Anthropology 1020

Teresa Potter
tpotte15@bruinmail.slcc.edu
1/11/16
Biological / Physical Anthropology
Scientific Discipline: studying the biological and behavioral characteristics of humans.
Human Biology from an evolutionary perspective
Anthropology: (study of humans) 4 Subfields
-

Biological/ Physical
Archaeology: study of past human cultures thru the recovery, analysis and interpretation
of material remains (artifacts)
Cultural: study of patterns of belief and behavior in modern and historical population (After
Writing)
Linguistics: study of human speech and language and its origin.

Evolution: Origins, change, adaptation

-

Change in the genetic makeup over time

2 levels
o Microevolution: most common changes in the gene frequencies of a population from
1 generation to the next.
o Macroevolution: Change in genetic makeup of a population that accumulate over a
long period of time and leads to a new species process of speciation.

Culture: religion, economics, music, food, family, politics, networking, clothing, tools,
technology, ect.
-

A set of learned behaviors, not passed or biologically

Biocultural Evolution: Long term relationship between our biology and thru culture.
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Subfields of physical/Biological Anthropology
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Paleoanthropology: Study of humans & human ancestors from the fossil record.
Human variation (Why we all look different)
Genetics
Osteology: The Study of Bones
Forensic Anthropology: Identification of Human remains. (The Bones TV show)
Primatology: Study of primates

Scientific Method
1) Literature Research
Hypothesis: An Explanation (question) of
observed phenomena
2) Observation
based on the potential to falsify. It is Testable.
3) Developing a Hypothesis
4) Research Design /Data collection
5) Analysis/ Conclusion
a. Theory: A hypothesis that has withstood repeated testing.
1/20/16
Monkeys

Apes

Humans
Common Ancestor 6-8 mya (Million years ago)

Common Ancestor 20-30 mya

Influences on Darwin
1) Scientific Revolution & Enlightenment
2) Copernicus & Galileo
a. Copernicus found out that everything doesnt revolve around the Earth. Everything
Revolves around the Sun.
i. Sun it the center of our Solar System
b. Galileo expanded on Copernicus idea and used math and logic to prove his theory.
3) Principles of Physics: Inventions of Scientific Instruments: Telescope and Microscope
4) John Ray & Carl Linnaeus
a. John came up with categorizing. He wanted to put to categorize organisms: Defined
a Species.
b. Carl used John idea and expanded on it. Standardized, and came up with a method
to on how to group them. Developed binomial nomenclature: is a formal system
of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts.
Every living thing should have a name. For us as humans our name is homosapien.
5) Erasmus Darwin: He was the Grandfather of Darwin.
a. All life evolved from the sea from a common ancestor and it took a very long time.
6) Jean Baptiste Lamarck: Dynamic relationship between organisms & their environment.
a. Theory of Acquired Characteristics: An organism changes a trait during their lifetime
and the passes the changed trait onto their offspring. Like with giraffes, one
stretched their neck for their entire life and then when they had offspring the babies
came out with longer necks.
7) Georges Cuvier: 1st to develop the notion of an extinction of species. (Due to Fossils)
Catastrophism: is the theory that the Earth has been affected in the past by sudden,
short-lived, violent events, possibly worldwide in scope.
8) *Thomas Malthus: He was a man that Studied the Economy. He was also Darwins really
good Friend.
a. Population Size is limited by limited resources. Leads to competition. If there is 100
people and only 75 resources people are going to fight for them and some will live
and some will die.
9) Charles Lyell: He was a Geologist. Also known as the Father of Geology. Came up with
Uniformitarianism: Which is the principle or assumption that the same natural laws and
processes that operate in the universe now have always operated in the universe in the
past and apply everywhere in the universe. It has included the gradualist concept that "the
present is the key to the past" and is functioning at the same rates. (The same processes
that worked in the past work the same today.)
Scientific Expedition
Charles Darwin grew up in a very wealthy family. His father encouraged him to go to school to
be a doctor. After a little while he changed schools and went into studying religion. After
graduation he got hired on to be a Naturalist on a voyage around the world. The ship was called
HMS Beagle and it took 5 years to complete its voyage. One of the stops was on the Galapagos
Island. Darwin noticed that each island that he visited all had different Finches. He saw some
with thick beaks for breaking Seeds (Ground Finch) and he saw Slender beaks for the ones that
eat Insets. (Warbler Finch). This goes back to Larmarks theory that environment changes the
beaks of the birds.
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Animal Breeding
Artificial Selection: selection by humans of animals and plants with desirable characteristics for
use in breeding over several generations.
Natural Selection: is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in
phenotype; it is a key mechanism of evolution. Nature Decides who will live and who will die. The
process by which random evolutionary changes are selected for by nature in a consistent,
orderly, non-random way.
8 Tenets of Natural Selection

1. Biological Variation: refers to an individual that possesses characteristics different from the
others of the same kind.
2. Offspring are produced at a faster rate than resources.
3. More are born then survive Competition
4. Favorable Traits have an advantage
5. Environment determines favorability Fitness
6. Traits have to be inherited reproductive fitness: An individual raises the most offspring to
reproductive age.
7. Over time successful traits accumulated speciation
8. Geographic Isolation
Adaptation: Evolutionary shift in response to environmental change. (The moth picture, Black
and white) Also called an adaptive trait, is a trait with a current functional role in the life of an
organism that is maintained and evolved by means of natural selection. Adaptation refers to both
the current state of being adapted and to the dynamic evolutionary process that leads to the
adaptation. Adaptations enhance the fitness and survival of individuals.
1/27/16
Cells: Fundamental unit of life
-3.7 bya (Billion years ago): First single-celled organisms.
-1.2 bya: First multi-celled organisms. Eukaryotic cells.
Cell Membrane (Wall)
Nuclear membrane
Nucleus: Contains genetic material (Control Center)
-Includes: DNA & RNA
Cytoplasm: gel-like substance
Ribosome: Protein Synthesis
Mitochondria: Energy production DNA
Two Types of cells:
P
P
1) Somatic Cells: Body tissues Muscles, Skin, ect
S
2) Sex Cells: (Gametes) Reproduction Sperm and Eggs
P

DNA: Deoxyribose (Sugar) Nucleic Acid

Base of Life
S
T
A
S
Directs all cellular activity
P
P
Nucleotides: phosphate, sugar and base
S
C
G
S
Two chains of nucleotides wrapped in a double helix
P
P
S
G
C
S
4 Bases Adenine: A
Cytosine: C
Thymine: T
Guanine: G
(Only Bonds together)
On rare occasions sometimes different groups bond together but the cell wont be able to
survivor and will more than likely die and will never copy itself.
A
T
Copying of DNA: DNA Replication
T
A
-all this process take place in the Nucleus.
C
G
Free floating
Nucleotides
1) Enzyme breaks the bonds of bases.
G
C
P
P

2) Free-floating nucleotides match up to the complement base on the two sides of DNA strands
S
A
C
S
3) Two new exact copies of the DNA strands are formed.
Protein Synthesis: Ability to bind to other molecules
1.
2.
3.
4.

Enzyme: Ability to regulate chemical reactions.

Hemoglobin: Binds to O2. (Carries O2 throughout the body in the blood stream)
Collagen: In connective Tissues
Hormones: Produce Specific effects in tissues & organs. ExamplesTestosterone, Estrogen
and Insulin

Chain of amino acids: 20 total amino acids, 12 our bodies make and 8 are found in foods we
need eat.
RNA: Ribose Nucleic Acid
Difference with DNA
1. Different Sugar
2. Single Strand Chain
3. A different base Uracil (U)
RNA Process
1) Enzyme separates a portion of DNA temporarily.
2) Free floating RNA nucleotides match to one side of the DNA strand forming mRNA.
(Messenger RNA)
3) mRNA goes to ribosome.
mRNA U G U C C A
a. RNA in the Ribosome is called tRNA and is always 3 bases long.
4) tRNA finds its amino acid and matches to the mRNA strand.
5) Amino acids bond together to form the protein.
AA=Amino Acid
A
U
C
G
A
U
G
C
G
C
T
A
DNA RNA

T
G
T
C
C
A

tRNA
U
mRNA

AA
A
G

C
U

A
C

AA
G
C

G
A

DNA

Gene: Section of DNA that codes to make a product.

Mitosis: Cell Division of the Somatic Cells.
Chromosome: DNA coiled up in the shape of an X. Humans have 46 Chromosomes and have 23
pairs of chromosomes.
- Chromosome number 1-22 are called Autosomal Chromosomes and make up the genetic info
for physical characteristics. So this is what makes you look the way you look.
- Chromosome number 23 is your sex chromosome and is your genetic info for gender. (Male or
Female) X&Y
-XX=Female
-XY=Male
Mitosis:
46 chromosomes
92 Chrom.
92 Crom.
xx

xxxx
xxxx

xx

xx xx
xx xx

DNA Replication
46 Chrom each

92 Crom.

xx

xx

Sex Cells (Gametes): Egg / Sperm Only have 23 chromosomes.

Egg =

xx
xx

Sperm =
23 Chromosomes

xy

xy
Huge Nucleus
23 Chromosomes

Meiosis: Cell Division to make Sex Cells

1) Mitosis: Forms 2 Cells
Trisomy: 3 Copies of chromosomes.

xy 46Ch.
X Y 46Ch.

X 23Ch.

Y 23Ch.

Section 2
Menelian Traits
Gregor Mendel

Parent Generation: Tall x Short

F1 Generation:
100% Tall
F2 Generation:
75% Tall & 25% short
Traits are expressed as discrete (Individual) units.
The individual units come as pairs inherited one copy of each nit form each parent: 1 st principle
of Inheritance Law of Segregation.
Dominant: Trait that is always expressed if at least 1 copy is present.
Recessive: Trait that is always hidden when 1 copy of dominant is present.
Locus: Spot on the DNA where a gene is located (Loci)
Gene: The part of the DNA that codes for physical trait. Example = stem height.
Allele: All possible expressions of a physical trait. Example = Tall & Short
Homozygous: Two copies of the same allele.
Heterozygous: 1 copy of each allele.
Punnett Share
T
T
T Tall allele
TT= Homozygous dominate
t Tt
Tt
t Short allele
tt = Homozygous recessive
t Tt
Tt
Tt = Heterozygous
T
T TT
t Tt

t
Tt
tt

P: TT (Tall) x tt (Short)
F1: TT: (Tall) 0%
Tt: (Tall) 100%
F2: TT: (Tall) 25%
Tt: (Tall) 50%

tt: (Short) 0%
tt: (Short) 25%

Genotype: The gene of the individual

Phenotype: Physical expression of the gene. What they physical look like.
2nd Principle of Inheritance Law of Independent Assortment
Traits are inherited independently. One trait does not necessarily dictate another trait. Holds true
if traits are on different chromosomes.
Continuous (Polygenic) Traits
1. Have a range of possible expressions.
2. Controlled by more than 1 gene.
3. Environment can play a role in the final expression.
Examples are Height, eye color, hair color and skin color
Human Height Environmental factors that influence
- Childhood Nutrition
- Prenatal Health of Mother
- Sunlight
- Altitude

- Toxins

Modern Theory of Evolution: 1920s 1930s

Two Stage process
1) Production of Variation: Mutation
2) Natural Selection acts on variation: Differential survival
Evolutionary Process other than Natural Selection
1) Mutation: A change in DNA. Has to occur in the gametes (Sex Cells). Creative Force
2) Gene Flow: Migration. Exchange of genes between populations of the same species.
3) Genetic Drift: Random process. A factor of population size. Occurs when populations are
small. Random chance allele frequencies change in rare allele because a population is small.
Special Case Founder Effect: A small population breaks off from a larger population and
do not interbreed. Random chance a rare allele with increase or decrease in frequency in the
small population.
Sickle Cell Anemia
Normal Healthy Blood Cells
Sickle Blood Cells
Hb^(A) = Dominant, Normal Cells
Hb^(S) = Recessive, Sickle Cells
Hb^(A) Hb^(A) = 100% Normal
Hb^(A) Hb^(S) = 50% Normal, 50% Sickle
Hb^(S) Hb^(S) = 100% Sickle
Africa is where it is the most common area for Sickle Blood Cells. Malaria attacks Red Blood Cells
and not the Sickle Blood Cells. So Hb^(A) Hb^(S) is the best Genotype for Africa.
Generalized
Hunter Gatherers
-10,000 years ago: Agriculture (Domestication of Plants & Animals)
- New Tools
- Permanent Structures
- Population size: Larger
- Living closer together
Ancestral Diet
- High in animal Protein
- Low in Saturated fat
- High is Fiber
- Low in Salt

Modern Diet
- Low in animal Protein
- High in Saturated fats
- Low in Fiber
- High in Salt

Dietary Problems
- Lactose intolerant
- Gluten allergies
- Feast vs. Famine biology
- Diabetes, Obesity, Heart Disease
Human Growth Pattern

Height
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Height

Human Growth Hormone:

levels in times of
Excessive amount: Gigantism
Insufficient amount: Dwarfism
Human Brain Growth:
Birth: 25% of adult size
6 months: 50% of adult size
2 Years: 75% of adult size

Cortisol Hormone: Elevated

stress.

5 Years: 90% of adult size

10 Years: 95% of adult size

Life History Theory: View of Human Growth & Development through the Life Cycle. How has
Natural Selection operated on the timing of life events, especially in regards to reproduction.
Main Premise: Only certain amount energy available in life. Energy can only be used for 1 thing
at a time. in 3 major categories.
- Growth & Development - Maintaining Life
- Reproduction
Life History Traits:
- Length of gestation: the process of carrying or being carried in the womb between conception
and birth. (9 months)
- Age of weaning: Breastfeeding. 4-5 years (no eggs so you cant get pregnant, natural birth
control)
- Length of childhood
: 12-15 years (until you can have your own offspring)
- adult Height: (if you have sex when you are young like 12-15 it will affect your height.)
- Life Span: (age at death) 60-65 years. Women tend to live longer than men.
- Menopause: happens usually at 50 years of age.
- Women live about 12-15 years after Menopause
- Grandmother Hypothesis: Take care of more. Increase reproductive fitness
Osteology: Analysis of Skeletal Remains
Age and Gender
Gender
Children: Very hard, because human children develop similarly before puberty.
Adults: Pelvis: Males: narrower, taller
Female: Wider, broader, shorter
Cranium: Males: larger, denser bones, robust muscle attachment
Female: Smaller, less dense bones, gracile
Age (How old were they when they died)
Children: Adult Tooth Eruption: Pattern
Long Bone fusion
- most cartilage at younger ages
- Fuse through time

Adults: Broad Age Ranges

1)Pubic Symphysis: younger rough
Older Smoother
2) Sternal ends of ribs: younger rough Older Smoother
3) Degenerative diseases
- Osteoporosis: a medical condition in which the bones become brittle and fragile from
loss of tissue, typically as a result of hormonal changes, or deficiency of calcium or vitamin D.
- Arthritis: is a form of joint disorder that involves inflammation in one or more joints.
There are over 100 different forms of arthritis. The most common form of arthritis is
osteoarthritis, a result of trauma to the joint, infection of the joint, or age.
Ancient Egyptians: 4 Categories
- Red: Native Egyptians
- White: North
- Yellow: East
- Black: South
18th and 19th Centuries
Linnaeus: 4 Categories for skin color
Skin Color
Moral, Intellectual, Cultural, Characteristics
Biological Determinism
Ranked them
Blummenbach: 5 Category Brown (added it to the categories)
Galton: improved the human species
Eugences: Governments should be involved in race improvements. (1940s Hitler did this
by destroying the Jews to make the best races.)
Race: Biological Definition:
Geographical patterned differences in a physical trait in a species.
Polytypic species: Any species that has variation for a physical trait.
Scientist are trying to get away from saying race by using breeds, subpopulation, local
populations.
Human Response to Environment
Skin Color: Melanin (protein): Natural Sunblock: UV protection
High degree of sunlight (Around the equator)
Darker Skin
Northern latitudes
Lighter Skin for Vitamin D absorption.
Thermal Responses:
Sweat Glands: Evaporative cooling
Loss of Body Hair
Vasodilation: Temporary means of cooling
Vase Constriction: Keep warmer internally
Shivering
Body Size Adaptations
Bergmanns & Allens Rule
Lower body mass, higher Surface Area. Mass/ Surface Area
Longer Limbs
High body mass, lower Surface Area.
Hot Climates: Tall, lean, long limbs best body type because they cool off faster and better.
Cold Climates: Shorter, stockier best body type because they keep warmer.
High Altitude
Challenges: low O2 hypoxia
(also drier, colder reduced nutritional base)
Temporary Acclimatization: increase O2 transportation. (Our bodies move O2 faster through our
systems)
Permanent Acclimatization: Children who are born or raised at higher Altitudes.
Population: Genetic Mutations. (Just like the Sherpas that help people clime Mt. Everest)
Differences in allele frequencies
DNA based
Polymorphic: genetic trait that has more than 1 allele.

Allele frequencies differences & changes for polymorphic trait in populations.

ABO Blood Groups
AA= A blood type AO= A blood type
type
OO= O blood type

BB= B blood type

BO= B blood type

AB= AB blood

Native African populations = Highest degree of genetic variation, Oldest populations.

Mutations)

(Due to

5 Assumptions
1) Large Populations
2) No mutations
3) no gene flow
4) Natural Selection not acting
5) Radom Mating

Section 3
Primates: 230 Species Lemurs, Tarsiers, Monkeys, Apes
Africa, India, SE Asia, Japan, South & Central America
Kingdom: Animals
Generalized: Not Specialized traits used for more than 1
function
Phylum: Chordate
Class: Mammals
Order: Primates
Evolved: Share a common evolutionary history with a highly social
arboreal ancestor.
Primate Characteristics
A. Limbs & Locomotion
1) Tendency to erect posture: Sitting, Clinging & leaping, standing.
Bipedalism (Two Feet)
2) Generalized limb structure: wide range of movement.
3) Prehensile hands (and feet): Grasping & manipulation
a. 5 digits
b. opposable thumb (Big Toe)
c. Nails instead of claws
d. Sensory pads on fingertips
B. Diet & Teeth
1) Lack dietary specialization: Omnivorous
Combination of foods: Fruits, Nuts, Seeds, Leaves, Bark, Insects, Small Animals
2) 4 Kinds of Teeth
Incisors Shearing
Premolars
Grinding
Canines Teeth
Molars
Teeth
C. Senses & the Brain: Visual
1) Color Vision: only in diurnal primates. Diurnal = active during the day
2) Depth perception: 3-D Vision
a. Forward-Facing eyes overlapping field of vision
b. visual information is transmitted to both hemispheres of the brain

3) Decreased reliance on smell

4) Expansion and increased complexity of the brain.
D. Maturation, Learning, Behavior
1) Increased fetal & Childhood development
2) Reduced # of offspring
3) Greater dependence on learned behavior
4) Tendency to live in Social groups with permanent male association
5) Tendency to be diurnal
Forms of locomotion
1) Quadrapedalism: Walking on all 4s
2) Vertical clinging & leaping: Lemurs, lories & tarsiers
3) Knuckle Walking: Chimps & Gorillas
4) Bipedalism: Walking on 2 legs
5) Brachation: Arm- Swinging: Ape
a. Shoulder joint modification
b. Short, stable lower back
c. Arms longer than legs
d. Curved fingers
e. Shortened thumbs
Dental Formula
2 Incisors
1 Canine
2 Pre Molars
3 Molars
8 teeth x 4 sections = 32 teeth
Evolutionary Factors that contributed to the Primate Characteristics
1) Arboreal (Tree Dwelling) organisms:
Brachiation, Color Vision, Depth Perception, Prehensile hands, Omnivorous diets- generalized
dentition.
2)Arboreal visual Predators: Insects, Animals
-Prehensile hands, color vision & depth perception
3) Evolved at same time as Flowering Plants:
Exploiting a new environment
Omnivorous diets, color vision, depth perception
2 Suborders:

Strepsirrhini
&
Lemurs, Lorises & Galagos

Haplorrhine
Tarsiers, Monkeys, Apes & Humans

Strepsirrhini
Primitive
1) Short gestation & Maturation periods
2) Greater reliance on smell (Fleshy pad on nose)
3) Dental comb: Feeding & Grooming
Lemurs: Madagascar
60 Species
ring-tailed lemurs
- No competition with other primates
- Small and Large groups
- High degree of behavioral & physical variation
- Diurnal & Nocturnal
- Arboreal & Land dwelling
Loris & Galagos (Bush Babies): Africa, India, South East Asia
species of Galagos
- Nocturnal
- Solitary: 1-2 females with offspring
Tarsiers: South East Asia island
-Nocturnal, insectivores
degrees.

8 species of Lorises and 6-9

5 species
-Eyes are immovable, rotate head 180

- Solitary when they are hunting

Infraorder: Anthropoidea: Monkeys & Apes
1) Larger Average body size
parental care
3) Larger relative brain size
perception, color vision
5) No dental comb
7) Fused mandible (Chin bone)

2) Longer gestation & Maturation: Increased

4) More reliance on sight: Better depth
6) Bony plate behind eye sockets
8) More mutual grooming

Monkeys: 85% of all primates.

195 Species Africa, India, SE Asia, Japan, Central & South
America
- Most widely distributed of primates after humans
- Divided into 2 groups: New world & Old World
New World Monkeys: (Example Capuchin {Hollywood movie monkey})
70 Species
- Almost exclusively arboreal
- Social
-only 1 nocturnal group
- Semi-brachiators
- Fruit, Leaves, Insects
- Use tail as 5th limb (to swing from tree to
tree)
Old World Monkeys: (Example Baboons) 125 Species
- Most are arboreal, some are land-dwelling
- Most omnivorous a few leaf-eating
- Small groups to extremely large groups
Sexual dimorphism: Physical differences in the bodies of males and females of the same
species.
Super Family: Hominoids: Aps & Humans
1)Generally larger body size
2) No tail (really important)
3) all the classic brachiation traits
4) longest periods of maturation & infancy dependency
5) More complex behavior
6) More complex brains & cognitive abilities
Gibbons & Siamangs: South East Asia
8 Species
- Smallest of the Aps
- Suspensory Feeding
- Arms longer than
their legs
- Mostly eat Fruits & Leaves
- Social unit Males, Females & dependent offspring
Orangutans: 2 Subspecies: Borneo & Sumatra
-High degree of Sexual dimorphism
- 4 handed climbing
Fruit

- Solitary

- Mostly eat

Gorillas: Largest of all primates

(like polygamist)
-High degree of sexual dimorphism
- Mostly land-dwelling
- Knuckle walking
- Social unit: 1-2 adult silver-back males
- Vegetarians
- Several adult females &
dependent offspring
- Both males & Females disappear once they reach sexual maturity and go and look for a new
group
Chimpanzees: Equatorial Africa
- Very similar anatomy to gorillas
group

- male male bond only females leave the

- Omnivorous
- Small amount of sexual dimorphism
- Knuckle walkers

- Males hunt in groups

- Aggressive
- Social units: 10-100 individuals

Bonobos: Equatorial Africa (Similar to Chimpanzees)

- Smaller, stockier, longer legs
- Male Female bond is the strongest
- Smaller, darker face
- Have sex like humans when every
they want to.
- More arboreal
- Not as aggressive
Humans: Only Living bipedal primate
- Larger Brains
- Tool making and usage
- Language (Spoken & Written)
Behavioral Ecology:
- Study of behavior from an ecological or environmental perspective.
- Focus on the interaction of individual & group behavior.
Underlying Principle: All components of an ecological system evolve together.
-Behavior can be adapted like a physical trait.
Social Behavior: Feeding, Mating
-Influence on structure: size, composition (Gender & age distribution)
Factors that Influence social structure:
1) Body size/ Diet: Larger animals need fewer calories every day to survive. Unlike small animals
which need a lot.
- High quality foods nuts, animal protein (insects)
- Low quality foods Leaves
- Large animals can take low quality foods (Bears)
- Small animals need more high quality foods (Squirrels)
2) Distribution of resources
Leaves
Abundant
Larger groups
Fruits/Seeds/Berries
Clumped
Medium groups
Insects
Scattered
Small Groups
3) Predation: Where predation is high and organisms are small might want bigger groups.
4) Dispersal: Leaving the group of birth at sexual maturity.
Why? in breeding avoidance, reduce male male mate competition.
5) Life History Traits:
Short time frames: Marginal environments
Longer time frames: Stable environments
6) Activity Patterns: Diurnal vs. Nocturnal
Larger Groups
Small groups
Why be Social? Competition!!!! Resources, mates
1) Over Come Predation: Safety in Numbers
2) Getting Mates
3) More Food
Common Primate Social Behaviors
1) Dominance: Ranking of individuals within a group.
Access to resources & Mates
Aggression plays a key role in determining rank, but it is in the form of threats/ gestures.

Things that influence rank:

of birth
1) Gender: Most time male dominance
2) Age: older ones have higher rank then the younger ones
3) Time in group
4) Level of aggression
5) Intelligence
6) Motivation
7) Parents Social Position
2) Communication:
-Scents
-Body Posture: Striding gait
- Touching, Patting, Hugging
- Grooming (Bond)
- Displays: combination of complex behaviors

Observation from the moment

- Eye Stare
- Vocalizations

- Facial Expressions

3)Aggression vs. Afflictive Behaviors

With Groups: Less violent displays
Offset be reassuring behaviors: Grooming
Between Groups: Home range
Core Area: Predictable resources
spend most of the day Highly defendant.
Core Area never overlap
Violent, Aggressive
Altruism: Individual gives another a benefit and puts themselves at risk.
Example: Chasing off predators, Adopting an orphan
Why?
1) Related
2) Tit-For-Tat
4)Reproductive Behaviors
Primate female: Estrus (like being in heat, only time for the female to get pregnant.)
Behavioral Change
Physical Change Color, Swelling, Scents
Reproductive Strategies: Maximize reproductive fitness
1)R-Selected: Have lots of offspring with little to no care. Example Rabbits, Mice, Fish,
Snakes & Sea Turtles
2) K-Selected: Have a few offspring with lots of parental care. Example Primates
Females: Most energy in their Adult lives either pregnant, lactating, caring
-Need Many resources
-Limited reproductive potential
-Looking for the male with the most resources
Males: Lower energy demands
-Unlimited reproductive potential in some respects.
- Only limit, Females limit
- Looking for the most number of females
- Male Male competition Sexual selection (Form of Natural Selection)
-Reason behind Sexual dimorphism
Infanticide: Killing infants
Example: Langur monkeys in India. Single ones come in and kill the Alpha male and then kill his
children.
5) Culture: Learned Behaviors
Most is learned by observation

Japanese Macaques: Love to eat Sweet Potatoes (Washing)

- In one Group a Female dug up her sweet potato and decided to go to the river and wash it off.
Well soon the whole group saw her and decided to do the same thing so now they all do it.
Orangutans: Building nests differently
- one group uses leaves to amplify sound
- one group uses sticks to swat insects
Capuchin: Uses Stones as hammers to open nuts so they can eat.
Chimpanzee: Uses sticks to stick down ant hills and eat more ants at a time.
- One group uses leafs as sponges to drink water
- One group uses stones as hammers & Anvil
- Uses sticks and rocks in displays
- Uses sticks as spears for hunting.
Chimpanzee Intelligence:
1)Looking for a particular object Planning & fore thought
2)modifying an objectAbility to know what a finished product needs to be.
6) Language: One of the most significant events of human evolution.
- We can communicate about all time & places
- Anatomical differences Larger, more complex brain
- We also have a hyoid bone which helps us make more sounds and speak.
Arbitrary: No inherent relationship between an object and the symbols & word used to define it.
(Example Water, Rate)
Taxonomy: Specializes in the rules of Classification.
Basic Classification System
Human Designation
Kingdom
Animalia: Multicellular, move about, ingest food
Phylum
Chordata: Nerve cord, gill slits at some stage of
development, supporting column along the back.
Sub phylum: Vibrate vertebral column, paired sensory organs.
Class
1) Mammals
5 Classes 2) Reptiles (Birds)
3) Bony Fish Cartilaginous Fish 5) Amphibians
Order
Primates
Family
Hominidea
Genus
Homo
Species
sapiens
Structures used in Classification
1) Homology: Structures that 2 organisms share because their common ancestor had it.
Example: Bone structure of the forelimb (Chicken, Human, Bat, Wale)
2) Analogy: Structures that are similar in 2 organisms, but evolved independently in each
organism.
Example: Wings in Butterflies & Birds
Two Major Approaches to Classify
Evolutionary Systematics
Cladistics
Three things in common
1)Trace evolutionary relationships
2)Compare organisms with only a few structures
3)Focus on homologous structures
Differences
Use Ancestral homologous structures: Homologous
Use Derived homologous structures:
structures that

Structures that have not changed from the ancestor.

Have been modified (Changed)
from the ancestor.
Example: Bone structure of forelimb Clumpers
Example: chicken wing,
porpoise flipper, bat wings,
Human arm
Seperators
Phylogenic Tree to draw relationship: element of Time
Cladograms: one-dimensional
with no time.
1)Mammals
1
2
3 4 5
6
8
1) Amphibians
1 2
3
4
5
6
2)Turtles
2) Mammals
3)Crocodiles
3) other reptiles
4)Birds
4) other dinosaurs
5)Dinosaurs
5) theropal dinosaurs
6)Lizards & Snakes
6) Bird
7)Reptiles
7
8)Amphibians
Common land Vertebrate
What is a species:
Biological species Definition: A group of organisms that can interbreed (Physically or
Behaviorally) and have viable offspring.
Process of speciation
1) Geographic isolation of 2 groups of the same species
2) Different Genetic Mutations occur in each group
3) over a long time genetic differences accumulate
4) If brought back together they would be 2 different species
In the fossil record focus on amount of variation, How different?
Compare the amount of variation with similar living species
Fossils: Traces of ancient organisms
1. Hard Tissues: Bones, Teeth, Shells Turned to stone by Mineralization
2. Organisms trapped in bogs, ice, tar, amber
Continental Drift
3. Mummification
Land is on large
continental plate
4. Leaf imprints, footprints, feather imprints in rock
Shifts & Moves
5. Poop
Pangea broke up into
Laurasia & Gondwanaland
Geologic Time Scale
Era:
Period
Epoch
Paleozoic: 570 225 Million Years Ago
-1st vertebrates 500 million years ago: Bony fish, reptiles, amphibians
-1st Mammal-like reptiles: 250 million years ago
Mesozoic: 225 65 Million Years Ago Age of Reptiles
-reptiles are the dominant land animals
-by 75 million years ago all orders of mammals
Cenozoic: 65 Million Years Ago Present Age or Mammals
-mammals become dominant land animals
Why???
1. Larger brains of mammals
2. Longer periods of in utero growth & development
3. Heterodont teeth
4. Warm blooded
Adaptive Radiation: Rapid type of speciation

Species can evolve rapidly under 2 special conditions:

1) Adaptive opportunities: New Environment
2)Adaptive Potential: Generalized organisms
3 Major Mammal Groups
1.Egg-Laying Mammals: Platypus, Echidna
2. Pouched (Marsupial) Mammals: Kangaroo, Wallaby, Opossum
3. Placental Mammals

Section 4
Paleocene Epoch: 65-56 Million years ago
-1st true primates very primitive looking only a couple of examples.
Eocene Epoch: 56-33 Million years ago
1) Primates diversification & wide distribution: 200 species. Africa, Asia, SE Asia, North America,
Europe
2) Definitely primates Most like lemurs, lorises, ect.
-37 mya 1st Monkey-like primates (Anthropoids)
3) Mostly extinct by end of Eocene
Oligocene Epoch: 33-23 Million years ago
-Several Africa & Old World monkey species appear
-1st Monkeys in South America 30 mya
- Similar to Africa Monkeys
- Vegetative raft or island
Candidates for ancestors:
Bridge to the gap of time
1) Apidium: Squirrel-sized / Fruits, seeds / Arboreal, quadrupedal
2) Aegyptopithecus: Larger Howler monkey size / short-limbed / quadrupedal arboreal
Miocene Epoch: 23-5 Million years ago
Golden Age of Hominoids
- Warming trend

- 1st Hominoids (Apes) then they diversify throughout, over 30 species. Africa, SE Asia,
Europe
1) African forms: 23-14 mya
- Generalized & Primitive. Mixture
- Genus: Proconsul
2) European forms: 16-11 mya
- A little more derived. More specialized
- Genus: Dryopithecus
3) Asian forms: 15-5 mya
- The largest, most varied group
- Highly derived, specialized
- Genus: Sivapithecus
5 Things about Miocene Hominoids
1) Definitely Hominoids
2) Mostly large-bodied like todays gorillas & orangutans
3) Mostly derived led to extinction
4) Sivapithecus Probably the ancestor of orangutan
5) No definitive hominids
Relative Dating: Older vs. Younger
Law of Superposition Stratigraphy: The Earths crust has been laid down in layers. Older
layers are the bottom.
-Things that can throw off stratigraphy dating are Volcanos and Earthquakes.
Biostratigraphy
Teeth: Changes through time: Rodents, Pigs, baboons
Paleomagnetism: Rocks will trace magnetic elements point to North & it has changed through
time.
Chronometric Dating: (Also known as Absolute Dating)
Radioactive Decay: Unstable elements change to stable elements through time.
Life: Time it takes for of an unstable elements to change to a stable element.
1. Potassium/ Argon (K/Ar)
life: 1.25 Billion years
life 50kg life 25kg
2. Uranium/ Lead (U/ Pb)
100 kg
life: 4.4 Billion years
50kg
75kg
3. Carbon-14 / Carbon-12
life: 5,730 years

1.Thermoluminescence:
Rocks used to make tools & pottery have trace radioactive elements.
2. Electron Spin Resonance: ESR
Dental enamel have an unstable element
Hominids (Humans)
1) Bipedalism
2) Larger Brains
3) Tools: Stones that have been modified
Physical changes
1) Pelvis: Wider, Shorter
2) Legs: Elongated, angled Inward, Fully extend knee
3) Feet: Arched, in line big toe
4) Foramen magnum: Centered in Skull
Habitual: Primary means
Obligate: Most efficient

Why Bipedalism? Advantages (favorable)

1) Frees the hands
2) Wider view of surroundings
3) More efficient at covering long distances
Early Hominid Evolution 6-1 Million years ago
1) Pre-Australopiths: 6-4.4 mya
2) Australopiths: 4.2-1.2 mya
3) Early Hom: 2-1.4 mya
Pre-Australopiths
1)Sahelanthropus tchadensis: 6 mya East Africa
-Only have cranial bones: Canine teeth worn on tips.
-foramen magnum: Intermediate
2) Ororin: 6 mya West Africa
-Only post-cranial bones: Indicates possible bipedalism
3) Ardipithecus: 5-4.4 mya East Africa
-Cranial & post-cranial bones
-Several individuals
-Named one Ardi 50% complete pelvis, feet, skull
Australopiths: 4.2-1.2 mya Major features:
a) Bipedal
b) Relatively small brained
c) Large back molars with thick enamel
1)Australopithecus anamensis: East Africa Kenya 4.2-3.9 mya
- More primitive
2) Australopithecus afarensis: Ethiopia & Tanzania 3.6-3 mya
- Place called Laetoli foot prints found (2 adults 1 child)
- clearly shows bipedalism
- over 60-100 individuals
Average 420 cm^3 3 - 5 ft. tallHigh Sexual dimorphism
- Named one of them Lucy
Paranthropus: More derived, More specialized
-Have Huge back teeth
-Dense cheek & Skull bones
crest
Paranthropus Aethiopicus: 2.5 mya East Africa
-Called Black Skull
Paranthropus boise:2-1.4 mya Africa
Paranthropus robustus: 2.1.4 mya South Africa
Australopiths africanus: 2.5-1.5 mya South Africa
-Taung Child
Home habilis: East Africa 2.6-1.4 mya
1) Large brains: 20% larger Average 630 cm^3
2) Tools Stone tools chopper/ scrapers Olduwan Tool Kit
3) Larger front teeth smaller back teeth
Steps to finding & naming fossils
1.Selecting & surveying sites
2. Excavating
3. Give individuals numbers to each item found
4. Clean, describe, study

-Sagittal

5. Compare with previous fossils

6. Compare amount of variation with similar living species
7. Give taxonomic name
Homo erectus: 2-1.8 mya through 100,000 years ago Africa, Europe, Asia
-1st hominid to leave Africa
1) Increase size & Robustness: Average height 5-6 100lbs
-Sexual dimorphism
2) Legs longer than arms
3) Increase in brain size: Average 900 cm^3
Africa: 1.6 mya
Europe: Dmanisi, Georgia 1.8-1.2 mya
- Complete Skull: Cranial capacity 848 cm^3
- Stone tools olduwan Tool Kit
- Nuchal torus: where neck muscles attach
- Spain, Italy: 1.2 mya 450,000 ya
- large brow ridge
-Animal bones with butchering
- Nariokotome Boy: 8 year old 5-3
-Scavengers hunting
-female pelvic bone: Sexual dimorphism in reproductive areas
Asia: Java, Indonesia: 1.6 mya-1 mya
-1 group on Island that is isolated -100,000 ya
Zhoukoudian, China: 780,000 ya
-100,000 bones & Artifacts
- Acheulian Tool Kit: Hand ax (biface) Raw materials from a longer distance
Pre Moderns
(Middle {780,000-125,000} Late {125,000- 10,000)
Ice Age:
Glacials: Colder, drier, ice sheets advance
Interglacials: Warmer, wetter, ice sheets retreat
Earliest pre-moderns are in Africa
-Mixture of Home erectus & modern human traits Average brain size 12,000 cm^3
Larger brow ridges, projecting faces
Larger brain size, thinner bones in cranium
Home heidelbergensis: (Acheulian Tool Kit)
-More sophisticated
Africa: Kabwe, Zambia 600,000-125,000 ya
-Cranial & Post-cranial bones with mixture of traits
Europe: Look very similar to African counter parts
Asia: Average brain size 1260 cm^3
-Gran Dolina, Spain: 850,000 ya
- Evidence of controlling fire
-Atapuerca, Spain: Later in time
- exploiting marine resources for the
1st time.
-a few Neanderthal characteristics
Neanderthals: 130,000 ya - 30,000 ya most prevalent: 75,000 40,000 ya
-Originally: Homo Neaderthalensis
-Now: Homo Sapiens neanderthalensis
-Us: Homo Sapiens Sapiens
Characteristics:
-Low, Large, arching brow ridges-low cranial capacity-Avg. 1520 cm^3
-Low forehead
-Projecting face
-Shorter, Stock, very muscular
Western Europe
La chapelle-aux-Saints, France
-Male 30-40 years
-shallow grave-deliberate burial
-Found buried with tools & animal bones
-Extremely Large 1620 cm^2
-Arthritis of the spine
El Sidron, Spain 49,000 ya
-12 individuals: 3 adult males, 3 adult females, 5 juveniles, 1 infant
-Bodies were butchered

-Males related, females not related

-practiced Patrilocal Mating
Central Europe:
Krapina, Croatia: 130,000 ya 110,000 ya
-70 individuals deliberate burial
-over 1,000 tools & flakes
Vindija: 42,000 32,000 ya
-35 individuals: overlaps in time when modern humans are in Europe
Western Asia:
Israel Tabun 120,000 110,000 ya
-female Skeleton / overlaps with modern humans
Kebra: 60,000 ya
-Partial male skeleton: complete thorax-hyoid bone
Iraq: Shanidar cave
-9 individuals: deliberate burial
-1 male: 35-45 years of age 5-7 1600 cm^3
-Sustained Trauma
-blind in left eye, right are withered with no hand
Central/ Eastern Asia
Uzbekistan: Child burial with tools
Siberia: 44,000 37,000 ya
-DNA show the Neanderthals genome is different from modern Humans
-but 1-4% genes in modern human
Denisnova cave: 50,000 ya
-Fossils with a different DNA genome then either Neanderthals or Modern Humans
-But some 1-2% of genes found in Modern Humans in Malaysia.
Mousterian Tool Technology: Much more complex see spears & hunting tools. Specialized tools
-Used natural pigments to adorn tools & bodies jewelry
Modern Humans
200,000 ya Africa
150,000 120,000 ya Western Africa
100,000 50,000 ya Central Europe
45,000 ta Australia
15,000 ya North & South America
Two theories of Modern Human Origins
1. Mult. Regional/Reginal continuity
Wolpoff
-Modern Humans evolved indepently in the three major regions from local populations of premodern.
-Denied oldest one were in Africa, we just dont have all the fossils yet.
-A large amount of gene flow.
2. Replacement/ out of Africa,
Stringers & Andrews
-Speciation event in Africa from H. Heidelbergensis replaced all other pre-moderns in Europe &
Asia
1.Extemination
2.Out-Competing 3. Limited breeding
Genetic Record
1-4% of Neanderthals DNA in modern human populations
-only in Europe & Asia populations
-No native Africans
MtDNA: shows a modern origin of 200,000 ya
Genetic Diversity: native Africans have most diversity
Fossil Record
Africa: omokbish, Ethiopia: 195,000 ya
South Africa: 2 sites 120,000 80,000 ya

Herto, Ethiopia: 160,000 154,000 ya

-2 adults, 1 child Cranial Capacity 1450 cm^3
Western Asia:
Israle: Skhul cave 130,000 100,000 ya
-10 individuals
Qafzah Cave 120,000 92,000 ya
-20 individuals
-Overlap with Neanderthals sites of Tabun, Kebara
Central/ Western Europe
Oase Cave, Romania 40,000 35,000 ya
-3 individuals
-Overlaps with Neanderthals sites mladec, Czech Republic: 35,000 31,000 ya
Dolni vestonic, Czech Republic: 28,000 ya
Cro-magnaon, France 28,000 ya
-8 individuals with new complex tool technology
Portugal: 24,500 ya
Abrogo do lagar velho: 4 year old child with Modern hman & Neanderthals characteristics
Asian: China 7 different Modern human sites 50,000 27,000 ya includes zhoukoudian Cave
Niah Cave, Borneo 45,000 35,000 ya
Australia:
Norther Australia: 50,000 45,000 ya
Lake Mungo-Southern: 30,000 25,000 ya
-1 Migration event
Homo floresiensis
Flores, Indonesia near java 13,000 ya 3 ft. Tall
13 individuals
brain size 417 cm^3
Insular dwarfism
Tool Technology
Upper Paleolithic Time Frame late stone age
Divarication 7 regional differences in tools
Specialized tools
New raw materials bone, Ivory, antler
New procedure Rock knapping flakes are tools