Are Moral Choices Possible?

Ethical Theory
Arguments for a Universal Moral Code
Moralists - there is a single correct moral code for all people. Belief in Moral Maxims
There are 3 arguments for the Universal foundation of Ethics
The Divine Command Theory
Basing Ethics of Reason: Ethical Egoism and Utilitarianism, Golden Rule and
Categorical Imperative, Social Contract
Natural Law Ethics
Divine Command Theory
Foundation of Ethics is the will of God.
X is wrong if God forbids X
X is morally obligatory if God commands X
We are morally obliged to do whatever God says
A moral rule is a command that tells us what to do. Since these commands do not
seem to be created by humans but bind all humans, they must come from God.
Objections to Divine Command
Non-religious persons object to Gods existence. Theists say then there is no
universal moral code. All is permitted
5 Main Arguments against Divine Command
Assumes we know what God commands. Dont we usually try to decide what
is right and assume this is Gods will?
If God chooses arbitrarily do they matter? If he is using reason or they are
predetermined then they arent really from God
Why are we obliged? We didnt ask to be created and He doesnt need our cooperation
Would mean anything God commanded would be acceptable. Baby torture?
Nothing is intrinsically wrong
No God = No moral laws. Argue that there is moral code even w/o God
Ethics Based on Reason: Egoism
Rationality in ethics is efficiency: the skillful adjustments of means to ends. Rational
act is one that produces the most benefit for the least cost.
Egoism - The most benefit for the least cost for ME.
Will act in a virtuous manner in order to maximize good in all areas of life.
Does not to create ill will. Do good things that could lead to benefit later
Lets Practice Egoism
Is it moral to steal cash from petty cash?
Ethics Based on Reason: Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism - Act is Right if is the least cost and most benefit for all people
impacted. 5 step procedure to determine what is right. Jeremy Bentham
Imagine all alternative actions
Predict as rationally as possible what the consequences of each alternative
would be
Estimate the balance of good or bad in the consequences of each act, taking
into account every human being and entity where welfare is affected by the
action
Compare the amount of good in the consequences containing the most good
or least bad

Select the act that produces the most good or least bad

Batman scene

Lets Practice Utilitarianism

A stadium full of Justin Bieber fans are being held hostage. If the terrorists can have
and kill Justin then they will let the fans go. If not, all of the fans will be killed in an
explosion.
Imagine
Criticisms of Utilitarianism
Rights objection - argues people have rights that must be respected and
should not be violated. ie) Right to Life or live free of torture
Justice objection - dont consider the good but instead the justice that is
distributed ie) In Batman - criminals vs. regular citizens
Deserts objection - need to take into account paste events. Some deserve to
be punished even if no good comes from it.
Self Defense Objection - not every life is equal. Your own life or those you love
are more valuable than a stranger.
Basing Ethics on Reason: Golden Rule
3. The Golden Rule - Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.
Concept put forward by Confucius and later Jesus.
Sometimes referred to as the Ethics of Reciprocity
Basing Ethics on Reason: Categorical Imperative
4. Categorical Imperative - Deontological Ethics
From Kants Metaphysics of Morals 1785
**For Kant you must always respect a person's freedom. Freedom is our most
essential human quality therefore taking away freedom is taking away humanity.
Categorical Imperative
4 formulations of the principal
Law of Nature: Act as if the maxim of your action were to become through
your will a Universal Law
End in Itself: Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether it
your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but
always at the same time as an end.
Autonomy: So act that your will can regard itself at the same time as making
universal law through its maxims.
Kingdom of Ends: So act as if you were through your maxims a law-making
member of a kingdom of ends
Categorical Imperative - Practice
Social Contract Theory
Utilitarianism says sacrifice for others and Egoism is sacrifice for no one, Social
Contract says sacrifice if others are willing to do the same.
Sees that maximizing your own good can be self defeating if done universally. ie)
Prisoner's Dilemma
Basing Ethics on Reason: Social Contract

Utilitarianism says sacrifice for others and Egoism is sacrifice for no one, Social
Contract says Sacrifice if others are willing to do the same.
Sees that maximizing your own good can be self defeating if done universally. ie)
Prisoner's Dilemma
To avoid worst outcome Social Contract suggests we use Constrained Maximization
They believe this allows us to escape Moral dilemmas
ie)
I should sit unless others stand, then I should stand. If everyone does this then we all stay
comfy seated. We dont get the best outcome but we get a good one.
*Note that we only sacrifice if others do. If others do not sacrifice then we are NOT morally
obligated to do so.

Social Contract Practice - Waiting in a line

Natural Law Ethics
Foundation for Ethics lies in Nature.
All same biological species in same natural world so it reasons that the universal
ethical code come from these.
A Moral Act is a Natural Act and an Immoral Act in an Unnatural Act. These are discovered by
use of reason and choosing between good and evil.
Natural Law finds its power in discovering universal standards in morality.
Wrong to base moral judgements on cultural norms because societies can be perverse and vary
but the laws of nature form a single consistent moral code.
Man made law is called Positive Law
Problem with the theory is the argument over the characteristics of Nature. Two commonly held
views.

Aristotle - things that are just by Nature. It is inherent in the human mind vs. man made
in different societies. Laws that transcend time and culture. No one can place where the
laws came from but agreed on by all.
Aquinas - an action is good or bad if it uses reason well. Is it reasonable or
unreasonable? Reason and what is reasonable comes from God as the Creator.
Others Examples: Hobbes believed Natural Law was actions that support self
preservation.