Traffic Eng.

Grade Separated Intersections

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Grade Separated Intersections

In this lecture;
--------------------1- Design Principles
2- Warrants
3- Overpass & Underpass Roadways
4- Interchanges

The information included in this lecture is largely taken from A Policy on Geometric
Design of Highways and Streets (AASHTO, 2011).

1- Design Principles
The three general types of intersections are: (1) at-grade intersections, (2) grade
separations without ramps (overpass or underpass), and (3) interchanges. This
lecture will outline several issues regarding grade separated intersections.
It is important that highway or traffic engineers consider the movements of the
pedestrians, bicycles, and vehicles to carefully plan for safe and convenient travel
through intersections. However, sometimes it is not possible, due to factors such as
safety, spatial constraints or cost, to accommodate all traffic within an at-grade
intersection. In these cases, constructing an overpass (bridge) or underpass (tunnel)
structure in order for separating the intersecting facilities should be examined. The
greatest efficiency, safety, and capacity, and least amount of air pollution are
attained when the intersecting through traffic lanes are grade separated.
An interchange is a system of interconnecting roadways in conjunction with one or
more grade separations that provide for the movement of traffic between roadways
on different levels.
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2- Warrants for Interchanges and Grade Separations

An interchange can be an effective solution to improve many intersection conditions
either by reducing existing traffic bottlenecks

or by reducing crash

frequency. However, the high cost of constructing an interchange limits its use. The
following six conditions, or warrants, should be considered when determining if an
interchange is justified at a particular site:
1. Design Designation Once it is decided to develop a route as a freeway, it
should be determined whether each intersecting highway will be terminated,
rerouted, or provided with a grade separation or interchange. The chief concern is
the continuous flow on the major road (freeway).
2. Safety Reduction of crash frequency and severity obtained by an interchange
may warrant its selection at a particularly dangerous at-grade intersection.
3. Congestion An interchange may be warranted where the level of service of an
at-grade intersection is unacceptable and the intersection cannot be modified to
provide an acceptable level of service.
4. Site Topography At some sites, grade-separation designs are the only type of
intersection that can be constructed economically. The topography at the site may
make any other type of intersection is physically impossible to construct or is equal
to or greater than the cost of a grade-separated design.
5. Traffic Volume Interchanges are desirable at cross streets with heavy traffic
volumes. The elimination of conflicts due to high crossing volume greatly improves
the movement of traffic.

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6. Road-User Benefits When interchanges are designed and operated efficiently,

they significantly reduce the travel time and costs when compared to at-grade
intersections. Therefore, an interchange is warranted if an analysis reveals that
road-user benefits will exceed the costs over the service life of the interchange.

3- Overpass and Underpass Roadways

3-1 General Design Considerations
A detailed study should be made at each proposed highway grade separation
to determine whether the major roadway should be carried over or under the
crossroad . As a rule, a design that best fits the existing
topography is also the most pleasing and economical one to construct and
maintain. There are many situations where grade separations are constructed
without the provision of ramps . Lacking a suitable relocation plan for
the crossroad, a highway grade separation without ramps may be provided. All
drivers desiring to turn to or from that road are required to use other existing routes
and enter or leave the highway at other locations. This sometimes requires
travelling a long extra distance in rural areas.
3-2 Underpass roadways
Underpass is usually defined as a grade separation where the subject carriageway
passes under an intersecting carriageway or railway. For each underpass, the type of
structure used should be determined by the dimensional, load, foundation, and
general site needs for that particular location. It is desirable that the entire
roadway cross section does not change through the structure. However, reduction
in the cross section may be needed for structural, vertical clearance; and cost
criteria.

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Grade Separated Intersections

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3-3 Overpass roadways

Overpass can be defined as a grade separation where the subject carriageway
passes over an intersecting carriageway or railway. The roadway dimensional design
of an overpass or other bridge should be the same as that of the basic roadway. The
bridge should be designed without change in cross-section dimensions, unless due
to cost-related factors. Overpasses usually are deck structures. Typical overpass
structures are shown in Figure (1) below.

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4- Interchanges
There are several basic interchange configurations to accommodate turning
movements at a grade separation. The type of configuration used is determined by
the number of intersection legs, expected volumes of through and turning
movements, type of truck traffic, topography, culture, design controls, and proper
signing. Examples of interchange configurations including three- and four-leg
intersections are shown below:

4-1 Three-Leg Interchanges

Also known as T- or Y-interchanges, are usually provided where major highways
begin or end. Three-leg interchanges should be considered when future expansion
to the unused quadrant is unlikely. Three-leg interchanges are very difficult to
expand, modify, or otherwise retrofit as a four leg facility.
The trumpet type

( with

a single structure) is shown in Figure (2-A) below

where three of the turning movements are accommodated with direct or semidirect ramps and one movement by a loop ramp .

In general, the semi-direct ramp most suits the heavier left-turn movement and the
loop the lighter volume. Where both left-turning movements are fairly heavy, the
design of a directional T-type interchange is best-suited.

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A fully directional interchange shown in Figure (2-B & 2-C) is appropriate

when all turning volumes are heavy or the intersection is between two access
controlled highways ( for examples two freeways).

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4-2 Four-Leg Interchanges

Interchanges

with

four

intersection

legs

majorly

include

the

configurations: (1) diamond interchanges , (2) full or partial cloverleafs

following
,

and (3) directional interchanges .

(1) Diamond Interchanges
The simplest and perhaps most common interchange configuration is the diamond.
Diamond interchanges use one-way diagonal ramps in each quadrant with two atgrade intersections provided on the minor road. If these two intersections can be
properly designed, the diamond is usually the best choice of interchange where the
intersecting road is not access controlled. Where topography permits, the preferred
design is to elevate the minor road over the major roadway (See Fig. 5).
U

The diamond interchange has several advantages over a comparable partial

U

cloverleaf: all traffic can enter and leave the major road at relatively high speeds,
left-turning manoeuvres entail little extra travel, and a relatively narrow band of
right-of-way is needed.
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The primary disadvantages of a diamond interchange are potential operational

problems with the two closely-spaced intersections on the minor road, and the
potential for wrong-way entry onto the ramps. For this reason, a median is often
provided on the cross road to facilitate proper channelization. Additional signing is
also recommended to help prevent improper use of the ramps.
(2) Cloverleafs
Cloverleaf interchanges are used at four-leg intersections and combine the use of
one-way diagonal ramps with loop ramps to accommodate left-turn movements.
Interchanges with loops in all four quadrants are referred to as full cloverleafs and
all others are referred to as partial cloverleafs.
Where two access controlled highways (e.g. freeways or motorways) intersect, a full
cloverleaf is the minimum type design interchange that provides connectivity for all
movements between the highways.

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However, these interchanges introduce several undesirable operational features

such as (1) double exits and entrances from the mainline, (2) weaving between
entering and exiting vehicles, (3) lengthy travel time and distance for left-turning
vehicles, and (4) large amounts of required right-of-way . Therefore, at
system interchanges, a collector-distributor road is often used to remove the weave
from the mainline traffic.

(3) Directional Interchanges

Direct and semi-direct connections are used for important turning movements to
reduce travel distance, increase speed and capacity, eliminate weaving, and to avoid
the need for out-of-direction travel in driving on a loop. Higher levels of service can
be achieved on direct connections and, in some instances, on semi-direct ramps
because of relatively high speeds and the likelihood of better terminal design.
The following definitions apply to directional and semi-directional interchanges:
Direct Ramp Connection A ramp that does not deviate greatly from the
intended direction of travel (as does a loop, for example).
Semi-Direct Ramp Connection A ramp that is indirect in alignment yet more direct
than loops.
Directional Interchange An interchange where one or more left-turning
movements are provided by direct ramp connection, even if the minor left-turn
movements are accommodated on loops.
Semi-Directional Interchange An interchange where one or more left-turning
movements are provided by semi-direct connections, even if the minor left-turn
movements are accommodated on loops.

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Fully Directional Interchange An interchange where all left-turning movements

are provided by direct connections. Fully directional interchanges are generally
preferred where two high-volume freeways intersect. While fully directional
interchanges are costly to construct due to an increased number of bridge crossings,
they offer high capacity movements for both through and turning traffic with
relatively little additional area needed for construction.
Direct or semi-direct connections are used for heavy left-turn movements to reduce
travel distance, increase speed and capacity, and eliminate weaving. Examples of
direct and semi-direct interchanges are shown in Figure 7.

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