AUTOMOBILE

ENGINEERING
BY
KIRAN KUMAR.K
Lecturer
Mechanical Engineering Department
College of Engineering and Technology
Eritrea Institute of Technology, Mainefai, Asmara,Eritrea.
e-mail: kiranmedesign@gmail.com
kiranmek3@gmail.com

CONTENTS

Starting system
Over running clutch
Chasis
Springs
Shock absorbers
Body terminology
Front/back wheel drives
Wheels
Tyres
Battery
DC Generators/Regulators

STARTING SYSTEM
System by means of which an engine is cranked for
starting purposes
Components
Starting motor or Self starter
Motor unit
D.C.Motor

Drive unit Transmits the torque developed by starting motor to the engine
flywheel
Bendix drives (Inertia drive)
Overrunning clutch

Storage battery
Starter switch

BENDIX DRIVE
Inertia drive

Bendix drive

STARTING SYSTEM

STARTING SYSTEM

FOLO THRU STARTER DRIVE

To keep the starter in mesh until a predetermined speed is reached
Lock pin
Threaded sleeve divided into two sections ,connected by a overrunning clutch
At high speed pinion overruns the threaded sleeve
At low speed pinion drives engine

Anti drift pin

Keeps pinion from drifting into the ring gear when the starter is not in use.

BENDIX DRIVE SWITCHES

Magnetic switch

OVERRUNNING CLUTCH DRIVE

OVER RUNNING CLUTCH

Free wheeling device

SOLENOID SHIFT

CHASSIS
Machine portion Chassis
Carriage portion - Body
Automobile =
Chassis

Body

Body( Carriage portion) Portion of the automobile where passengers

have their seats or where the cargo to be carried is placed
(utility)

Chassis (Machine portion) contains almost all parts of an automobile which

are necessary to drive the vehicle

CHASSIS - COMPONENTS

Frame
Springs, shock absorber, axles, wheel
Power unit or Engine
Transmission system (Propeller shaft, Differential, axle shafts)
Steering, brakes, accelerator
Fuel tank
Battery
Lamps, gauges,switches etc.

CHASSIS - CLASSIFICATION
Conventional control chassis
Engine mounted in front of drivers cabin
Full forward control chassis
Completely mounted inside drivers cabin
Semi forward control chassis
Engine mounted half in drivers cabin and other half in front

FRAME

Provides support for the engine, body wheels, power train members
Made of box, tubular and channel members
Frame is extremely rigid and strong
Engine is insulated from the frame by means of a rubber pad

To support the chassis components and the body

To withstand the static and dynamic loads without undue deflection or
distortion

SPRINGS

Suspension system : Spring & Damper

Isolate the vehicle body from road shocks
Springs are placed between frame and wheel axles
Wheels move up and down independent of frame
Types of springs
Coil spring
Leaf spring
Torsion bar
Air suspension

COIL SPRING

Coil spring mainly used in independent suspension

The energy stored per unit volume is almost double in comparison to leaf springs.
Helper coil spring are used to provide additional support for heavy loads .
No noise problem, No static friction causing harshness of ride as in the case of leaf
springs

LEAF SPRING
Leaf spring is made up of a series of flat steel plates of graduated length
,placed one on top of another .
The plate are held together at the centre by a centre bolt which passes
trough holes in the leaves
Clips are placed at intervals to keep the leaves in alignment
One end of spring is mounted on the frame with a simple pin, while other
end connection is made with a shackle
Materials
Chrome vanadium steel (C,Mn,Si,Ni,Cr,Va)
Silico Manganese steel (C,Mn,Si,Cr)
Carbon steel (C,Mn,Si)

TYPES OF LEAF SPRING

Helper springs

TORSION BARS
Springing action is produced by torsion or a twisting effort
Made of heat treated alloy spring steel.
Amount of energy stored per unit weight of material is nearly same as for
coil springs
Used with independent suspension
Light as compared to leaf springs and also occupies less space

With no load

With load

SHOCK ABSORBERS
Springing device must be a compromise between flexibility and stiffness.
Friction between leaves of spring provides the damping
But damping characteristics do not remain constant lubrication
conditions
Principle of operation of Shock absorber
Resistance to the motion of piston

TELESCOPIC TYPE SHOCK ABSORBER

TELESCOPIC TYPE SHOCK ABSORBER

 An advantage of the double-tube damper is that the oil displaced from the
main tube into the outer one carries heat with it, which is then readily
conducted away. This tends to keep all the fluid at a moderate
temperature.

SUSPENSION SYSTEM
All parts which perform the function of isolating the automobile from the
road shocks are collectively called a suspension system
Objectives
To prevent the road shocks from being transmitted to the vehicle
components
To safeguard the occupants from the road shocks
To preserve stability of the vehicle

Front wheel independent suspension

Real wheel Independent suspension
Heavy drive suspension
Air suspension

INDEPENDENT SUSPENSIONS

Front wheel independent suspension

Rear wheel independent suspension
Advantages

The elastic energy stored per unit spring weight stored in a coil /torsion bar is
greater than in case of leaf springs
In case of independent suspensions unsprung weight is reduced,which
ultimately reduce tyre scrub and hence increases tyre life
With independent suspension ,steering geometry is not altered with spring
deflection as in the case of rigid axle suspension

 The sprung mass is that part of the vehicle supported by the springs - such
as the body, the frame, the engine, and associated parts.
Unsprung mass includes the components such as wheels, tires, brake
assemblies, and any part of the steering and suspension not supported by
the springs.
As the unsprung weight increases roughness of ride also increases

Unsprung mass

Front wheel suspension

More complicated
Wheel move up and down ,Swing at various angles for steering
Types of steering knuckles and support

TYPES OF INDEPENDENT FRONT SUSPENSION

Wishbone type or Parallel link type

Mac Pherson strut type
Vertical guide type
Trailing link type
Swing half axle type

WISHBONE TYPE

STABILIZER OR ANTI ROLL DEVICE

Tendency for the vehicle to roll
Resistance of the bar to twisting that encounters the tendency of the car
to roll out, thereby providing stability against lateral forces.

MAC PHERSON STRUT TYPE OF SUSPENSION

UNIVERSAL
JOINTS
VARIABLE VELOCITY JOINTS

Cross or Spider type

Ring type
Ball and Trunion type

CONSTANT VELOCITY JOINTS

Rzeppa
Tracta
Bendix Weiss

In Variable joints the driving and driven shafts do not turn at the same speed
through each part of the revolution although they turn at same rpm
Speed variation and vibration causes steering difficulty and excessive tyre
wear

CONSTANT VELOCITY JOINTS

Bendix Weiss

Tracta U/Joint

BALL JOINT FRONT SUSPENSION

Does not use intermediate steering knuckle support and king pin
Wheel spindle directly attached to upper and lower suspension arms by
means of ball joints

REAR WHEEL INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION SYSTEM

Universal coupling A & B keep the vehicle vertical
Sliding coupling C maintain the wheel track constant
De Dion type of axle

LINKED TRAILING ARM REAR SUSPENSION

AIR SUSPENSION
Conventional springs replaced by air bags or air spring assemblies

 Pressure is maintained in the reservoir at about 300 psi

Air passes by two circuits to 4 air bags
160 psi pressure is admitted to the air bags through leveling or height control
valves
300 psi pressure is used to correct for additional loading of the car
This keeps the car level for additional loading of the car

HEAVY DRIVE SUSPENSION

Maruti 800
Engine : Type4 stroke cycle, water cooled
No. of cylinders 3
Piston displacement : 796 cc
Maximum output (Std.,AC) 37 bhp at 5000 rpm Maximum torque (Std.,AC) 59
Nm at 2500 rpm
Power Transmission Std., AC4-forward, all synchromesh,
1 reverse
Steering
: Rack & pinion
Suspension : FrontMcPherson strut & coil spring RearCoil spring with gas
filled shock absorbers
Brakes
: Front - Disc & Rear - Drum
Tyres
: Tyre size (Radial)
Capacity : Fuel tank capacity 28 liters (BS III)

Maruti Swift

Engine Capacity :1298cc

Number of cylinders :4
Number of valves:16
Bore x Stroke
: 74.0 x 75.5 mm
Compression ratio : 9.0:1
Maximum power : 87bhp @ 6000rpm
Fuel distribution : Multipoint injection
Steering :Rack & pinion,
Power assisted Brakes :
Front :
Ventilated Discs
Rear :Drums
Suspension
Front:MacPherson strut and coil spring
Rear:Torsion beam and coil spring

MARUTI ZEN EZTILO

Power (bhp/rpm) :64 / 6,200Max

Torque (Nm/rpm) 84 / 3,500
Engine Capacity (cc) 1061
Engine Type 4 cylinder
Clutch Type Cable
Front Brake Ventilated Disc
Rear Brake Drum
Transmission Type Manual - 5 Speed, All Synchromesh
Suspension System Front: McPherson Strut with Torsion type roll control
device

Rear: Coil Spring, Gas filled shock absorbers with three link rigid and
isolated trailing arm
Power Steering Type: Electronic Power Steering (EPS)

INDICO CS (PETROL)

Maximum Output 65 PS @ 5200 rpm

Maximum Torque 105 Nm @ 2600
Type MPFI Petrol Engine with 32 bit microprocessor
Steering : Rack and pinion type
Front Suspension :Independent Mc Pherson strut with anti-roll bar
Rear Suspension :Independent Mc Pherson strut with anti-roll bar
Gear box: 5 forward, 1 reverse
Type : Radial Tube:
Tyre : Size 165 x 65 R14
Front Brakes Ventilated Disc
(Vacuum assisted)
Rear Brakes Drum

BODY TERMINOLOGY

CLASSIFICATIONS BY SHAPE
There are various styles of bodies available in the market for passenger cars
today. There exists no hard rules for the classifications and new segments and
sub segments keep emerging as we will see. However, following are the broad

classifications of the cars present in Indian market.

Hatchback

Sedan/Notchback

MPV/MUV

SUV/Offroad

Estate/
Station wagon

Hatchback

Hatchbacks are vehicles with a separate engine area, and passenger area, the luggage area is
enclosed with the passenger area behind the rear seats.

Hatchback can have 4 passenger doors (5 door hatchback) as all do in India or 2 passenger
doors (3 door hatchback) e.g. Zen Export model.
Examples in India: Maruti 800, Alto, Zen, Wagon R, Palio etc.

Sedan/Notchback

Saloons are basically vehicle with an engine area, passenger area, and boot
area, all separate, and with 4 doors.

Examples in India
Esteem, Baleno, Accent, Sienna, Ikon, Corsa, Vectra, Camry

Estate/Station Wagon

Estates or Station wagons are modified saloon vehicles by combining the boot with
passenger area & extending it till the roof .
This makes the boot larger and makes it convenient to carry big objects.
Examples in India: Altura, Weekend, Swing, Marina

MPV/MUV

MPV (multi purpose vehicles) or MUV (Multi utility vehicles) can have the engine, passenger
area and boot area enclosed together, like Omni & Versa.
Or they can have the engine area separate and the passenger and boot area enclosed.
MUV/MPV can also have Third row of seating.
They are also taller and generally more spacious.
Examples in India: Omni, Versa, Innova, Sumo

Sports Utility Vehicle (SUV)/Off Road

These vehicle have large tyres, higher seating, higher ground clearance. The
engine area is separate and the passenger and boot area are enclosed together.
These vehicle are either equipped with 4 wheel drive or has as an option of 4
wheel drive.
Examples in India: XL-7, Gypsy, Pajero, Safari, Scorpio

FWD GEARBOX

Neutral

FWD GEARBOX

1st Gear

FWD GEARBOX

2nd Gear

FWD GEARBOX

3rd Gear

FWD GEARBOX

4th Gear

FWD GEARBOX

5th Gear

FWD GEARBOX

Reverse

Advantages of front-wheel drive

Simple rear axle design
Short power flow because the engine, gearbox and differential form
a compact unit;
Good engine cooling (radiator in front), and an electric fan can be
fitted;
Effective heating due to short paths;
Smooth car floor pan;
Exhaust system with long path (important on cars with catalytic
converters);

Disadvantages
With powerful engines, increasing influence on steering;
Engine length limited by available space;
Engine gearbox unit renders more difficult the arrangement of the
steering package;
Poorer drive-off capacity on wet and icy roads and on inclines
There is a complex front axle, so inner drive shafts need a sliding CV
joint
Higher tyre wear in front, because the highly loaded front wheels
are both steered and driven;
Complex gear shift mechanism which can also be influenced by
power plant movements.

(BMW 3 series E46, 1998

Chevrolet Corvette (1998).

Advantages of front-mounted
engine, rear-mounted drive design
No restriction on engine length, making it particularly suitable for more powerful
vehicles (in other words for engines with 812 cylinders).
Insulation of engine noise is relatively easy.

Under full load most of the vehicle mass is on the driven rear axle (important for
estate cars and trailers
Simple and varied front axle designs are possible irrespective of drive forces.
Uncomplicated gear shift mechanism

Sufficient space for housing the steering system in the case of a recirculating ball
steering gear.
Good cooling because the engine and radiator are at the front; a power-saving
fan can be fitted.

Disadvantages
Complex rear independent wheel suspension with chassis subframe,
differential gear case and axle drive causing restrictions in boot size
The need for a propshaft between the manual gearbox and differential
and, therefore, a tunnel in the floor pan is inevitable, plus an unfavourable
interior to vehicle

Four-wheel drive Mercedes-Benz E

class 4MATIC (1997).

WHEELS

Solid tyre wheel

Pneumatic tyre wheel
Tube tyre wheel
Tubeless tyre wheel

WHEELS
Wire spoked wheels Hub, spokes/wires,rim,tyre,tube,
tube valve, flap
Steel disc wheels
- Rim,ring,tyre,tube,tube valve, flap
Light alloy wheels
Aluminium or Magnesium alloy
Magnesium alloy wheels weighs about 50 % of a steel wheel and about
70% of an Aluminum alloy wheels
Reduced unsprung weight
Light alloys are better conductors
Magnesium alloys have high impact anf fatigue strength so that they
can withstand vibrations and shocK loading better
Higher cost

WHEELS

TYRES

Function
Interpose a cushion between the road and car wheels - shocks
To carry load of the vehicle
Provide frictional contact between wheels and road, so that good
traction is secured
Desirable tire properties
Load carrying capacity
Must be of max. strength to take weight ,road shocks etc.
Must be strong enough to resist local deformation

Cushioning
Should be able to absorb high frequency vibration set up by the road surface

Wheel balance
Must be properly balanced

Non skidding
Good thread pattern giving nice gripping

Must be easily detachable with minimum effort

Power consumption
Synthetic tyre consume more power than natural

Should be easy to clean and of good external appearance

TYRES WITH TUBE

 The bead is a loop of high-strength steel cable coated with rubber.

CONVENTIONAL TYRE WITH TUBE

Consists of two main parts
Carcass Basic structure taking mainly the various loads
Consists of number of plies wound in a particular fashion from the
cords of rayon or any other materials
Vulcanizing Process of heating the rubber under pressure
Number of layers of cord varies
Passenger car 4, Truck -14

Tread - Part of the tyre which contacts the road surface

Ribs provide traction edges required for gripping
Grooves provide passage for the quick escape of any foreign
matters
A valve stem For inflating or deflating the tube

TUBE
Tube flexible
Amount of air pressure depends on the type of tire and operation
Passenger cars : 22 30 psi
Trucks & buses : 100 psi
Importance of maintaining tyre pressure
Under inflation severe flexing of tire plies, side walls, excessive heat,
premature failure
Over inflation overloads the components of the tyre, causes excessive tread
wear and hard riding

CARCASS TYPE
Cross ply or bias ply
Ply cords are woven at an angle (30 40) to the tyre axis
Two layers run in opposite direction

Radial ply
Ply cords run in radial direction
Number of break strips in circumferential direction to provide lateral stability

Belted bias ply

Combination of above two types

COMPARISON OF RADIAL AND BIAS PLY TIRES

The side walls of radial ply tyres can bend readily.
Shock absorbing deflection is about 25 % more than the cross ply tyres

Lower rolling resistance lower sidewall rigidity- lower fuel consm.

Longer tread life
While taking turns, a radial tyre has less tendency to lift off from the road

 More road contact for radial tyres

Breaker strips

Due to the highly flexible sidewalls ,their bulge appears due to which tyre
seems to be under inflated

TUBELESS TYRE
No separate tube
Advantages

Lesser unsprung weight

Better cooling
Slower leakage of air
Simpler assembly
Improved safety

Puncture sealing tire/tubes - Coating of plastic material,hardens to seal

the hole,

Tube : Material : butyl

Tubeless Tyre

Tubeless Tyre

Benefits of tubeless tyres?

Tube Type Tyre

Tubeless tyres are tyres wherein there is no tube, the air is held between the tyre and the rim. The
advantages of this are: Incase of a puncture, the air does not rapidly escape through the valve hole as the valve is fitted to the rim,
the air if at all only escapes slowly. The chances of a blow out are also minimal.
The ride & handling is also marginally better.
The mileage too increases slightly.
And the only care one has to take is when changing a tyre or repairing, is the work should be done on a
machine not a local hammer

TYRE SECTION
Aspect ratio = Tyre section height/ Tyre section width
Lower aspect ratio
Better load carrying capacity

TYRE CODIFICATION
2

155/65 R13
Tyres size is usually identified by a code that looks like the number alongside.
3
The significance of these numbers is as below:
1. Tyre width in mm
2. Aspect Ratio (Height/Width)
3. R for radial tyre
4. Rim Diameter in Inches.

TYRE DESIGNATIONS
Tire Size : 8 x 15 (m xn)
n : Diameter of the rim, m : m inches larger in radius than rim
Width, speed rating,diameter
(SR upto 170kmph, HR upto 210 kmph, VR above 210 kmph),
145 SR -13
Width, rim diameter, ply rating
9.00 20 -12
Load/size relationship, tyre construction, aspect ratio, Rim size in inches
FR 78 -15

WHEEL BALANCING

Regular tyre maintenance and wheel alignment reduces fuel consumption and
prevents undue tyre wear.
Worn shock absorbers and weak springs can also contribute to the waste of fuel.
Correctly aligned wheels extend tyre life and improve fuel efficiency
They also help safe steering of the vehicle and comfortable ride
Wheel out of balance leads to hard steering, rough riding and rapid tire wear
Static balance & Dynamic balance

STATIC BALANCE
A wheel that is statically out of
balance is heavier in one section than
in another.
A statically balanced wheel may not
be dynamically balanced

DYNAMIC BALANCE
To check dynamic balance ,the wheel is spun and indicating device in the
wheel balancer indicates the place and appx. amount the dynamically out
of balance.
Dynamic unbalance causes the wheels to wobble at or above a particular
speed.
No more than 8 ounces should be added to a rim

AUTOMOBILE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

Lighting system
Ignition system
Starting system
Generator

Purpose of Battery
Discharging : The battery can make the electrical energy from the
chemical energy.
Charging : It can also store the electrical energy as the chemical
energy .
The requirements for the battery :
* It should be small in size and light in weight.
* It should have long lifetime.
* It should be endure against the hard vibrating conditions.
* It should have large capacity and it should have cheap cost.

The structure of the lead-acid

battery
Basic schematic diagram

The lead peroxide (PbO2) is used for the anode, the discharge
lead (Pb) is used for the cathode and the dilute sulfuric acid
(H2SO4) solution is used for the electrolyte.

BATTERY

Heart of the electrical system

Lead acid type , consisting of 3 or 6 cells, 12V

Positives plates consists of grid filled with paste of lead peroxide

Negative plates consists of grid filled with paste of lead

Grid made of an alloy of lead and antimony

Post strap to hold plates

Plates are separated by separators

Porous rubber, perforated cellulose

Electrolyte

Sulfuric acid
Battery case
Moulded from ebonite
Or bituminous

The structure of the lead-acid

battery
Structure

The structure of the lead-acid

battery
Electrode Plate

They are made of lead peroxide and discharge lead at the

anode and cathode plate, respectively after a paste of lead
powder or lead oxide powder with dilute sulfuric acid solution is
spread on a metal-alloyed grid plate, dried and metamorphosed.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
H2SO4 = H2 (pos) + SO4 (neg.)
H2 +PbO2 = H2O +PbO (Pos)
PbO +SO4 = PbSO4 (Pos)
Pb +SO4 = PbSO4

Charged
Lead
Peroxide
PbO2 +
Pos

(Neg.)

Discharged

Sulfuric Spongy
Lead
Water Lead
Energy
acid
lead
Sulfate
Sulfate
2H2SO4 + Pb
= PbSO4 + 2H2O + PbSO4 + Q
Electrolyte Neg.
Pos.
Water
Neg.

The charging and discharging

operation
Electrolyte
The chemical reaction at the discharge operation
Anode

PbO2

Electrolyte
+

Lead
peroxide

2H2SO4

Cathode
+

Dilute
sulfuric acid

Pb

Anode

Discharge
lead

PbSO4

Electrolyte
+

Lead
sulfate

2H2O

Cathode
+

PbSO4

Water

Lead
sulfate

Electrolyte

Cathode

The chemical reaction at the charge operation

Anode

PbSO4
Lead
peroxide

Electrolyte
+

2H2O
Water

Cathode
+

PbSO4
Lead
sulfate

Anode

PbO2
Lead
peroxide

2H2SO4
Dilute
sulfuric
acid

Pb
Discharg
e lead

The charging and discharging

operation
Discharge of the Lead-Acid Battery

The lead in the lead peroxide is combined with the sulfuric acid
to form the lead sulfate.
The discharge lead of the cathode is converted into the lead
sulfate as the anode.

The charging and discharging

operation
Specific Gravity of Electrolyte and Discharge status

The specific gravity of the electrolyte is decreased proportional

to the amount of the discharge.
By measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte, it is possible
to detect how much the battery is discharged.

 Hydrometer To measure the sp.gravity of the electrolyte

Reading
Condition
1.260 1.280
1.230 1.250
1.20 1.220
1.170- 1.190
1.110 1.130

Full charge
charge
charge
Very little life
Completely discharged

The charging and discharging

operation
Method for measuring the specific gravity of electrolyte
Rubber
bulb

Suction type
gravimeter

Scale

Float

Suction
tube

Measuring the specific gravity of electrolyte in a battery cell with

a float hydrometer. Reading must be taken at eye level. The
higher the float stem sticks out of the electrolyte, the higher the
state of charging of that cell.
Caution : Do not drip electrolyte on the car or on yourself.

BATTERY CAPACITY
Maximum current that a cell can furnish is dependent on the area of plate
surface in contact
Standard Capacity rating (SAE )
20 hour rating in ampere hours (quantity of energy furnished by a current
of 1 amp for 1 hour)
Indicates the lighting ability of the battery
Discharging the battery at a current rate equal to 1/20 of the
manufacturer's ampere hour rating
6 V, 120 amp hour 6 amp for 20 hrs before its terminal voltage drops to
5.25 V
12 amp 10hrs
3 amp 40hrs

Capacity of the lead-acid

battery
Ampere Hour rate of the Battery
The unit for battery capacity is the AH (Ampere Hour rate).
Ampere Hour rate (AH) = Discharging current (A) X
Continuous Discharging time till Final voltage (H)
Discharge Rate
Capacity (AH)
Amount of Discharged
Current (A)

20
Hours
100

10
Hours
92

9.2

5 Hours

3 Hours

1 Hour

80

75

68

16.0

25.0

68.0

Ex) The 20-Hour rate 100AH capacity means that it needs 20

hours to discharge continuously with 5A until reaching to the final
voltage.

 Measure of ability of the battery to furnish electrical energy to the starting

motor at low temperatures (Cold rating at F)
Indication of the cold weather starting ability of the battery
By the number of minutes required for a battery to drop to a terminal
voltage of 1 V per cell when continuously discharged at a rate of 150
amp(12 V)
The terminal voltage 5 seconds after the beginning of such a the
discharge

BATTERY LIFE
Depends on the material
Way of use
Overcharging Faulty regulator/generator dry battery
Under charging Sulfated Sulfate crystals causes plates to buckle
and break
Mechanical breakage
Excessive loads Starting motor
Addition of distilled water

BATTERY CHARGING
Charging methods
Slow charge method Small current for long time
Quick charge method Large current for short time

Rate of current varies with the time of charging

Dynamo speed also varies
Dynamo out put must be regulated by automatic means, so that voltage is
maintained at the value required by the battery condition
Voltage regulator

Connection of dynamo with battery (during starting)

Cut out or Reverse- current relay

Automatic control in charging system is essential

Battery charging
Quick charge

Battery charger connected to battery in a car.

CHARGING CIRCUIT
Responsible to keep the battery charged for regular supply of electric
current to various electrical systems.
DC Generator
Battery
Ampere-meter
Cut out/Voltage/Current Regulator
Necessity of regulators

DC GENERATORS

REGULATORS

CUT OUT (REVERSE CURRENT DELAY)

Cut out unit consists two coils
Fine wire voltage or shunt coil
Thick wire current or series coil

The value of the dynamo voltage at which the cut out contact close is
usually between 12.7 to 13.3 V

VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Causes generator to provide a charging rate in reverse ratio to the state of charge of battery
Variable resistance increases or decreases the effective resistance in generator field
Battery (full charge) & No electrical load resistance remains in the generator field
Battery (Partial charge) & with load resistance is kept only for a small portion of time

CURRENT/VOLTAGE REGULATOR

CURRENT/VOLTAGE REGULATOR

CURRENT/VOLTAGE REGULATOR

CURRENT/VOLTAGE REGULATOR
When the load requirement is high and the battery is low, the current
regulator operates to prevent the generator output from exceeding the
safe maximum
When load requirement is reduced and the battery come up to charge,
Voltage regulator operates
Current and voltage regulator will not operate simultaneously.

EMISSIONS

Hydrocarbon (HC)
- H2O + CO2 (By Oxidation)
Carbon monoxide (CO) - CO2
( By oxidation)
Soot (Particulate matters) CO2 (By oxidation)
NOx
- N2 + O2 ( By reduction)

Temperature
Oxygen content
Reaction time

EMISSION CONTROL
Engine modification
Diesel Particulate Filters (DPF)
Exhaust gas recirculation
Catalytic convertors
Fuel additives

WHY CERIUM OXIDE AS A FUEL ADDITIVE ?

Highly stable, non toxic refractory ceramic material

Cerium has a variable electronic structure (4f2 6s2 )

2CeO2

Ce2O3 + 0.5O2

Hydrocarbon combustion:
(2x+y)CeO2 + CxHy

[(2x+y)/2] Ce2O3 + x/2CO2 + y/2 H2O

Soot burning: 4CeO2 + Csoot

NOx reduction: Ce2O3 + NO

Cerium oxide has excellent catalytic activity due to its ability to act as oxygen

2Ce2O3 + CO2
2CeO2 + N2

buffer causes simultaneous oxidation of hydrocarbons as well as the reduction

of Oxides of Nitrogen.

 The soot formed in the engine together with the lubricating oil forms
deposits inside the engine , leading to friction losses
Due to lower Cerium oxide Carbon activation temperature carbon
deposits are oxidized
Cleaner engine
Efficient operation
Lower fuel consumption
Catalytic activity of cerium oxide is strongly dependent on particle size
and surface area
Hence nanoparticles of cerium oxide ( high surface to volume ratio) is
an excellent fuel additive.

Year

Norms

CO%

HC

NOx

1983

<2%

< 1200ppm

Carburetor

1993

1 0.5 %

< 1200ppm

Carburetor with
Catalytic Converter

1997

Euro I

1 0.5 %

< 1200ppm

Pulse air control, EGR

(Zen, Gypsy King only)

1999

Euro II

< 0.5 %

< 300ppm

Mpfi

2005

Euro III

< 0.5 %

Mpfi with Maniverter,

Heated oxygen sensor

< 300ppm

Remarks

TURBOCHARGER

The turbocharger is bolted to

the exhaust manifold of the
engine. The exhaust from the
cylinders spins the turbine,
which works like a gas turbine
engine.
The turbine is connected by a
shaft to the compressor, which
is located between the air
filter and the intake manifold.
The compressor pressurizes
the air going into the pistons.

COMPRESSOR & TURBOCHARGER

Antilock Brake System

How Braking of a Vehicle happens ?

Braking force from brake pedal is distributed to each wheel cylinders /

calipers
Wheels get locked up initially.
Further due to the traction between tire contact patch and the road,
vehicle stops.

Why vehicles skid while braking ?

When brake is applied in a vehicle,

It might take a 5 seconds to stop from 60 mph under ideal conditions

But the wheel, that locks up, could stop spinning in less than a second.

If the traction between the tire contact patch and the road is not enough to act against the
vehicles momentum, the wheels lock up and hence skid on the road.

What ABS does while skidding? contd.

Vehicle Braking
without ABS

Vehicle Braking
with ABS

What ABS does while skidding?

ABS controls braking pressure applied to each wheel by taking wheel speeds into
consideration.

This avoids the immediate lock up of the wheels while hard braking.

Hence the skidding of the wheels on the road is controlled, where the traction is
less.

By keeping the wheels from skidding while you slow down, anti-lock brakes benefit
in two ways:

To stop faster, and

To steer while you stop.

Components of ABS

ABS Hydraulic unit / Control Module Assy.

ABS control module

ABS Hydraulic unit (Pump Motor)
Solenoid valves

Wheel Speed Sensors

Warning lamp

Location of Components

1. ABS hydraulic unit/control

module assembly
2. Wheel speed sensors
3. Stop lamp switch
4. ABS warning lamp
5. EBD warning lamp (Brake
warning lamp)
6. Wheel speed sensor rings

7. Data link connector

Functions of Components
ABS CONTROLLER

It receives inputs from:

Wheel Speed Sensors (Each Wheels Speed)

Brake Switch (Brake Pedal Operation)
Vehicle Speed Sensor (Vehicle Speed)

And Controls:
The solenoid valves (8 Nos)
Pump Motor Assembly

How ABS Works ?

The ABS controller continuously monitors each wheels speed.

It compares the changes in wheel speed when braking.

If the wheels slow suddenly, indicating a skidding situation, it reduces the

pressure until it sees an acceleration.

Then it increases the pressure until it sees the deceleration again. It can do
this very quickly, before the tire can actually significantly change speed.

The result is that the tire slows down at the same rate as the car, with the
brakes keeping the tires very near the point at which they will start to lock
up.

How ABS Works ?

BRAKING

Both valves de-energized

Brake force from MC acts on wheel
cylinder/caliper through inlet valve.
Brake force increases on wheel
Wheel tend to lock up

contd.

How ABS Works ?

PRESSURE HOLD ON PHASE

ABS controller energizes inlet solenoid

It blocks further fluid entry to wheel
cylinder
Thus ensures no further pressure buildup
This prevents wheel lock up

contd.

How ABS Works ? contd.

PRESSURE DECREASE PHASE

If the existing pressure is sufficient to lock

up the wheel, the outlet solenoid is also
energized
Brake fluid flows back to the master
cylinder
Pump motor is also activated which pump
the fluid from wheel cylinder
Wheel tend to accelerate again

How ABS Works ?

PRESSURE INCREASE PHASE

Pump build up pressure

Both the solenoid valves are deenergized
Pressure increases
Wheel decelerates again

The cycle continues till vehicle stops

contd.

Functions of Components

contd.

WHEEL SPEED SENSOR

These sensors measure the speed of the respective wheel

on which it is fitted
Which provides the information, when a wheel is about to
lock up.
1.Wheel speed sensor
2.HALL IC

3.HALL element
4.Sensor rotor
5.ABS control module
6.Sensor power
7.Current signal
8.Wave generation circuit
9.CPU

Schematic Diagram

Anti Lock Brake System (ABS)

Sensors mounted on all four

wheel sense when lock up is
about to happen, and the ABS
unit regulates (decreases)
pressure to that wheel
accordingly.
The Units are extremely
accurate and fast and can
cycle (reduce/build up brake
fluid pressure) about 15 times
per second.

Without ABS

With ABS

Thus under braking, ABS

prevents wheel lock &
maintains steering
control, on all surfaces.

AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

COMPRESSOR
Compressor draws off gaseous refrigerant from the evaporator and
compress it. This causes the refrigerant gas temperature and pressure to
rise rapidly.
CONDENSOR
Condenser through which the heated refrigerant gas gives off heat to the
engine cooling air. The refrigerant gas cools off and once again becomes
liquid
EXPANSION DEVICE
A device to eject the receiver dryer passed liquid refrigerant from fine
holes for sudden expansion to produce atomized refrigerant of low
pressure and low temperature
EVAPORATOR
In which the released refrigerant expands and flows through the
evaporator tubes.this removes heat from the air blowing across the fins
and tubes and evaporates, causing the temperature inside the vehicle
gradually to be lowered

CRDI VS DDIS

What is Common Rail?

Common Rail is a Modular, Electronic Controlled, High Pressure Diesel
Fuel Injection System.
What is DDIS?
Diesel Direct Injection System, (Electronically controlled).
Difference between CRDI & DDIS:Both are same. Since CRDI is patented by Hyundai, we have to use new
terminology.
.

Common rail with Injector, Pump & ECM

Injection Quantity
Injection Begin
Injection Pressure
For every injector there is a
9 Digit specific IMA (injection mean adoption)

Emission Legislation
Higher Power and Torque
Fuel Efficient
Smoother drivability
Cost effective

Code. Which is required to be registered in the ECM, while replacing the injector.

DDIS Fuel System Layout

MM =
Magneti
Marelli

Common Rail Architecture

MM =
Magneti
Marelli

High Pressure Pump

Cylinder
head

Back leak
connector

HP outlet
connector

Inlet
connector

Shaft