UnitOne:AnimalBehavior&ExperimentalDesign

Chapter1AViewofLife
Controlledexperiment
Hypothesis:apossibleexplanationforanaturalevent
Control(group):goesthroughthesamestepsoftheexperimentbutlacksthefactorbeing
tested
ExperimentalVariable:variablebeingtested
know
DependentVariable:result/changethatoccursduetoexperimentalvariable(measurable)
know
ControlledVariables:allothervariableskeptconstantsotheydontaffecttheoutcomeof
theexperiment
Data:resultsoftheexperiment.Mustbestatisticallysignificant,measurable,and
observable
Inductivevs.DeductiveReasoning
InductiveReasoning:(specifictogeneral),bottomupapproachconclusionhastobe
figuredout
Deadpersontowhodunnit?
DeductiveReasoning:atopdownapproachstartw/conclusiontoseeifevidencefor
thatconclusionarevalid(generaltospecific)
Timisabachelorallbachelorsaresinglethus,Timissingle
Chapter45AnimalBehavior
Proximatevs.Ultimate
ProximateCause:physiologicalmechanismforbehavior.Whatenablesorganismto
exhibitthatbehavior
UltimateCause:evolutionarypurposeforabehavior(howitinfluencesreproductive
success).Whyorganismperformsthatbehavior
Taxisvs.KinesisAnimalMovement
Taxis:movementtowardsorawayfromastimulus
Mosquitosgotowardsthelight(stimulus)
Kinesis:randommovement,changesinactivitylevel(ultimategoalistofindoptimal
habitat)
know
Pillbugslookfordark/moistareas,soitlooksrandomatfirst,buttheyremoving
towardsthedarkareas\
SexualSelection,malecompetition,altruism
SexualSelectionFemaleschoosemalesonthebasisofappearanceand/or
fitness
Femalebirdslookforthemostattractivechestofmalebirds
Malecompetitionforterritoryormates
Moosefightwithantlers
Altruismunselfishbehaviorforthegoodofthegroup
Meerkatsandalarmcalling,eventhoughtheylldie,theyrewarning
others
Kinselectionwhenaltruismoccurswithinfamilies

Animalcommunication:tactile,chemical,auditory,visual
Tactiletouch
Chemicalpheromones
Auditoryhearing/listening
Visualseeing
KonradLorenzImprinting
Imprintedto1stmovingobject
KarlVonFrischHoneybeeCommunication
Dancesthatpointtolocationoffoodsource
IvanPavlovPavlovssalivatingdogs
Classicalconditioning,salivateatbell
NikoTinbergenBehavioralEcologist,studiedmatingbehaviorandfixedactionpatterns
Fixedactionpatternsanimalsalwaysdoonething,theyreinclinedtodothat
onethingandwillkeepdoingit
B.F.SkinnerOperantConditioning(positivereinforcement)
Ratspushdownaleverforfoodortonotgetshocked
UnitTwo:Evolution
Chapter17DarwinandEvolution
Catastrophism(Cuvier)we
newspeciesw/anatomicalchangesaroseAFTERcatastrophe
TheoryofAcquiredCharacteristics(Lamark)
changesacquiredthroughuse/disuse
happensinonelifetime(fluidswillpassoncharacteristic)
TheoryofEvolution(Darwin)
variationinphenotypeallowsfitness,livelongenoughtoreproduceandpassongenesto
nextgenerations
People&Evidence(InfluencingTheoryofEvolution)
CharlesLyell
evidencethatEarthisolderthanthought(4.6billion,not40000)
ThomasMalthus
resourcesgrowsarithmetically,populationgrowsgeometrically
Shortageofresourcesstruggleforsurvival
Biogeography
relatedspecies(foundindifferentbutneighboringgeographiclocations)
Ex.GalapagosIslandsfinches
ArtificialSelection
Desirablecharacteristicscanbeselected
Examples:Horses,dogs
AlfredRusselWallaceproposedsimilarideastoDarwinsideathatnaturalselectionisa
mechanismforevolutionarychange)
PushedDarwintopublishOntheOriginofSpeciesin1859
MadeDarwinconfidentandpublishedbooksohecouldtakecredit
EvidenceforMacroevolution

FossilRecord
progressivechange(arrangefossilsoldesttomostrecent)
RadioactiveDatingmakesfossilrecordsmoreaccurate
MolecularRecord
studyDNAsequenceorproteinstructure
commonancestry
Homology
structuresderivedfromacommonancestor

samebonestructure
Development/Embryology
similaritiesinembryodevelopment
VestigialStructures
structuresw/nopresentfunction
ParallelAdaptation
ifinsimilarenvironments,plants&animalsevolvesimilarcharacteristics
Biogeography
animalsonneighboringislandsaresimilartooneanother,buthaveslight
differences(adaptationstotheirenvironment)
Ex.GalapagosIslandFinches
CriteriaforNaturalSelection
know
variationexistsinnaturalpopulations
moreindividualsareproducedthantheenvironmentcansupport
someindividualshaveadaptivecharacteristicsthatenablethemtosurviveandreproduce
betterthanothers
MacroevolutionBiochemicalEvidence
StructureofATP,DNAsameinallorganisms
Universalgeneticcode
Manydevelopmentalgenessharedbyverydifferentorganisms(evolutionary
development)
TwoSchoolsofThought
PunctuateEquilibrium
rapidchangefollowedbylongperiodsofstability
PhyleticGradualism
constant,gradualchange(transitionallinksmorelikelytobefound)
Chapter18ProcessofEvolution
Microevolutionchangesinallelefrequenciesovertimew/inapopulation,canbeobserved
Macroevolutionnewspeciesformedspeciation,oldspeciesbecameextinct,notnecessarily
easytosee
MicroevolutionMacroevolution(small,localbig,worldwide)
HardyWeinbergEquilibrium
Ifallelefrequenciesdonotremainconstant,weknowthatevolutionhasoccurredandwe
canlookatwhichconditionsareviolatedtodeterminethecauseofevolutionarychange

HardyWeinbergEquation
know

p+q=1(allelefrequencies)
2
2
p
+2pq+q
=1(genotypefrequencies)
p=dominantallelefrequency
q=recessiveallelefrequency
2
p
=frequencyofhomozygousdominantgenotype
2pq=frequencyofheterozygousgenotype
2
q
=frequencyofhomozygousrecessivegenotype
Geneticdriftchanceeventsinsmallpopulations
know
Foundereffectmutationw/inpopulation,

newpopulationstartedbyafewmembersof
theoriginalpopulation.Thissmallpopulationsizemeansthatthecolonymayhaverare
alleles
Heterozygoteadvantage(MaintenanceofGeneticVariation)
Homozygousrecessiveindividualsoftendieofdisease(sicklecell)
Heterozygoteshaveresistancetomalaria(sodeleteriousgeneisnotselectedout
ofthegenepool)
Directionalstabilityfavorsoneextremephenotype(graphiseitherwayleftorway
right)
knowall3
Stabilizingselectionfavorsintermediate(graphisveryhighinmiddle)
DisruptiveSelectiontwoormorephenotypesarefavored(highonbothsides,lowin
middle)
Speciesorganismsthatcaninterbreedandproducefertileoffspring
Nicheroleoftheorganisminenvironment
know
Intergraderesultfrom2subspecies(variety)
Ex.Labradoodle
Hybridresultfromtwodifferentspeciesbreeding
Ex.Liger,Zonkey
Race,subspecies,varietyintermediatestagesofevolution
Speciationnewspecies
Sympatrictwogroupsw/similarranges(overlap)
Allopatricseparatedbybarrier(geographic)
know
Prezygoticisolatingmechanism
HabitatIsolation(geographicandecological)differenthabitats
TemporalIsolationtimezones
BehavioralIsolationdifferentmatingtimes
know
MechanicalIsolationincompatible
GameteIsolationpreventionofgametefusion,gametesnotcompatible
Postzygoticisolatingmechanism
ZygoteMortalityfertilizationoccurs,butzygotedoesntsurvive
Hybridsterilityhybridsurvives,butissterileandcannotreproduce
F2FitnessHybridisfertilebutF2hybridhasreducedfitness
Convergentevolutiontendencyofunrelatedorganisms(
norecentcommonancestor
)to
developanalogousadaptivestructuresorbehaviorthatservethesamepurpose

 Divergentevolutiondevelopmentofdifferentformsoforganismsfroma
single
ancestralstock
whichresultsinavarietyofformsadaptedto
varioustypesof
environments
akaadaptiveradiation
know
Parallelevolutionoccurswhenatraithasevolvedsimilarly,undersimilarselection
pressures,intwoormoregroupshavingacommonancestorthatlackedthattrait

UnitThree:OriginandDiversityofLife
Chapter19OriginandHistoryofLife
Timeline
inorganicmoleculesRNAandDNAformprokaryotesphotosyntheticbacteriasinglecell
eukaryotesdiverseprokaryotesmutlicellularprotist/algaeappearsexual
reproductionshellbearinginvertebrates,vertebratesfirstappear,jawlessfish
appear
extinction1
seedlessvascularplants,lobefinnedfishnonvascularlandplants
appearjawedfishappeargymnospermsappearamphibiansandinsectsappear
extinction
2
reptilesappeararchaeopteryx(reptile/bird)appears
extinction3
mammals
appear
extinction4
firstbirdsappearangiospermsappear
extinction5
earlyprimates
appearhomosapiensappears
Chapter20ClassificationofLivingOrganisms
Taxonomyidentifying,namingandclassifyingorganisms
BinomialNomenclatureeachspeciesreceives2partname
GenusSpecies
Speciesisthemostspecificcategoryofclassification
LevelsofClassification
Domain,Kingdom,Phylum,Class,Order,Family,Genus,Species
DearKingPhillipCameOverForGoodSoup
know
Phylogenetictree
Diagramindicatingcommonancestors&lineofdescent
Eachbranchingpointisdivergencefromacommonancestor
Derivedcharacteristicstraitnotrelatedtocommonancestor
Ancestralcharacteristicstraitrelatedtocommonancestor
PhylogenyEvidence
FossilRecord
Homology
MolecularData
similarDNAbasepairsequences
DNADNAHybridization
DNAdoublehelixofeachspeciesisseparatedintotwostrands
Strandsofbothspeciescombine,thebettertheysticktogether,themoreclosely
relatedthe2speciesare
MolecularClock
Nucleicacidchangesmayaccumulateataconstantrate.Thesechangescanbe
usedasamolecularclocktoindicateevolutionarytime

Systematics
Traditional
useanatomicaldatatoclassifyorganism
Problem:agroupthathasadaptedtonewenvironmentandevolvedmayNOTbe
classifiedw/commonancestor
Phenetic
speciesareclassifiedaccordingto#ofsimilarities
Problem:doesntaccountforconvergentorparallelevolution
Cladistic
usessharedderivedcharacteristicstoclassifyorganisms
arrangetaxaintocladogram
*KnowhowtomakeaCladogram
3DomainSystem
DomainBacteria
Prokaryotic
Mostbacteria(butnotall)
Mostareheterotroph
Cyanobacteriaphotosynthetic
Asexualreproduction
DomainArchaea
Prokaryotic
ThriveinExtremeEnvironments
Hightemps
Acidicareas(Thermoacidophiles)
Saltyareas(Halophiles)
Anaerobicareasw/outoxygen
DomainEukarya
KingdomsProtista,Fungi,Plantae,Animalia
Eukaryotic
Sexualreproductioniscommon
Chapter22TheProtists
ProtistCharacteristics
Eukaryotes
Mostlyunicellular
Varyinsize
Complex
MulticellularorganismsoriginatedfromProtists
ex.plantsgreenalgae
Protistsaregroupedbynutritionandmovement
ComplexityandDiversitymakeclassificationdifficult
Chapter23TheFungi
FungiCharacteristics
Eukaryotes

 Mostlymulticellular
Heterotroph
Nonmotile
Reproductioncanbesexualorasexual(spores)
FungiPhyla
ZygosporeFungi
BreadMold
SacFungi
Yeast,Morels,Truffles
ClubFungi
Mushroom,Puffballs,ShelfFungi
SymbioticRelationshipsofFungi
Lichen=Algae+Fungus
Mycorrhizae=Fungus+Plant(roots)
Highsurfaceabsorbingareaofrootsimproveplantsabilitytogainsoilresources
Chapter29.1EvolutionofAnimals(AnimalPhyla/Classification)
TissueLayers(germlayers)inEmbryo
Parazoa
Simplestnotissuesformed,ex.sponges
Eumetazoa
Diploblastictwolayers(endoderm,ectoderm)ex.jellyfish
Triploblasticthreelayers(endoderm,mesodermandectoderm)ex.octupus
TypesofSymmetry
Asymmetricalnoapparentbodysymmetry
Bilateralmirrorimages,foldinhalf
Radialradiatesoutfromthecenter(spokesofawheel)
Coelom(bodycavity)formation(specifictotriploblasticanimals)
Coelomatecoelumlinedbymesodermaltissueex.chordates,ventralanddorsalcavities
know
Acoelomatew/outcoelom,ex.flatworm
Pseudocoelomatecoelomnotfullylinedbymesodermaltissuemesoderminsidebody
wallbutnotsurroundingthegutex.roundworm
TypesofCoelomates
Protostomespiral,determinatecellcleavageunequaldivision,coelomformsby
splittingofmesoderm,blastoporebecomesmouth
Deuterostomeradial,indeterminatecellcleavageequaldivision,coelomformsby
outpocketingofprimitivegut(echinoderms,chordates),blastoporebecomesanus
CephalizationLocationofbrain(concentrationofnervecells)andsenseorgansattheanterior
endofananimal,morehighlyevolvedanimalsshowgreaterdegreeofcephalization
Chapter24OriginsandDiversityofPlants
Fourtypes
NonvascularByrophytes
NonvascularMosses

SeedVascularPlants
SeedlessVascularPlants

Increasingdegreesofevolutionaryadaptation(sporophyte2nontop,gametophytenonbottom)
UnitFour:Ecology
Chapter46EcologyofPopulations
Ecologythestudyoftheinteractionsoforganismswitheachotherandwiththephysicalenvironment
Levelsofecology:
Organismonelivingindividualofaspecies
Populationallorganismsinanareabelongingtothesamespecies(aherdofzebras)
Communityallthevariouspopulationsinteractinginalocale(allthedifferenttypesofspecies
livinginasavannah)
Ecosystemcontainsacommunityofpopulationsandtheabioticenvironment
Biosphere(largest)thezonesoftheearthssoil,water,andairwherelivingorganismsarefound
know
PopulationDensityvsPopulationDistributionpopulationdensityisthenumberofindividualsperunit
area(measuredbypersquareunit)whilepopulationdistributionisthepatternofdispersalofindividuals
acrossanareaofinterest.
Threebasicpatternsofdistribution:
Clumped(mostcommonanimalsliketobeingroups/herds)
Random
Uniform
Wemeasurepopulationgrowthusingbioticpotential,thehighestpossiblerateofnaturalincreasewhen
resourcesarelimitedWhetherbioticpotentialishighorlowdependson:
Usualnumberofoffspringperreproductiveevent
Chancesofsurvivaluntilageorreproduction
Howofteneachindividualreproduces
Ageatwhichreproductionbegins
SurvivorshipCurveThecurvecreatedwhenweplotthenumbersurvivingataparticularage
(3differenttypesofcurvesdisplayedonpg841oftextbook)
know


Structurediagrameitherincreasing,decreasing,orstablepopulations,creatingthreedifferentshapes(
Onpg843oftextbook).Therearethreemajoragegroups,prereproductive,reproductive,andpost
reproductive.Thelefthalfofeachshaperepresentsthemales,andtherighthalfrepresentsthefemales.
Astructurediagramwouldlookdifferentinamoredevelopedcountryvsalessdeveloped
country.Inamoredevelopedcountry,thepopulationwouldbemorestable.Inalessdeveloped
country,thepopulationmaybeincreasing,havingalargerreproductiveagesgroup.
Exponentialgrowthacceleratesovertime,startingslower(lag)thenincreasing.

Exponentialgrowthdiffersfromlogisticgrowthbecauseexponential
willkeepincreasing(withunlimitedresources)butlogisticgrowth
willeventuallyslowdownandleveloffintoequilibrium
Carryingcapacitythemaximumnumberofindividualsofagiven
speciestheenvironmentcansupport
Factorsthatlimitpopulationgrowth:
Densitydependentfactorsbioticfactorssuchascompetition,predation,andparasitism
Densityindependentfactorsabioticfactorssuchasforestfiresandflashflood(cannotregulate
populationthemselvesbecausetheeffectisnotinfluencedbythepopulation)
Rselectionfavorsrstrategistsforthosespeciesthatproducemanycheapoffspringandliveinunstable
environments
opportunisticspecies
bacteriaandroaches
Kselectionfavorskstrategiesforthosespeciesthatproducefewexpensiveoffspringandliveinstable
environments
Havefeweroffspring,butinvestheavilyintheiroffspring
equilibriumspecies
humans,elephants,andkangaroos
know

Chapter47CommunityEcology

Communitypopulationoforganismsinteractingwithoneanotherwithinthesameenvironment
Habitatplacewhereanorganismlivesandreproduces
Nichetheroleanorganismplaysinitscommunity(theirjob)
Generalistspeciesvsaspecialistspecies:generalistspecieshaveabroadrangeofniches
(racoons,roaches,humans)whilespecialistspecieshaveanarrowrangeofniches(pandas,owls)
Competitiontwospeciesfightingforresources
Predationpredatorhuntsafterprey,onlypredatorbenefits
Parasitismpredationbutwithahost
Commensalismoneorganismisbenefitedandoneisneitherbenefitednorharmed
Mutualismbothmembersbenefit
Interspecificcompetitionvsintraspecificcompetitioninterspecificoccurswhenmembersof
differentspeciestrytousearesourcethatislimited(light,space,nutrients)andintraspecificis
thesamecompetingofresources,butbetweenthesamespecies
Competitiveexclusionstatesthatnotwospeciescanindefinitelyoccupythesamenicheatthe
sametime
Predatorpreyrelationship(cyclic)Aspreypopulationincreases,thepredatorpopulationalso
increasesbecausemorefoodbecomesavailable.Thereproductiverateofthepredatorissogreat
thatitsincreasednumbersoverconsumetheprey,thenthepreypopulationdeclines,andsodoes
thepredatorpopulationandsoon.
Preydefensemechanisms:
Chemicaldefenseodor,poisonouschemicalsect
Physicaldefensebrightcoloration,toughepidermis,ect
Camouflagetheabilityofaspeciestoblendintothebackground
Mimicryonespeciesresemblesanotherthatpossessesanovertantipredatordefense
BatesianmimicryvsMullerianmimicryBatesianmimicryiswhenthemimiclacksdefenseof
theorganismitresembles(mimicofmonarchbutterfly)andMullerianmimicryiswhenthe
mimicsharessameprotectivedefense
know
Ecologicalsuccessionachangeinvolvingaseriesofspeciesreplacementsinacommunity
followingadisturbance(primarytosecondary)
Primaryvssecondarysuccessionprimarysuccessionoccursinareaswherethereisno
soilformation,suchasfollowingavolcaniceruption.
Secondarysuccessionbeginsinareaswheresoilispresentandreturnstoanaturalstate.
Climaxcommunitythecommunitythatresultswhensuccessioncomestoanend,determined
somewhatbyclimateandsoil
Keystonespeciesorganismsthatplayagreaterroleinmaintainingthefunctionanddiversityof
anecosystem
know
Exoticspeciescauseproblemsforanecosystembyinfluencingpredationandcompetition,
ruiningthebalance.(endemicbirdpopulationsweredevastatedduetotheaccidentalintroduction
ofthebrowntreesnake,whichpreysonbirds)

Chapter48EcosystemsandHumanInterferences
Ecosystemaplacewhereorganismsinteractamongthemselvesandwithaphysicalandchemical
environment

Trophiclevels(feedinglevelsofoneormorepopulationinanecosystem):
Firsttrophiclevelproducers
Secondtrophiclevelprimaryconsumers
Thirdtrophiclevelsecondaryconsumers
know
Herbivoreseatonlyplantsoralgae
Carnivoresfeedonotheranimals
Omnivoresconsumebothplantsandanimals
Detritusfeedersfeedondecomposingparticlesoforganicmatter(earthworms)
Decomposersacquirenutrientsbybreakingdowndeadorganicmatterintosimpleinorganic
substances(bacteria/fungi)
Theflowofenergydecreasesasyouclimbthefoodchain.Only10%ofenergyfromonelevelis
availableforthenextlevel(10%rule)
Pyramidmodelsofecosystems:
Thebiomassdecreasesasyougohigherupthepyramid
Thenumberoforganismsdecreasesasyougohigherupthepyramid
Energydecreasesasyougohigherupthepyramid
Basicstepsofbiochemicalcycles:
WatercycleEvaporationCondensationPrecipitationAquifers(rocklayerscontaining
water)arerecharged
CarboncycleBurningoffossilfuelsreleasescarbondioxideintotheatmospherewhich
isthenreleasedintosedimentandintotreesthroughphotosynthesis.Globalwarmingalso
occursbecausethegreenhousesgassesintheatmosphere(carbondioxide)preventthe
escapeofheat,redirectingitbacktoEarth.

Nitrogencyclenitrogenconvertedbetweenvariousforms
denitrification:microbesconvertnitrateintonitrogengas
underaerobicconditions,nitrousoxideisproduced,contributingto
globalwarming
nitrogenfixingbacteriatakeinnitrogengasinlegumeroots(rootseaten
byanimals,thusenteringthecycle)
Phosphorouscycle
mineralphosphorusdissolvedinwater,absorbedbyplants,eatenby
animals,givenoffinwastebackintothesoil
involvedineutrophication
cancauseovergrowthofalgaeinhighlyfertilizedareas
Understandtheconceptofbiologicalmagnificationandknowexamples.
processbywhichsubstancesbecomemoreconcentratedinorganismsin
highertrophiclevels
waterplantsabsorbpollution,whichiseatenbyfish,whichareeatenby
bears,etc.
Chapter49TheBiosphere
Knowhowthedistributionofsolarradiationaffectsclimate.

 moreintenseradiation=hotter,dryerclimate
Whatistherainshadoweffect?
thesideshelteredfromthewindofamountainousbarrierreceivesmuch
lessprecipitationthanthewindwardside
Whatiseutrophicationandwhatcausesit?
runoffofphosphateandnitrogenduetofertilizeruse,animalwaste,and
dischargefromsewagetreatmentplantsintowaterways
Chapter50ConservationBiology
Thegoalofconservationbiologyistopreservebiodiversity.Whatis
biodiversityandwhyisitimportant?
degreeofvariationoflife
importance:diversegenepoolallowsnaturalselectionandniche
specializationtooccur
Whatisthedifferencebetweenathreatenedandanendangeredspecies?
threatenedanyspeciesthatislikelytobecomeanendangeredspecies
withintheforeseeablefuture
endangeredanyspeciesthatisinimminentdangerofextinction
Whataresomeofthereasonsthatbiodiversityisvaluabledirect(medicinal,
agricultural,andconsumptiveusevalue),indirect(biogeochemicalcycles,waste
disposal,provisionoffreshwater,preventionofsoilerosion,climateregulation,
andecotourism).
directvaluesgoodspertainstothespecificusesofanecosystem.
indirectvaluesservicespertainstovaluesthatarederivedfromthe
ecosystemthatprotectandsupportdirectvaluesandactivities
Describethemajorcausesoflossofbiodiversity:habitatloss,exoticspecies,
pollution,overexploitation.
habitatlosshuman/naturalinvolvementresultsinthedestructionof
populationshabitats
exoticspeciesaspecieslivingoutsideofitsnativedistributionalrange
whichhasarrivedtherebyhumanactivity(whetherdeliberateor
accidental)
pollutioncontaminationofnaturalenvironmentbyharmfulsubstances
producedbyhumanactivity
overexploitationoverhunting&overharvesting
eventhoughmasshuntingisillegal,poachingoccurs
rateofdepletion>rateofreplacement
Definethefollowing:keystonespecies,flagshipspecies,sourcepopulation,sink
population.

 keystonespeciesaspeciesthatplaysabiggerroleinmaintainingthe
functionanddiversityofanecosystemthanwouldbepredictedbytheir
abundance
flagshipspeciesspeciesthatevokeanemotionalresponseinhumans
(cute,beautiful,charismatic,regal)
sourcepopulationAbreedinggroupthatproducesenoughoffspringtobe
selfsustainingandthatoftenproducesexcessyoungthatmustdisperseto
otherareas.
sinkpopulation
Abreedinggroupthatdoesnotproduceenoughoffspring
tomaintainitselfincomingyearswithoutimmigrantsfromother
populations.

Unit5:ChemistryReview
Chapter2BasicChemistry
BondTypes
Ionic
Electronsaretransferredfromoneatomtoanother,bothatomswillhaveafull
outershell
Occurbetweenametalandanonmetal(ananionandacation)
Covalent
Twoatomsshareelectronsinsuchawaythateachatomhasanoctetofelectrons
initsoutershell
Occurbetween2nonmetals
Strongesttypeofbonding
Polarandnonpolarbonds
Intermolecularforces
Hydrogenbond
Betweenhydrogenandfluorine/nitrogen/oxygen
Strongestintermolecularforce
Dipoledipole
Oneatompullstheelectronsslightlymoretowardsit
Londondispersionforces//Vanderwaals
Weakerortemporarydipoledipoleforces
Metallic
Occurbetween2metals
Radioactiveisotopesanddating
Isotopes:atomsofthesameelementthatdifferinthenumberofneutrons
Radiationisusedtodateobjects,createimages,andtracemovementofsubstances
Radioactiveisotopes(i.e.carbon14)decayovertimetobecomemorestablesubstance
(i.e.carbon12orcarbon13)
Whensmallamountofradioactiveisotopeisplacedinasample,itiscalleda
tracer

Electronenergyvs.orbitals
Orbital:particularvolumeofspacewhereanelectronismostapttobefoundmostofthe
time
Moredistanttheorbitalfromthenucleus,themoreenergytheelectronshave
Whenelectronsabsorbenergy,theyareboostedtoahigherlevel
Whenelectronsreturntotheiroriginalenergylevel,theygiveupenergyintheformof
chemicalenergy
Octetrule:outershellismoststablewhenithas8electrons(exceptwhenthereisonly
oneshell)
Atomsreactwithotheratomsbygivingup,accepting,orsharingelectronstofulfilloctet
rule
Polarvs.nonpolar
Polar:covalentbondunequalsharingofelectrons(oneatomexertsgreaterattractionfor
thesharedelectronsandaslightchargeseparationresults)
Nonpolar:covalentbondsharingofelectronsisequal
Dissociationofwater
+
Acidicsolutionsdissociateinwater,releasinghydrogenions(H
)

Basicsolutionsdissociateinwater,releasinghydroxideions(OH
)andtakingup
+
hydrogenions(H
)
+
Whenwaterionizes,itreleasesanequalnumberofhydrogenions(H
)andhydroxide

ions(OH
)
Solventsvs.solutes
Solvents:substancethatdoesthedissolvingcontainssolutes
Solutes:dissolvedsubstancedissolvesinsolvent
pH
pHscaleisusedtoindicatetheacidityorbasicityofasolution
Acids=07
Bases=714
+
pH=log(H
)
pHisnegativelogofthehydrogenionconcentration
Buffer=chemicalorcombinationofchemicalsthatkeepspHwithinnormallimits
Redoxreactions
Reduced:atomwhichgainsanelectronoverallchargegoesdown
Oxidized:atomwhichlosesanelectronoverallchargegoesup
OILRIG(oxidationisloss,reductionisgain)
SignificanceofhydrogenbondingtotheuniquepropertiesofwaterandtolifeonEarth
Waterhasahighheatcapacity
Themanyhydrogenbondsthatlinkwatermoleculeshelpwaterabsorbheat
withoutagreatchangeintemperature
Becausethetemperatureofwaterrisesandfallsslowly,organismsareprotected
fromrapidtemperaturechange
Waterhasahighheatofvaporization

Thisisbecausehydrogenbondsmustbebrokenbeforewaterboilsandwater
moleculesvaporize
Temperaturesalongcoastsaremoderate
Waterisasolvent
Certainsubstancescannotdissolveinwaterandsomebreakinwater
Watermoleculesarecohesiveandadhesive
Themoleculesclingtogetherbecauseofhydrogenbonding
Cohesion:watermoleculesclingtogether
Adhesion:watermoleculesclingtopolarsurfaces
Thisallowsplantstomovewaterfromthesoiluptoitsleaves
Waterhasahighsurfacetension
Thisallowssomeinsectstowalkonthesurfaceofwater
Frozenwater(ice)islessdensethanliquidwater
Astemperaturesfall,hydrogenbondingbecomesmorerigidbutalsomoreopen,
sowaterexpandswhenitfreezes
Thisallowslifeunderthelayeroficeinthewinter
Chapter3TheChemistryofOrganicMolecules
Organicmolecule
Organicmoleculesmustcontainbothcarbonandhydrogenatoms
Macromolecule,polymer,monomer
Macromolecule=alargemoleculemadebyjoiningmanysmallersubunits
4maintypes=carbohydrates,lipids,proteins,nucleicacids
Polymer=largechainofsmallermolecules
Constructedbycovalentlylinkingtogetheralargenumberofmonomers
Monomer=smallmoleculesthatisasubunitsofapolymer
Dehydrationsynthesisandhydrolysisreaction
Dehydrationsynthesis=awatermoleculeisremovedtoformabond
Hydrolysisreaction=awatermoleculeisaddedtobreakabond
Whatmakesupcarbohydrates,triglycerides,phospholipids,proteins,andnucleicacids
Carbohydrates=containcarbon,hydrogen,oxygen(1:2:1ratio)
Monosaccharide=asimplesugar
Disaccharide=2connectedsimplesugars
Polysaccharide=largerchainsofsugars
Notsolubleinwater(unlikesimplesugars),sotheyreusefulforenergy
storage
Triglycerides=contain3fattyacidtailsattachedtoaglycerolhead/molecule
Glycerolheadispolar
Fattyacidtailsarenonpolar
HavemanyCHbonds,sotheydonotmixwithwater
Phospholipids=contain2fattyacidtails,headmadeofaphosphategroup,andglycerol
backbone
Headispolarandhydrophilic
Tailsarenonpolarandhydrophobic

Proteins=containchainsofaminoacidsjoinedbycovalent/peptidebonds
Aminoacidhasacentralcarbonatomsurroundedby3constantgroups(H,
COOH,andaminogroupNH
)andafunctionalgroup(differentineachtypeof
2
aminoacid)
Thereare20typesofaminoacids
Nucleicacids=containchainsofsmallerunitscallednucleotides
Nucleotidehasaphosphate(phosphoricacid),apentosesugar,anda
nitrogencontainingbase(A,T,G,C,U)
Sugarsconnectedtophosphategroupsbyphosphodiesterbonds
Saturatedvs,unsaturatedfats
Saturatedfat=fatcontainingnodoublebondsbetweencarbonatomsfatiscompletely
saturatedwithhydrogens
Solidatroomtemperature
Badforyou
Unsaturatedfat=fatcontainingatleast1doublebondbetweencarbonatoms
Liquidatroomtemperature
i.e.mostplantfats
Primary,secondary,tertiary,andquaternarystructuresofproteins
Primary:sequence/orderofaminoacids
Secondary:foldedshapeofthepolypeptidechain(i.e.helix,pleatedsheet)
Tertiary:howfoldedportionsinteractwithoneanother,creatingthedistinctive3Dshape
oftheprotein
3Dshapeisduetohydrogen,ionic,andcovalentbondingbetweennonadjacent
aminoacids,aswellashydrophobic/hydrophilicinteractionsbetweendifferent
partsoftheaminoacidchain
Quaternary:shapeafterthepolypeptidechainsbindtooneanother
DetailedstructureofDNA
Pyrimidines
Thymineandcytosine
Smallerthanpurines
1carbonring
Purines
Adenineandguanine
Largerthanpyrimidines
2carbonrings
2hydrogenbondsconnectadenineandthymine
3hydrogenbondsconnectcytosineandguanine
Phosphodiesterbond=connectssugarandphosphategroups
BasicstructureofATP

ATPisanucleotidemadeofadenosine(adenine+ribose)and3phosphategroups

UnitSix:CellStructure&Function,CellTransport,andCellCommunication
Chapter4CellStructureandFunction
Cellpartsandcelltheorysheets
(M)=membraneboundorganelle
Organelle

Location

Function

Nucleus(M)

Floatinginthecytoplasm

EncloseDNA(whichis
typicallyorganizedinto
chromosomes,whichare
sectionsofchromatin)

GeneticMaterial
(chromatin)

Inthespacebetween
nucleolusandnuclear
envelope

diffusethreadscontaining
DNAandprotein

Envelope

Surroundingnucleus

Separatesnucleusfrom
cytoplasm,hasadouble
membrane

Nucleolus

Insidethenucleus

MakerRNAandjoinwith
proteinstoformthe
subunitsoftheribosome

NuclearPores

Holesinnuclearenvelope

Permitspassageofproteins
intonucleusandribosomal
subunitsoutofnucleus

Mitochondria(M)

Floatinginthecytoplasm

Powerhouseofthecell,
siteofcellularrespiration,
producesATP

EndoplasmicReticulum
(M)

Veryclosetothenucleus

Membraneoffoldedsacs,
comesinroughand
smoothversions

Rough(granular)

Rightnexttothenucleus,
betweennucleusand
smoothER

Holdribosomes,helpwith
foldingprocessofproteins

Smooth

AftertheroughER,

Producetestosterone,

slightlyfartherawayfrom
nucleus

detoxifydrugs,form
vesicles

Ribosome

Somearefoundfloatingin
cytoplasm,someare
attachedtoroughER

Placewhereaminoacids
arejoinedviadehydration
synthesistomakeproteins

GolgiApparatus(M)

Inthecytoplasm,withone Processes,packages,and
sidefacingtheERandone secretesmodifiedcell
sidefacingtheplasma
products
membrane

Lysosome(M)

Floatinginthecytoplasm,
notinplantcells

Recyclingcenterofcell,
recyclecellularmaterial,
destroyorganellesand
cells(viaapoptosis)that
ceasetofunction,digests
macromoleculesandeven
cellparts

Centrosome(2centrioles)

Floatinginthecytoplasm,
usuallyclosetothe
nucleus

Playaroleincelldivision,
organizethemitotic
spindle

Plastids

Floatinginthecytoplasm
ofplantcells

Generallyinvolvedin
eitherthemanufactureor
storageoffood

Chloroplasts(M)

Floatinginthecytoplasm
ofplantcells

Convertinglightenergy
intochemicalenergy

Leucoplasts
(amyloplasts)

Floatinginthecytoplasm
ofplantcells

Starchcollectsaround
these

Chromoplasts

Floatinginthecytoplasm
ofplantcells

Responsibleforthe
distinctivecolorsfoundin
fruits,flowers,roots,and
stressedandagingleaves

Carotenoids
Anythocyanins

Foundinchromoplasts

Pigmentsfoundin
chromoplasts

Vacuoles(M)

Floatinginthecytoplasm

Storesubstanceslikefood
orwaste

Foods

Foundinprotists

Handleprocessof
digestionandexcretion

Contractile

Floatinginthecytoplasm

Regulatoryorganelle,

collectexcessH
Oand
2
emptyitintothe
surroundingmedium

Central

Notinanimalcells

Large,fluidfilledsacthat
storesmetabolitesand
helpsmaintainturgor
pressure

Vesicle(M)

Floatinginthecytoplasm

Sacthattransports
substances

Peroxisome(M)

Floatinginthecytoplasm

Breaksdownfattyacids
andconvertsresulting
hydrogenperoxideto
water

PlasmaMembrane

Surroundscytoplasm

regulatesentranceandexit
ofmolecules

CellWall

Notinanimalcells

Shapes,supports,and
protectscell

Nucleoidregion

Regioninsidebacterialcell DNAisfoundhere

Cytoplasm

Fillsinteriorofcell,
outsidenucleus

semifluidmatrixthat
containsorganelles

Cytoskeleton

Extendfromnucleusto
plasmamembranein
eukaryoticcells

Skeletonofthecell,
providesupportsandgive
shapetocell,movethecell
anditspartswhen
necessary

Actinfilaments

Floatinginthecytoplasm

Proteinfibersthatallow
celltomove

Microtubules

Floatinginthecytoplasm

Cylindersofprotein
molecules,helpmaintain
shapeofcell,actastracks
alongwhichorganellescan
move

Intermediatefibers/
filaments

Floatinginthecytoplasm

Proteinfibersthatprovide
supportandstrength

CiliaandFlagella

Haveabaseincytoplasm,
extendoutwards

Helpscellmovearound

Basicstructurespresentinallcells

Plasmamembrane
Nuclearregion
Cytoplasm,whichcontainssugars,aminoacids,proteins,andorganelles(ineukaryotes)
Ribosomes(inprokaryotes,theyarenotonendoplasmicreticulum)
Differencebetweeneukaryotesandprokaryotes
Eukaryotes=morecomplexhavedefinednucleusandorganelles
Prokaryotes=bacterialcell,withnodefinednucleusorothermembranebound
organelles
Bothhavevesicles,vacuole,golgiapparatus

Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes

Nucleus,whichismembranebound

Nonucleus

Multiplechromosomes

Oneplasmid

Membraneboundorganelles

Nomembraneboundorganelles

Mitochondria

Nomitochondria

Largerribosomes

Smallerribosomes

Chlorophyllinchloroplasts(inplants)

Chlorophyllscatteredthroughout
cytoplasm

Sizeisusually10um5cm

Sizeisusually1um10um

i.e.animals,plants

i.e.archaea,bacteria

Howlargecellsarewhyissurfaceareatovolumeratioimportant
Eukaryoticcellsareusually10um5cm
Prokaryoticcellsareusually1um10um
Havingalargesurfaceareatovolumeratioallowsadequatenutrientstoenterandtorid
itselfofwastes
Smallcells,notlargecells,arelikelytohaveanadequatesurfaceareaforexchanging
wastesfornutrients
WhataretheDomainsofprokaryotes
Prokaryotescanbedividedinto2domains:ArchaeaandBacteria
Archaea
Morediverseinshape
Cellwallmadeofpolysaccharidesandproteins
Plasmamembranelipids=glycerolandhydrocarbons
DNAandRNAbasesequencesmoresimilartoEukaryotesthantoBacteria
Liveinextremeenvironments
Bacteria
Significancetohumans

Causedisease
Decomposers
Manufacturing(drugs,food,chemicals)
Shapes
Bacillus(rodshaped)
Coccus(spherical)
Spirilla(spiral)
Plasmamembrane=phospholipidbilayer(phosphateandfattyacids)
Cellwallmadeofpeptidoglycan
Whatisincludedintheeukaryoticdomain
4kingdoms=Protista,Fungi,Plantae,Animalia

Kingdom

Nutrition

CellWall

Reproduction

Other

Protista

Photosyntheticor None
heterotrophicby
variousmeans

Sexual:
conjugation
Asexual:
binaryfission

Paramecium,
amoeba,algae,
euglena

Fungi

Heterotrophsby
absorption

Present

Sexual:spores

Clubfungi,sac
fungi,yeasts,
molds,
mushrooms

Plantae

Autotrophsby
photosynthesis

Present

Sexual:egg
andsperm,
spores

Grass,oak
trees,moss,
ferns,flowers

Animalia

Heterotrophicby
ingestion

None

Sexual:egg
andsperm

Humans,ants,
koalas,seals,
snails,sharks,
tuna,wolves

Theoryofendosymbiosis
Originsofeukaryoticorganelles
Organelleswereoncefreelivingbacteriathatwereincorporatedintoalargereukaryotic
cell
Evidence:
Virtuallyallorganellesresemblebacterialcellinsizeandappearance
Doublemembraneoncellorganelles
DNAfoundinmitochondriaandchloroplasts
Chapter5MembraneStructureandFunction
Roleofplasmamembrane
Separatesinsideofcellfromexternalenvironment
Regulatesmovementofmaterialsintoandoutofcell(becauseplasmamembraneis
semipermeable)

Phospholipidsandhowtheymakeupthebilayermembrane
Phospholipids=contain2fattyacidtails,headmadeofaphosphategroup,andglycerol
backbone
Headispolarandhydrophilic
Tailsarenonpolarandhydrophobic
Inmembrane,headsfaceoutsideandtailsfaceinside,formingasandwichofsorts
Phospholipidsmovelaterally,butrarelyflipflop
Differentrolesofintegralproteins
Channelproteins=passagewayformolecules
Carrierproteins=combinewithsubstancetohelpitpassthrough
Cellrecognitionproteins=glycoproteinsrecognizeselfcellsidentifycellto
surroundingcells(MHCmajorhistocompatibilitycomplexuniquetoeachperson)
Receptorproteins=bindtoaspecificmoleculecausingachangeincellactivity
Enzymeproteins=catalyzecellularreactions
FluidMosaicModelandhowmembraneisbothafluidandhasamosaicaspect
Fluidmosaicmodel=individualcomponentsarelooselyheldtogetherandmove
laterallymadeofphospholipids.proteins,andcarbohydratechains
Fluidaspect=themembranecanmoveandshift
Mosaicaspect=distributionofproteins
Supportedespeciallybyelectronmicrographsoffreezefracturedmembranes
Glycolipids/glycoproteinsandtheirroles
Glycolipids=phospholipidwithattachedcarbohydrate(sugar)chain
Glycoproteins=proteinswithattachedcarbohydrate(sugar)chain
Function=adhesion,reception,cellrecognition
Whatcanfreelyflowthroughthemembraneandwhatcannot
Waterandsmall,nonchargedmolecules(i.e.CO
,O
)freelypassthrough
2
2
Ions,polarmolecules(i.e.glucose,aminoacids)requirecarrierproteins
Largemolecules(i.e.macromolecules)aretransportedbyvesicleformation
Passivetransport(diffusion,facilitateddiffusion,osmosis)
Donotrequireenergy
Diffusion=movementofmolecules(CO
,O
,AA)downaconcentrationgradient(from
2
2
hightolowconcentration)
Continuesuntilsoluteandsolventareevenlydistributed
Facilitateddiffusion=usescarrierproteinsspecifictocertainmolecules
Movementdownaconcentrationgradient
Numberofcarriersavailablelimitsrateofdiffusion
Osmosis=diffusionofwaterdownaconcentrationgradientacrossaselectively
permeablemembrane
Osmoticpressure
Pullingpressurethehighertheosmolarity(soluteconcentration),thegreaterthepulling
power
Hypertonicsolutionshavehighosmoticpressure
Hypotonicsolutionshavelowosmoticpressure

Waterpotential,itsequation,andhowtosolveproblemswithit
Wateralwaysmovesfromanareaofhigherwaterpotentialtoanareaoflowerwater
potential
Waterpotentialisaffectedby2factors:pressureandamountofsolute
Waterpotential( )
=Pressurepotential(
)+solutepotential
)
Pressurepotentialinanopencontainer=0
Pressureraiseswaterpotential
Soluteconcentrationofpurewater=0
Moresolutedecreaseswaterpotential
Soluteconcentrationisinverselyrelatedtosolutepotential
Solutepotential=iCRT
i=numberofparticlesthatthemoleculewillmakeinwater(forNaCLit
is2,forsucroseorglucoseitis1)
Ioniccompoundsionizeinwater,covalentlybondedsubstances
dontionizeinwater)
C=molarconcentration
R=pressureconstant=0.0831literbar/molK
o
Temperature=temperatureindegreesKelvin=273+C
ofsolution
Lowosmoticpressure=highfreeenergy=lowentropy=hypotonic=highWP
Highosmoticpressure=lowfreeenergy=highentropy=hypertonic=lowWP
Isotonic,hypertonic,hypotonic(andapplytheseconcepts)
Isotonic=soluteconcentrationequalonbothinsideandoutsidemembrane
Hypertonic=higherconcentrationofsolute
Plasmolysis=shrinkingofplantcellcytoplasminhypertonicsolution
Crenation=shrinkingofanimalcell
Hypotonic=lowerconcentrationofsolute
Turgorpressure=swellingofaplantcellinahypotonicsolution
Lysis=cellburstsduetoswellingofanimalcell
Wateralwaysmovesfromahypotonicsolutiontoahypertonicsolution
Activetransportandsomeexamples
Movementofmoleculesagainstconcentrationgradient
Purpose=toconcentratemoleculesortocreate/maintainagradient
Resultsinprotongradient
Requireenergy(ATP)andcarrierproteins
i.e.NaKpump,protonpump,membranesofmitochondria,chloroplasts
NaKpump
Occursinneuronsmembranes
Resultsinconcentrationandelectricalgradient
+
3Na
frominsidecellbindtotransportprotein
+
Pgroupcausesshapechangeand2K
ionsenter
Protonpumpandchemiosmosis:FormationofATP
+
Duringredoxreaction,H
movesoutthroughpump
Concentrationgradientdevelops

+
H
mustpassbackthroughchannelviaATPsynthase
Movementofions(likewaterfall)generatesenergytomakeATPfromADPand
3
PO
4
Endocytosis,exocytosis,phagocytosis,pinocytosis(andalloftheirenergyrequirements)
Theyareallformsofvesicleformation
TheyallrequireATP
Endocytosis=takesinsubstances
Phagocytosis=toeattakesinfoodparticlesandothercells
Pinocytosis=todrinktakesinliquidsandotherverysmallparticles
Exocytosis=eliminateswasteandothersubstances
Typesofjunctionsbetweencellsandtheiruses
Anchoringjunctions=attachcellstooneanother(foundintissuesthatstretchsmooth
andcardiacmuscle)2typesareadherensjunctionsanddesmosomes
Adherensjunctions=anchoringjunctionthatconnectsactinfilamentsofonecell
withactinfilamentsofadjacentcell
Desmosomes=anchoringjunctionthatbinds2cellstogetherbyconnecting
cytoskeletonwithspecialproteins
Containkeratinthatincreaserigidityintissues
Foundinepitheliumandsmoothmuscle
Tightjunctions=fusionofplasmamembranesbetweencells
Preventleakage
Intissues,theyactasbarriers(i,e,intestines,kidneys)
Gapjunctions=channelsbetweencells
Allowforexchangeofsmallmolecules
Onlyinanimalcells
Plasmodesmata=channelsbetweenplantcells
Thegapjunctionforplantcells
Chapter33.3MaintenanceofHomeostasis
Defineandgiveexamplesofhomeostasis
Homeostasis=maintenanceofconstantinternalbodyconditionsabilitytoreturnto
appropriatesetpointandmaintainstableinternalenvironment
Interplaybetweeneventsthatchangeinternalenvironmentandeventsthatkeepit
thesame
Involves:
Sensoryreceptors(sensoryneurons)=carryimpulsestocentralnervous
system(CNS)forprocessing
Interneurons=directimpulsestoCNSforprocessinglocatedincentral
nervoussystem
Efferentneurons=carryimpulsesawayfromCNStoeffectors
e
fferent
is
e
xitfromCNS
Examples=regulationofbodytemperature,pH,bloodpressure,andglucose
concentration

Negativeandpositivefeedbackloopsandhowthebodyregulatestemperatureusingafeedback
loop
Negativefeedbackloop=responseactsagainstthestimulus(disturbance)andeffects
changesinbodytorestorepropersetpoint
Positivefeedbackloop=responseactstoamplifystimulus
i.e.bloodclottingresultsinmoreclottingandstopslossofblood,contractions
duringlaboranddeliverycontinueandintensifyuntilgoal(birth)is
accomplished
Chapter38BodyFluidRegulationandExcretorySystem
Purposeofexcretorysystem
Osmoregulation=maintainwaterandionbalanceinthebody
Excretewaste
Maintenanceofhomeostasis
Whatchallengesdofreshwater,saltwater,andterrestrialorganismsfacewithrespecttowaterand
ionbalance
Freshwater=hypertonictoenvironment
Challenge=losingwater
Solution=activelytransportsaltintocellsingills,producediluteurine
Havescalesandimpermeableskintoreduceosmosis
Saltwater=hypotonictoenvironment
Challenge=gainingwater
Solution=drinkseawater,excretesaltthroughcellsingills
Havescalesandimpermeableskintoreduceosmosis
Terrestrial
Challenge=togetridofexcesssolutesandtoxinswithoutlosingtoomuchwater
Allanimalsmakenitrogenouswaterduetoproteinandnucleicdigestion
NH
istoxicifnotdiluted&quicklyexcreted
3
Insimpleorganisms,excretionviacells
Morecomplexorganismshaveexcretoryorgans
Watervs.energyinputformakingandexcreting:ammonia,urea,anduricacid
Ammonia=mostwaterneededtoexcrete,leastenergyneededtoproduce
Uricacid=leastwaterneededtoexcrete,mostenergyneededtoproduce

Structureofthehumanexcretorysystem
Nephron=functionalunitofkidney
Producesurineandmaintainshomeostasis
Bloodgoestokidneysfrominferiorvenacava
Urinegoesfromkidneytouretertourinarybladdertourethra

Filtration,reabsorption&secretion,andexcretion
Allexcretorysystemsutilizethese4processes
Filtration=bloodpressurepushessmallmoleculesoutofcapillariesthrough
semipermeablemembraneintonephron,producingafiltrate
Notveryselective
Reabsorption=returnsgoodthingsfromfiltratetoblood
Secretion=removespotentiallyharmfulsubstancesfrombloodtofiltrate
Excretion=final,readjustedfiltrate(urine)isexcreted
Urineishighlyconcentratedandcontainsjustsubstances/moleculesthebody
wantstoeliminate
Neededsubstances/molecules(water,nutrients)havebeenreabsorbedbackinto
bloodstream
Knowhowwaterandsaltbalanceismaintainedinthekidneys
ADH(antidiuretichormone)fromposteriorpituitaryincreasesreabsorptionofwaterand
decreasesurineoutput

 Aldosteronefromadrenalcortexstimulatesreabsorptionofsodiumions
ExampleofADHinkidney(exampleofmaintenanceofhomeostasis,anegativefeedbackloop,
andcellcommunication)
Negativefeedbackloop
ReleaseofADHposteriorpituitaryintobloodtriggeredwhenosmoreceptorsin
hypothalamusdetectanincreaseintheosmolarityofthebloodaboveasetpoint
(plasmaistooconcentrated)
ADHactsoncollectingductsanddistaltubule
H
OreabsorbedH
Omovesbackintoperitubularcapillaries
2
2
Thirstispromoteddrinkingreducestheosmolarityoftheblood,which
inhibitsthesecretionofADH,therebycompletingthefeedbackcircuit
ADHseffectsareanexampleofcellsignaling
ADHbindstospecificmembranereceptoronanephroncell
cAMPsecondmessengersystemisactivated
Vesiclescontainingaquaporinwaterchannelsfusewithcellmembraneliningthe
lumenofthecollectingtubule
Additionalaquaporinchannelsincreasetherateofwaterreabsorptionbythe
collectingtubules
CellCommunication(supplementalreading)
Purposeofcellcommunication
Necessaryforallmulticellularorganismstocarryoutcrucialfunctionssuchas
developmentandsurvival
Universalmechanismsofcellcommunicationisevidenceofcommonancestry
Differencebetweenlocalandlongdistancesignalingandhowdocellsperformeachone
Localsignaling=betweenadjacentcells
Directcontact
Signalingmoleculespassbetweencellsthroughcelljunctions(gap
junctionsinanimalcellsplasmodesmatainplantcells)
Moleculesoncellmembraneof1cellcontactthereceptorsonan
adjacentcell
Messengermolecules
Localregulators(i.e.growthfactors,neurotransmitters)travelshort
distances
Longdistancesignaling=throughoutbody
Chemical(hormones)targetcells
ElectrochemicalviaAPinNS
Threestepsincellcommunication
Reception=signalingmoleculeisreceivedatcell
Transduction=messageiscarriedfromtheoutsidetotheinside
Response=cellrespondstosignal
Formoreonthese3steps,lookatthenext3questions
Membranereceptorvs,intracellularreceptor,andwhenwouldacelluseeachone
Botharetypesofreception(step1)

Membranereceptor=isembeddedincellsplasmamembrane
Examples
Integralproteinreceptorsbindtosignalingmoleculesoutsidecell
Signaltransductiontakesplacewithoutenteringthecell
3differentclasses
Classnames=meansbywhichreceptorstransformexternalsignalsinto
internalsignalsviaproteinaction,ionchannelopeningorenzyme
activation
Intracellularreceptor=incytoplasmornucleusoftargetcell
Usedifchemicalsignal=steroidhormone(hydrophobic)cancrosscell
membraneandnuclearmembrane
Hormone/receptorcomplexturnson/offtranscription
Examples
Steroidhormonesdiffusethroughcellmembraneandbindwithreceptor
insidecell
HormonereceptorcomplexinteractswithDNAturningon/offgenes
Canchangeproteinsbeingmade
Possiblemethodsofsignaltransduction
Transduction(step2)=bindingofchemicalsignalcausesaconformational(shape)
changeinmembraneprotein
Changedshapetriggersactivitiesinthecell
Canbe1steporaseriesofsteps(=signaltransductionpathway)involvingrelay
molecules(proteins)and/orsecondmessengers
Phosphorylationcascade=inthissignaltransductionpathway,proteinsactivatedby
additionofaphosphategroup
Secondarymessenger(cAMP)=inthissignaltransductionpathway,cAMPisusedasa
Secondmessenger(epinephrine,ahormone,isthefirstmessenger)
Possibleresponsestocellcommunication
Responses(Step3)
Changesinsidethecellleadstoaspecificcellularresponse
Responsescanbe:
Incytoplasm
i.e.open/closeionchannel,changecellmetabolism
Innucleus
i.e.turnon/offtranscriptionofagene(changesproteinproduction)
Responsestosamechemicalsignalcanbedifferentindifferentindifferentcells
i.e.epinephrineaffectsDScellsandCScellsdifferently
Examples
Duringfightorflight
Cytoplasmicresponse=bindingofepinephrinelivercellscauses
glycogentobeconvertedtoglucose
Treatinganemiawitherythropoietin

Nuclearresponse=bindingofgrowthfactorcausestranscriptionofa
specificgene(whichwillleadtoproductionofaspecificprotein)
Moreredbloodcellsproduced
UnitSeven:Metabolism&EnergyandImmunity
Chapter6MetabolismandEnergy
Whataretheformsandtypesofenergy?
ThetwomaintypesofenergyarePotential(storedenergyorenergyatrest)whichis
storedinthechemicalbondsoffood,orKineticenergy(energyofmotion)whichcanbe
solar,thermal,electrical,mechanical,nuclear,orsoundenergy.
Whatarethetwolawsofthermodynamics?
FirstLaw(akaLawofConservationofEnergy):Energyisnotcreatedordestroyed,only
changedbetweenforms.
SecondLaw:Energycannotbechangedfromoneformtoanotherwithoutalossof
usableenergy(noenergyconversionis100%efficient)
Whatisheathowisitaformofenergy?
Heatisthemostcommonformofenergytobelostinenergyconversions,asin
photosynthesisandcellularrespiration.Heatisameasureofaveragekineticenergy.
Whatisentropy?
Entropyisthedegreeofdisorderintheuniverse.Moreentropyisamorestable
environment,withlesspotentialenergy:Inamessyroomthereislesspotentialforitto
getmoremessy.Anorganizedroomhasmorepotentialenergybecauseitcouldeasilyget
messy,soithaslessentropy.Entropy=themeasureoftheamountofenergynotavailable
todoworkandthemeasureofdisorderofasystem.
Whatismetabolism?Relateittoanabolismandcatabolism
Metabolismisallthechemicalreactionsinacell.Catabolismismadeupofbreakdown
reactionsthatareexergonic.Anabolismisbuildingreactions,whichareendergonic.
Knowvocab:Freeenergy(G),exergonic,endergonic,coupledreactions
Freeenergy(G)istheamountofenergyavailabletodowork.Exergonicreactions
releaseenergy,theyoccurspontaneously.
Endergonicreactionsrequireaninputofenergy.
Coupledreactionsarewhenexergonicreactionsfuelendergonicreactions,ATPworksin
thecelltocouplethesereactions.
Vmax=initialreactionratewhenexcesssubstrateisavailable.
Whatisactivationenergy?Whatdocatalystsdotoanactivationenergy?
Activationenergyistheenergythatmustbeaddedtomakemoleculesreact.catalystsput
stressonchemicalbondstolowertheactivationenergyneeded.
Whatisthestructureofanenzyme?Howdoesitactuallyspeedupareaction?
Enzymesarespecifictotheirsubstrateandhavenamessimilartothesubstratetheyreact
onbutendinase.Enzymesareproteinswithactivesiteswheretheybindwiththe
substrateandtheenzymesaminoacidsputstressonthesubstratesbondstolower
activationenergy.Enzymesarenotchangedorconsumedinareaction.
Whatistheinducedfitmodel?

Theinducedfitmodeloccurswhenthesubstratemakestheactivesitechangeshapetofit
better.
Whatfactorsaffectenzymeactivity?
TemperatureColdmakestheenzymestoorigidtoinducefit.Toohotdenaturesthe
enzyme,thepeptidebondsfail.Humanenzymestempshouldbe3540degreesC
pHinfluxofionsdisruptsionicbondsthatchangetheenzymeshape.Humanenzymes
shouldbearound68.
Substrateconcentrationreactionratelevelsoffaslesssubstrateisavailable.
Enzymeconcentrationreactionrateincreasesuntilallenzymesareinuse
Whatiscompetitiveandnoncompetitiveinhibition?
Competitive:aninhibitorbindsatanenzymesactivesitesoitisturnedoff(blood
clotting)
Noncompetitive:Inhibitorbindstotheallostericsitewhichcausesanallostericchangein
shapesothesubstratecantbindtotheenzyme.
Feedbackinhibitionisatypeofnoncompetitiveinhibitionwheretheendproductofa
pathwaycaninhibitanearlierreactioninthatsequence.
Whatareactivators/activation?
Theactivatorscofactorsorcoenzymesareneededforenzymestobeactive.
Whatarecoenzymes/cofactors?Giveexamples?
Cofactorsareoftenmetalsthatdrawelectronsfromthesubstrate.(Copper,iron,zinc,
magnesium)
Coenzymesareorganicmoleculesthatarentproteins(vitaminsNAD,NADP).theyact
likeanelectronshuttlebetweenenzymeactivesites.
OILRIG:
o
xidation
i
s
l
oss,
r
eduction
i
s
g
ain(ofelectrons)
ForwhatisATPused?HowisitcreatedusingADP?Whatisthestructure?Howdoesthatallow
forittocarryandreleasesomuchenergy?
Structure:adenineandribosecombinetoform
adenosine
and3phosphategroups.ADP
hasonelessphosphategroup.
ThecreationofthenewbondswhenADPishydrolyzedintoATPgivesoff7.3kcalper
mole.Thesebondsheldhighenergyelectronsextractedfromglucose.
ATPistheusableenergyinacell.
Whatissubstratelevelphosphorylation?
SubstratelevelphosphorylationisthecreationofATPbycombiningADPandanother
moleculethathasaphosphategroupbywayofanenzyme.
Whatischemiosmosis?
Theproductionofenergythroughprotonsdiffusingdowntheconcentrationgradientof
thecellmembranetosynthesizeATPiscalledchemiosmosis.
WhataretheusesofATPinacell?
Chemicalworksynthesizemacromolecules
Transportworkpumpsubstancesacrossmembrane
mechanicalworkcontractmuscles,movescilia+flagellaorchromosomes

Chapter36DigestiveSystemandNutrition
Whatfourthingsdoesdigestionaccomplish?

Ingestion(offood)
Digestion(offoodintosmallermolecules)
Absorption(ofthesemolecules)
Elimination(ofwaste)
Understandthedifferencebetweencompleteandincompletedigestivesystems
Nodigestivesystemcellsusephagocytosis,vacuolemergeswithlysosome,
wasteremovedviaexocytosisis
Incompleteoneopening,digestivesac.Inacoelomates.Includesextracellular
digestionbyenzymesandintracellulardigestioninthecellsliningthedigestive
cavity
Whatoccursduringchemicalvs.mechanicaldigestion?
Mechanicaldigestioninvolvesonlythechewingoffoodandthestomach
churningit..
ChemicaldigestionisthebreakingdownbyenzymesandHCl
Pepsininstomachandtrypsininsmallintestinedigestprotein
Amylasesdigeststarch
Lipasesdigestlipids
nucleasesdigestnucleicacids
Whatisthepathwayoffoodenteringahumanbody?
Mouth(salivaryglands)tongue(epiglottis)esophagusstomach
pyloricsphincterduedenum(pancreasreleasesbicarconate)(gallbladder
releasesbile)jejunumileum(absorbednutrientsgototheliver)
ileocecalvalveascendingcolontransversecolondescending
colonsigmoidcolonrectumanalsphincter
Whatroledoeseachorganofthedigestivesystemhave?
Mouthisasiteofmechanicaldigestionandchemicalbysaliva
thetongueformsballsoffoodcalledbolus,andpushesitdownthethroat
Theesophagususesmusclecontractionscalledperistalsis,andmovesthebolus
down
Thecardiacsphinctercontrolspassageofbolusintothestomach
Thestomachdigestsfood,bothmechanicallybychurning,andchemicallyby
usingHCltolowerpH,activatingpepsintodenatureproteins,andkilling
bacteria.Here,bolusisturnedintoliquefiedchyme.
pyloricsphinctercontrolspassageofchymeintotheduodenum.
Mostdigestiontakesplaceintheduodenum
thepHofchymeincreasesandbile
fromgallbladderandamylase,protease,lipase,andnucleasesfromthepancreas
breakdownthechymefurther.
Thejejunumandileumabsorbthesenutrientsintothebloodstream

 thelargeintestine/colonreabsorbswaterfromthedigestedmaterial,beingvery
firmatthesigmoidcolon
Rectumstoreswasteuntilelimination
analsphincterpreventseliminationuntiloneisready.
Whataretheaccessoryorgansandwhataretheirroles?
Accessoryorgansareorgansthatfooddoesnotpassthrough,buttheyaidthe
digestiveprocess.
Salivaryglandsmakemucousandamylasereleasedinthemouth
epiglottiscoverstracheatopreventchoking
theliverproducesbile(usedtobreakdownfats),whichisthenstoredinthe
gallbladder.Theliveralsoprocessesnutrientsanddetoxifieschemicals
ThepancreasreleasesbicarbonatetoincreasethepHofchymeandtells
gallbladdertoreleasebile.
Exocrinepancreaticfunctionsproduceandreleasebicarbonate+enzymes
Endocrinepancreaticfunctionsmakeandreleaseinsulinandglucagonto
regulatebloodsugar
Relatetheconceptofmaximumsurfaceareatothestructureofthesmallintestine
Maximumsurfaceareaallowsformoreefficientabsorption,whichiswhythe
jejunumandileuminthesmallintestinearelinedwithvilliandmicrovillito
absorbnutrients.
Chapter21Viruses,Bacteria,andArchaea
Describethestructureofavirus
virusesarenoncellularinfectiousagents
outercapsidofproteinsubunits
innercoreofDNAorRNA
possibleoutermembraneenvelope
possibleenzymesforDNA/RNAproduction
Understandtherelationshipbetweenavirusanditshost
Virusesareobligateintracellularparasitesmeaningtheyneedtoentercellstousetheir
organstoreproduce.Theyarehostspecific,onlycertainvirusesattackcertaincells.
Understandthelifecycleofavirus(lyticandlysogenic)

Whatisabacteriophage?
Bacteriophagesarevirusesthattargetbacteriaastheirhosts.Theykillbacteriaviathe
lyticcycle.
Whatareviroidsandprions?
ViroidsarenakedstrandsofRNA(nocapsid)thatarefoundinplantsandcauseplant
diseases.
Prionsareproteinsinthebrainthatwerefoldedwrongand,wheninteractingwithother
braincells,causethemtofoldindifferentways,makingthemfunctionwrong.
Describethestructureofaprokaryoticcell
Prokaryoticcellshavenonucleusormembraneboundorganelles.Theyhaveanucleoid
regionwhereasinglechromosomeDNAringresides,withaccessoryplasmids(smaller
ringsofDNA).Theyeitherhaveacapsule(wellorganizedexteriorofglycocalyx),ora
slimelayer(lessorganizedexteriorofglycocalyx)
Howisabacterialcellwalldifferentfromaeukaryoticcellwall?
Bacterialcellwallshavepeptidoglycan,whileeukaryoticcellscontaincellulose.
Howdoprokaryoticcellsreproduce?
BinaryFission.Thechromosomereplicates,theDNAdriftsapart,thecellenlarges,and
thenpinchesinthemiddletodivideintotwocells.Neithermetaphaseoranaphasetake
place.
Whataresomewaysthatgeneticrecombinationcanoccurinprokaryotes?
ConjugationbacteriumpassDNAtoeachotherthroughsexpili(pilitubethatjoinsthe
cells)
TransformationBacteriumpickupfreepiecesofDNA
TransductionBacteriophagescarrysegmentsofbacterialDNAbetweencellstheyinfect
Whatarethevariousmodesofnutritioninprokaryoticcells?
PhotoautotrophsuseCO2andsunlighttomakeenergy,primitivecellsdontgiveoffO2,
butadvancedonesdo.

ChemoautotrophscarryoutchemosynthesisbyoxidizingH2,H2S,orNH3togetenergy
toreduceoxygenintoanorganiccompound
Chemoheterotrophsdecomposelargeorganicmoleculesintosmalleronesandthen
absorbthem.Thesecellsmayformsymbioticrelationshipswithrootstofixnitrogen.
Whatisthedifferencebetweengrampositiveandgramnegativebacteria?
GrampositiveThicklayerofpeptidoglycan,retainiodinestainandturnpurple
GramnegativeThinlayerofpeptidoglycan,donotretainstainandlookpink.
CompareandcontrastthedomainArchaeatothedomainBacteria
BacteriaandArchaeadivergedshortlyafterlifebegan.Archaeaaresaidtobecloserto
Eukaryaevolutionarilybecausetheyhavesimilarribosomalproteins.Archaeaand
Bacteriaarebothprokaryotic,butonlybacteriaarefoundinhumans.Archaeaexistonly
inextremeenvironments.BacteriaandArchaearRNAaresequenceddifferently.
WhataresometypesofArchaea?
Methanogensfoundinanaerobicenvironmentsoranimalintestines.producemethane
whichcontributestothegreenhouseeffect.
Halophilesliveinhighsaltconcentration
Thermophilesliveinhightemperatures
alkaliphilesliveinhighpH
acidophilesthriveatlowpH
Chapter35LymphTransportandImmunity

Understandthedifferencesbetweenspecificandnonspecificdefensemechanisms.

nonspecific:firstresponse,reactstoanyinfectiousagentthesameway,no
memory
specific:respondstoonlycertainantigens,formsmemory
Understandthevarioustypesofnonspecificdefense(physicalbarriers,chemical
defense,inflammatoryresponse,phagocytosis,thecomplementsystem, the
temperatureresponse).

Firstline:Skin,mucousmembranes,chemicals(oils,lysozymeintears,HClin
stomach)
Secondline:internaldefense
Phagocyticcellseatantigens,neutrophilsaresmall,macrophagesarebig
eaters.
ThecomplementsystemusestheMembraneAttackComplextokill
nonselfmicrobesbypokingholesintheirmembrane,makingwaterrush
in.
InflammatoryresponseMastcellsreleasehistaminestotrigger
vasodilation(wideningofbloodvessels)toattractmoreWBCs
Anincreaseintemperature(fever)causesanincreaseinphagocytosisand
stopsmicrobegrowth
Identifythetypesofwhitebloodcellsthatareinvolvedinnonspecificdefense
(macrophages,neutrophils,naturalkillercells).

Neutrophils=firstresponders,smalleaters
Macrophages=BIGeaters,thecleanupcrew
Naturalkillercellspokeholesinnonselfcells
ExplainwhattheMHC(MajorHistocompatibilityComplex)isandhowithelpsthebody
determineselfvs.nonself.
TheMHCinvolvestheglycoproteinmarkersthatallselfcellshave,but
nonselfcellsdonothave.Immunecellsattackthosewithouttheselfcellmarkers
Identifythetypesofwhitebloodcellsinvolvedinthebodysspecificimmunedefense.
TCells:Matureinthymus,cellmediatedimmunity
HelperTcells
KillerTcells
BCells:Matureinbonemarrow,humoralimmunity.Produceantibodies
Explain,indetail,thetwopartsofthebodysspecificimmunedefense(cellmediated
response,humoralresponse).
CellMediated
ActivationphaseMacrophageeatsantigen,presentspiecesofantigen,
whichactivateshelperandkillertcells
EffectorPhaseHelperandkillertformmemoryandreplicate,Helpert
releasescytokines(alarms)toalertothercells,killertkillinfectedcells.
HumoralImmunity
ActivationPhasemacrophageeatsandpresentsantigen,helpertbindsto
macrophage,macrophagereleasesInterleukin1whichactivateshelper
tcellstoreleasecytokinestocloneself.Helpertcellsbindtoimmature
bcellsandreleasecytokines,makingbcellsclone.Mostbecomeplasma
cellswhichmakeandreleaseantibodies,othersbecomememorycells.
Explainwhatanantibodyisandwhatitdoes.

Antibodiesbindtoantigenstopreventattachmenttoothercellsandmakeiteasier
formacrophagestoeatthem.TheyareYshaped.
Explaintheconceptofclonalexpansionanditsroleinthebodysspecificimmune
response.
ClonalexpansionmakesmoreHelpertcellswiththememoryofthatantigen
clonalexpansionofBcellsmeansthatantibodiesareproducedfasterforthat
specificantigen
Explainthedifferencebetweenprimaryandsecondaryresponsestoinfection.
primarythefirsttimeabodyisexposed.1017daysforpeakresponse
secondarycellsalreadyhavememoryformed,27daysforpeakresponse
Explainthedifferencebetweenactiveandpassiveimmunityandexamplesofeach.
Activeiswhenyourownbodymakestheantibodies,passiveiswhentheyare
obtainedfromelsewhere.

 Naturallyacquiredactiveimmunityexposuretolivepathogen
Artificiallyacquiredactiveimmunityexposuretovaccine
ArtificiallyAcquiredPassiveImmunityobtainedantibodiesfromblood/fluidof
anotheranimal,shortterm(likewithrabies)
NaturallyAcquiredPassiveimmunitynewborngetsantibodiesfrommothervia
placentaorbreastmilk
Explainhowavaccineworksandhowtheywerediscovered.
EdwardJennerfirstusedcowpoxasavaccineforsmallpox.LouisPasteur
injectedweakenedcholeraintochickens,whowerelaterimmune.Vaccines
triggertheproductionofantibodies,formingresistance.
Discussvariousdisordersoftheimmunesystemandtheircauses.
AIDS/HIV:attackshelperTcells
Allergies:immuneresponsetoaharmlessantigen
Autoimmunediseaseslikerheumatoidarthritisandmultiplesclerosisimmune
systemfightsitself.
UnitEight:Respiration&Circulation
Chapter8CellularRespiration
Whatistheoverallgoal/purposeofcellularrespiration
conversionofchemicalenergytoATPbreakdowncarbohydratesandothermetabolites
RequiresoxygenandgivesoffATP
Whataretheendproductsofcellularrespiration
3638ATP
4CO
2
6H
O
2
Whataretheinputsandoutputsof:glycolysis,oxidationofpyruvate(prepstate),Krebscycle,and
oxidativephosphorylation?Knowwherethestepsoccur.
GlycolysisInputs:
Glucose,2ATP(camefromtheelectrontransportchain)
NO
OXYGEN!!!

Outputs
:2Pyruvate,2NADH,4ATP(2ATPusedtostartglycolysis)
Where:
cytoplasm
PrepReactionInputs:
2Pyruvate
Outputs:
CoA(AcetylCoA),CO2givenoff,2
NADH(electronstakenfrompyruvateandaddedtoNAD+)
Where:
Mitochondrial
Matrix
KrebsCycleInputs
:2CAcetylCoA,4Cmolecule(OAA),6NAD+,2FAD
Outputs
:
4CO2,6Ccitratemolecule,6NADH,2FADH2,2ATP
Where
:mitochondrialmatrix
OxidativePhosphorylationInputs
:Electronscarriedfromthe10NADHand2
FADH2,6O2
Outputs:
6H2O,34ATP
Where:
Cristaeofmitochondria
Whatisthefateofaglucosemoleculeifnooxygenispresent?
FermentationLacticacidoralcoholic
Alcoholicfermentationyeasts
produce
ethylalcohol,CO2,2ATP
Uses
baking(CO2
helpsbreadrise)

Lacticacidfermentationhumans,certainbacteria,fungi
produces
lactate(fromthe
pyruvate),2CO2,and2ATP
Uses
buildupinthemuscleswhenthereislackofoxygen
inthemuscles
Whatistheroleofoxygenincellularrespiration?Howdoesitwork?
OxygencombineswiththeH+transportedtotheelectrontransportchaintocreateH2O.
Sinceoxygenisthefinalreceptor,ifoxygenisntpresentthechainwillnotworkand
ATPwillnotbeproduced.
Howitworkstheoxygenattheendofthetransportchainpullstheelectronsthroughthe
chaintogenerateenoughenergytocreateATP.
Whatisthepurposeofoffermentation?Knowthedifferencesbetweenplantandanimal
fermentation.
Purposesincethereisnooxygen,itdoesntuseoxygenasthefinalreceptor.
FermentationpreventsNADHfrombuildingupandhelpstocreateNAD+andkeepthe
chaingoing
Differences(lookatthequestion:whatisthefateofaglucosemolecule)
UnderstandtheroleofNADandFADandhowmanyATPcanbegeneratedfromNADHand
FADH2
RoleofNADandFADtotransporttheH+ionsfromeachstepofcellularrespirationto
theelectrontransportchain.
NADHproduces3ATPwhileFADH2produces2ATP
WhatisthenetATPgainperglucosemoleculewhennooxygenispresentandwhenitispresent
(knowtheirefficienciesaswell)?
NetATPnooxygen4ATP2%efficiency
NetATPoxygen3638ATP38%efficiency
Understandhowtheelectrontransportchainoperateschemiosmosis
NADHpassesitselectronsthroughtheelectrontransportchain
TheH+ionsarepushedthroughproteinpumpsoutsidetocreateaconcentrationgradient
TheH+ionsthengothroughATPsynthasetogenerateenoughenergytocombinethe
ADPandphosphategrouptocreateATP(
notreallysureifthatshowitworks
)
ATPSynthaseisgoinguptheconcentrationgradient(H+ionsaregoingtoa
moreconcentratedarea)sotheenergyneededforthattohappenbasically
combinesADPandtheP1grouptocreateATP(whichisusedIthink)
Beabletotracethecarbons,hydrogens,andoxygensoftheoriginalglucosemoleculetotheir
finalfateattheendofcellularrespiration
Glucose(C6H12O6)+6O2
Carbon2CO2removedfrompyruvateinprepreaction4CO2madeintheKrebscycle
Hydrogen2NADHfromglycolysis,2NADHfromprepreaction,6NADHand2
FADH2fromKrebscycle
finalfate:
6H2Omadeinoxidativephosphorylation
Oxygen6O2becomes6CO2O6(fromglucose)combineswiththeH+tobecomeH2O
Chapter34CirculationandCardiovascularSystems
Understandthedifferencebetweenopenandclosedcirculatorysystemsandwhattypeofanimals
haveeachtype

Open:
Heartpumpshemolymphvisvesselsintotissuesspaces(hemocoel)animals
grasshopper(arthropod),molluscs
DOESNOTCARRYOXYGEN!
Closed:
Bloodpumpedbytheheartintoasystemofbloodvessels(valvesprevent
backflow)animalsannelids(earthworms),somemolluscs,allvertebrates
Describetheflowofbloodthroughthepulmonaryandsystemiccircuit
Pulmonaryheartpumpsbloodthedeoxygenatedbloodtothelungsandthenbacktothe
heart(O2CO2exchange)
Systemicheartpumpsbloodtothetissuesinthebodybacktotheheart
Doublepumpingactionisanadaptationtobreathingaironland
Understandthedifferencebetweenarteriesandveins.Howaretheydifferentinstructureand
function?
Arteries
Structure:
havethickwalls,muscular,abletoexpandwithsuddenincreaseof
blood(resilient)
Function:
carrybloodawayfromtheheart(oxygenated)
Veins
Structure:
largerthanarteries,wallsmuchthinnerthanartery,valvesopen
towardsheart(preventsbackflow)
Function:
returnsbloodtotheheart,collectblood
fromcapillarybeds
Whatarethecomponentsofblood?Whatarerolesofeachcomponent?
Plasma:
maintainsbloodosmoticpressureandpH,bloodvolume,fightinfection,
clottingcomponentsH2O,proteins(albumin,globulins,fibrinogen),andsolutes
RedBloodCells:
carryoxygenthroughthebodycomponentshemoglobin,oxygen
WhiteBloodCells:
fightinfectioncomponentlackshemoglobin
Platelets:
helpformbloodclotscomponentsnonuclei,serum
Serum:
fluidabovetheclottedmaterialcomponentspartofplatelets,containsallthe
samepartsasplasmaexceptfibrinogen
Howdothematerialscarriedinthebloodgetintobodytissues?
Thecapillarybedsareverythintheredbloodcellspassthroughandexchangewithtissue
fluid(
ithink)
Howdoesbloodclot?
Plateletsclumpatthesiteofthewoundtosealit.
plateletsreleaseaclottingfactorthatconvertsprothrombintothrombin(forms
longthreadsof
fibrin
)
fibrinwindsaroundtheclottoprovideframework
Howisbloodpressuredetermined?Whatissystolicanddiastolicpressure?
determinedbytheamountofpressurerequiredtostoptheflowofbloodthroughanartery
SystolicPressure:
pressureofbloodpushingoutonthewallofarteriesduringventricular
contraction/resultsfrombloodbeingforcedintothearteries=ventricularsystole
Diastolicpressure:
pressureofbloodrushingoutonwallsofarteriesduringventricular
diastole=ventricularrest
Understandthecardiovasculardiseasesdiscussedinclass
Hypertensionhighbloodpressure
Atherosclerosisaccumulationoffattymaterialsintheinnerliningsofarteries(plaque),
relatedtopeoplewhohavehypertension,protrudeandthereforeinterfereswiththeflow
ofblood

Heartattack(myocardialinfarction)coronaryarteryiscompletelyblockedanddiesdue
tolackofoxygen
Whatisthepurposeofthelymphaticsystem?Whatarethehomeostaticfunctions?
Purposetogetridofexcessfluid
Homeostaticfunctions1)takeexcessfluidandreturnittothebloodstream2)lacteals
takethelipoproteinsanddeliverthemtothebloodstream3)helpdefendbodyagainst
disease
Beabletocomparethecirculatorypathwaysofinvertebrates,amphibians,andreptiles,birds,and
mammals
invertebratesnocirculatorysystem(saclikebody/fluidincoelom)
saclikebodycellsexchangematerialbetweeneachotherandtheoutside
environmentusediffusiontoexchangematerials(cnidariansandflatworms)
fluidinthecoelomcoelomicfluid(inthebodycavity)transportsmaterials
(roundwormsandstarfish)
amphibians
Understandwhatgeneratesaheartbeatandhowthe
depolarizationpropagatesthroughallthe
heartchambers.(Ihavenoideawhatthismeans!)
Heartbeatsinacycleofatrialsystoleanddiastole
firsttheatriacontracts,thentheventriclescontract,lastlythechambersrest
generatedbytheSAnodewhichsendsanimpulsetotheatriatocontractthe
impulsereachestheAVnodeandsignalstheventriclestocontract
WhatisanECG?
ECG=electrocardiogramrecordingoftheelectricalchangesthatoccurinthe
myocardiumduringacardiaccycle
Theionsinourbodyconductelectricalcurrentswhichcanbedetectedonour
skinabletofindthepatternofheartcontractions
PwavebeforeatrialcontractionQRScomplexoccurspriortoventricular
contractionTwavesventriclesrecoverfromcontraction(notsureifwe
needtoknowthis)
Chapter37RespiratorySystem
Whatisventilation,internalandexternalrespiration
ventilationbreathing(inspirationandexpiration)
Externalrespirationgasexchangebetweentheair(outsideenvironment)andblood
Internalrespirationgasexchangebetweenbloodandcells(insideenvironment)blood
transportsO2tocellsandCO2tolungs
Howdoesgasexchangeoccur?Whatmustthesurfacebelikeforgasexchangetooccur?
passivetransport(diffusion)helpsgasexchangeoccur
Surfacemoist,thin,andlargesurfaceareainrelationtosize
Howdoinvertebratesperformgasexchange?
diffusionthroughskin(surfaceisalreadymoist)
allcellsareincontactwiththeoutsideenvironment
Howdoescountercurrentflowinafishwork?Whyisitcountercurrent?
Thebloodinafishflowsintheoppositedirectionofthewateroutsideitsbody

Thismakessurethatasbloodgainsoxygen,italwaysencounterswaterwithmore
oxygen
Why?itscalledcountercurrentbecausethebloodmovesintheoppositedirectionofthe
watercurrent
Describetheprocessofinhalationandexhalation
Inhalationmusclesneedtocontract(activeprocess)
1)diaphragmandexternalintercostalscontractleadstovolumeofthoraciccavityand
lungstoincrease
2)negativepressurecreatedairflowsintolungs(pressureinlungsislowerthan
pressureoutside)
Exhalationmusclesrelax(passiveprocess)
1)diaphragmandintercostalsrelaxdecreasevolumeoflungs
2)airrushesoutpressureinlungsishigherthanpressureoutside
Whatisthepurposeofthealveoliandwhyarethecapillariessurroundingthem?
Alveolifunctionalunitincreasesthesurfaceareaofthelungsandusedforgas
exchange
Whycapillaries?theairinthealveoliexchangesO2andCO2withthecapillaries
BloodflowingintopulmonarycapillarieshavehighlyconcentratedCO2the
CO2diffusesouttothealveoliwherethereisalowerconcentration
BloodcomingintothepulmonarycapillarieshavealowerconcentrationofO2
oxygendiffusesoutofthealveoliintothecapillaries
Howareoxygenandcarbondioxidecarriedthroughtheblood?
Oxygen
iscarriedinthebloodbyhemoglobin(BohreffectareaswithhigherCO2is
wherethehemoglobinwillmostlikelyunloadtheoxygen)
CO2
turnsintobicarbonateandiscarriedtothepulmonarycapillaries(lungs)
Whatcontrols/regulatesbreathing?Relatethistothemaintenanceofhomeostasis.
ThechemoreceptorsinthemedulladetecthighCO2orlowpH
Ponsthensendsnerveimpulsestellingthemusclestocontract/increaserateanddepthof
breathing
HomeostasisincreaseinbreathingmakessurethattheCO2leveldoesntgettohigh
Understandrespiratorydiseasediscussedinclass.
Bronchitisinfectionoftheprimaryandsecondarybronchiincreasedmucousinterferes
withciliaryaction
Emphysemaalveolibreakdown/wallsdamaged=decreaseinsurfaceareaelasticity
decreasedprecededusuallybychronicbronchitis
Asthmamusclespasmscausedbyirritatedsmoothmusclebronchialinflammation
whichmakesthediameterofairwayssmallerbronchiolesconstricted
Labs(reviewlabproceduresandconclusionsandexperimentaldesign)
Lab#11AnimalBehavior
Pillbugsbetweendryandwetchamber,seeingiftheymovedwithtaxisorkinesis.Measured
howmanypillbugswereineachchamberatdifferenttimes.
Theymovewithkinesis,theymovedatrandomuntiltheyfoundtheirpreferredenvironment,but
didntstaystillorseemtomovewithpurpose

 ParttwocomparepHs,theypreferedtheacidiccoffeesoiloverthebasicbakingsodasoil
Investigation#10EnergyDynamics(Mealwormssuck)
Measurewetmassesofmealwormsandlettuce,multiplebythepercentbiomassandkcalinthe
biomasstofindouthowmuchbiomassbecamefrass,howmuchwasabletobepassedon,and
howmuchwouldhavebeenusedforrespirations
shouldbeabout10%topasson,15%onfrass,75%onrespiration(exceptthatourresultsgot
flippedupbecausethekcaloflettucewasdifferentthanwethought)
Mostofanorganismsconsumedenergyisusedupinrespiration
Lab#8PopulationGeneticsandEvolution(HardyWeinberg)+PTCStudy
Calculatefrequenciesofallelesnaturalselection
ProceduretastedthePTCpaper(ifitwasbittertasteriftherewasnotastenontaster)
Secondparteveryoneintheclasshad4cardswhichhad2capitalAsandtwolowercaseAs.
Foundapartnereachpickedonecardtocreatetheoffspringwithacertaingenotypesame
processwiththesamepartnertocreateanotheroffspring
Eachpartnerkeepsoneofthetwooffspringsgenotypeandproceedstodothesameprocess4
moretimes
ThenfoundthefrequenciesofthetwoallelesusingtheHardyWeinbergequation
Conclusion
theHardyWeinbergequationmatcheswiththeobservationsduringtheexperiment
Investigation#3ComparingDNASequenceswithBLAST
Usedcladogramstofindsharedderivedcharacteristics
Usedthedatabasetofindtheanimalthathasthemostsimilargenesequenceusedtofindthe
nameofacertaingene
Conclusion
placedthefoundorganism(usingthedatabaseandgenesequences)inthecorrect
spotonthecladogramgiven
Lab#1DiffusionandOsmosis+SelfdiagnosedOsmosisExperiment(unknownsolution)
Foundthatpotatoesabsorbwaterinsolutionswithlowsucroseconcentration
usedwaterpotentialbasedonourobservedmolarconcentrationofsucroseinthepotato
Part2filldialysistubewithglucoseandstarchsolution,placeitiniodineandwatersolution
conclusioniodinepassesintothetube,glucosemovedoutofthetubeinsideofthetube
testedpositiveofiodine,outsidewaspositiveforglucose.Theymovedinandouttoeven
outthesoluteconcentrations
Part3observepercentchangeofmassofdifferentconcentrationsofsucrosesolutionswhen
placedinwater.Themorechangeinmass=thehigherthesucroseconcentration
Investigation#13EnzymeActivity
usespectrophotometerstomeasurehowquicklyreactionsweretakingplace
makesubstrateandenzymemixtures,calculatetheirrateatdifferentconcentrations.
Conclusion
thereactiontakesplacequickerwhenthereisahigherconcentrationofenzyme
added.
Lab#5CellularRespiration
Procedureusedpeas(germinatinganddry)anddifferenttemperatureofwatertofigureouthow
thesetwofactorsaffecttherateofcellularrespiration
Had6vials2hadgerminatingpeas,2haddrypeaswithbeads(tohavethesamevolumeas
germinatingvial),and2vialswithjustglassbeads

 3differentvialswereplacedinroomtempwatertheother3wereplacein10degrees(?)water
foundcorrecteddifferenceandgraphed.
Conclusion
iftemperatureishigherwithgerminatingpeas,therateofrespirationincreases
Lab#10PhysiologyoftheCirculatorySystem
UsedheartbeatsofDrosophilatofindtheQ10.
Conclusiontheheartrateofanectotherm
increasesastheenvironment'stemperatureincreases