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Period 1: c.1450 to c.1648

Why 1450? Start of the Renaissance, Age of Explora@on
Why 1648? End of the 30 Years War, Peace of Westphalia
Big Events: Renaissance, Reforma@on, Scien@c Revolu@on, Age of
Explora@on, Religious Wars, Development of New Monarchs, Witch-
Hun@ng, Military Revolu@on

Map of Europe: 1400

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Map of Europe 1500

Map of Europe 1600

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KC 1.1: The worldview of European intellectuals shi:ed from one based

on ecclesias=cal and classical authority to one based primarily on inquiry
and observa=on of the natural world.
I. A revival of classical texts led to new methods of scholarship and new values in
both society and religion

Humanist praised mankind as heroic and divine
No longer intrinsically unworthy
Mirandola: Individual was an independent and autonomous being with moral
choices

Humanist shiYed focus of educa@on away from theology toward the

study of the classical texts

Alber9: The Greco-Romans believed that the painted and the sculptor

understood
and portrayed the soul when they reproduced the human face
The ar@st had to be able to reveal the emo@ons and passions of the gures he
depicted

Civic Humanism: Applica@on of the classics to individuals and government

Machiavelli: Wrote extensively about the rela9onship between the government
and the people
The ends jus9fy the means

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II. The inven@on of the prin@ng press promoted the dissemina@on of new
ideas.
Led to vernacular languages and eventually na@onal cultures

III. The visual arts incorporated the news ideas of the Renaissance and
were used to promote personal, poli@cal and religious goals

Michelangelo

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Raphael
Human-centered naturalism that
considered individuals and
everyday life appropriate objects
of ar@s@c representa@on

El Greco
Mannerist and baroque ar@sts employed distor@on, drama,
and illusion in works commissioned by monarchies, city-
states, and the church for public buildings to promote their
stature and power

Isolated atop a mountain, a gaunt, tormented Christ

dominates a nearly empty landscape. On a road leading to
the walled city of Jerusalem, horsemen pass by the
execu@on hill, literally turning their backs on Christ. El
Greco's use of drama@c colors and exaggerated
propor@ons distorts the gure, conveying the transcendent
moment when Christ sublimated his physical pain and
commended his spirit to God. Turning his eyes upward
toward heaven, Christ looks away from the bones and
skulls that lie at his feet, representa@ve of his triumph over
death. Light plays across his undula@ng form, illumina@ng
his tortured body against the dark background. To
heighten empathy between the viewer and Christ, the
elongated but graceful gure appears alone. This private,
devo@onal image was meant to encourage contempla@on
and spiritual reec@on. (Text and picture from
www.geey.edu)

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IV. New ideas in science based on observa@ons, experimenta@on, and

challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the
mathema@cs
human body, although folk tradi@ons of knowledge and the universe
persisted
Heliocentric model of the universe
Advances in anatomical and medical discoveries Harvey: xed many errors from
ancient scien@sts; heart was beginning point of blood and only one type of blood
ow
Vesalius: He used dissec9on and observa9on to get a more clear view of
anatomical structure and corrected many errors from Galen. He learned that great
blood vessels originate in the heart, not the liver
Bacon and Descartes: induc@ve and deduc@ve reasoning, promo@ng
experimenta@on
Some people s@ll clung to alchemy and astrology
Newton: God had leJ clues in the heavens about the world and certain clues in previous
records

KC 1.2: The struggle for sovereignty within and among states resulted
in varying degrees of poli=cal centraliza=on
Three trends shaped early modern poli@cal development
1. Decentralized power and authority to centralized
2. Poli@cal elite primarily of a hereditary landed nobility towards one open to men
dis@nguished by their educa@on, skills, and wealth
3. Religious towards secular norms of law and jus@ce

Military revolu@on made knights unnecessary

Kings with the ability to create taxes and with the revenue could aord big state
armies
The kings of Western Europe were no longer nancially or militarily dependent on the
nobles

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I. The new concept of the sovereign state and secular systems of law
plated a central role in the crea@on of new poli@cal ins@tu@ons
New monarchs established a monopoly on tax collec@on, military force, and the
dispensing of jus@ce, and gaining the right to determine the religion of their
subjects
Peace of Augsburg(1555): APempted policy of religious compromise by Charles
V in an aPempt to prevent religious warfare in the HRE. The princes in the HRE
could decide if their people would be Catholic or Lutheran(no acknowledgement
for Calvinist or other Protestants)
Edict of Nantes(1598): Aeempted policy of religious compromise by Henry
IV(poli@que). This ocially made Catholicism the state religion of France, but
allowed Huguenots the right to prac@ce their religion.

Peace of Westphalia(1648): Marked the eec@ve end of medieval idea

of universal Christendom and accelerated the decline of the HRE

Commercial and professional groups gained in power and played a

greater role in poli@cal aairs
Nobles of the robe: As a way to generate money, the kings of France sold
posi9ons of nobility to wealthy nobles

Secular poli@cal theories, such as those espoused in The Prince provided

a new concept of the state
Bodin: Sovereign power consisted of the authority to make laws, tax, administer
jus9ce, control the states administra9ve system, and determine foreign policy

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II. The compe@@ve state system led to new paeerns of diplomacy and new
forms of warfare

Balance of power played an important role in diploma@c and military objec@ves aYer
the Peace of Westphalia
Advances in military favored the state
France created a massive state army, using taxes on the middle class to generate the
necessary money

III. The compe@@on for power between monarchs and corporate groups
produced dierent distribu@ons of government authority in European states
English Civil War, conict between the monarchy and Parliament exemplied this
compe@@on
James I: Wanted to rule as a divine-right monarchy. Parliament resisted this by
refusing his requests for addi9onal money. This conict became worse under Charles I
and led to the English Civil War
The Fronde in France: Revolts of the French nobles that were trying to resist the
centralized power of the monarchs, but these were crushed and many concluded that
best hope for stability in France was the monarch

KC 1.3: Religious pluralism challenged the concept of a unied Europe

I. The Protestant and Catholic Reforma@ons fundamentally changed
theology, religious ins@tu@ons, and culture
Chris@an humanism, embodied in the wri@ngs of Erasmus, employed Renaissance
learning in the service of religious reform
Sir Thomas More: He believed in a strict adherence to Chris9an values and was very disturbed
by the developing materialism and resisted the aPempts to break from the Catholic Church

Indulgences: The Catholic Church was selling a free pass to salva9on. This policy
created a lot of cri9cism and was a spark of the Protestant Reforma9on
Catholic Reforma@on, exemplied by the Jesuit Order and the Council of Trent,
revived the church but cemented the division within Chris@anity
Index of Prohibited Books: A list of books that Catholics were not allowed to read

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II. Religious reforms both increased state control of religious ins@tu@ons

and provided jus@ca@ons for challenging state authority

Monarchs and princes, such as Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, ini@ated religious reform
from the top down to exercise greater control over religious life
Book of Common Prayer: This prayer book reected the religious changes in
England and divide with the Catholic Church
Huguenots: Challenged the authority of the French monarch by resis9ng their
control. Huguenots aPempted to create their own laws and resisted taxa9on from
the crown.

III. Conicts among religious groups overlapped with poli@cal and

economic compe@@on within and among states

The late 1500s was a @me of religious warfare in France

St. Bartholomews Day Massacre: Charles IX and his advisers decided to kill
prominent Huguenots in Paris, and the violence spread when mobs of Catholics
killed Huguenots

Religious warfare con@nued, but was nally stopped when Henry of Navarre took the throne
and issued the Edict of Nantes

The Habsburgs aeempted, but failed to restore Catholic unity across

Europe
Philip II: He wanted to re-catholicize all of Europe. He aPempted to crush a
rebellion in the Netherlands, but made the mistake of trying to aPack England
rst. In 1588, his Armada suered a major defeat. His goal of restoring
Catholicism failed.
Thirty Years War: France, Sweden, and Denmark used the war as an excuse to
increase taxa9on and exert more control over their own people. It also allowed
these countries to weaken the HRE.
Poland: This was one of the few states in Europe that allowed religious plurality.
Poland had a weak monarch and the nobles had a large amount of control over
the religion of their people. No centralized religion was forced on the people of
Poland

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KC 1.4: Europeans explored and seHled overseas territories,

encountering and interac=ng with indigenous popula=ons.
By the 17th century, Europeans had forged a global trade network that gradually
edged out earlier Muslim and Chinese domina@on
Mercan@lism: Economic theory which promoted government management of
economic impera@ves and policies

I. European na@ons were driven by commercial and religious mo@ves to

explore overseas territories and establish colonies
II. Advances in naviga@on, cartography, and military technology allowed
Europeans to establish overseas colonies and empires
Stern-post rudder: Steering mechanism that made direc9onal control of ships
much easier
Guns and gunpowder: These gave the Europeans a huge advantage over the
people they encountered in the rest of the world

III. Europeans established overseas empires and trade networks

through coercion and nego@a@on
Compe@@on for trade led to conicts and rivalries among European powers

IV. Europes colonial expansion led to a global exchange of goods,

ora, fauna, cultural prac@ces, and diseases, resul@ng in the
destruc@on of some indigenous civiliza@ons, a shiY toward European
dominance, and the expansion of the slave trade.
Trade shiY fro Mediterranean to the Atlan@c
Columbian Exchange led to subjuga@on and destruc@on of indigenous
peoples
Many new crops were introduced to the Americas: Wheat, CaPle, Horses, Pigs, Sheep
But also diseases: Small pox and measles

Manny new crops went to Europe: Tomatoes, Potatoes, Squash, Corn, Tobacco, Turkeys
Syphilis was only disease

Slave trade expanded as a result of the planta@on economies

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KC 1.5: European society and the experiences of everyday life were

increasingly shaped by commercial and agricultural capitalism,
notwithstanding the persistence of medieval social and economic
structures.
More silver and higher popula@on led to a price revolu@on, which was a high
cost for goods and services
Development of capitalist economies and things like joint-stock companies to
conduct overseas trade
By mid-17th Europe no longer had the communal values and people were
responding to very dicult economic @mes by becoming more individualis@c
Leisure @me was s@ll communal, as was the enforcement of social norms

I. Economic change produced new social paeerns, while tradi@ons of

hierarchy and status persisted.
Growth of urban nancial centers and a money economy
Bank of Amsterdam: Started in 1609 as both a deposit and transfer ins9tu9on,
and eventually a stock exchange. This emerged as the European hub of business.
Gentry in England: Well-to-do landowners below the level of nobility, held many
posi9ons in the House of Commons and also local government. They became a
very strong group.
Rural areas remained unchanged; hierarchy and status con@nued to dene social
power

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II. Most Europeans derived their livelihood from agriculture and

oriented their lives around the seasons, the village, or the manor,
although economic changes began to alter rural produc@on and power
Subsistence farming was common in most rural areas
Price revolu@on favored the commercializa@on of agriculture, which beneted
large landowners.
Enclosure Movement: Governments were enclosing small farms and selling them
o to big landowners, this created a group of landless wage laborers

**As western Europe moved toward a free peasantry and commercial

agriculture, serfdom was codied in the east
Landlords restric@ng rights led to revolt

III. Popula@on shiYs and growing commerce caused the expansion of

ci@es, which oYen found their tradi@onal poli@cal and social structures
stressed by the growth
Popula@on pressure contributed to uneven price increases; agricultural
commodi@es increased more sharply than wages
Migrants challenged the ability of merchant elites and craY guilds to govern and
strained resources
Sanita9on problems: As popula9on rose, cites dealt with far dir9er condi9ons. There was no
infrastructure in place for bringing in/out water or garbage

Social disloca@on and weakening religious ins@tu@ons, leY city government to

regulate morality
Stricter codes on pros9tu9on and begging: Ci9es made laws to regulate pros9tu9on and
aPempted to limit beggars, but the underlying assump9on was that people were in these
posi9ons by choice. The social agtude towards poverty was changing, people looked at the
poor as lazy

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IV. The family remained the primary social and economic ins@tu@on of
early modern Europe and took several forms, including the nuclear
family
Rural and urban households worked as units
Renaissance and Reforma@on raised debates about female roles in the family
La Querelle des Femmes: The debate about whether women should be able to study in
universi9es and the overall role they should play

From the late 16th, economic changes delayed marriage, which slowed
popula@on growth and improved economic condi@ons

V. Popular culture, leisure ac@vi@es, and rituals reec@ng the persistence

of folk ideas reinforced and some@mes challenged communal @es and
norms
Leisure was organize around religious calendar and communal
Blood sports: People enjoyed watching things like cock gh9ng and bull bai9ng,
people in the Renaissance age viewed animals as soulless creatures
There were rituals of public humilia9on in an aPempt to keep communal order;
people were put in stocks for commigng crimes or viola9ons of social norms

Period 2: c. 1648 to c. 1815

Why 1648: End of 30 Years War, Peace of Westphalia
Why 1815: Congress of Vienna
Big Events: More Science, Enlightenment, Age of Revolu@ons,
Napoleon, Warfare for Colonies, Emergence of England as the world
power

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Map of Europe 1600

Map of Europe 1700

14

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Map of Europe 1800

KC 2.1: Dierent models of poli=cal sovereignty aected the

rela=onship among states and between states and individuals.
I. In much of Europe, absolute monarchy was established over the course of the
17th and 18th centuries
Limited the nobility's par@cipa@on in government but preserved their social and legal posi@on
Peter the Great: Table of Ranks: Created opportuni9es for nonnobles to serve the state and
join the nobility. He was trying to create a system based on merit and a way to limit the power
of the hereditary nobles. He also created a senate to supervise the administra9ve machinery of
the state and brought westerniza9on to Russia; thinking that Russia needed to be more like
the Western European countries
Louis XIV and his anc minister, Jean-Bap@ste Colbert, extended the administra@ve, nancial,
military, and religious control of the central state: Strengthening of the intendant system,
mercan@lism, and Edict of Fountainbluea
A few monarchs experimented with enlightened absolu@sm
Frederick II of Prussia: Followed a single law code and eliminated the use of torture. He also granted
limited free speech and press as well as complete religious tolera9on. However, he was too
dependent on the nobili9es to end serfdom

Inability of Polish monarchy to consolidate power over the nobility led to weakness and
eventual loss all land to Austria, Prussia, and Russia

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II. Challenges to absolu@sm resulted in alterna@ve poli@cal systems

Outcome of English Civil War and the Glorious Revolu@on protected the rights of
gentry and aristocracy from absolu@sm through asser@ons of the rights of
Parliament
English Bill of Rights: Armed Parliaments right to make laws and levy taxes and Parliament
had to consent to the raising of an army. Ci@zens had the guaranteed right to pe@@on the
king, keep arms, have a jury trial, and not be subject to excessive bail. The BOR helped create
a system of government based on the rule of law and a freely elected Parliament. This did
not address freedom of religion

The Dutch Republic developed an oligarchy of urban gentry and rural landholders
to promote trade and protect tradi@onal rights

III. AYer 1648, dynas@c and state interests, along with Europes
expanding colonial empires, inuenced the diplomacy of European
states and frequently led to war
AYer 30 Years War the HRE had limited power, Prussia rose to power and the
Habsburgs, centered in Austria, shiYed their empire eastward
Maria Theresa of Austria(1740-1780): Reorganized Austria society by curtailing the power of
the ruling diets. Clergy and nobles were required to pay taxes directly to royal ocials.
Austrians and Bohemian lands were divided into ten provinces; administra9on was
centralized and armed forces were expanded. This centraliza9on and expansion were in
prepara9on for a war with Prussia.

Austria defeat the Turks in 1683 and Louis XIV undertook nearly con@nuous wars
War of the Spanish Succession(1702-1713): Charles II, king of Spain, leJ his throne to the
grandson of Louis XIV. Coali9on of England, the United Provinces, Habsburg Austria, and
German states waged war to prevent France from combining the two kingdoms. Peace of
Utrecht(1713) conrmed Philip V as king of Spain and kept thrones divided.

Con@nued warfare between Britain and France; 7 Years War would end with
Britain supplan@ng France as the greatest European power

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IV. The French Revolu@on posed a fundamental challenge to Europes

exis@ng poli@cal and social order

Caused by Enlightenment ideas, exacerbated by short-term scal and economic

crises
First phase of the revolu@on established a cons@tu@onal monarchy, increased
popular par@cipa@on, na@onalized Catholic church, and abolished hereditary
privileges

Civil Cons9tu9on of the Clergy: Both bishops and priests were to be elected by the people and
paid by the church. All clergy were required to swear an oath of allegiance to the state
Cons9tu9on, which was forbidden by the church

AYer execu@on of Louis XVI, radical Jacobin Republic led by Robespierre ins@tuted
Reign of Terror, xing prices and wages, and pursued a policy de-Chris@aniza@on
CommiPee of Public Safety: Courts were established to protect the revolu9on from enemies at
home; created the republic of virtue Declara9on of Rights of Man and Ci9zen

Revolu@onary armies brought changed to the rest of Europe, women

enthusias@cally par@cipated but received few gains, revolu@onary ideas inspired a
slave revolt in Hai@(independent by 1804), some were inspired by revolu@onary
emphasis on equality and human rights, but others condemned its violence and
disregard for tradi@onal authority

V. Claiming to defend the ideals of the French Revolu@on, Napoleon

Bonaparte imposed French control over much of the European con@nent
that eventually provoked a na@onalis@c reac@on.
Napoleon undertook a number of enduring domes@c reforms while curtailing
rights and manipula@on people behind a faade of representa@ve ins@tu@ons
Civil Code: Recognized the principle of the equality of all ci9zens before the law, the rights of
individuals to choose their professions, religious tolera9on, and the aboli9on of serfdom and
feudalism
Censorship: Napoleon shut down sixty of Frances newspapers(out of 73) and insisted that all
manuscripts be subjected to government scru9ny before they were published. Even the mail
was opened by government police

New military tac@cs allow him to exert direct or indirect control over much of
Europe, spreading ideals of the French Revolu@on
Napoleons expanding empire created na@onalist responses throughout Europe
AYer the defeat of Napoleon by a coali@on of French powers, the Congress of
Vienna(1814-1815) aeempted to restore the balance of power and contain the
danger of revolu@onary or na@onalis@c upheavals in the future.

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KC 2.2: The expansion of European commerce accelerated the growth

of a worldwide economic network
European socie@es rst those with access to the Atlan@c and gradually those to
the east and on the Mediterranean provided increasing percentages of their
popula@ons with a higher standard of living
Availability labor power, ins@tu@ons and prac@ces that supported economic ac@vity and
provided incen@ves, accumula@ons of capital for nancing enterprises and innova@ons,
technological innova@ons in food produc@on, transporta@on, communica@on, and
manufacturing
Development of a growing consumer society, but the geographic mobility eroded tradi@onal
community and family solidari@es and protec@ons
European economic strength derived in part from the ability to control and exploit resource
around the globe, but eastern Europe countries in a tradi@onal, principally agrarian economy

I. Early modern Europe developed a market economy that provided the founda@on
for its global role
Labor and trade in commodi@es were increasingly freedom from tradi@onal governmental
restric@ons
Le Chapelier Laws: To prevent con9nued associa9ons of workers based on such economic
interests, Le Chapelier introduced a measure (passed into law on 14 June 1791) that historians
remember by his name, the "Le Chapelier law." It barred craJ guilds and would bar trade unions
un9l 1884.
The Agricultural Revolu@on raised produc@vity and increased the supply of food
Coeage industry, or puung-out system, expanded
Bank of England: The Bank of England was founded in 1694 to act as the Government's banker and
debt-manager. Since then its role has developed and evolved, centered on the management of the
na9on's currency and its posi9on at the center of the UK's nancial system.

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II. The European-dominated worldwide economic network contributed to the

agricultural, industrial, and consumer revolu@ons in Europe
States followed mercan@list policies by exploi@ng colonies and transatlan@c slave-labor
system expanded in the 17th and 18th centuries as demand for New World products
increased
Triangle Trade: Trade network that connected Europe, the Americas, and Africa. Slaves went to
the Americas, some good went to Africa to pay for the slaves, many crops came back to Europe
from the Americas

Consumer culture developed in Europe

Tea: Once introduced to Europe, there was a great demand for tea and other products from
China

Food from the Americas led to increase in food supply in Europe

Foreign lands provided raw materials, nished goods, laborers, and markets

III. Commercial rivalries inuenced diplomacy and warfare among European

states in the early modern era
European sea powers vied for Atlan@c inuence throughout 18th century
Portuguese, Dutch, French, and Bri@sh rivalries in Asia culminated in Bri@sh domina@on in
India and Dutch control of East Indies

KC 2.3: The populariza=on and dissemina=on of the Scien=c

Revolu=on and the applica=on of its methods to poli=cal, social, and
ethical issues led to an increased, although not unchallenged, emphasis
on reason in European culture

Europeans applied methods of science to human aairs

Rousseau, Voltaire, and Diderot aimed to place faith in divine revela@on with faith
in human reason and classical values
John Locke and Adam Smith ques@oned absolu@sm and mercan@lism by arguing
for the authority of natural law and the market
Belief in progress, along with improved social and economic condi@ons, spurred
gains in literacy and educa@on as well as the crea@on of a new culture of the
printed word
Religious revival occurred, but elite culture embraced skep@cism, secularism, and
atheism
Religious tolera@on, or at least acceptance, increased
The new ra@onalism faced some challenges with revival of sen@mentalism and
emo@onalism of roman@cism and na@onalism

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I. Ra@onal and empirical thought challenged tradi@onal values and ideas

Montesquieu: He wrote about dierent types of government and concluded that
have a system with a separa9on of powers and checks and balances
Locke and Rousseau developed poli@cal models based on the concept of natural
rights, but for Rousseau, these rights s@ll did not apply to women
Mary WollstonecraY: She wrote In Vindica9on of the Rights of Women and argued that
women having to obey men was contrary to beliefs of the same individuals that a system
based on the arbitrary power of monarchs on wrong. And, if all people have reason, then that
applies to women and they should have equal rights

II. New public venues and print media popularized Enlightenment ideas
Salons explored and disseminated Enlightenment culture
Coeehouses: This became a place where people from all walks of life would gather and
mingle, exchanging news and having discusses and debates
Newspapers: Despite censorship, newspapers served a growing literate public and led to the
development of public opinion

Through literature, Europeans were being exposed to representa@ons of peoples

outside Europe

III. New poli@cal and economic theories challenged absolu@sm and

mercan@lism.

Locke: The state originated in the consent of the governed(the social contract) rather than
in divine right or tradi@on
Mercan@list theory and prac@ces were challenged by people like Adam Smith, arguing for
free trade and a free market
Physiocrats: They believe that land, rather than gold and silver, was the real source of wealth and
that the natural market forces of supply and demand should not be manipulated by the
government, rather the government should apply laissez-faire

IV. During the Enlightenment, the ra@onal analysis of religious prac@ces led to
natural religion and the demand for religious tolera@on
Intellectuals, including Voltaire and Diderot, develop new philosophies of deism,
skep@cism, and atheism

Hume:. He argued that observa9on and reec9on, grounded in systema9zed common sense made
conceivable a science of man. Careful examina9on of the experiences that cons9tuted human life
would lead to the knowledge of human nature

Religion was increasingly view as a private maeer rather than public and tolera@on
extended to Chris@an minori@es and, in some states, civil equality to Jews

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V. The arts moved from the celebraCon of religious themes and royal
power to an emphasis on private life and the public good
Un@l 1750, Baroque art and music
promoted religious feeling and
was employed by monarchs to
glorify state power
Velasquez: Spanish painter who was
the leading ar@st in the court of King
Philip IV. He was important as a
portrait ar@st. In addi@on to
numerous rendi@ons of scenes of
historical and cultural signicance,
he painted scores of portraits of the
Spanish royal family, other notable
European gures, and commoners,
culmina@ng in the produc@on of his
masterpiece Las Meninas (1656).

ArCsCc movement and literature also reected the outlook and values
of commercial and bourgeois as well as Enlightenment ideas of poliCcal
power and ciCzenship
Dutch Pain9ng: Although Dutch
pain9ng of the Golden Age comes in
the general European period of
Baroque, and oJen shows many of its
characteris9cs, most lacks the
idealiza9on and love of splendour
typical of much Baroque work. Most
work, including that for which the
period is best known, reects the
tradi9ons of detailed realism.
Image to the right: Johannes
Vermeer, The Milkmaid (16581660)

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Samuel Richardson
Richardsons three novels, Pamela, Clarissa, and The History of Sir Charles
Grandison (1753-54), are epistolary; that is, they take the form of a collec9on of
lePers wriPen by the characters, not in tranquil recollec9on aJer the fact, but to
the moment, while the narra9ve is unfolding. Thus the form of the novels is
autobiographical without the benet or hindrance of the hindsight that most
autobiographies assume. Richardsons rst novel, Pamela, appears to have be
wriPen through a happy accident: two other printers had asked Richardson, who
was known for his interest in lePer-wri9ng, to compose a collec9on of model
lePers for various occasions. A short sequence in this collec9on--Familiar LePers
(1741)--comprised lePers from a serving girl seeking her parents advice aJer her
master had made improper sexual advances upon her. These lePers seem to have
inspired Richardson to develop this theme into a drama9c narra9ve, Pamela,
which recounts, mostly in a serving girls own voice, how she resists such
advances and is ul9mately rewarded by a proper oer of marriage and her
ul9mate acceptance into high life.
Source: hPp://enlightenment-revolu9on.org/index.php/Richardson,_Samuel

VI. While Enlightenment values dominated the world of European

ideas, they were challenged by the revival of public sen@ment and
feeling
Rousseau ques@oned the exclusive reliance on reason and emphasized the role
of emo@ons in the moral improvement of self and society
Revolu@on, war, and rebellion demonstrated the emo@onal state of mass
poli@cs and na@onalism
Roman@cism emerged as a challenge to Enlightenment ra@onality.
Roman@cism: Included the following characteris@cs: human existence is
subjec@ve and emo@onal, human knowledge is small compared to the historical
record, individuals rights are dangerous and selsh, the community is more
important, ar@st were apart from society, escape from industrializa@on,
immense power in the forces of nature.

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RomanCcism
Wandering Above the Sea of Fog
Caspar David Friedrich, 1818

KC 2.4: The experiences of everyday life were shaped by demographic,

environmental, medical, and technological changes

16th-century popula@on explosion, which roughly doubled the European popula@on, leY many
social disrup@ons and demographic disasters
The European marriage paeern, which limited family size, became most important check on popula@on;
also some couples adopted birth control prac@ces
By middle 18th century, things were geung beeer in Europe, because of beeer weather and many
agricultural and hygiene improvements
Autude towards children began to shiY in the 18th when there were reduc@ons in child mortality and
increased life expectancy in infants

By the end of the 18th century, a high por@on of Europeans were beeer fed and educated, but
poverty was s@ll a huge problem that strained charitable resources

I. In the 17th century, small landholdings, low-produc@vity agricultural prac@ces,

poor transporta@on, and adverse weather limited and disrupted the food supply,
causing periodic famines. By the 18th century, Europeans began to escape from the
Malthusian imbalance between popula@on and the food supply, resul@ng in steady
popula@on growth
Agricultural Revolu@on of the 1700s increased the food supply
In the 18th century, plague disappeared as a major epidemic disease, and inocula@on reduced
smallpox morality

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II. The consumer revolu@on of the 18th century was shaped by a new
concern for privacy, encouraged the purchase of new goods and homes, and
created new venues for leisure ac@vi@es.
New concern for privacy: Homes were built to include private retreats, such as the
boudoir; many earlier European homes did not have private bedrooms or spaces
specically designed as a retreat
New consumer goods for homes: Porcelain dishes were a way to show wealth,
imported from China
New Leisure venues: Taverns: People were going to taverns to drink, but also to meet-
up for discussions and the sharing of informa9on

III. By the 18th century, family and private life reected new demographic
paeerns and the eects of the commercial revolu@on

Although the rate of illegi@mate births, popula@on growth was limited by the
European marriage paeern by early birth control
As infant and child mortality decreased and commercial wealth increased, families
dedicated more space and resources to children and child-rearing, as well as private
life and comfort

IV. Ci@es oered economic opportuni@es, which aeracted increasing

migra@on from rural areas, transforming urban life and crea@ng
challenges from the new urbanites and their families.
Agricultural Revolu@on produced more food using fewer workers; so people
migrated to the ci@es looking for work
Growth of ci@es eroded tradi@onal communal values, and city governments
strained to provide protect and a healthy environment
Concentra@on of poor in ci@es led to greater awareness of poverty, crime, and
pros@tu@on as social problems, and prompted increased eorts to police
marginal groups

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