the pelletizing furnace for
converting the green pellets into the final product
Cooling of the hot hardened pellets to around 200 deg C is carried out in cooler by
blowing cold air.
Most of the above sub processes are operated these days with the help of control techniques
using automatic controls. Some of the sub processes depend highly on a well functioning of the
preceding sub process. For example, if the particle size is too large, or the fines are too dry, or
the drying is not working, then no pellets can be produced. A less critical situation is when some
segments are working sub optimally. As an example If the process in which binder is added the
mixing of binder is not uniform, then the process for the formation of green pellet suffers. Hence
the iron ore pelletizing process is a chain of several sub-processes which depends highly upon
each others performance.
The addition of binder to the ore serves two main objectives They are (i) to make the ore plastic
so that it can nucleate seeds which grows into well formed pellets, and (ii) to hold the pellet
together during handling, drying and preheating or until it has been sufficiently strengthened by
hardening during firing. The optimum binder should produce high quality pellets at a minimum
cost and introduce as little contaminants as possible. The binder is also to be non-toxic, easy to
handle and should not require an advanced feeding system. Small additions of bentonite promote
bonding by the formation of ceramic bonds and by greater compaction of the particles during the
rolling of green balls.
The quality of green pellets depends on input parameters like mineralogy, chemistry and
granulometry of ore fines, balling parameters like feed particle size, amount of water added
during pelletization, disc rotating speed, inclination angle of disc bottom and residence time of
materials in the disc etc.
In green pellets, water plays an important role. It agglomerates the ore and performs the function
of binding liquid. Wet agglomerates can exist in a number of different states depending on the
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amount of the water present. These are shown schematically in Fig. 1. Binding liquid filling
degree or liquid saturation describes the portion of the pore volume which is filled with binding
liquid.
Fig 1 Schematic presentation of different state of wet agglomerate

At low saturations, the particles are held together by liquid bridges (pendular bonds, pendular
state). In the state of tension (funicular), both liquid filled capillaries and liquid bridges co-exist.
In the capillary state, all capillaries are filled with liquid and concave surfaces are formed in the
pore openings due to the capillary forces.
The droplet state occurs when the agglomerate is kept together by the cohesive force of the
liquid. In the pseudo-droplet state unfilled voids remain trapped inside the droplet. A common
feature is that
in the capillary and droplet states, either concave capillary openings or free superficial water,
over the whole agglomerate outer surface are expected. The capillary theory for wet agglomerate
strength is well established now.
Additives have been employed to improve both the operation and the economics of the
pelletization process. Lime (CaO) and hydrated lime [Ca(OH)2] proved to be beneficial additives
during pellet production. The green and dry as well as fired pellet properties were significantly
improved with the addition of lime or hydrated lime
The physical and metallurgical quality of the product pellets broadly depends on green pellet
quality, type and amount of binders, fluxes and additives used, and induration parameters such as
firing conditions (temperatures and time etc.). Ingredients of the green pellets react together,
during firing, to form in the product pellets different phases and microstructures.
The type and amount of these phases, their chemistry and distribution plays a vital role in
deciding the metallurgical properties of the product pellets during reduction in the subsequent
iron making process. Studies of green pellets and induration of magnetite and high grade
hematite iron ore fines with low alumina have been carried out in different parts of the world.
But the results of these studies cannot be directly interpreted to iron ores with higher amount of
alumina (Al2O3) due to the difference in chemistry and mineralogy. Iron ore fines with
comparatively high Al2O3 content exhibit different pelletizing characteristics.
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As for the firing of hematite iron ores, more heat is required to be supplied from external sources
due to the absence of the following exothermic reaction of oxidation of magnetite.
4FeO + O2 = 2Fe2O3
The energy consumption needed for the pellet production from hematite ore fines is greater than
that needed for pelletizing the magnetite ore fines. Moreover, pellets made from hematite ores
have poor roasting properties and do not achieve adequate physical strength until the roasting
temperature is higher than 1300 deg C. It is observed that the hematite particles and pellet
structure keep their original shapes if the temperature is below 1200 deg C. The size of hematite
particles do not get enlarged, nor the Fe2O3 crystal lattice defects are eliminated until the
temperature is higher than 1300 deg C. At high temperatures, initial connecting bridges are
formed between crystal grains and recrystallization of Fe2O3 occurs. However, if the roasting
temperature is of greater than 1350 deg C, then it is detrimental as Fe2O3 decomposes to Fe3O4
as expressed by the following reaction and this adversely results in the loss of pellet quality.
6Fe2O3= 4Fe3O4+O2
The thermodynamic of this reaction indicates that decomposition temperature of Fe2O3
increases with increasing oxygen partial pressure. Hence excessive high firing temperature and
low oxygen partial pressure is to be avoided to prevent the decomposition of Fe2O3. Thus, it is
necessary to maintain a higher roasting temperature for hematite pellets as well as narrower
firing temperature range. This makes difficult the operation of firing equipments.
To enhance the induration of hematite pellets, both magnetite-addition and carbon burdened
methods are found to be the favourable techniques in practice.
In case of pelletization of the magnetite ores, when a pellet starts to oxidize, a shell of hematite is
formed while the pellet core is still magnetite. Thermal volume changes in these two phases
indicates that sintering in the magnetite phase starts earlier (950 deg C) compared to the hematite
phase (1100 deg C). The difference in sintering rates between the magnetite and hematite phases
is more at around 1100 deg C. The sintering rate increases in both the phases with increasing
fineness in the magnetite concentrate. A finer grind in the raw material, therefore, promotes the
formation of the unwanted duplex structures with a more heavily sintered core pulling off from
the shell. At constant original porosity in green pellets, the oxidation rate decreases as the
magnetite concentrate becomes finer, because of the enhanced sintering. However, in practical
balling, finer raw materials necessitates the use of more water in balling, which results in an
increase in green pellet porosity. These two opposite effects level out and the oxidation time
becomes constant. Under industrial process conditions, differences in the duplex structure is still
expected. This is because only partial oxidation takes place before induration.
The addition of lime (CaO) to the iron ore fines slightly decreases the productivity of green
pellets, but increases the drop resistance and the compressive strength of green pellets. Further
the strength of the pellets is directly proportion with the shrinkage that takes place during firing
of the pellets. In case of fluxed pellets, the addition of lime increases pellet shrinkage and hence
increases pellet strength. This is due to the interaction between lime, silica and iron oxide
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forming calcium silicate and calcium ferrites. The addition of lime results into the sintering of
fine hematite particles supported by very localized secondary mineral bonding near original lime
particles sites. With the increasing of both the temperature and the lime concentration more slag
is formed which consolidates the structure and lowers the accessible porosity.
Use of hydrated lime [Ca(OH)2] has a positive influence on the drop resistance and compressive
strength of green and dry pellets. Also there is a good influence of Ca(OH)2 on the final strength
of fired pellets.
The addition of Ca(OH)2 results in a decrease the efficiency of bentonite as a binder by replacing
of the more efficient sodium ion with calcium ion, converting it to the more calcic and less
efficient one, leading to deterioration of the pellet properties. hence in some cases it is not
desirable to add more than one binder at the same time during the pelletization process since it
may results into deterioration of the pellet properties instead of their enhancement. After a
certain amount of Ca(OH)2 is added, some enhancement in pellet properties is achieved which
can be attributed to the effect of Ca(OH)2 as binder during the pelletization process. The kinetics
of reduction of the pellets containing 0.4 % of bentonite and 4 % Ca(OH)2, having the highest
physico-chemical properties, shows that the reduction of these pellets is controlled by interfacial
chemical reaction.
Iron Ore Agglomeration Processes and their Historical Development

There are four types of agglomerating processes which have been developed (Fig 1). They are (i)
briquetting, (ii) nodulizing, (iii) sintering, and (iv) pelletizing.
Fig 1 Agglomeration processes

Briquetting is the simplest and earliest applied process. Fine grained iron ores are pressed in to
pillow shaped briquettes with the addition of some water or some other binder under high
mechanical compressive pressure. In the nodulizing process, fines or concentrate along with
carbonaceous material are passed through inclined rotary kiln heated by gas or oil. The
temperature inside the kiln is sufficient to soften but not high enough to fuse the ore. The nodules
vary considerably in composition and are too dense, slaggy, lack required porosity and hence this
process could not find great favour. Briquetting and nodulizing are cold binding processes and
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mostly used for the recycling of recovered iron ore wastes in the steel plant. Sintering and
pelletizing are the processes of major importance for the iron production.
During 2014, as per World Steel Association, the production of blast furnace iron and direct
reduced iron were 1183 million tons and 73 million tons respectively. Most of this production
has come from iron ore in the form of sinter and pellet. While the preferred feedstock for blast
furnace iron is sinter and/or pellets, that of direct reduced iron is pellets only. Though accurate
production data for sinter and pellets are not compiled, but world production of sinter and pellets
together can be safely estimated to be well over 1300 million tons per year to support the iron
production of 1256 million tons.
Historically, the feedstock for the world?s blast furnaces was naturally occurring lump ores.
During the mining of iron ores, large amounts were getting generated. These fines since could
not be used in blast furnace were being dumped. The depletion of deposits of higher quality lump
ores forced the development of sintering of the generated fines in order to use them in the blast
furnace. The depletion of deposits of higher quality lump ores also forced exploration of lowgrade ores that required fine grinding for concentration. These micro fines of high-grade
concentrates had to be agglomerated for their use in the blast furnace and this has led to the
development of the pelletizing process. These agglomerates, in turn, sharply improved blast
furnace performance and led to a major shift in blast furnace burdening.
History of sintering of iron ore

Middle of nineteenth century, small sintering pot used to be constructed in the copper mining in
England. The origin of sintering process goes back to 1887 when F. Haberlein and T. Huntington
of England invented the process of agglomeration for sintering of sulphide ores. In this process,
the sintering was carried with the sintering bed being blown with air from bottom upwards. The
process was also known as up-draft sintering process. The process was patented on 11th April
1905 (Patent no. 786814). The pot sintering methods used is shown in Fig 2.
Fig 2 Pot sintering method
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In 1902, W. Job invented the sintering of pyrite cinder and dusty iron ores with addition of coal
and air blowing through the bed from bottom upwards (German patent number 137438). In 1905,
EJ Savelsberg developed the process of iron ore sintering with the sintering mixture containing
coal and coke breeze (German patent number 210742). In 1906, AS Dwight and RL Lloyd both
of USA invented a belt type sinter machine for vacuum sintering. In 1909 Von Schlippenbch
invented a rotary type of sintering machine (German patent number 226033). In 1913, W. Barth
designed a sintering belt for operation with air blowing from bottom upwards (German patent
276424). In 1914, JE Greenawalt was granted a patent (US patent number 1103196) for
rectangular tilting pans for vacuum sintering. The circular type of sintering machine was
invented in 1930 by VA Sakharnov.
The Huntington and Haberlein process was the best method of sintering prior to Dwight Lloyd
patent number 882517 of 17th March, 1908. This process was capable of producing some
sintered material, but the mass of product was unsatisfactory in composition and costly to handle.
It was produced in great pots, in which tons of ore mixed with lime were burned under draft
forced upward through the material. Under these conditions a uniform product could not be
produced. The lower portion of the charge, owing to the pressure imposed by the weight of the
superimposed material, were reduced to a nonporous slag, and while in the upper portions of the
charge large quantities of fines remained unsintered, owing to the agitation of the ore particles,
caused by the upward rushing currents of air. The unsintered material required re-treatment and
the large masses of nonporous, thoroughly fused material could not be used in the blast furnace
until broken up, at large expense, and even then were unsatisfactory, because of their physical
and chemical structure.
The clumsy pot roasting process of Huntington and Haberlein did not bear comparison with the
process disclosed by Dwight Lloyd patent number 882,517.The process described in this patent
eliminated the varying degrees of pressure throughout the mass, and maintained the ore particles
in a state of quiescence during combustion. The means by which this was accomplished were
simple, but effective. Pressures throughout the mass were avoided by treating the ore in a thin
layer. Quiescence of the particles during combustion was attained, either by employing a down
draft with ignition at the top surface, in which case the agitation of the particles was restrained by
the vessel in which they were contained and the pressure of the downward draft, or, if an upward
draft was used, by employing a screen to maintain the quiescence of the particles near the top
surface. In porosity, friability, and chemical structure the sintered product of Dwight Lloyd was
quite ideal for treatment in a blast furnace, and their process was superior to any method of the
prior art for preparing fines ores for treatment in a blast furnace.
The first operating machine according to this method was developed by Arthur Smith Dwight
(1864 1946) and Richard Lewis Lloyd in June 1906 in the copper mine in Cananea built,
Mexico and 1907 the corresponding patent. In 1908 Dwight Lloyd installed sintering apparatus
at the plant of the Ohio Colorado Smelting Company at Salida, Colorado. This apparatus was a
continuous type of machine, in which the bed of ore was constantly moved under an igniter and
across section chambers, which maintained a down draft during the process of sintering. The
sintered product was being automatically dumped by the machine after the material has been
ignited, moved across the suction chamber, and sintered.
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Prior to 1910, JE Greenawalt, who was a metallurgist of considerable experience, was engaged
in the study of processes for the desulphurization of sulphide ores. In the course of his work he
found the use of a porous hearth, upon which the ore was roasted under a down draft of air,
resulted in efficient desulphurization, and that the down draft could be utilized in saving volatile
elements of value in the products of combustion, ordinarily carried off through the furnace stack.
He had noted the sintering effect of this process upon the ores under treatment, but it was not his
purpose to produce sinter, and in the development of roasting processes his effort was to prevent
sintering, which impeded complete desulphurization. For this purpose, in his two down draft
patents, Nos. 839,064 and 839,065 (December 18, 1906), he employed rabbles.
Greenawalt developed an intermittent sintering apparatus based on downward draft which was
installed at the Modern Smelting Refining Company, at Denver, Colorado around 1909.
Greenawalt process was discovered by Greenawalt a few months ahead of Dwight Lloyd
Process. The features of the process were very less air leakage and the bottom of the pot was
made of grate or perforated steel plate. Feeding and ignition furnace was movable with sinter
normally dropped due to rotation of pot above hopper. This machine consisted of a pan mounted
upon trunnions, in which the material was sintered, downdraft being maintained by a suction
chamber in the pan beneath the bed upon which the ore was sintered. The sintered product was
dumped by turning the pan upon its trunnions, when it was recharged and the process was
repeated. This process was installed for sintering blast furnace flue dust. It was first commercial
sintering plant of Greenawalt process. Greenawalt patented this process and since 1910, his
apparatus had been used extensively in the treatment of sulphide ores and since 1912 in the
treatment of ferrous ores.
Dwight Lloyd sintering process with down draft became popular and most of the sinter being
produced these days is by this process. The two inventors, who founded in 1907 the Dwight and
Lloyd Metallurgical Company in New York, not only built themselves a large number of these
plants, but licensed the process world, among others at the plant manufacturer Lurgi. The first
machine that sintered Dwight-Lloyd-process iron ore was built in 1910 in the United States. The
first Dwight-Lloyd sintering plant in Germany was built in1917.
Though a large numbers of improvements have been made since then in the machine mechanical
design and in the process of iron ore sintering, still the basic principle of the process remains the
same.
History of pelletizing
Pelletizing differs from sintering in that a green unbaked pellet or ball is formed and then
hardened by heating. During the development of the sintering process, initial attempts were in
the direction of further improving the process for using micro fines ores. This has led to the
development of a process which was an alternative to sintering. This process was named
pelletizing process. In Sweden and Germany, use of major amounts of fines in the sinter mix led
to limited productivity, and thus brought about the first phase of the development in the
pelletizing process. The first patent on pelletizing was granted to AG Andersson of Sweden in
1912 (Patent number 35124) and in 1913 to CA Brackelsberg in Germany. A pilot pellet plant
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with 120 tons per day capacity was constructed in 1926 for Krupp at Rheinhausen Steel plant.
This plant was dismantled in 1937 for making space to a large sinter plant.
The second phase of development of pelletizing process took place in USA. The principal
nursery of this technique and the source from which the flow of successful modern development
has sprung is the Mines Experiment Station of the University of Minnesota, USA. During the
1940s research workers at this station under the direction of Dr. EW Davis and his associates
examined the problems of utilizing the low grade iron ores of Minnesota. Particular attention was
given to the ferruginous rocks adjacent to the main ore bodies of the Mesabi Range. These lowgrade ores (25 % to 30 % Fe) are quite exceptionally hard and abrasive and are known locally as
?taconites?. These ores are the original material from which high grade Mesabi hematites have
been evolved by natural leaching and oxidation. The recoverable iron mineral is finely
disseminated magnetite and the ore must be ground to about 80 % of size 325 mesh for
liberation, the concentrate containing about 65 % iron and 8 % silica.
By 1945 research and development at the Station had made considerable progress. Here not only
had a promising concentration technique been evolved but novel ways had been investigated of
using the very fine concentrate produced. The wet concentrate was balled in a rotating drum and
then hardened by suitable heat treatment in a shaft kiln. The hard pellets (about 15 mm to 25 mm
in diameter) were thought to be a suitable blast-furnace feed material and subsequent tests in a
small experimental blast furnace were encouraging. These results attracted the attention of iron
producers of the world and inspired some particularly energetic and successful work in Sweden.
In the USA, the steel and ore companies saw in this technique a means of prolonging the rich but
dwindling ore resources of Minnesota and Michigan by making available hitherto unusable
material. New companies were formed to explore these possibilities, and research was
intensified. By 1949, it was generally agreed in USA and in Sweden that the best way to prepare
balls from a concentrate was in a rotating drum, but opinion was divided on the heat treatment
method.
It was essential that the apparatus used, whatever its form, should (i) give close temperature
control, (ii) require the minimum amount of fuel, i.e. should recuperate sensible heat, (iii) have
reasonably trouble-free and reliable in operation, and (iv) have an adequate unit output.
At first, vertical shaft kilns were used exclusively in pilot-plant research, moist balls of
concentrate being fed into the top and moving downwards against an ascending flow of hot gases
which first dried them, and then elevated their temperature to the hardening region. Hardened
pellets were withdrawn from the bottom of the kiln.
Davies work culminated in 1943 when experimental pellets were fired in a shaft furnace. After
World War II, in 1947, a similar experimental unit was built in Sweden. In 1950s, it became
evident that pelletizing is an economically feasible method of agglomerating fine grained
concentrate. The first pelletizing plant was commissioned in Sweden where pellets were fired in
shaft furnaces with capacities of 10 to 60 tons per day.
Although the process is intrinsically simple, and therefore attractive, it proved in practice to have
some awkward features. Amongst the difficulties which were most acute in the early 1950s are
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(i) the difficulty of securing even gas distribution, (ii) the difficulty of securing even stock
descent, uniform pellet treatment and trouble free discharge of product, (iii) the difficulty of
securing a high output from one unit, and (iv) uncertainty about scaling-up and the most
appropriate kiln shape.
These problems caused the Reserve Mining Company in the USA to seek another way forward.
The new line of advance had its genesis in the Lepol kiln process, used in the cement industry.
This process, which was developed in Europe, consists of a balling unit feeding a moving grate
on which the balls are dried and partly hardened. The grate discharges into a rotating kiln where
the burning process is finished the hot gases from the kiln are ducted back to the grate where
they perform the drying and hardening functions just mentioned.
Mitchell has reported that Dr. Lellep of the Allis- Chalmers Company suggested that the balling
drum and grate might well be used for producing burned pellets from fine magnetite
concentrates. If such an arrangement could be designed to dry and fire the pellets and to
recuperate the sensible heat of the product, it might well solve the problems of fine magnetite
agglomeration relatively cheaply.
Research was continued in the Allis-Chalmers laboratories with encouraging results, and in 1954
the Reserve Mining Company commissioned a 1 000 tons per day experimental machine based
on these principles, but designed mechanically on sinter machine lines by the Arthur G. McKee
Company. The pellets were dried by blowing hot air upwards through the bed, and then hardened
by drawing hot gases downwards from special furnaces. Arrangements were made to cool these
pellets on the strand and the hot air recovered was used to dry the wet balls at the feed end, thus
reducing fuel consumption. Useful operating experience was obtained and after a few months
trial the Reserve management placed orders (April 1954) for the design of six large machines to
be installed at Silver Bay, on the western shores of Lake Superior.
Other companies, however, persisted with the development of the vertical kiln process, again for
magnetite concentrates, and their progress also justified the erection of some large installations:
The Erie Mining Company plant at Hoyt Lakes, the largest of its kind, was commissioned in
1957 and includes 24 vertical shaft furnaces.
In the 1950s, therefore, both vertical shaft kilns and moving grate machines were being
developed and applied to the pelletizing of fine magnetite concentrates. Magnetite concentrates
are relatively easy to pelletize. The particles are granular (rather than plate-like) in shape, with a
high surface area, and with a surface uncontaminated by flotation agents. If properly treated they
oxidize during firing, giving a useful heat release. Oxidation is also associated with grain growth
and recrystallization which contribute to the development of the requisite final strength.
However, not all ferrous concentrates are magnetites. In the state of Michigan there are large
deposits of jaspilite in which the iron mineral is a finely divided specular hematite. These ores
have been called the Michigan counterpart of the Minnesota taconites, but the iron mineral is
recoverable by flotation and gravity methods, rather than by magnetic concentration.
Such hematite concentrates present special problems and their exploitation has been a major
concern of the Cleveland Cliffs Iron Company. In 1956 they began operation at Eagle Mills
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(Michigan) with a grate machine, but since then two very successful larger plants have been built
using the grate-kiln system, this being, in fact, the Lepol process as a whole applied directly to
the iron ore problem. The system has been developed by Allis-Chalmers and the plants
themselves have been engineered and constructed by the McKee Company. In general it may be
said that the Lepol process (drying and preheating on a grate and hardening in a kiln) has proved
very successful with hematite concentrates (which do not have the advantage of an exothermic
heat of oxidation) whilst for magnetites the straight grate or vertical shafts are the usual tools.
Pelletizing of iron ore is a method of Swedish origin, patented in 1912 by AG Andersson
(Yamaguchi et al., 2010). The process was developed in the USA in the 1940s, and the first
commercial plant started operation in Babbitt, Minnesota in 1952. The first iron ore pellet plant
of the grate-kiln type was established at Humboldt Mine, Michigan in 1960. Allis-Chalmers (a
predecessor company to Metso) have since built around 50 such plants. However, very few of
the older plants built before 1975 are still in use. Another constructor of grate-kiln plants is Kobe
Steel, who built their first plant in 1966 at Kobe Works, Nadahama, and have since then
constructed more than ten plants, most of which are still in use.
Since 2000, the grate-kiln process developed by the Shougang Group has been rapidly adopted in
China. The establishment of new grate-kiln plants in China has been very prominent in the last
decade, with the rise of new fabricators such as Jiangsu Hongda and Citic. There has been an
exponential increase since 2000, driven mainly by installations in China.
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Understanding Sinter and Sinter Plant Operations

Sintering is a process of agglomeration of fine mineral particles into a porous and lumpy mass by
incipient fusion caused by heat produced by combustion of solid fuel within the mass itself. The
sintering process is a pre-treatment step in the production of iron, where fine particles of iron
ores and also secondary iron oxide wastes (collected dusts, mill scale etc.) along with fluxes
(lime, limestone and dolomite) are agglomerated by combustion. Agglomeration of the fines is
necessary to enable the passage of hot gases during the blast furnace operation.
Sintering has been referred to as the art of burning a fuel mixed with ore under controlled
conditions. It involves the heating of fine iron ore with flux and coke fines or coal to produce a
semi-molten mass that solidifies into porous pieces of sinter with the size and strength
characteristics necessary for feeding into the blast furnace.
Although simple in principle, sintering plant requires that a number of important factors in its
design and operation be observed to attain optimum performance. A simplified schematic flow
diagram of sintering process is at Fig 1.
Fig 1 Simplified flow diagram of a sintering process

There are basically the following three types of sinters.
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Non flux or acid sinters In these sinters no flux is added to the iron ore in preparing the
sinter mix. Non flux sinters are very rarely being produced these days.
Self fluxing or basic sinters These are the sinters where sufficient flux is added in the
sinter mix for producing slags of desired basicity (CaO/SiO2) in blast furnace taking into
account the acidic oxides in the blast furnace burden.
Super flux sinters These are the sinters where sufficient flux is added in the sinter mix
for producing slags of desired basicity in blast furnace taking also into account the acidic
oxides in the coke ash in addition to the other acidic oxides in the blast furnace burden.
Fluxed sinters have superior high temperature properties in the blast furnace as compared to
lump ore and acid sinters. These improvements include higher softening and melting
temperatures and higher levels of reducibility.
The flexibility of the sintering process permits conversion of a variety of materials, including
natural fine iron ores, ore fines from screening operations, captured dusts, ore concentrates,
return fines not suitable for downstream processing, other iron-bearing materials of small particle
size (sludges, mill scale etc.), and wastes and screenings of lime, limestone and dolomite into a
clinker like agglomerate that is well suited for use in the blast furnace.
A sintering plant has become a tremendous success for providing a phenomenal increase in the
productivity and saving in coke rate in the blast furnace. Fluxed sinter represents an improved
blast furnace material as compared to sized iron ore. Improvements have been obtained by
incorporating the blast furnace flux into the sinter rather than charging it separately at the top of
the furnace, as it is needed to be done with the charging of only the sized iron ore. As per thumb
rule, the use of fluxed sinter indicate that for each 100 kg of limestone per net ton of hot metal
removed from the blast furnace burden and charged into the sinter plant to make a fluxed sinter,
approximately 20-35 kg of metallurgical coke per ton of hot metal is saved and around 3 % to 5
% improvement in the productivity of blast furnace is achieved. The coke savings results
primarily from calcining of limestone on the sintering grate rather than in the blast furnace.
Quality of sinters
Two important properties of sinter are basicity, which is controlled by the amount of
limestone/lime, and strength, which is controlled by coke content.
The blast furnace demands sinter with a high cold strength, low reduction degradation index
(RDI) and high reducibility index (RI) , in a very narrow band of chemistry variation, with the
lowest possible fines content, and a good average size. The chemical and structural composition
are very important in sinter, and it is good for the sinter to be stable so that both primary and
final slags possess adequate characteristics in terms of softening and melting temperatures, liquid
temperature and viscosity for the stable operation of the blast furnace.
It is important to have a high iron content, low gangue content, and basicity of the order of 1.62.1. Sinter reducibility, and sinter quality in general, improves with a higher level of hematite
than magnetite, and its structure improves with a higher level of primary or residual hematite and
ferrites than secondary or precipitated hematite.
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The FeO content is an important control parameter in the sinter plant. When the chemical
composition of an ore mix is fixed, FeO can provide an indication of sintering conditions, in
particular the coke rate. A 2 % increase in the FeO content in sinter has been found to lower
(improve) the RDI by 8 points. However, a higher FeO content negatively affects reducibility. It
is important to find an optimum FeO content in order to improve the RDI without altering other
sinter properties.
The alumina content has the most harmful effect. It deteriorates the sinter RDI, which increases
as the alumina content rises. The strength and quality of sinter deteriorate as the alumina content
rises. Alumina promotes the formation of silico ferrite of calcium and aluminum (SFCA).
Alumina increases the viscosity of the primary melt that forms during the sintering process,
leading to a weaker sinter structure with more interconnected irregular pores.
Sinter reducibility is determined by the chemical and mineralogical composition and by the pore
structure.
MgO provides for an optimum blast furnace slag condition in terms of both good flowability and
desulphurization. The addition of MgO to the raw mix improves the RDI.
It has been determined that replacing CaO with MgO in the form of dolomite for basicities of
1.6-1.9 leads to a slight reduction in sinter strength, reducibility and productivity. CaO combines
with the iron oxides to form compounds with a low melting point that favour the formation of the
primary melt, a minimum level of which is needed in order to manufacture a strong sinter. These
compounds are Fe2O3CaO (1205 deg C) and FeOCaO (1120 deg C).
Silica (SiO2) combines with FeO and CaO to form compounds with a low melting point that
favour the formation of the primary melt. These compounds are FeOSiO2 (1180 deg C),
2FeOSiO2 (1205 deg C), and FeOSiO2CaO (1223 deg C). Increasing the silica content and the
basicity of the adherent fines causes the primary melt formation temperature to drop, which is
favourable for the subsequent assimilation reaction at the liquid-solid interface between the fines
and the nucleus particles.
After being tipped from the grates in the sintering machine, the sinter cake is crushed and hot
screened. Its granulometric distribution is an important process parameter for sinter quality. The
10-30 mm fraction is sent directly to the blast furnace storage bins, the larger fraction is crushed
to obtain smaller sized fractions, and the minus 5 mm fraction (return fines) is recycled to the
sinter plant hoppers. For the good operation of the process, it is important to keep a balance
between the generation and recycling of return fines.
Reducibility is an important characteristic of sinters which measures the ability to transfer
oxygen during reduction in the blast furnace, giving an idea of fuel consumption needs in the
furnace. The porosity and structure of the sinters and their mineral phases are intimately related
with their reducibility. A heterogeneous structure is more reducible than a homogeneous
structure.
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The degradation of sinter is determined by the low temperature degradation index (LTDI) and
the RDI. Degradation is originated, to a certain extent, in the transformation that takes place
during the reduction of hematite to magnetite, accompanied by an increase in volume, giving rise
to the presence of structural stresses in the sinter. The degradation of sinter in the blast furnace
occurs during reduction in the low temperature zone, and has a harmful effect on the burden
strength in the furnace, with the consequent loss of permeability to reducing gases and an
increase in coke consumption. Low values of sinter degradation during reduction at low
temperature are desirable.
The RDI is a very important parameter that is used as a reference in all sintering work and serves
to predict the sinters degradation behaviour in the lower part of the blast furnace stack. A strong
relationship exists between the RDI and the outdoor ambient temperature at the sinter plant. The
RDI is also strongly dependent on the Ti content in the sinter, even when this is very small.
There is no relationship with alumina but the coke ratio in the sinter mix is the most important
control variable with regard to the RDI.
The cold strength of sinter is determined by the tumbler index, and depends on the strength of
each individual ore component, the strength of the bonding matrix components and the ore
composition. This index determines the size reduction due to impact and abrasion of the sinters
during their handling, transportation, and in the blast furnace process. Cold mechanical strength
is directly related with the tendency for fines to form during transportation and handling between
the sinter machine and the blast furnace throat.
Sinter porosity is an important parameter that significantly affects its properties, in particular its
reduction behaviour. It is seen that the pore diameter needs to be larger than 0.01 micrometer for
the reducing gas to have sufficient access to the pores to satisfactorily reduce the sinter. When
the micro pores are coalesced to pores of a size of more than 1 to 5 micrometer, the specific
surface area of the sinter is decreased and so does its reduction. Elimination of the coalescence of
micro pores and increase of the number of small pores make it possible to increase the surface
area of the sinter and obtain a substantial improvement in its reducibility. Ferrites stabilize the
micro pores and lead to a rise in porosity, thus achieving higher reducibility.
Given the diversity of the mineralogical components that comprise the sinter mix, as well as the
heterogeneity of the mix, it is understandable that the sinter structure is complex and is being
formed mainly by grains of iron oxide and calcium ferrites bonded by a gangue matrix. The
ferrites, whose amount increases with the sinter basicity, are easily reduced, and by increasing
the mechanical toughness of sinter to certain levels are considered very useful components. The
ferrites are SFCA type and are formed by a solid-liquid reaction between hematite and the
Fe2O3CaO melt, with the subsequent assimilation of SiO2 and Al2O3 in the melt. The gangue
is composed of calcium, iron and magnesium silicates that are difficult to reduce, and come to
form part of the slag in the blast furnace.
Sintering plant operations
A typical sinter plant consists of a number of sequential operating units with the sinter machine
at the heart of the plant.
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Producing target quality of sinter needs accurate charging of the raw materials (ores, coke,
additives, etc.). To modify the raw mix recipe, the coke addition, sinter basicity, raw material
analyses and their influence on sinter parameters are to be taken into consideration. This
procedure is complex. The purpose of the raw mix calculation is to establish a raw mix
composition, in order to automatically achieve the assigned target values for coke addition, sinter
basicity, total Fe, SiO2 balance, alumina balance and MgO balance.
The sintering process starts with the preparation of the raw mix. Materials consisting of ore fines,
fluxes, in-plant waste material, fuel and return fines are stored in storage bins . They are mixed in
the correct proportions using weigh hoppers/disc feeders, one per storage bin. For the return fines
sometimes an impact meter is used instead. Weighing is continuous, as is the whole sintering
process. The weighed materials pass along a conveyor to the primary mixing drum where water
is added either manually or as a calculated percentage of the weight of material entering the
mixing drum.
Coke breeze is need to be crushed (normally in four roll crusher) to obtain the correct particle
size (0.25 mm to minus 3 mm) for enhancing sinter productivity and reducibility. Less than 0.25
mm coke size has a negative effect on the productivity, while size fractions of 3.15 mm to +
1.00 mm shows better yields.
Fluxes namely limestone and dolomite are crushed (normally in hammer crushers) to obtain a
minimum of 90 % of 3 mm fraction.
Intimate mixing of the feed materials is one of the most important. A pre mix (usually called
base mix) of the sintering ores, steel plant waste oxides, fluxes, and solid fuels is made in a
revolving primary mixing drum is transferred to an open base mix blending yard. The blended
base mix is then supplemented by small trim amounts of flux and solid fuel. This total feed
mixture is the subject to a water addition within a mixing device such as a balling drum or disc.
These mixers are operated to produce small size nodules or pellets which significantly improve
the permeability of the sinter bed. balling drum is also called secondary mixing and nodulizing
drum.
The amount of primary water added is proportional to the weight of base mix entering the balling
drum. Water additions in the balling mixers are now automatically controlled these days .The
secondary water feed set point is frequently taken as a proportion of the base mix belt weigher.
The continuous sintering process is carried out on a traveling grate of sinter machine that
conveys a bed of prepared mix (sinter mix). The sinter mix is carefully conveyed to the sintering
machine to ensure that permeability is maintained. In transferring the sinter mix from the balling
mixer to the grate of the sintering machine, it is essential to feed the material carefully so as to
provide a uniform, homogeneous bed and to prevent compacting of the bed. To avoid a direct
drop of feed onto the grate, a hearth layer of about 25 mm to 50 mm of coarse (already sintered)
material is fed first onto the traveling grate. Feeding devices typically include a roll feeder in
conjunction with chutes which act to avoid compacting the sinter mix. Design of feed hoppers
and feeders for distributing the prepared sinter mix into these hoppers is equally important since,
if the sinter mix is compacted or segregated during handling and loading onto the grate (pellet),
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all of the advantages gained through good feed preparation may be lost. After this the sinter mix
is leveled.
The bed depth is set and kept constant by adjusting the cut-off plate which is fitted with probes to
sense the depth of material and automatically vary the roll feeder speed. The quantity of material
in the feed hopper itself is held constant by automatic adjustment of the feed rates from the
individual sinter mix bins.
Once the sinter mix is charged onto the travelling grate, metal bars or rods already inserted
longitudinally along the grate for a distance of about 2 m to 4 m help to loosen up the mixture to
enhance permeability.
Thereafter the surface of the sinter mix is ignited near the head or feed end of the travelling grate
using a mixed gas (coke oven gas and blast furnace gas), or only coke oven gas or only blast
furnace gas. In case of only blast furnace gas, it is usually preheated. Proper ignition of the sinter
mix is important. Poor ignition results in spotty burning and may leave unsintered material over
the surface of the bed. Conversely, too intense an ignition flame can result in slagging over the
bed and reduced sintering rates. The radiant hood ignition furnace provides good ignition. The
calorific value of the gas mixture and the set hood temperature are controlled. A separate control
system is provided to maintain a fixed hood pressure by adjusting the wind box dampers
immediately under the ignition hood.
As the sinter mix moves along on the traveling grate, air is sucked down by a draught fan
through the ignited sinter mix layer to burn the fuel by downdraft combustion. As the grates
move continuously over the wind boxes toward the discharge end of the strand, the combustion
front in the bed moves progressively downward. This creates sufficient heat and temperature,
about 1300 deg C to 1480 deg C, to sinter the fine ore particles together into porous clinkers. Gas
circuit is to be fully leak proof, not allowing false air to be sucked by the system. This saves
power in the waste gas circuit.
An important part of the sintering process is burn-through. The location along the traveling grate
where the combustion front touches the bottom of the bed is called the burn through point. Burnthrough point should ideally occur near the end of the strand bed. It is controlled by altering the
strand speed. A number of variables affect the burn-through point, such as strand bed depth,
water content and the quality of the sinter. Burn through is normally detected by temperature
probes under the sinter bed. Burn through should be achieved but must not occur too soon after
the ignition hood. The draught on the strand is maintained at a preset value by controlling the
main fan louvers from pressure measurements in the wind main. This governs the point at which
burn through occurs.
The strand speed is either controlled manually, or by measuring the waste gas temperatures as an
indication of the burn-through point. If it occurs too early, the average waste gas temperature
rises. If it occurs too late, the waste gas temperature decreases and the strand speed is slowed to
compensate. Wind box temperatures can be used to improve the monitoring.
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The suction produced by the main fan is varied by louvers near the fan inlet, which are controlled
by a fan suction controller. If the waste gas temperature increases above a safe working limit a
selector switch allows the waste gas over temperature controller to position the louvers.
Depending upon the characteristics of the ore materials and the sintering conditions, daily
average production rate of 22.544 tons/sq m/day of grate area is expected from the sinter
machines.
After the end of the travelling grate, the sinter passes through a spiked roll crusher and the hot
screens to the sinter cooler. A number of fans are usually used for cooling, and the speed of the
cooler is to match the demand of the travelling grate and is determined by the travelling grate
speed and the bed depth. The fines removed by the hot screens are conveyed to the return fines
bin.
Cooling of the sinter below 150 deg C, so that it can be handled on conveyor belts, is an
important part of the operation. Sinter coolers can be either rotary coolers or straight line coolers.
Rotary coolers are more commonly used. It is desirable to avoid a water quench as the quench
adversely affects sinter properties. The exhaust air from these coolers is used for recovery of heat
in some of the sinter plants.
After cooling, the sinter is passed into the discharge bunker. At this stage, the level is controlled
by varying the outlet feed rate (usually vibro feeders). The sinter then passes to the cold
screening area, where it is passed through crushers and screens for the separation of product
sinter, bedding and return fines. Return fines, not suitable for downstream processing, are
conveyed to a bin for recycling in the sintering process.
Use of sized sinter is desirable for the improvement of production rates in the blast furnace.
Further, crushing the sinter to 30 mm size at the sinter plant yields a more stable sinter because
the smaller size fractions are more resistant to degradation.
A supervisory station controls all steps of the sintering process. From the control room the
operator has full control of the entire plant through the PC terminals.
Sinter Quality and Process of Sintering Iron Ores
Sinter is normally the major component of the blast furnace (BF) charge burden. Sinter consists
of many mineral phases produced during process of sintering of iron ores. The quality and
properties of sinter are dependent on the mineral structure of sinter. However, since the sintering
conditions are usually not uniform throughout the sinter bed, the phase composition, and
therefore the sinter quality, varies in the sinter bed.
The structure of sinter is not uniform. It consists of pores (of varying sizes) and a complex
aggregate of mineral phases, each with different properties. It is the combination of these pores
and mineral phases, and the interaction between them that determines the sinter quality, but also
makes the prediction of
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sinter properties very difficult. Though a large number of investigations have been carried out on
sinter, still the correlation between the chemical composition and mineralogy of sinter with its
properties and behaviour is still not clearly understood.
Schematics of sinter mix and the product sinter are at Fig 1.
Fig 1 Schematics of sinter mix and product sinter

Sintering process is a generic term that is used to describe the process of agglomeration of a
green mix of iron ores, fluxes and coke and plant solid wastes having a particle size of -10 mm
so as to produce sinter which can withstand operating pressure and temperature conditions
existing in a BF. Solid wastes such as dusts, sludges, slags and mill scales etc. are used for their
utilization in sinter mix because of the complex chemical structure and mineral components of
these materials. The process of sintering is described in detail in a separate article which is
available under the link http://ispatguru.com/the-sintering-process-of-iron-ore-fines-2/
During the process of sintering, as the combustion of fine coke particles starts at temperatures
between 700 deg C to 800 deg C, it results in the formation of CO (carbon mono oxide) gas. The
surface of the iron ore core and its adhering fines are reduced to magnetite. As the temperature
rises to 1100 deg C , low melting point phases such as Fe2O3.CaO, FeO.CaO and FeO.SiO2 are
formed by solid-solid reactions. The phase termed SFCA (silico-ferrite of calcium and
aluminum), forms at this stage. SCFA is identified as a solid solution of CaO.2Fe2O3 with small
amounts of dissolved Al2O3 and SiO2. This phase is considered as a complex quaternary phase.
During the sintering process, equilibrium phase relations are not normally reached due to the
flame front that rapidly passes through the sinter bed. This results in the high degree of
heterogeneity of the sinter, and the formation of non-equilibrium phases that are not expected
from thermodynamic considerations. The composition of the sinter therefore varies from place to
place in the bulk material, depending on the nature of the individual ore and flux particles and
the extent of reactions between them.
Macroscopically sinter has a non-uniform structure with large irregular pores. Microscopically it
consists of bonding phases, relict ore particles, remaining glassy phases and very small nonUnrestricted
uniform pores and cracks. Depending on different parameters such as temperature, composition,
oxygen partial pressure, time and atmosphere, different phases form in different proportions,
while different morphologies develop. The morphology essentially reflects the mode of
formation and is related to a particular chemical composition, heating and cooling rate of the
sinter.
Acicular SFCA starts to form below 1185 deg C; when the temperature has risen to 1245 deg C
the unreacted hematite disappears and the SFCA crystal size increases. The SFCA begins to
decompose when the temperature exceeds 1300 deg C forming hematite if the partial pressure of
oxygen is high and the temperature is lower than 1350 deg C, and magnetite when the partial
pressure of oxygen is low and the temperature is higher than 1350 deg C with the slag
components are redistributed into the melt. Decomposition of SFCA is enhanced by extended
time above the decomposition temperature, and increased maximum temperature.
In the sintering process, the above chemical reactions take place at high temperatures which
results into the formation of a melting phase which is used during solid liquid reactions for
assimilation and combining together of iron ore fines and fluxes. During the process, the
formation of melt occurs in the flame front where the temperature is above 1100 deg C. This the
melt solidifies to become the bonding phases which make up the majority of other phases within
a sinter. The main bonding phase is normally composed of SCFA .
The volume of the melting phase plays a significant role in the process of sintering. Excessive
melting results into a homogeneous glassy structure, which has a low reducibility, whereas a
very low concentration of melting causes insufficient strength, resulting in a high amount of
return fines.
Chemical reactions during sintering results into formation of sinter cake which is a multiphase
material with a heterogeneous microstructure. It is composed of several mineral phases out of
which main phases are hematite, magnetite, iron ore, SCFA, dicalcium silicate and a glassy
phase. The mineralogical distribution of different phases determines the microstructure of the
sinter which imparts the quality of the sinter such as mechanical strength and its behaviour
during reduction in the BF. SCFA is considered as the most important component of the
bonding phase due to its abundance in the sinter and its significant influence on the sinter
quality.
From the sintering mechanism it is clear that the sinter phases are mainly formed during the
sinter process at temperatures above 1100 deg C. Therefore, the temperature-time characteristics
of the sinter process contribute strongly to the microstructure and phase composition of sinter.
The temperature profile in the sinter bed is characterized by a steep rise to a maximum
temperature during the heating cycle. The maximum temperature reached is usually higher than
1300 deg C and may be as high as 1350 deg C. A gentle slope after reaching maximum
temperature indicates the relatively slow cooling of the finished sinter during the cooling cycle.
Due to changes in bed permeability during the sintering process, different temperature profiles
are obtained from top to bottom in the sinter bed. Hence the heating rate, maximum temperature
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reached, time at temperatures higher than 1100 deg C and the cooling rate normally differs in the
top, middle, and bottom layer of the sinter bed. Due to the different temperature-time
characteristics there is a variation in the phase composition through the sinter bed. Because of
these differences the sinter may be classified as follows.
Top sinter- It is usually weak and friable giving a poor yield of sinter with an acceptable
size grading. This sinter is fused at a high temperature and chilled immediately thereafter.
The sinter is discharged cold from the sinter strand.
Middle sinter This sinter is formed under optimum conditions for fusion and annealing
and gives the maximum yield of sinter with acceptable size grading. The sinter is
discharged cold from the sinter strand.
Bottom sinter This sinter is discharged hot and is chilled severely as it passes through
the hot sinter breaker and over the discharge screen onto the sinter cooler. This results in
poor physical properties giving a lower yield of sinter with acceptable size grading. If onstrand cooling is applied then the sinter has almost the same properties as the sinter in the
middle layer.
Normally sinter is composed of by volume 40 % to 70 % of iron oxides, 20 % to 50 % of ferrites
mostly SCFA, around 10 % of dicalcium silicates, and around 10 % of glassy phase. It can also
contain sulphides (FeS), pyroxenes [(Mg,Fe)SiO3], quartz and lime in small proportion.
Sintering reactions regulate the volume fraction of each mineral phase and specially controls the
concentration and microstructure of the SCFA phase. This in turn control and improve the
characteristics of sinter.
Sinter quality refers to the physical and metallurgical properties of the sinter. The quality of
sinter is usually defined in terms of the following.
The physical strength or cold strength of the sinter at room temperature as measured by
the shatter or tumbler test
The value of reduction degradation index (RDI) which is the breakdown of sinter
following reduction at low temperatures (550 deg C) determined by the reduction
degradation test.
The deducibility index (RI) which determines the reducibility of the sinter determined by
the reducibility test at 900 deg C
The high temperature softening and melting properties of the sinter that are related to the
temperatures at which the sinter starts to soften, melt and drip during reduction at
temperatures above 1150 deg C.
All of these properties are governed by the microstructure of the sinter, in particular the
bonding phases, notably SFCA, that make up the majority of phases within sinter (up to
80 %)
All of the above properties, which are normally evaluated according to standardized tests, are
strongly related to the mineralogy, microscopic and macroscopic structure of the sinter. The
reproducibility of these tests that are performed on sinter particles to evaluate their quality is
therefore low due to the high degree of variability in phase composition between sinter particles,
even when these sinter particles are obtained from the same bulk material.
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The ore particle size plays an important role. The assimilation ability of fine ores is greater than
that of coarse particles. The reaction surface area of iron ore fines is high which results into
higher reaction rates. But, the formation of higher concentrations of melt result into decrease in
the melt fluidity. Hence there is necessity for inclusion of coarse particles into the sinter mix for
improving the permeability of the sinter bed, since it is associated with an increase in large scale
movements between the melt and solid particles.
The sinterability of the sinter bed in which larger particles have been incorporated improves
because of improved permeability of the sinter bed as well as improved sinter reactions during
the process. When larger particles are available in the sinter bed, low density areas are formed
around the particles which improves the permeability of the sinter bed. Due to the increase in the
sinter bed permeability, the gas flow rate as well as flame front speed is higher around the larger
particles than the finer particles. The melt reaction and the assimilation therefore occurs quickly
around the large particles due the high fluidity of the melt.
Important quality related characteristics of sinter
The following are the important quality related characteristics of sinter.
The structure of the sinter includes the presence of ferrites with beneficial properties for
sinter strength and reducibility. The optimum structure is normally formed by a hematite
nucleus surrounded by an acicular ferrite lattice. This structure is favoured when working
with a higher sinter basicity.
The size of iron ore affects the sintering properties. An increase in the size of iron ore
promotes the productivity of sinter, but can reduce the tumbler strength slightly and save
a little coke.
The mineralogy of sinter can more easily be predicted from its chemical composition
than its physical and chemical properties.
Increasing MgO concentrations in the sinter increases the amounts of the spinel
(magnesium aluminum oxides) and glassy phases. The presence of MgO in the sinter
improves the RDI, because MgO stabilizes magnetite and thus decreases the hematite
content, causing a lower stress in the sinter during the hematite to magnetite reduction in
the
Increasing SiO2 concentrations in the sinter increases the amount of total SFCA,
decreases the acicular/columnar SFCA ratio and glassy phase content.
Increasing Al2O3 contents in the sinter results in a drastic deterioration in its chemical
and physical properties, although the concentration of the SFCA phase increased. With
increased alumina content the amount of acicular, columnar and blocky SFCA increases
significantly along with a substantial reduction in the amount of dendritic and eutectic
SFCA.
MgO and SiO2 contents of iron sinter seem to have an interrelated effect on its physical
and chemical properties. Predicting the effect that varying amounts of MgO and SiO2
would have on sinter properties is therefore complex. The only clear trends are the AI
(abrasion index) which increases with increasing MgO content, and the RI and AI of the
sinter which decrease with increasing SiO2 content of the sinter.
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The sinter with a low FeO content (< 8 %) favours better reducibility. When the chemical
composition of an ore mixture is fixed, FeO can provide an indication of sintering
conditions, in particular the coke rate. Increase in the FeO content in the sinter lowers
(improves) the RDI index. However, when the FeO content increases, reducibility
decreases. It is important to find an optimum FeO content in order to improve the RDI
without altering other sinter properties.
The mineral form in which fluxes are added to the raw material sinter mixture (e.g. oxide
vs. carbonate) have a pronounced effect on the mineralogy and properties of the produced
sinter.
Because of various chemical compositions and heterogeneous particle size distributions
in the raw materials the reactions during the process of sintering are heterogeneous and
produces sinter with heterogeneous structure.
Factors influencing sintering process
Sintering of iron ore is a metallurgical process carried out on a sintering machine. It is basically
an agglomeration process achieved through combustion. In this process air is sucked at the sinter
strand through a bed of raw mixture (also called sinter mix) of iron ore fines, limestone,
dolomite, sand and quartzite fines (flux), solid fuel (coke breeze or anthracite) and metallurgical
wastes (collected dusts, sludge and mill scale etc). The iron ore is natural ore of size 0 mm to 10
mm. This sinter mix is added with water and the return sinter fines and then granulated or
pelletized in a rotating drum before it is charged as a bed on to the moving strand of the sintering
machine. As the strand moves forward, the fuel particles on the top surface layer are first ignited
in a furnace and as the strand move forward, the ignited or combustion front proceeds gradually
downwards through the bed until the end is reached. Strand speed and sucked air flow are
controlled to ensure that burn through (the point at which the burning fuel layer reaches the
base of the strand) occurs just prior to the sinter being discharged. The temperature of the
sintering process is mainly controlled by the combustion of the fuel particles. During the process
of sintering, there are different zones on the sinter machine strand. These zones from the
charging side are wet zone, preheating and drying zone, combustion zone and product zone. In
the combustion zone liquid phase is formed between iron ore, flux and other elements and the
unreacted iron ore particles are bonded together by the liquid. The final product sinter is a
porous solid material having certain strength.
There are several factors which affect the process of sintering, productivity of the sinter machine
and the quality of the sinter. Major amongst them are given below.
Effect of iron ore fines quality In the sintering process main raw material used is iron
ore fines, Quality of the iron ore fines influences the process of sintering to a great extent.
An increase in the mean size of the iron ore fines promotes the productivity of the
sintering machine, saves the specific fuel consumption but reduces the sinter strength.
Dense low alumina iron ores gives a better sinter strength and lower specific fuel
consumption. Very high level of microfines in the ore decreases the granulation
efficiency and, consequently, decreases the bed permeability and affects productivity of
sintering adversely. The iron ore porosity has effect on the sinter porosity and its physical
and metallurgical properties. Iron ores with high loss on ignition affects the sintering
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process in a negative way by reducing the productivity, increasing the specific fuel
consumption and reducing the sinter strength.
A higher percentage of silica in the sinter mix counters the effect of high alumia in th ore.
It is always desirable to have alumina/silica ratio in the sinter mix as 0.5 or below.
Alumina plays an important role in reshaping and coalescing process during the sintering
process by changing the physiochemical properties of the primary melt. This leads to a
unique sinter pore structure. It has been seen that the pore area increases drastically and
the pore shape becomes more irregular as alumina increases from 1.6 % to 2.4 %. There
is a tendency of increase in the reduction degradation index (RDI) of sinter above a
certain alumina content.
Effect of flux In sinter mix lime stone or lime and dolomite or calcined dolomite are
added as basic fluxes while sand or quartzite fines are used as acidic fluxes. The fluxing
oxides in the sinter are to modified the blast furnace (BF) slag chemistry in such a way so
as to have desired characteristics of the BF slag. Basic fluxes added to the sinter mix in
the form of lime and calcined dolomite also act as a binder in the sinter mix and improve
the fine particles agglomeration. They improve the productivity of sinter machine and
reduce the specific solid fuel consuption. Size distribution of fluxes is important for the
sintering productivity.
Adequate size distribution (low dispersion, hih average particle size) allow for higher
sinter bed permeability and consequently higher sintering process productivity. Higher
mean size of the sinter feeds normally allow for higher permeability of the sinter bed.
The sintering performance depends on the efficiency of the mixing of the components of
the sinter mix and granulation of the sinter mix in the mixing drum. This activity carried
out in two mixing drums then being carried in a single drum gives better performance
with respect to permeability of sinter bed and hence results in improvement in sintering
productivity.
The sintering mechanism consists of two different phenomena namely physical
phenomenon of heat transfer from the top layer due to the bottom layer due to the action
of the sucked air passing through the bed and chemical phenomenon of fuel combustion
generating heat and a chemical reactions front. These two phenomea are independent and
should have the same propagation speed to ensure maximum flame temperature. The
equilibrium between these two phenomena is imporatnt for the high performance of the
sintering process, low specific fuel consumption and high quality of sinter.
The sintering bed needs a good permeability for the air to be sucked trough the sinter
mix. A good permeability of the sinter mix will ensure a high strand productivity and a
proper efficiency of the solid fuel burnt.
Moisture of the sinter mix plays an important role in the granulation process and hence
affects the sinter productivity. Moisture forms liquid bridgs between particles for
beginning the granulation process. Capillary forces are responsible to decrease the
distance beteen the particles and increase the granules resistance. Moisture content is to
be optimum since the excess of moisture has a harmful effect on the granules and on the
sinter bed permeability and stability. Effect of moisture on the granulation process is
shown in Fig 1.
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Fig 1 Effect of moisture on the granulation process

The segregated blend loading system for loading the sinter mix on the sinter machine
strand helps in the permeability of the mix and hence in improving the machine
productivity. Fig 2 shows charging systems without segregated blend loading system and
different types of the blend loading systems.
Fig 2 Different types of loading systems

Ignition system The time and temperature of ignition is essential for proper progress of
the flame front and a proper sinter quality. Excess of ignition causes decrease in bed
permeability and the metallurgical properties of the sinter. This increases the generation
of return fines and hence the productivity. The use of multi slit burners improves the
ignition efficiency and reduces the ignition energy by around 30 %.
Type of solid fuels Solid fuels of very low reactivity or very high reactivity promote
difference between the front of combustion and heat transfer. A suitable size distribution
of solid fuel is necessary to optimize the sintering process.
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Automatic process control improves the sinter machine productivity. This technology
results into savings of 2 % to 5 % energy consumption.
Installation of emissions optimized sintering reduces solid fuel consumption in the range
of 6 to 12 Kg per ton of sinter.
Iron Ore Sinter

Iron ore sinter or simply called sinter is usually the major component of a blast furnace iron
bearing burden material. Sinter normally consists of various mineral phases produced by
sintering of iron ore fines with fluxes, metallurgical wastes and a solid fuel. Coke breeze is
normally used as fuel in the sinter mix since it supplies necessary heat energy for sintering of
sinter mix. Fig 1 shows a piece of sinter.
Fig 1 A piece of sinter

In sintering, a shallow bed of fine particles is agglomerated by heat exchange and partial fusion
of the still mass. Heat is generated by combustion of coke breeze admixed with the bed of iron
ore fines, fluxes, and metallurgical wastes (sinter mix) being agglomerated. The combustion is
initiated by igniting the fuel exposed at the surface of the bed, after which a narrow, high
temperature zone is caused to move through the bed by an induced draft applied at the bottom of
the bed. Within this narrow zone, the surfaces of adjacent particles reach fusion temperature, and
gangue constituents form a semi liquid slag. The bonding is affected by a combination of fusion,
grain growth and slag liquidation. The generation of volatiles from the fuel and flux materials
creates a frothy condition and the incoming air quenches and solidifies the rear edge of the
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advancing fusion zone. The product sinter consists of a cellular mass of sinter mix materials
bonded in a slag matrix.
Important factors that affect the granulation efficiency and permeability of the sinter mix are
water addition, particle size distribution, ore porosity, surface properties of the iron ore and the
wettability of the iron ore. During sintering process, coke breeze increases the temperature of the
sinter mix within the sinter bed to achieve partial fusion and diffusion bonding and on cooling
the different mineral phases crystallizes and bond the structure together to form strong sinter.
Airflow rate and flame front speed in sintering process guides the performance of the sinter
process and this parameter mainly depends on the sinter bed permeability. There are other
parameters which influence melt formation and subsequent solidification of mineral phases are
of great importance in sinter making. The permeability of the sinter bed controls the productivity
of the sinter process, as well as the microstructure and other properties of the sinter.
Many reactions may take place during the sintering process. Equilibrium phase relations are
however not reached during sintering, due to the flame front that rapidly passes through the
sinter bed. This results in the high degree of heterogeneity of the sinter, and the formation of non
equilibrium phases that are not expected from thermodynamic considerations.
The composition of the sinter therefore varies from place to place in the bulk material, depending
on the nature of the individual ore, flux, and metallurgical waste particles and the extent of
reactions between them.
Microscopically it consists of bonding phases, original unaltered ore particles, remaining glassy
phases and very small non uniform pores and cracks. Depending on different parameters such as
temperature, composition, oxygen partial pressure, time and atmosphere, different phases form in
different proportions, while different morphologies develop. The morphology essentially reflects
the mode of formation and is related to a particular chemical composition, heating and cooling
rate of the sinter. Some of the common minerals and phases present in sinter are hematite
(Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4), magnesioferrite (Mg,Fe)3O4, silicoferrite of calcium and alumina
(SFCA), with stoichiometries (M14+6nO20+8n and M25O36, where n=0 and 1 and M= Ca, Fe,
Al, Si), anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8), calcium diferrite (CaFe4O7), dicalcium ferrite
(Ca2(Fe,Al)2O5), dicalcium silicate (Ca2SiO4), SiO2-rich glass, free lime, periclase (MgO) and
olivine (Mg,Fe)2SiO4.
Macroscopically sinter has a non uniform structure with large irregular pores. The structure of
sinter consists of pores (of varying sizes) and a complex aggregate of phases, each with different
properties. It is the combination of these pores and phases, and the interaction between them that
determines the sinter properties, but also makes the prediction of sinter properties difficult.
A sinter is regarded as consisting of essentially three types of materials namely (i) original
unaltered (primary) material, (ii) original secondary material which is the result of alteration of
the structure and shape through recrystallization in the solid state, and (iii) secondary
constituents which result from material that has fused or dissolved during sintering. These
constituents may either mutually dissolved or may precipitate from the solution.
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Two types of bonding are theoretically possible depending on the mineralogical changes. These
bonding are as given below.
Slag or fusion bond It consists of partial or complete embedding of crystalline
constituents in the matrix of a fused glassy melt, the extent depending upon the volume
and wettability of the liquid phase. The bond strength depends upon the amount of glass
and the amounts and types of the constituents. These depend upon the fuel rate and
impurities SiO2, CaO2, CaO, MgO and Al2O3, added or present.
Diffusion bond This bond is due to the recrystallization and crystal growth of hematite.
Hematite diffusion plays an important role especially above 1250-1300 deg C because of
its relatively high surface mobility at this temperature. Such bonds are, however, obtained
in Fe rich low silica ores, since the impurities in lean ores form low melting liquids
before the diffusion temperatures are reached. In addition, very close packing and good
contact of particles is necessary for diffusion to operate effectively. The limits of surface
mobility are such that a loosely packed aggregate is not expected to acquire a high
strength by diffusion bonding alone. Diffusion bonded sinter is more porous, accessible
to reducing gases and hence easily reducible.
The nature of the bonding which affects agglomeration is of interest in that this bonding affects
the economics of production, transportation, storage, handling and ultimately, the reduction in
the blast furnace.
Sinter strength is strongly influenced by the textural relationship between slag glass, slag crystals
and oxide phase. If the slag glass covers the oxide particle, the sinter is weakened, whereas, if the
slag glass is confined to interstitial bridges to oxide particles, the texture is relatively stronger.
The produced sinter is normally tested for its mineralogy, reducibility index (RI), reduction
disintegration index (RDI), tumbler index (TI), and abrasion index (AI).
Mineralogy of sinter
The mineralogical analysis involves the quantification of phases of different morphologies by
point counting. During point counting at least hundred points per sample are counted. Each
sample is usually counted three times, and average values are reported.
Although the mineralogy of a sinter is principally dependent upon the chemistry and the mineral
character of the sinter mix and the maximum process temperature to which the sinter mix was
exposed, such factors as time above the solidification temperature, cooling rate, and the sintering
atmosphere affect the final mineralogy.
Sinters of low basicity (Cao/SiO2 < 0.5) are generally characterized by grains of primary and
secondary hematite and of magnetite bonding by a slag phase. The slag phase is primarily a
silicate glass (combinations of FeO, CaO, Al2O3 and SiO2), but contains fayalite (2FeO.SiO2),
wollastonite (CaO.SiO2), iron monticellite (CaO.FeO.SiO2) and anorthite (CaO.Al2O3.2SiO2).
The formation of fayalite is promoted by high fuel content in the sinter mix. Fayalite is
undesirable phase since it adversely affects the reducibility of sinter. If the proportion of the
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hematite is decreased then the phase rankinite (3CaO.2SiO2) is more likely to be encountered.
Some monocalcium ferrite (CaO.Fe2O3) may be encountered, localized around the pores of the
sinter and scattered throughout, often growing as a fringe around magnetite.
As the sinter basicity (CaO/SiO2) is increased beyond 1.0, devitrification becomes an important
attribute of the glass. A devitrification of the silicate glass bond occurs at basicity levels between
1.0 and 1.2 with the separation of crystallites of dicalcium silicate (2CaO. SiO2). At this level of
basicity appearance of a calcium ferrite constituent occurs.
As the basicity is increased to 1.8, the amount of silicate glass decreases, and increasing amounts
of dicalcium silicate and calcium ferrites appears. Above basicity of 1.8, the amount of calcium
ferrites in the bond is increased, and the proportion of dicalcium silicates decreases to dilution.
In short there is dependence of sinter strength and reducibility on the sinter mineralogy and
mineralogical bonding. It is the proper mineralogical assemblage that enables a sinter to
withstand degradation during transit, storage, and descent within the blast furnace, yet gives the
reduction and structural properties necessary for rapid reduction at the blast furnace. Within the
sinter plant, proper mineralogy influences fuel consumption and amount of returns.
Sinter quality
Sinter quality is defined as a combination of its cold strength, its degradation during reduction at
low temperatures, its reducibility and its high temperature properties that are related to the
temperatures at which the sinter starts to soften, melt and drip during reduction at temperatures
above 1150 deg C. All of these properties, which are normally evaluated according to
standardized tests, are strongly related to the mineralogy, microscopic and macroscopic structure
of the sinter. The reproducibility of these tests that are performed on sinter particles to evaluate
their quality is therefore low in comparison with that of synthetic samples due to the high degree
of variability in phase composition between sinter particles, even when these sinter particles are
obtained from the same bulk material.
The good quality of sinter is important for smooth blast furnace operation. The important aspects
of sinter quality are described below.
Size consistency Consistency in sinter size has a significant effect on blast furnace
performance. There is no universally recognized optimum sinter size, but it is generally
accepted that fines are detrimental to furnace operation. Fine material lowers blast
furnace stack permeability, increases dust losses, and may lower the maximum
permissible blast temperature for smooth furnace operation. Sinter that is too coarse is
also undesirable, particularly if its reducibility is low and it is poor in strength, thus
undergoing physical degradation during furnace processing.
Sinter strength During transportation and charging of sinter into the blast furnace
breakdown of the sinter must be minimized. This breakdown is related to its cold
strength. Strength is of prime importance in assessing the sinter quality, and often it is the
most important single index for sinter quality. Several tests have been developed for
determining the strength. Virtually all the tests measure the strength of cold sinter. Hot
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strength of sinter is important but reliable testing method for the determination of hot
strength is not available. The most common testing methods for assessing the strength of
cold sinter may be grouped into three categories. These are drop or shatter test, impact
test, and tumble test or abrasion test. The standard tests universally acceptable for the
determination of sinter strength are as per the ISO specifications.
Reducibility The reducibility and reducibility index (RI) depends on the ease with
which the reduction gases can penetrate the sinter. Reducibility of the sinter therefore
depends on the porosity and surface structure, the intrinsic reducibility of the minerals
and their assemblages, and the additional surface area generated during reduction as a
result of the inherent volumetric changes that take place. Open pores are a measure of the
surface available for gas solid contact. Sinter mineralogy has dominant effect on
reducibility. Low FeO content has long been used as an index of good reducibility, since
FeO reacts with silica to form the difficult to reduce phase fayalite. Fayalite formation
can be reduced by the addition of lime, which combines the silica as crystalline of lime
and lime-iron, and as non crystalline silicate glasses. Highly oxidized sinters are
generally easier to reduce, especially if a large portion of the hematite has been formed
by reoxidation of magnetite.
Reduction degradation index In the upper part of the blast furnace shaft, the
permeability of the burden may be influenced by the breakdown of sinter upon reduction.
The reduction disintegration index (RDI) is defined as a quantitative measure of the
disintegration of the sinter that could occur in the upper part of the blast furnace after
some reduction. Sinter with a high degree of reduction disintegration generates fines in
the top of the furnace which affects the flow distribution within the blast furnace.
Chemistry The best chemical criterion for sinter is a maximum iron content and
minimum gangue content with suitable basicity, consistent with acceptable strength,
reducibility, and blast furnace performance. The iron content is dependent almost entirely
upon the iron ores fines which are available for the sinter making. Silica alumina ratio in
the sinter is to be less than 0.5. The lower it is better. The ratio between CaO and SiO2
determines the sinter basicity. The sinter basicity level should be such that it eliminates
direct flux charging in the blast furnace. MgO in the sinter is to be maintained to have
proper MgO in the BF slag for making the slag fluid. For high alumina iron ores, MgO in
BF slag is to be maintained in the range of 8 to 10 %. FeO in the sinter must be brought
down if does not affect the strength of the sinter. Generally it is seen that FeO content of
around 8 % is necessary in sinter for maintaining proper strength of sinter.
The Sintering Process of Iron Ore Fines
Sintering plants are normally associated with the production of hot metal in blast furnaces in
integrated steel pants. The process of sintering is basically a pre-treatment process step during
iron making to produce charge material called sinter for the blast furnace from iron ore fines and
also from metallurgical wastes (collected dusts, sludge and mill scale etc.).
The sintering technology was originally developed for the purpose of using the iron the
metallurgical waste of a steel plant and iron ore fines in the blast furnace. But currently the focus
has changed. Now the sintering process aims to produce a high quality burden for the blast
furnace. Today sinter is the main metallic burden for a large blast furnace.
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The Principle of sintering

The principle of sintering involves the heating of iron ore fines along with flux and coke fines or
coal to produce a semi-molten mass that solidifies into porous pieces of sinter with the size and
strength characteristics necessary for feeding into the blast furnace.
It is basically an agglomeration process achieved through combustion.
The Product Sinter
The product of the sintering process is called sinter and is having good following quality
characteristics
1.
2.
3.
4.
Chemical analysis
Grain size distribution
Reducibility
Sinter strength
Typical properties of sinter are given in Tab 1
Tab 1 Typical properties of sinter

Item
Unit
Fe
%
Feo
%
SiO2
%
Al2O3
%
CaO
%
MgO
%
Basicity (CaO/SiO2)
ISO Strength (+6.3mm)
%
RDI (-3 mm)
%
The product sinter is shown in Fig. 1.
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Value
56.5 to 57.5
6.0-8.0
4.0 to 5.0
1.8 to 2.5
7.5 to 8.5
1.6 to 2.0
1.7 to 2.9
>75
27-31
Fig 1 Sinter
Advantages of adding flux to sinter
Sinters are classified into acid sinter, self-fluxing sinter and super fluxed sinter. Self-fluxing
sinter brings the lime required to flux its acid components (SiO2, Al2O3). Super-fluxed sinter
brings extra CaO to the blast furnace. For self-fluxing and super-fluxed sinter, the lime reduces
the melting temperature of the blend and at relatively low temperature. Incase ofself-fluxing and
super-fluxed sinter, the lime reduces the melting temperature of the blend and at relatively low
temperatures (1100 deg C to 1300 deg C) strong bonds are formed in the presence of FeO. The
following are the advantages of adding flux to the sinter
It generates slag with the impurities present in the iron ores and solid fuels producing a
suitable matrix for cohesion of the particles
It improves the physical and metallurgical properties of sinter
It reduces the melting temperature of the iron ore blend
It promotes the calcination reaction of the limestone (CaCO3 =CaO + CO2) outside of
the blast furnace hence saving heat consumption in the blast furnace.
The Process
The process of sintering begins with the preparation of the raw materials consisting of iron ore
fines, fluxes, in-plant metallurgical waste materials, fuel and return fines of the sinter plant.
These materials are mixed in a rotating drum and water is added in order to reach proper
agglomeration of the raw materials mix. This agglomeration is in the form of micro-pellets.
These micro pallets assist in obtaining optimum permeability during the sintering process. These
micro pellets are then conveyed to the sintering machine and charged.
A layer of controlled size sinter (bedding) is fed to the bottom of the sinter machine grates for the
protection of the grates. After this the moistened micro pellets of the raw materials mix is fed and
leveled.
After the material is leveled on the sinter machine, the surface of the charged material on the
sinter machine is ignited using gas or oil burners. Air is drawn through the moving bed causing
the fuel to burn. Sinter machine velocity and gas flow are controlled to ensure that burn
through (i.e. the point at which the burning fuel layer reaches the base of the strand) occurs just
prior to the sinter being discharged. During the machine movement the sintering of the material
bed on the grate proceeds downward. Waste gas circuit is to be fully leak proof, not allowing air
from atmosphere to be sucked by the system. This results into saving of power in the waste gas
circuit.
At the end of the machine the sintered material in the form of cake is discharged into the hot
sinter crusher. Here the hot sinter cake is crushed to a pre-determined maximum particle size.
From here the sinter is discharged onto sinter cooler which can be either straight line or circular
cooler. After cooler the sinter is transferred to the screening section.
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In the screening section the product sinter, bedding and return fines are separated. Return fines,
not suitable for downstream processing, are conveyed to a bin for recycling in the sintering
process.
Waste gases are treated for dust removal in a cyclone, electrostatic precipitator, wet scrubber or
fabric filter.
The material flow of the sinter plant is shown in Fig 2.
Fig 2 Material flow in a sinter plant

The flexibility of the sintering process permits conversion of a variety of materials, including
iron ore fines, captured dusts, ore concentrates, and other iron-bearing materials of small particle
size (e.g., mill scale) into a clinker-like agglomerate.
Sinter machines
Sinter machines are of two types i) circular and ii) Straight line. Straight line
Machines are also being known as Dwight and Lloyd machines. Dwight and Lloyd constructed
the first continuous sinter plant in 1906.Circular sinter machines are normally suitable for blast
furnaces having useful volumes of 650 Cu m and less. The man parameters of some of the
circular machines are given in Table 2.
Table 2 Main Parameters of Circular Sinter machines
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Subject
Unit
Annual Production 1000 tpa
Total Power
requirement
kW
Land needed for
plant
Sqm
Land needed for
building
Sqm
12 Sqm
machine
172
17 Sqm
machine
253
25 Sqm
machine
404.5
33 Sqm
machine
556
700
1500
1750
2400
8000
9000
10000
12000
800
3400
35000
3600
Various features of the circular machines are as below.

When compared with the straight line machines the capital investment costs are low and
the construction periods are short.
Sealing is better and air leakage is less in these machines since the wind boxes move
synchronously with grates and since water sealing is adopted.
Discharging system makes the size of cold sinter such that there is no need of an
additional crusher.
The circular machines are having high operational flexibility
A circular sinter machine is shown in Fig 3
Fig 3 Circular machine

Straight line machines are normally used for large sinter plants. Present straight line machines
are installed having widths from 2 meters to 5 meters and with effective sintering areas from 200
to 600 Sq m. The productivity of such machines typically ranges from 30 to 46t/Sqm/day.
Capacities of such machines range from 190,000 tons per annum to 6.5 Mtpa. A straight machine
is shown in Fig 4.
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Fig 4 Straight line machine

Important issues related to sinter And sinter plants
1. Use of sinter reduces the coke rate and enhances the productivity in blast furnace
2. Sintering process helps utilization of iron ore fines (0-10 mm) generated during iron ore
mining operations
3. Sintering process helps in recycling all the iron, fuel and flux bearing waste materials in
the steel plant.
4. Sintering process utilizes by product gases of the steel plant.
5. Sinter can not be stored for a long time as it generate excessive fines during long storages
6. Sinter generates excessive fines during multiple handling
7. Technologies for improvement in Sintering Process
8. Sintering of iron ore is a metallurgical process carried out on a sintering machine. It is
basically a pre-treatment process step during iron making to produce charge material
called sinter for the blast furnace. It is an agglomeration process achieved through
combustion. In this process air is sucked at the sinter strand through a bed of raw mixture
(also called sinter mix) of iron ore fines, limestone, dolomite, sand and quartzite fines
(flux), solid fuel (coke breeze or anthracite) and metallurgical wastes (collected dusts,
sludge and mill scale etc). The fuel particles on the top surface layer are first ignited in a
furnace and as the strand move forward, the ignited or combustion front proceeds
gradually downwards through the bed until the end is reached. . In last few decades
several technologies have been developed which have not only resulted into vast
improvements in the process of sintering but also have improved the quality of sinter.
Majors of these technologies are given below.
9. Use of burnt lime as a replacement of limestone
10. Burnt lime (CaO) is an active binder since it gets hydrated {Ca(OH)2} as a result of
hydrate reaction with water As a binder it promotes the quasi particle property in the
sinter mix. It helps in increasing the micro fines input through iron ore fines. Due to
better granulation of sinter mix it improves sinter productivity. In addition to the binding
property, burnt lime also reduces the coke breeze rate due to reduced calcination of
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limestone during the sintering process. The use of burnt lime also reduces the crushing
and screening load of harder raw limestone and hence saves in energy.
11. Intensive mixing and granulation system
12. The raw materials for sintering which contain iron ore fines, fluxing agents and waste
materials are from different sources and have varying characteristics. They need to be
blended to form a homogeneous mixture. Intensive mixing and granulation system
enables an optimum preparation of the sinter mix by homogenizing the raw material feed
and eliminates the need for blending yards. The system basically consists of high speed
agitating mixer and a granulation drum. The system results in increased granulation rate,
improvement in bed permeability, more equalized burn through zone and optimum burn
through point control. With this system a more homogeneous sinter mix is prepared
which reduces coke breeze consumption up to 5 % and increases the sinter productivity
by up to 2 %. The system facilitates use of higher percentage of ultra fines in the sinter
mix.
13. Twin layer charging
14. With a uniform charging of sinter mix on the sinter strand can lead to higher temperature
causing fusion of the sinter mix. This will restrict downdraft air flow and sintering
process. In twin layer charging, smaller grain size charge materials with higher
concentration of coke breeze is charged in the top layer. Larger grain size material (ore
and sinter return) with lower coke breeze concentration is charged in the bottom layer.
This ensures proper passage of heat in the lower layers, high bed permeability and
efficient use of fuel.
15. Improvements in sinter mix feeding equipment
16. Segregated blend loading of sinter mix results into big particles at the bottom and small
particles at the top of the sinter mix bed on the pallets of sinter machine strand. The
segregated blend loading helps in the permeability of the mix and hence helps in
improving the machine productivity. There are several designs of the charging system for
segregated loading. Some of them are (i) installation of an additional screen on the
conventional sloping chute (ii) intensified sifting feeder (iii) segregated slit wire (iv)
magnetic breaking feeder. Fig 1 shows charging systems without segregated blend
loading system and different types of the blend loading systems.
17.
18. Fig 1 Segregated blend loading
19. Multi slit burner in Ignition Furnace
20. While igniting the top of the sinter mix bed on the sinter machine in the ignition furnace,
flame stability of the burner is essential. Multi slit burners help produce a single wide
large stable flame which eliminates no flame areas and supplies minimum heat input for
ignition. This in turn results into saving of energy input in the ignition hood. It has been
reported in a Japanese plant that the total heat input for ignition with multi slit burners
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has been reduced by approximately 30 % compared with conventional burners. Outline of

muti slit burner is in Fig 2.
21.
22. Fig 2 Outline of a multi slit burner
23. Stand support sintering
24. In the stand support sintering method the load of sinter cake in the upper portion of the
sinter mix bed is supported by steel stands during the sintering process. The load of the
sinter cake on the combustion-melting zone below it makes the sinter mix bed shrink (bed
compaction), and thus significantly deteriorates the permeability of the bed. The support
stands installed inside the sintering pallets begin to support the load of the sinter cake
above at the time when the sinter mix bed portion around the tops of the stands begins to
solidify after heating and melting. The sintering process of the lower portion of the bed
proceeds thereafter under a reduced load, and a permeation network develops well in the
portion to improve permeability. Due to stand support system the productivity of sinter
machine increases significantly and the machine runs more stably.
25. Waste heat recovery
26. Heat recovery at the sinter plant is a means for improving the efficiency of sinter making
process. Hot sinter is required to be cooled. The recovered heat from the sinter cooler is
used to preheat the combustion air for the burners in the ignition furnace and to generate
high pressure steam which can be used for generation of electricity. The system is also
known as emission optimized sintering. Besides recovery of heat, the system helps in
reduction in SOx, NOx and particulate emissions and improving the productivity, yield
and cold strength of the sinter. Energy recovery to a level of 30 % is being achieved by
this method.
27. Dust emission control
28. Increase of production in sinter machines leads to higher dust generation which means
higher particulate emissions. These emissions are dust laden and contain a ide variety of
organic and heavy metal hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). By sending the waste gas to
electrostatic precipitators through negatively charged pipes, the particulate matter in the
waste gas stream becomes negatively charged. Routing this stream past positively
charged plates will then attract and collect the negatively charged particulate matter,
thereby producing clean waste gas and increasing the quantity of steam recovery. Coarse
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dusts are removed in dry dust catchers and recycled. Use of ESP reduces the dust level of
the off gases.
29. Selective waste gas recirculation system
30. Hot waste exhaust gases from the first and third sections of the sinter machine is mixed
with off air of sinter cooler and ambient air and is recirculated back to the second section
of the sinter machine. During the sintering process the sucked air volume is normally
higher than required for complete combustion of the fuel in order to allow a high velocity
of the flame front. Sinter waste gas therefore typically contains around 12 % to 15 %
residual oxygen. It is also at a temperature which is well above the critical dew point.
This is sufficient for recirculation to the sintering process after the addition of a small
amount of supplementary air. A part of the waste gas is recycled back to a hood which
covers a part of the sinter strand. The advantages of the system are (i) Reduced waste gas
volume per unit sinter by around 50 % and reduced coke breeze consumption by 10 % to
15 % because of waste gas heat utilization and CO post combustion. Typical schematic
diagram of selective waste gas recirculation system is given in Fig. 3.
31.
Fig 3 Typical schematic diagram of selective waste gas recirculation system
32. Automation system
33. Optimum process control conditions are achieved when perfect alignment of process
parameters takes place. Integrated level 2 automation system helps a lot in this direction.
With this system, the standard deviation of quality parameters can be decreased by
around 5 % to 10 %. This system also helps in reduction of coke breeze consumption can
be reduced by around 3 % and productivity can be increased by around 3 % to 5 %.
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Iron Ore Pellets and Pelletizing Processes

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Iron Ore Pellets and Pelletizing Processes

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Iron ore pellets and Pelletizing processes

Fig 1 Iron ore pellets

Raw material preparation.

1. Drying of green pellets.

Fig 2 Straight Travelling Grate Process- Typical flow sheet

Fig 3 Grate Kiln process Typical flow sheet

Lower dust generation

Higher dust generation

A comparison of temperature distribution during the two processes is shown in Fig. 4

Fig 4 Temperature distribution during the two proce

Understanding Pellets and Pellet Plant Operations

Fig 1 Typical schematic diagram of vertical shaft and grate-kiln systems

Fig 2 Typical schematic diagram of straight grate system

Fig 1 Iron ore pellets

pH (40 gm/L, 20 deg C; slurry in water) 5.0 8.0

Melting point 1500-1600 deg C

Bulk density 2.0 -2.2 t/Cum

Tumbler index (+6.3 mm) 93-94 %

Abrasion index (-0.5 mm) 5-6 %

Compression strength (daN/p) Around 250

The chemical analysis of iron ore pellets is given below.

Disintegration (-3.15 mm) %

Different ISO standard tests for pellets are given in Tab 1

Availability of the metallic material of correct specification

Iron ore pellets

The chemical analysis of pellets are given in Tab 3

Fig. 1 Mosaic image of pellet cross section

Iron Ore Pellets and Pelletization Process

Fig 1 Schematic presentation of different state of wet agglomerate

Iron Ore Agglomeration Processes and their Historical Development

Fig 1 Agglomeration processes

History of sintering of iron ore

Fig 2 Pot sintering method

Understanding Sinter and Sinter Plant Operations

Fig 1 Simplified flow diagram of a sintering process

Fig 1 Schematics of sinter mix and product sinter

Fig 1 Effect of moisture on the granulation process

Fig 2 Different types of loading systems

Iron Ore Sinter

Fig 1 A piece of sinter

The Principle of sintering

Typical properties of sinter are given in Tab 1

Tab 1 Typical properties of sinter

Fig 2 Material flow in a sinter plant

Various features of the circular machines are as below.

Fig 3 Circular machine

Fig 4 Straight line machine

has been reduced by approximately 30 % compared with conventional burners. Outline of

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