Lecture07 2

Nuclear Fusion and Radiation
Lecture 7 (Meetings 16, 17 & 18)

Eugenio Schuster
schuster@lehigh.edu
Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics

Lehigh University
Nuclear Fusion and Radiation p. 1/46
Magnetic Confinement
We concluded in previous lectures that confinement by
magnetic fields appears feasible. The magnetic
confinement concepts can be divided into two general
categories depending on field configuration: (1)
open/linear configurations; and (2) closed configurations.
Figure 1: Open & closed magnetic configurations.

Closed Configurations
We now turn to an examination of plasma confinement in
closed configurations. Consider the simple toroidal field
configuration shown below:
Figure 2: Closed toroidal configuration.

We would expect that B would vary with radial position in
such a geometry. We can determine this variation by
applying Amperes Law:
I
B ds = o I
where I is the total inclosed current. Note that at a given
radial position, r, B is constant along ds and thus
I
I
o I
B ds = B ds = 2rB = o I B =
2r
The above relationship must hold for any r between r1 and
r2 , since I is fixed in this range.
Therefore,
o I
B(r) =
2r
and the toroidal field in a torus varies as 1/r. Schematically
this variation is represented as follows:
Figure 3: Magnetic field spatial variation.

Thus, a gradient exists in the radial direction and we must
examine the effect of a gradient field on particle motion.
Consider particle motion in an idealized abrupt field
gradient:
Figure 4: Ion vertical drift.

Figure 5: Electron vertical drift.
Thus, in the gradient field considered above, ions drift
upward and electrons drift downward. In a torus, the
gradient in the toroidal field, Bt , leads to a separation of
ions and electrons (by virtue of the drifts) and this results in
an electric field E .
Figure 6: Induced electric field

Now consider ion motion in the presence of an electric field
and a magnetic field but no magnetic field gradient.
Figure 7: Ion horizontal drift
Thus the ion drifts perpendicular to both E and B (called
E B Drift). The electron motion is shown below:
Figure 8: Electron horizontal drift

Therefore, the electron drifts in same direction as the ion
(E B ).
Thus, in a torus, gradient Bt drifts set up an electric field
and this electric field results in E B drifts which drive
plasma (electron and ions) to the chamber wall, destroying
confinement. Recall that in open geometry end losses are
the fundamental confinement problem.
The various closed configurations differ primarily in the
manner in which they deal with the drift problem. The
preferred approach is to prevent the charge separation
resulting from gradient B drifts and thereby avoid the E B
problem. The gradient B drifts and resulting charge
separation can be cancelled out by twisting the toroidal field
lines to form helices - the twisting of the field lines is called
providing rotational transform, and is depicted below:
Figure 9: Rotational transform.

During one trip around the torus (2R in the toroidal
direction) a field line also moves in the poloidal direction a
distance, p, which can be expressed as
Bp
p
p = 2R tan
= tan =
2R
Bt
This distance can also be expressed in terms of the

rotational transform, .
(radians)
p =
2r = r
2
Equating the two expressions for p yields

R
2R tan = r = 2 tan
r
p
Since tan = B
Bt , we obtain the following expression for the
rotational transform
R Bp
= 2
r Bt
In the literature the rotational transform is also discussed in

terms of another parameter, q , called the safety factor
which is related to the fluid stability of the plasma-field
configuration. The safety factor is defined as the number of
rotations a field line makes in the toroidal direction per
rotation in the poloidal direction. Since /2 is the number
of rotations in the poloidal direction per rotation in the
toroidal direction,
1
r Bt
2
2
q=
=
=
=
B
p
R
/2
R Bp
2
r Bt
Figure 10: Poloidal flux in a tokamak.

The poloidal component of the helicoidal magnetic lines
defines nested toroidal surfaces corresponding to
constant values of the poloidal magnetic flux.
The poloidal flux at a point P in the (r, z) cross section
of the plasma (i.e., poloidal cross section) is the total
flux through the surface S bounded
by the toroidal ring
R
1
Bpol dS .
passing through P , i.e., = 2
The poloidal flux can be used as a spatial coordinate.
The effect of the rotational transform can be explained
through the following schematic.
Figure 11: Drift averaging.

An ion at position 1 will experience upward drift due to the
field gradient and will eventually move outward to the next
flux surface at position 2. If there were no more upward
drift, the particle would stay on this flux surface, and it
would have stepped away from center, leading to charge
separation. However, as the particle at 2 moves into the
lower portion of the torus, it continues to experience an
upward drift which moves it back to the original flux surface,
position 3. Thus, averaged over many transits around the
torus, the particles tend to stay on given flux surfaces and
do not tend to separate (i.e. do not experience net upward/
net downward drifts). The rotational transform provides an
averaging of the drifts such that the net drift is almost
exactly zero and no E is produced.
How do we produce rotational transform?

Magnetic Confinement
The major confinement problem in a torus is associated
with particle drifts. A gradient B drift, associated with
the 1/r variation of Bt , results in charge separation.
Charge separation creates an electrical field, E . The
electric field, E , gives rise to E B drifts which drive
plasma (ions and electrons) radially outward
destroying magnetic confinement.
The basic method for dealing with this problem is to
give the toroidal field a helical pitch by adding a field
component in the poloidal direction. This technique is
referred to as rotational transform. With rotational
transform a particle exhibits an average drift
approaching zero drifting upward from a flux surface
in the upper portion of the torus, but drifting upward to
the original flux surface in the bottom portion of the
torus.
Tokamak
The tokamak scheme has been the most successful
confinement approach since the early 1970s and we
will focus our attention on this scheme.
Tokamak is an acronym developed from the Russian
words TOroidalnaya KAmera ee MAgnitaya Katushka
which means toroidal chamber with magnetic coils.
The tokamak employs an induced current in the plasma
and the associated poloidal field to provide rotational
transform.
Tokamak
Consider Faradays Law of Induction applied to a conductor
linking a changing B field:
Figure 12: Induced electromotive force.

If B is changing with time (A fixed), the direction of ind
(= IR) is such that the induced current, I , flows in a
direction to oppose dB/dt. Consider dB/dt decreasing:
Tokamak
Figure 13: Induced magnetic field.

Thus, Bind tries to compensate for dB/dt < 0, that is, Bind
negates to some extent the decreasing B applied. Consider
a transformer analog of the tokamak:
Tokamak
Figure 14: Transformer.

Driving a current in the primary, p, causes a flux change on
the primary side, dp /dt ( dB/dt) and this flux change also
links the secondary side, s. The EMF on the secondary
side, s , is given by:
s = Is Rs = Ns d/dt
p = Np d/dt
Tokamak
The tokamak is a transformer with a single turn secondary
the plasma. The magnetic flux change in the tokamak
transformer induces a plasma current, Ip , given by:
d
Ip Rp =
dt
where Rp is the resistivity of the plasma. We can get a
reasonable estimate of the associated poloidal field, Bp , in
a tokamak using a cylindrical approximation:
Figure 15: Induced poloidal magnetic field.

Tokamak
Using Amperes Law:
I
Bp ds = o Ip
Since Bp is fixed at a given r,

I
o Ip
Bp ds = o Ip Bp 2r = o Ip Bp =
2r
The induced current, Ip , gives rise to the poloidal field, Bp ,
and the interaction of this field with the applied toroidal field
provides the rotational transform. A typical tokamak
configuration is shown below.
Tokamak
Figure 16: Tokamak coil configuration.

Tokamak
Figure 17: Tokamak coil configuration.

Tokamak
The toroidal field on axis, Bt (R) is given by
o N Ic
Bt (R) =
2R
where N Ic is the total number of ampere turns in the

toroidal coils and R is the major radius. Using a cylindrical
approximation for the torus and Amperes Law, we obtain
the following expression for the poloidal field, Bp .
I
o Ip
Bp ds = o Ip Bp (r) =
2r
where Ip is the induced plasma current and r is the plasma
minor radius.
Tokamak - Limits on
Since Pf 2 B 4 , the achievable value of beta, , has a
profound effect on the feasibility of fusion power. Recall
=
2nkT
B2
2o
Here,
B 2 = Bt2 + Bp2 .
We define beta poloidal, p , as

p =
2nkT
Bp2
2o
Tokamak - Limits on
Thus,
2nkT
=
p
2
Bp
Bt2
+ 2o
2o
2nkT
2
Bp
2o
and,
Bp2
1
= 2
=
2
Bt2
p
Bt + Bp
1 + Bp2
and
=
p
1+
Bt2
Bp2
Tokamak - Limits on
Recall the safety factor, q , equals the number of rotations a
field line makes in the toroidal direction per rotation in the
poloidal direction (2/). At the plasma edge, the safety
factor q(a) is given by
a Bt (R)
q(a) =
R Bp (a)
The ratio, R/a, is called the aspect ratio A. Thus,

1 Bt (R)
q(a) =
A Bp (a)
Thus,
Bt
Bp
2
p
= q A =
1 + q 2 A2
2
Tokamak - Limits on
Stability considerations place limits on p and q while A is
determined by engineering. Stability requires that q(r) > 1.
Figure 18: Typical q profile.

If q 1, major disruptions of the plasma is observed.
Typical parameters for a tokamak might be:
q(0) > 1 and q(a) 3
Tokamak - Limits on
With regard to p , it has been observed that gross
confinement deteriorates for
p 0.6A
Consider a tokamak with the following parameters: A = 4,

q(a) = 3 and p = 0.5A. For this case,
(0.5)(4)
2
=
=
0.0138
2
2
1 + (3) (4)
145
The inherently low beta values of tokamaks must be

increased in order to make tokamaks economically
attractive. The tokamak program has examined several
techniques for higher : circular cross sections, 3 5%,
elongated plasma, 10%, bean shaped plasma,
10 15%, low aspect ratio, 10 15%.
Tokamak
The induced current in the tokamak leads to ohmic
heating of the plasma via Ip2 Rp where Rp is the
resistance of the plasma. However, Rp 1/T 3/2 as
the plasma gets hotter Rp decreases and Pohmic
decreases. Thus, it appears unlikely that ohmic heating
in tokamaks will be sufficient to raise the temperature to
the ignition point and tokamaks will require auxiliary
heating.
Tokamak
Also, recall that Ip Rp = d/dt, where = BA. Thus,
the induced current persists only as long as d/dt
persists. For fixed area, A, d/dt dB/dt, and t is
limited by B which is limited by technology. Therefore,
if Ip is to be sustained by the transformer action, it will
be limited in duration by technology. Thus, in the
transformer mode, a tokamak is a pulsed device. A
large effort in tokamak research is aimed at
non-inductive current drive delivering momentum in a
preferred direction to the plasma particles (usually
electrons) RF and beam techniques are being
considered for this application.
Tokamak
Figure 19: Plasma Heating and Current Drives.

Tokamak - Plasma System
Figure 20: Plasma system.

R
Aspect Ratio.
a Plasma Radius, R Major Radius, A =
a
Tokamak - Volume-Averaged Quantities

It is emphasized that plasma density, n, and temperature,
T , vary with position as indicated schematically below
Figure 21: Spatial dependence.

Experimentally we can measure n and T versus position
and we can calculate average quantities such as:
R
R
ndV
T dV
n
=
T =
V
V

Also < v > depends on T and therefore, is also a function
of position. We can thus define the following average:
> =< v >T
< v
Consider the volumed average power density defined as

R n2
4 < v > Ef dV
Pf =
V
Note that, in general,
2
n
>Ef
Pf 6= < v
4

However,
2
n
>Ef fp
Pf = < v
4
where fp is a profile factor defined as
R
fp =
n2
<v>Ef dV
4
n
2
4 <
>Ef
v
Typically fp 1.5 2.
Tokamak - Confinement at Ignition

Now consider the power balance averaged over the plasma
volume with Zef f = 1 when Paux = 0 (ignition),
3nT
n
2
>E fp =
+ Cn
2 T1/2
< v
4
E
Solving the above for n
E yields
3T
n
E = 1
1/2
<
v
>E
f
C
T
p
4
Assume the following conditions k T = 10keV ,
1022 m3 s1 ,
> = 1.1
< v
fp = 2. For this case
req
(
nE )ign = 1.11022
4
C=
keV and
5 1037 W m3 /
3 10 1.6 1016
3.5 1.6 1013 2 5 1037 (10)1/2
= 1.64 1020 m3 s
Tokamak - Plasma Size for Ignition

If n
= 1020 m3 , what size of tokamak is needed for ignition?
Tokamak - Plasma Size for Ignition

If n
= 1020 m3 , what size of tokamak is needed for ignition?
A commonly used empirical scaling is that first observed by
the MIT group on the Alcator Tokamak experiment and now
called Alcator Scaling. By this scaling
n
E (m3 s) = 6 1021 n
2 a2
Where the volume average density, n
, is in #/m3 and the
plasma radius, a, is in m. For ignition,
(
nE )ALC = 6 1021 n
2 a2 = (
nE )req
ign
Thus,
20
1.64
10
6 1021 n
2 a2 = 1.64 1020 a2 =
= 2.733
21
20
2
(6 10 )(10 )
Therefore,
areq = 1.65m
Tokamak - Magnetic Field at Ignition

What is the required field on axis, Bt (R), if = 0.05?
Tokamak - Magnetic Field at Ignition

What is the required field on axis, Bt (R), if = 0.05?
Recall,
Bt2
2o (2
nk T)
=
when Bt >> Bp (B 2 = Bt2 + Bp2 Bt2 ). Given k T = 10keV

and n
= 1020 m3 ,
7 )(2 1020 10 1.6 1016 )
2(4
10
= 16.07
Bt2 =
0.05
Therefore,
Btreq (R) 4T
Tokamak - Fusion Power at Ignition

We next calculate the fusion power density at ignition:
2
n
>Ef fp = < v
>Ef fp
Pf = n
Dn
T < v
4
(1020 )2
(1.1 1022 )(17.6 1.6 1013 )(2)
=
4
MW
= 1.55 3
m
where we have assumed n
D = n
T and negligible n
and n
I
(Zef f = 1). The total fusion power, PfT , is calculated from
the volume and the power density. Assuming R = 6.6m,
PfT = Pf V = Pf 2 2 Ra2 = 1.552 2 (6.6)(1.65)2 = 549M W
Note that PnT = 0.8PfT = 439M W and P = 0.2PfT = 110M W .

Tokamak - Wall Loadings

First we define the neutron wall loading as Ln =
S is the surface areas and is given by
Pn
S ,
where
S = 4 2 Ra = 4 2 (6.6)(1.65) 430m2
Note V /S = 2 2 Ra2 /4 2 Ra = a/2. Thus,

439
MW
Ln =
1 2
430
m
One neutron carries 14.1M eV or 14.1 1.6 1013 J of

energy. Thus, 1M W/m2 can also be expressed as
Ln =
106 mJ2 s
14.1 1.6 1013 Jn
n
4.43 10
m2 s
17

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Nuclear Fusion and Radiation

Lecture 7 (Meetings 16, 17 & 18)

Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics

Nuclear Fusion and Radiation p. 1/46

Figure 1: Open & closed magnetic configurations.

Figure 2: Closed toroidal configuration.

Figure 3: Magnetic field spatial variation.

Figure 4: Ion vertical drift.

Figure 5: Electron vertical drift.

Nuclear Fusion and Radiation p. 7/46

Figure 6: Induced electric field

Figure 7: Ion horizontal drift

Nuclear Fusion and Radiation p. 9/46

Figure 8: Electron horizontal drift

Nuclear Fusion and Radiation p. 11/46

Figure 9: Rotational transform.

This distance can also be expressed in terms of the

Equating the two expressions for p yields

In the literature the rotational transform is also discussed in

Nuclear Fusion and Radiation p. 14/46

Figure 10: Poloidal flux in a tokamak.

Figure 11: Drift averaging.

How do we produce rotational transform?

Nuclear Fusion and Radiation p. 19/46

Figure 12: Induced electromotive force.

Figure 13: Induced magnetic field.

Nuclear Fusion and Radiation p. 21/46

Figure 14: Transformer.

Figure 15: Induced poloidal magnetic field.

Since Bp is fixed at a given r,

Nuclear Fusion and Radiation p. 24/46

Figure 16: Tokamak coil configuration.

Figure 17: Tokamak coil configuration.

where N Ic is the total number of ampere turns in the

We define beta poloidal, p , as

Nuclear Fusion and Radiation p. 28/46

Nuclear Fusion and Radiation p. 29/46

The ratio, R/a, is called the aspect ratio A. Thus,

Nuclear Fusion and Radiation p. 30/46

Figure 18: Typical q profile.

Consider a tokamak with the following parameters: A = 4,

The inherently low beta values of tokamaks must be

Nuclear Fusion and Radiation p. 33/46

Nuclear Fusion and Radiation p. 34/46

Figure 19: Plasma Heating and Current Drives.

Tokamak - Plasma System

Figure 20: Plasma system.

Tokamak - Volume-Averaged Quantities

Figure 21: Spatial dependence.

Tokamak - Volume-Averaged Quantities

Consider the volumed average power density defined as

Nuclear Fusion and Radiation p. 38/46

Tokamak - Volume-Averaged Quantities

Nuclear Fusion and Radiation p. 39/46

Tokamak - Confinement at Ignition

3.5 1.6 1013 2 5 1037 (10)1/2

Nuclear Fusion and Radiation p. 40/46

Tokamak - Plasma Size for Ignition

Nuclear Fusion and Radiation p. 41/46

Tokamak - Plasma Size for Ignition

Tokamak - Magnetic Field at Ignition

Nuclear Fusion and Radiation p. 43/46