Ms.

Meha Siyam
10th Grade
SAT II Chemistry
Pioneers Baccalaureate School
Spring 2016

Study Guide
I. BASICS

MATTER
Matter: anything that has mass and takes up space.
MASS
Mass: the amount of matter in a substance.
! Measured in grams or kilograms or milligrams
! 1 kg= 1000g
! 1g= 1000mg
! The more molecules or atoms etc. in a sample the more mass it
will have. Thus mass depends on the number of molecules
present in a sample.
VOLUME
Volume: how much space something takes up.
! Measured in liters, milliliters or cubic centimeters.
! 1L=1000 mL=1000cm3
! Volume of a liquid is measured using a graduated cylinder.
! Volume of a solid can be by its length x width x height or
submerging it in a liquid and measuring the difference in
volume as the liquid rises due to the solid.
! Volume of a gas is always equal to the container its in in. Gas
always expands to fill the size of its container.
DENSITY
Density: a measure of the ratio of an objects mass to its volume.
! Density = mass or D= m
Volume
v
! Units of density can be g/L or kg/L or g/mL or g/cm3 any
ratio that is mass over volume is a proper unit of density.

! The density of a solid or liquid stays the same because the mass
and volume of a solid or liquid is whatever it is when
measured.
! The density of a gas however can change, since the volume of a
gas depends on the container its in, if the container for a sample
of gas is changed then its volume will change depending on the
size of the container and that will change its density.

II. ELEMENTS AND ATOMS

ELEMENTS
Element is any substance that cannot be broken down into a simpler
substance by a chemical reaction.
It is the fundamental form of matter.
Isotopes: the same element, because they have the same number of
protons, but they have different number of neutrons so they have a
different mass number.
ATOMS
Atom is the smallest particle of an element that still retains the
chemical properties of the element.
! Nucleus:
o Protons: positive charge mass of 1 amu
o Neutrons: no charge mass of 1 amu
! Cloud:
o Electrons have a negative charge and no mass because
they are very light compared to protons and neutrons.
! Mass number:
o Is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons.
! Ion: is a charged atom.
o Cation: positively charged atom. Lost electron(s)
o Anion: negative charged atom. Gained electron(s).
o Mass does not change for ions because electrons do not
affect mass.
PERIODIC TABLE
Table that lists all of the elements and their basic information. Trends
in the periodic table give more information about the elements as
well.
! Groups:
o Vertical column
o All elements in a group have the same number of valence
electrons.

o The number of valence electrons is the same as the group

number. For example, group 1 with H and Na have 1
valence electron.
o Group1: Alkali metals 1 valence electron
o Group2: Alkali earth metals 2 valence electrons
o Group 8: noble gasses have 8 valence electrons do not
react.
o Group 7: halogens have 7 valence electrons.
! Periods:
o Rows
! Element:
o The number on top of the name of the element is the
atomic number also known as the elements ID number,
its the number of protons the element has.
o The number below the element is the atomic weight.
" Atomic weight: is the average of the masses of the
isotopes of an element based on their abundance in
nature.
" Example:
An element consists of 3 isotopes in the relative
abundance given below.
What is the atomic mass of this element?
30.00% = 40.00 amu
50.00% = 41.00 amu
20.00% = 42.00 amu
To solve this multiple each percent (in decimal form) by the
number that accompanies it. Then add the number up.
0.30 x 40 = 12
0.50 x 41 = 20.5
0.20 x 42 = 8.4
12 + 20.5+ 8.4 = 40.9 amu is the atomic weight of this element.

III. MOLECULE PROBLEMS

MOLECULES
Molecules are two or more atoms joined by chemical bonds.
! Diatomic molecule is a molecule that consists of two atoms (can
be the same atom or different atoms).
! Some elements exist as diatomic molecules at room
temperature and atmospheric pressure of 1 atm such O2
FORMULA WEIGHTS
! Find the formula weight of a molecule by adding up all of the
atomic weights that make up the molecule.
! For example: H2O2
Look for the atomic weights of each element in the periodic table.
H: 1
O: 16
We have 2 H and 2 O so
H- 1 x 2= 2
O- 16 x 2 = 32
Add them up
2 + 32= 34
The formula weight of H2O2 is 34 amu.
! For example: H2SO4
Look for the atomic weights of each element in the periodic table.
H: 1
S: 32
O: 16
We have 2 H and 1 S and 4 O
H- 1 x 2 = 2
S- 1 x 32 = 32
O- 4 x 16 = 64
Add them up
2 + 32 + 64 = 98
The formula weight of H2SO4 is 98 amu.
! For example: Ca(CO3)2
Look for the atomic weights of each element in the periodic table.

Ca: 40
C: 12
O: 16
We have 1 Ca and 2 C and 6 O
*Note the () means that CO3 are affect by the subscript 2. So you
multiply their subscript within the parenthesis with the number
outside the parenthesis. For C its 1 x 2 = 2 for O its 3 x 2 = 6
Ca 1 x 40 = 40
C 2 x 12 = 24
O- 6 x 16 = 96
Add them up
40 + 24 + 96 = 160
The formula weight for Ca(CO3)2 is 160 amu.
EMPIRICAL FORMULA
! Shows the ratio of the atoms within a molecule
! To find an empirical formula from a molecular formula:
o Find the largest whole number by which all of the subscripts
in the molecular formula are divisible.
o Divide the subscripts by that number
! For example:
H2O2
The largest whole number that can divide the subscripts here is 2
So divide 2/2 for H and 2/2 for O
The empirical formula is HO
! For example:
H2O
There is no whole number that can divide the subscript of 1
attached to the O. Here, the empirical formula is the same its H2O.
! For example:
K2Cr2O4
The largest whole number that can divide the subscripts is 2.
The empirical formula becomes KCrO2

PERCENT COMPOSITION
! This refers to the percent of an atom contained within a molecule.
1. Find the total formula weight
2. Find the mass of the atom being asked about
3. Divide it by the formula weight and multiple by 100%
! For example:
H2O2
The total formula weight is the total atomic weights of the atoms
from the periodic table.
H- 2 x 1 = 2
O 2 x 16 = 32
2 + 32 = 34 is the total formula weight.
The percent composition of H is
Mass of H
x 100% =
Total formula weight
2
34

x 100% = 5.88% H

The percent composition of O is

Mass of O
x 100% =
Total formula weight
32
34

x 100% = 94% O

MOLES
! Molar mass
Molar mass is the mass per mole of an element or compound. You
can find this number using the periodic table.
One way to represent numbers in chemistry is by ratios.
So molar mass as a ratio can be:
50g
1 mole

OR
1 mole
50g
Note: The number is always stuck to the mass unite g or grams. So
when you flip over the ratio make sure the number is always with the
g.
For example, the molar mass of H2O is 18 g/mole.
You find this number by:
Atomic weight of oxygen from the periodic table is 16 amu
Atomic weight of hydrogen from the periodic table is 1 amu
There are 2 hydrogen atoms in water so 2 x 1 = 2 amu
2+16 = 18 and that is the molar mass of water.
! Moles
A mole is just a number and that number is 6.02 x 1023
One way to represent numbers in chemistry is by ratios. Since 1 mole
is the same as 6.022 x 1023 it can be written like this:
1 mole
6.02 x 1023 atoms
OR
6.02 x 1023 atoms
1 mole
both of these ratios mean: 1 mole has 6.02 x 1023 atoms in it.
Finding the number of moles:
To find the number of moles from grams you need the one term that
connects these: MOLAR MASS

For example:
How many moles of water are in 36g of water.
Start with what is given: 36g of water
The molar mass of water is 18g (solved above).
36g x 1mole = 2 moles of water
18g
Finding the number of grams from moles:
For example:
If we have 4 moles of water how many grams of water is that?
Start with what is given: 4 moles of water
Use the molar mass again to move between mass and moles.
4 moles x 18g
= 72g of water
1 mole
Finding the number of atoms from the number of moles:
For example:
If you have 4 moles of water how many atoms are in it?
Start with what is given: 4 moles of water.
Use the 1 mole is 6.02x1023 to move between atoms and moles.
4 moles x 6.02x1023 atoms = 24.08 x 1023 atoms
1 moles
Finding the number of moles from the number of atoms:
For example:
If you have 8 x 1030 atoms of water how many moles is that?
Start with what is given: 8 x 1030 atoms.
Use the 1 mole is 6.02x1023 to move between atoms and moles.
8x1030 atoms x 1 mole
= 1.33x107 moles
6.02x1023 atoms

Finding the number of atoms from grams:

For example:
What is the number of atoms in 36g of water?
Start with what is given: 36g of water.
Use molar mass to move from grams to moles and then use the 1
mole is 6.02x1023 to move between atoms and moles.
36g x 1 mole x 6.02x1023 atoms = 12.04 x 1023 atoms
18g
1 mole
Finding the number of grams from atoms:
For example:
What is the mass of 28 x 1023 atoms of water?
Start with what is given: 28 x 1023 atoms
You know molar mass is 18g/mole
Use molar mass to move from grams to moles and then use the 1
mole is 6.02x1023 to move between atoms and moles.
28 x 1023 atoms x 1 mole
6.02x1023 atoms

x 18g
= 83.7g
1 mole

PERCENT COMPOSITION TO EMPIRICAL FORMULA

! To solve this type of problem:
When it gives the percentages of the elements
Step 1: Assume 100g
Step 2: find the number of moles of each element
Step 3: divide all of the mole numbers found by the lowest
number of moles
Step 4: the nearest whole number found will be the subscript of
each element.
! For example:
If you have 48.38% Carbon, 8.12% Hydrogen, 53.5% Oxygen by
mass.

Step 1:
Assume 100g which means we have
48.38g of Carbon
8.12g of Hydrogen
53.5g of Oxygen
Step 2:
Find the number of moles
Carbon:
48.38g x 1 mole = 4.03 moles of Carbon
12g
Hydrogen:
8.12g x 1 mole = 8.12 moles of Hydrogen
1.0g
Oxygen:
53.5g x 1 mole = 3.35 moles of Oxygen
16g
Step 3:
The smallest number of moles here is the mole of Oxygen. So
now we must divide the entire mole values found by the
number of moles of oxygen since its the smallest.
4.03 moles of Carbon = 1.2 Carbon
3.35 moles of Oxygen
8.12 moles of Hydrogen = 2.4 Hydrogen
3.35 moles of Oxygen
3.35 moles of Oxygen = 1 Oxygen
3.35 moles of Oxygen

Step 4:
The nearest whole number of our results is the subscript of each
element so for
Carbon: round 1.2 to 1
Hydrogen: round 2.4 to 2
Oxygen: 1 is 1
So the formula is
CH2O
If the problem does not give percentages but instead tells you
the total mass of a sample and the mass of each component
then you just have to go back to percent and then do steps 1-4
above.
For example:
A sample has a total of 170g. It has 29.84g of Na, 67.49g Cr, and
72.67g O.
Start by finding the percent of each one:
Na:
29.84g x 100% = 17.55% Na
170g
Cr:
67.49g x 100% = 39.7%Cr
170g
O:
72.67g x 100%= 42.75% O
170g
Now do steps 1-4 from above.
Step 1:
Assume 100g
17.55g of Na
39.7g of Cr
42.75g of O

Step 2:
Find the number of moles
17.55g x 1 mole = 0.76 moles of Na
23g
39.7g x 1 mole = 0.76 moles of Cr
52g
42.75g x 1 mole = 2.67 moles of O
16g
Step 3:
Divide all of the mole values by the smallest number of moles.
Here the smallest number of moles is 0.76 moles.
0.76 moles of Na = 1 Na
0.76 moles
0.76 moles of Cr = 1 Cr
0.76 moles
2.67 moles of O = 3.52 O
0.76 moles
Step 4:
Round to the nearest whole number and these are the
subscripts of the elements.
In this specific case, here 3.52 is not high enough to convert to 4,
if it was 3.57 it would be much easier to round. In this type of
situation try to multiple to get to the whole number.
3.52 x 2 = 7
So there would be 7 Oxygen atoms here.
If we multiply the subscript of Oxygen by 2 then we must
multiply the others by 2 therefore
1 Na x 2= 2

1 Cr x 2= 2
So the formula is
Na2Cr2O7

IV. BALANCING
The number of atoms of each element is conserved during a chemical
reaction. A correctly written chemical equation reflects this
observation.
To satisfy the law of conservation of mass, we need to insert the right
coefficients into a chemical equation.
This process is referred to as balancing an equation.
Trial and error is the best way to learn how to balance equations.
There are an equal number of atoms for each element on each side of
the equation, when the equation is balanced.
A general method to learn the balancing of chemical equations is:
1. Write down the unbalanced equation containing the correct molecular
formula of all reactants and products.
2. Determine whether or not the chemical equation is already balanced.
3. If the equation is not balanced, start by balancing the element that occurs
in the fewest number of reactants and the product molecules. Start
with carbon or any other atom with a high molar mass.
4. Balance the remaining elements.
5. Make sure that the number of atoms in each element is balanced.
Example 1:
H2 + O2 H2O (not balanced)
Balancing the Chemical Equation of Water
The number of atoms in a chemical equation can be equally balanced.
Two oxygen atoms can be presented in the reactant side but on the
product side only one atom is presented here.
To solve the equations, on the product side, place 2 before the
formula for water.
H2 + O2 2 H2O (not balanced)
Now, we can see, two molecules of water can be produced for each
molecule of oxygen that can be reacted. The number is placed before

the formula and is called the chemical equation solvers coefficient.

A coefficient represents the number to be multiplied by everything
in the formula for both the reactant and the product sides. The
water molecule on the product side is doubled so that the two oxygen
atoms and four hydrogen atoms combined, on the reactant side,
equal the number of atoms on the product side.
For balancing the equation, on the reactant side, place 2 in front of the
H2.
2H2 + O2 2H2O (balanced)
Hence, there are four hydrogen atoms and 2 oxygen atoms represented on
both the reactant and the product side.

Example 2:
Balance the chemical equation:
Fe + H2OFe3O4 + H2
We can see that the equation is not already balanced.
We start by balancing Fe, since it has a high molecular mass atom
and only appears once on the reactant and the product side. We see
that there are three Fe atoms on the product side, so, we can balance
Fe by adding a coefficient '3' to Fe on the reactant side. So:
3 Fe + H2O1 Fe3O4 + H2
Having balanced Fe, we can then turn to oxygen, since it occurs with
Fe in Fe3O4, and we have already balanced Fe. There are four atoms
of oxygen on the product side, so we can balance oxygen by placing a
coefficient of 4 in front of H2O on the reactants side.
3 Fe + 4H2O1 Fe3O4 + H2
Finally, Hydrogen is the only one, left unbalanced. We have 8
hydrogen atoms on the left side, in water and so, we need 8 on the
right side too. By placing '4' in front of H2, we will get 8 hydrogen.

3 Fe + 4H2O1 Fe3O4 + 4H2

Thus, the following equation is completely balanced, for all the
atoms.
Resource: http://chemistry.tutorvista.com/physical-chemistry/balancingequations.html

V.

STOICHIOMETRY

A balanced chemical equation provides information about:

1. Particles
2. Moles
3. Mass
4. Volume
A balanced chemical equation is essential for all calculations
involving amounts of reactants and products: If you know the
number of moles of one substance, the balanced chemical equation
allows you to determine the number of moles of all other substances
in the reaction.
A. General Stoichiometry
To solve a stoichiometry problem:
1. Check if the given amount is in grams or moles.
2. If in grams convert to moles using molar mass.
3. Then use the balanced equation to create a conversion to get to the
number of moles of the unknown substance.
4. If the question asks for the grams of the unknown, then find it by
converting the moles to grams by the molar mass.
Example 1:
Calculate the number of grams of NH3 produced by the reaction of 5.40g of
hydrogen with an excess of nitrogen.
N2(g) + 3H2(g)---------2NH3(g)
Given: 5.40g of Hydrogen
Unknown: grams of NH3
Step 1: Check if the given is in grams.
It is 5.40g H2
Step 2: Convert the grams of hydrogen to moles.
5.40g x 1 moles H2 = 2.7 moles of H2
2.0 g H2

Step 3: Create a conversion using the balanced equation.

From the equation it shows: 3H2 and 2NH3
A conversion factor is: 2NH3
3H2
2.7 moles H2 x 2 moles of NH3 = 1.8 moles of NH3
3 moles of H2
Step 4: Convert the moles to grams.
1.8 moles of NH3 x 17.0g NH3 = 31g NH3
1 mole NH3
Note: if the question asks for the number of molecules then just use the
moles and find the number of particles using Avogadros number 6.022 x
1023
Here it would be:
1.8 moles of NH3 x 6.022x1023 particles = 1.08 x 1024 atoms.
1 mole
B. Limiting Reagent
To solve a limiting reagent problem:
1. Check if the given amount is in grams or moles.
2. If in grams convert to moles using molar mass.
3. Then use the balanced equation to create a conversion to get to the
number of moles of the product substance.
4. Find how much product each reactant makes. The reactant that
makes less of the product is the limiting reagent.
5. If the question asks for the grams of the product, then find it by
converting the moles to grams by the molar mass.
Note: If there is more than one product and the question does not tell you
which one to solve for, it just says find the limiting reagent, then pick just
one product and use it to solve the problem.
DO NOT use different products to solve with the reactants, because you cannot
compare properly.

2 Cu(s) + S(s)---------Cu2S(s)
a. What is the limiting reagent when 80.0g Cu reacts with 25.0g S?
b. What is the maximum number of grams of Cu2S that can be formed?
Step 1: Check if the given is in grams.
It is, 80g of Cu and 25g of S.
Step 2: Convert the grams to moles.
80g Cu x 1 mole Cu = 1.26 moles Cu
63.5g Cu
25g S x 1 mole S = 0.779 mole S
32.1 g S
Step 3: Create a conversion using the balanced equation.
Here one can see from the balanced equation that the ratio is
2Cu
1 Cu2S
And
1S
1 Cu2S
For Cu: 1.26 mole of Cu x 1 mole Cu2S = 0.63 moles of Cu2S
2 moles Cu
For S: 0.799 mole of S x 1 mole Cu2S = 0.799 moles of Cu2S
1 mole S
Since Cu made less Cu2S than S, then Cu is the limiting reagent.
The maximum amount of Cu2S is the amount that the limiting
reagent can make.
Find the number of grams of Cu2S using molar mass.
0.63 mole Cu2S x 159.1 g Cu2S = 100g Cu2S
1 mole
C. Percent Yield
Percent yield = actual yield

x 100%

Theoretical yield
To solve a percent yield problem:
1. The question gives you the actual yield by stating that a certain
amount was produced.
2. Theoretical yield is the one you solve for yourself, see
stoichiometry and limiting reagent sections above for how to
solve for theoretical yield.
3. Divide the actual yield by theoretical yield and multiply it by
100%
Using the example above, the theoretical yield was 100g of Cu2S. If the
problem stated that actual yield was 95g and solve for percent yield you
would:
Percent yield = actual yield
x 100%
Theoretical yield
Percent yield = 95
100

x 100% = 95%