AT

MICROFICHE
IREFERENCE
LBRARY

A project of Volunteers

in Asia
.

Practical
Pou.ltrv
IGUSUlg
Peace Corps ATFD Manual No. M--l1
by: Kenneth M. French
Published by:
Peace Corps
Information
Collection
and Exchange
806 Connecticut
Avenue, N.W.
Washington, DC 20525 dUSA
Available
from:
Peace Corps
Information
Collection
and Exchange
806 Connecticut
Avenue, N.W.
Washington, DC 20525 USA
Reproduction
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APPROPRIATE
TECHNOLOGIES
FORDEVELOPMENT

Praclical
Raising

INFORMATION COLLECTION & EXCHANGE

MANUAL M-l 1

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Peace Corps

Practical

Written by:

Kenneth M. French
Edited by:

Larry Ritter
Illustrated by:

Marilyn Kaufman
This publication
was produced
for Peace Corps by TransCzntury
Corporation,
Washington,
D.C.

Peace Corps
Information
Collection
& Exchange
Appropriate
Technologies
for Development
Manual Number11
April
1981

PRACTICAL, POULTRY RAISItiG

February,
1981
Prepared for the Peace Corps by
TransCentury
Corporation
under Contract
No. 79-043-1029
Available
through
Peace Corps Information
Collection
& Exchange
806 Connecticut
Avenue, N.W.
Washington,
D.C.
20525

About this Manual

This
vide

manual

development

information
to begin

is designed
workers

and tools
For those

ienced

in poultry

manual

can identify

cultural

considerations,

and skills

previous

perience,
try

observe,
between
duction,

this
the

by suggesting
farmers

SUGGESTIONS MADE IN THE MANUAL ARE

on

to make it

resources

dient

problems,

knowledge

tions

and so on which

of a

tions

of this

what

considerations,

in certain

ex-

there

expand poul-

until

the value

evaluate

should

poultry

under

were consulted

varying

in

raising

conditions.

inappropriate
about

made
of local

have priority

can be done to show

of the new methods.

be noted
for

If

the appro-

the experience

should

also
this

highly

experienced

It

that

sources

manual

do not

On one issue,

agree.

sources

recommendations

same conditions.
i

can make sec-

of the world.

always
different

considera-

of recommendations

research

improvements

for

areas

authorities

pro-

manual

manual

in the manual,

the gaps

feed ingre-

disease

are questions

priateness

farmers

of this
useful

There are special

IMPLEMENTED.

consulted

Numerous sources

in different

WITHIN THE APPROPRIATE GOVERNMENT

the results.

order

poultry

THIS MANUAL BY A RESPONSIBLE OFFICER

climatic

and find

in the preparation

about

greatly

nutrition,

and potential

and by helping

Because ideas

exper-

WHEREVERPOSSIBLE THAT A REVIEW OF

workers

by helping

actual

and reviewers'

and

MINISTRY BE PERFORMEDBEFORE THE

of poultry

you can help

question

sources

IT IS HIGHLY RECOMMENDED

No matter

production

based upon these

countries,

their

level

poultry

who are inexper-

to the conditions

new environment.

and marketing

vary

sections

adapting

of raising

production

and additional
for

many different

pro-

poultry

the manual

explores

aspects

iences.

successfully.

may find

your

poultry

manual

the author's

needed to raise

More experienced

useful

the

and provide

poultry

extension

with

production,

information

and market

to pro-

needed either

or to improve

duction.

basic

This

four
each gave

for

To make this

the
manual

most useful,
scribed

methods

and tools

are based either

ority

opinion

ience

of the author.

on a maj-

or upon the exper-

Because this

manual gives

instructions

on poultry

eral

gestions

will

development

Poultry

workers

methods

and tools

therefore,

your

and suggestions
of this

worker's
will

manual.

vised
this

that
editions?

manual?

or not useful?
and let
helped

own spec-

appreciate,

comments,

corrections

future

editions

What information
What was not

was the most useful?

covered

situation.

to their

for

to

need to adapt

We would

needs.

and sug-

not be relevant

every

ific

genproduc-

some recommendations

tion,

de-

would

be useful
How did

in re-

you use

What was irrelevant

Please

make comments

us know how this

you in poultry

manual

production.

ii

About the Author

Kenneth

M. French

teen

years

ture

and rural

of experience

the United

States

conducted

both

jects

in

in India,
breeding

in Malaysia,

Volunteers

he

dairy

pro-

fertility

under

over

a three-year

forestry

period.

Based on this

experience

systems.

Mr. French

served

cross-cultural
try

breeding

projects.

as a technical

trainer

Corps Volunteers

for

in India

and rural

of Peace Corps/Malaysia,
rural

agricultural

for

all

Peace

pro-

iii

and

credit,

soil

and conservation,

poli=y

Ministry

writing

and agriculture

the
on

cooperative
mar-

has formal

train-

from the Univer-

of New Hampshire,
in poultry

for

of Agriculture

development

Mr. French

exper-

papers

extension,

majored

Peace Corps

rural

agriculture

sity

Mr. French

included

in crops

Mr. French's

ing in agriculture

Director

Pro-

management and iiarketing

includes

keting.

development

development

extension

Malaysian

and

in poul-

As the Associate

was responsible

ience

background,

fifty

areas.

direction

research

poultry

own farming

his

management,

gram for
and his

supervising

in fifteen

agriculture

As a

and abroad.

a scientific

jects

fif-

in agricul-

development

Peace Corps Volunteer

'_

has over

where he

science.

Acknowledgments

As with

any manual,

have contributed

many people

Corps perspective.

to the development

to TransCentury's

The
author

is grateful

especially

Walter

S. Staples,

Russ Staples

P.K.
for

Nambiar,
technical

encouragement
Corps'
aspects

Whett

who reviewed
accuracy
along

project

to

this
and

dination.

and provided

Reed oversaw

S. Chakroff

organized

technical

production

of the manual from the Peace

Linda

iV

assistance

and to
in coor-

Thanks are due also

Marilyn

Peace

whose direction

manual was prepared,

for

of this

to

who edited,

and coordinated

Gusman for

go

Paul Chakroff,

manager under

Pamela Ball

the manual

the way.

Many thanks

the final

manual and to
typing

and layout.

Table of Contents

Page

>I
"
!'
:?
i:,s
:tI,
;,>
'.
&~
)'
,^

About

this

About

the Author

Manual
iii

iv

Acknowledgments
-- An Overv iew

Production

1.

Poultry

2.

What Do You Have to Work With?

3.

Getting

to Know the Chicken

21

4.

Working

with

31

5.

Poultry

Husbandry

41

6.

Housing

and Equipment

81

7.

Keeping

Chickens

8.

Feed and Nutrition

9.

Poultry

Marketing

10.

Poultry

Extension

169

Designs

175
185

Country

Chickens

115

Healthy

131
153

and Finances

Appendices
A.

Housing

B.

Other

Poultry

Ducks

185

Geese

186

Guinea Fowl

188

Turkeys

189

Pigeons

190

Page
Appendices-continued
C.

Farmer

Specific

Assessment

Criteria

D.

Feed Formulation

E.

Feed Requirements

203

F.

Bibliography

207

193

Chart

197

and Resources

Glossary

211

Index

213

vi

1. Poultry Production-

An Overview
What is Poultry?
The word poultry
domestic
their

fowl

meat,

chickens,

raised

fowl,

and this
them.

A brief

is given

quail

in Appendix

or captured

from the rain

ago.

Since

Asia
that

have been kept

nearly

every

the world.

gallus)
over
time,

for

forests

chicken

tion

and circumstance

years

into

with
just

rapidly
caused

throughout

for

sources,

by selec-

ciency

many

Genetic
1

of

plummage are

40 years,

the grow-

to feed the world's

population

has

and scientists
to chickens

and to increase
which

research

who

show.

expanding

with

today

Some types

protein

farmers

at

cock-fighting

beautiful

more attention

the orig-

for

ritual.

ing need for

meat and eggs by

has been bred

only

In the past

chickens

Over the years,

a few at a time

There are people

or religious
raised

chickens

eggs or to serve

grow chickens

were lured

flocks

themselves.

of the world

occasional

chickens

all

in small

after

are raised

a feast.

185).

3,000

human group

inal

In many areas

(probably

Gallus

to look

for

B (p.

the species

and left

today,
fowl

almost

were raised

still

on other

recently

chickens

are the
on

chickens

of Southwest

and

concentrate

section

The first

includes

raised

manual will

Until

geese,

by far

poultry

varieties.

eggs,

Poultry

pheasants,

most popular

to all

their

ducks,

Chickens

pigeons.

for

or both.
turkeys,

guinea

applies

they

to pay
as food

the effiare raised.

has developed

many

different

breeds

adapted

to different

methods

rapidly

and varieties
climates,

and reach

after

farming

sold

and purposes.

two to three
well

laying
is

Types of Chickens

age.

called

ferent

breeds

there

and varieties

ens used in farming,

divided

into

Layers

--

these

bred

weight

laying

the big

are eaten,

birds.

Beneed

sold

body

after

eggs for

and a half.

they
a year

for

are a little
lay white

larger

than

those

a whole

for

improved

can reach

very

These b%rds grow

country
2

to
or meat
breeds

high

Some layers
rate

of

levels
now pro-

of 90% for

Meat chickens

fowl which,

Gen-

bird.

layers

these

year.

roaming

of the world

in either

seven to ten weeks.

--

hens are

chickens

2 kg or more are ready

eggs.

Meat Chickens

dual-purpose

duce at an average

that

15 weeks of

is more profitable

it

of production.

lay brown eggs usually

for meat as

erally,
specialize

weight,

breeds
the males

of dual-purpose

to

th&t

eggs and meat.

are a kind

because
Birds

-- These birds

about

in most villages

chickens

them to a marketable

reach

free

breeds

bring

get older.

and sold

The country

do not keep the males of these

too much feed

broilers.

eggs while

time.

birds,

takes

Meat

meat at the end of the laying

often

it

Farmers

to lay

Also,

age.

The layers

usually

both

de-

grow large,

as they

for

soon as they

as many or more

have been producing

to a year

their

males)

Chickens

are separated

than
they

and age.
are called

and tender

are kept

to 4.4

meat.

are smaller,

while

eggs than
also

to produce

feed to maintain

weigh

(2.2

They are lighter

cause they
less

(kg)

a meat chicken

Females of the new, improved

egg

usually

size

Dual-Purpose

egg-

or a roaster

(castrated

are raised
for

birds

1-2 kilograms

chickens

can be

types:

Bred primarily

pounds).

all

fat

They are

reach

Whether

usually

Capons

of chick-

they

three

production,
about

are many dif-

they

a fryer

chickens

size

months.

before

pends on its

Even though

marketable

for

weighing
market

However,
through

in

unlike
many

has developed

centuries,

to many diseases
care

and learned

of itself,

need the active

to protect

resistance
to take

these

new breeds

care

of the farmer

them from disease

predators

if

and produce

they

flock.
Medium-Size
hundred

birds

and

protel2,

vitamins.

well.

tant

This

for

Poultry

Flocks

--

a hen and a few chicks

free

up to a group
some special

provide

a family

protein

in its

with
diet

eggs and birds

crop

vegetable
doesn't

eat.

that
if

they

will

much, and it

low,

numbers.

cient

profit

allow

for

country

income;

use food processing

by-products
that normally
are wasted;

use relatively
little
land
(chickens
can be kept by urban
as well as rural
people);

increase
the supply of manure
for fertilizer
and methane
gas production;
and

provide possible
benefits
when combined with other protein increase
programs (for
example, chicken manure can
be used to fertilize
fish ponds).

employment;

chick-

is difficult

to

efficiently

in

What Are the Disadvantages?

Of course,

there

costs

sible

disadvantages

can make suffi-

ens.

Some people

on a small
expansion

can:
local

and

not produce

By keeping

some farmers

These

the family

But,

use the new breeds

small

scraps

mothers.

increase

is a good way to use

matter

ens are used,

very

food

and for

to neighbors.

the birds

by-products

of ex-

impor-

family

and perhaps
the sale

and

increase

can

important

is especially

of

running
care --

some income through

Feeding

from

of 50 or so that

receive

tra

anything

supply

young children
also

can increase

minerals

and nursing

flocks

Why Raise Pouhy?

one or two

the local

high-quality

are to survive

--

or more --

significantly

pregnant

Small

Flocks

flock

to

in general

to a larger

of food
3

also

to raising
say that

are inefficient

and that

are poschick-

livestock
producers

most developing

nations

cannot

scarce

resources

growing
say,

farmers

can produce

maize

grains

(corn).

land

isn't

with

such as wheat
for

growing

eat less

protein

produced

and require

than other

livestock.

can be raised

on diets

not usually

Chickens
that

After

provide

is particularly

human digestive

systems

have decided

to encourage

poultry

production.

This

able

reached

protein

Here is where you may be

to help.

suited

to

and dietary

Just

as humans have certain

imum requirements

in developing
possible
l

poultry

nations

many small

What Do You Need to Raise Poultry?

needs.
Medium-size

encourage-

by humans.

quality
well

nations

farmers.

less

the advantages

most developing

ment has not yet

of

They also
containing

eaten
high

protein

per unit

considering

and disadvantages,

and

But much agricultural

suited

advice that may not be

in your area;

Compared to traditional
ways
of raising
chickens,
these
projects
need a large investment per bird.

they

humans

Chickens

foods

By

also

crops.
land

nical
found

much more

Livestock

compete directly
cereal

them.

as soybeans,

per acre.

often

to use their

to raise

such crops

protein
for

afford

operations

basic

have other

provided

disadvantages:

birds

Poorly run projects

can destroy a small farmer's
scant
savings or put him deeply
into debt;

for

life,

needs which
by the farmer

(especially

shelter;
idity

controls;

of light;
and other

These projects
need speciallybred birds,
pharmaceuticals,
markets,
transport
and tech-

foul

in feed;

if

the

pests

temperature

and hum-

sanitation;

control
of stresses.

of stresses

disturbances;

or stale

must be

from disease,

and elimination

Examples

stoppages

are

These include:

protection

and predators;

there

the new breeds)

are to be productive.

Market cycles can hurt or destroy a poultry

project,
even
if it is well run;
Feed, water or labor
can cau-e failure;

chicken

for

min-

air;

introducing

are:
dust;

crowding;

noise
drafts;
changes

new chickens

into

established

weather;

and keeping

females.
tive,

flocks;

Stress

that

the worse

An otherwise

may contract
disease
that
not

only

a mild

eating

well

is

is in their

the effect

for

case of a

ship

with

them.

crowded,

or is

don't

eat

Other

flock.

the caretaker

A caretaker

understand
to seeing
short,

must like

chickens
that

they

chickens

people
not

and

eat

Some cultures

loving

women.

are convinced

that

is a good idea
vide
flocks
going

and other
need,
on.

Unless

poultry

farmers

there

care

to prothat

is no point

You cannot

larger

forbid

eat.

eggs to pregnant
such

throughout

the

however,

people

and eggs to their

form a good mar-

you must learn

their

from local

customs

and atti-

you are to work effectively.

Means --

available

cash of their
their

efforts

from private
5

won't

sometimes

Financial

ative

and should

if

and will

of the worms and

chickens

to pool

in

others

chickens

about

Some

as sacred

welcome

tudes

and attention,

support

fowl

In most places,

people

raising

eggs in which

and traditions

but

ones.

is formed.

menus and willingly

and are ready

the constant

finances

--

relish

world.

ket,
Farmers

fertilized

There are many other

taboos

What Do You Need to Expand

Beyond the Farmyard Flock?

of course,

meat and many don't

them because

do well.

have

ways of dealing

them, while

manure that

need tender

many cultures

already

and be dedicated
In

The chicken

Vegetarians,

regard

touch

care.

Interested

that

societies

think

human society

especially

the fetus

and the

with

chicken

eat eggs,

in

don't

to

interest.

special

a bird

is a good relation-

between

so long

developed

may die when exposed

raising

they

best

has been linked

bird

element

that

farmers

--

to it;

The most important

to persuade

to the same disease.

poultry

attempt

do something

a chick-

healthy

when exposed

has worms,

never

are addi-

the more that

is,

in

males with

factors

en has to bear,
may be.

changes

Farmers

resources

own, be able
through

or be able
sources

must have
cooper-

to borrow

or government

For small

agencies.

in the new breeds

portion

for

realize
all

they

of their

they

risk

investment.

may take

half

years,

it

Local

Supplies

in remote

may not

anced
This

and fresh,

feed for

the

is easier

birds

that

months
will

water

than it

is

for
for

need vaccines,

supplements,

start
will

Support

layers
medicines

and advice

meat

problems
deliver

by receiving

of country

poultry

--

4 (p.

are to spend their

on buildings,

that

Market

--

so they

use birds
potential.

when to start
for

Farmers

laying

flocks

or sale

season;

which

by buyers;

realistically

what quantities

can be sold

an ex-

boring

Transport

what to do about

farmers

also

lems such as scarcity

especially

harvests,
seasons,
discussed

towns
6

lack

in Chapter

neigh-

seasonal
of labor

of water

and so on.

if

are expanding;

other

you cannot

near

their

joyed

may be too

a profit.

have to

eating

they

your products,

with

of eggs and meat are most en-

and eggs,

may mean that

limited

Farmers will

are ready

but if

types

enjoy

operation.

37),

Even if

area

chicken

are de-

feed or other

should
genetic

in your

to justify

and upgrade

farmers

determine:

to

operation

chickens

the greatest

and food

prices.

of an improved

in Chapter

Plans

as

who wants

scribed

they

sell

higher

-- A farmer

a few

enough so
eggs, to market quickly
that they are fresh,
attractive
and
earn

can't

Ways to work with

support,

on how to

and Infrastructure

few or too poor

panded

Those

in the most profitable

the people
chickens

profit.

but may make

need a source

resources

use them.
Markets

may

often

a medium-size

flocks

supply

only

areas

that

breed.

for

competition

per bird

Breed Source

of the birds.

to arrange

are kept

be

well-bal-

life

their

up for

longer.

and Technical

have a good

many eggs and birds,

one and a

You must have an assured

of clean

or

operations

at least

sometimes

They must
part

usually

even though

reduce

Even if

do make a profit,

this

market,

is not

losing

some time-- in layer

for

--

uses.

or good roads

a large

resources

other

that

investing

means that

of their

available

farmers,

during

probduring
dry

These topics
9 (p.

153.)

are

were accustomed

Where Has Poultry Development

Worked Well?
Many developing
made big

have

in their

poultry

indus-

in recent

years.

Poultry

devel-

opment in India

serves

tries

gains

nations

of raising

can increase

its

protein

chickens

they

were proven.

India
Of

production.

and were reluc-

to change to new methods until

a few neighboring

have had little

country

ways

tant

While

as a good ex-

ample of the way a developing

to traditional

with

poultry,

has made much progress.

Much

it

success

countries

is due to intensive,

based extension

work,

broadly-

some of it

done by Peace Corps Volunteers.

Poultry

Development

in India

Most of India's

poultry

opment has happened

years.

A country

grain

resources,

other

problems

could

not afford

yard

poultry

majority

with

supplies.

Extension

All
live

and turn

were being
multinational

money, they

breeds

percentage
into

imported,

corporations.

and others

re-

tax incentives
setting
standards,

building

more feed

insuring

experienced

ery,

breeding

providing

(breeds

tic

of chicks

activity.

services,
Peripheral

through

Small

Farmers

equipment

poor
feed ingre-

laboratories,

vaccine

for

poultry

analysis

creasing

birds.

lishing

good producers)
usually

and even better

government

laboratories.

they were

to the new demands by estab-

dient

had no

and raised

sponded
farmers,

were

of the

began to demand

The government

and

personnel

and found

more service

The vast

Most areas

improved
a high

making

some were dedicated,

feed analysis

in which

cereal

feed and medical

were not.

viable

birds

are vegetarians.

with

advantage
bought

better

back-

problems,

service,

20

Many farmers

operation.

began taking

extension

many

even a small

of Indians

poultry

faced

as well.

difficulties

others

minimal

India

and though

devel-

in the past

There were transport

few,

farmers

Once

issuing
farmers,

improving

programs,

production
better

loans,
in-

and deliv-

disease

and expanding
industries

shops began making

such as brooders,

diagnosextension

sprang
poultry
feeders,

up.

and supplies
cartons

such as egg shipping

Farmers

and baskets.

mote areas

organized

grants

agencies,

began mixing

buying

storage

and marketing

members'

products.

They began contracting

as well.

Major

also

expanded

are Hindu,
hibits
which
animal
all

and assisted

also

which

or discourages

eating

anything

is or has the potential

to be

was believed

eggs had the potential

and therefore

should

Consumers were taught

people
could

ence of roosters
ence existed
and unfertilized
'Hindus still

will

that

life

eggs

the pres-

and that
egg.

for

by poultry

without

between

that

not be consumed.

and nutritionists
be produced

pro-

a differ-

the fertilized
Although

some

not eat them, most

8

egg prices

income.

is learning

about

developing

help

of Indians

in lower

to family

production
make poultry
source

of egg

population

in other
farmers

a religion

It

resulting

and income

majority

life.

has outpaced

can be and is being

poultry

had been a prob-

The growth

chickens

compan-

areas.

Marketing
The vast

own

600%,

in 1969 to over 12

What India

breeding,

and feed supply

in more remote
lem.

relative

their

has increased

in 1979.

growth,

units

farmers

and growing

pharmaceutical
ies

with

India

production

supplies

building

feeds

billion

eggs as

the number of eggs pro-

from 2 billion

and inter-

the cooperatives

feeds,

mills,

diet.

of their

duced in

and

and equipment,

and rice

part

Today,

loans

from the government

national

unfertilized

cooperative

With advice,

societies.

in re-

have accepted

learned
As a

nations.
worker,

you can

an important
in your

area.

food

2. What Do

You Have To
Work With?
Assessing the
Local Situation
If

you are living

area,

you probably

a bit

about

tion.

in your

already

the local

eggs and perhaps

market

chickens

and quantity

Do people

present
of their

neighbor's

rooster

have you found

a poorly
to notice

about

available

run chicken

downwind
coop?

the things

local

affect

pare with

you want

can be useful

to see whether

in poultry

your

you

or the upwind
or are there

Do you think
How do local

those

Is the

in other

prices
to other
prices
areas

com-

of

country?
If

production,

and the market

or low compared

foods?

often

them daily?

supplies?

coop unique,

are high

you.

occasions?

serve

rooster

many around?

us personally.
If

restaurants
get their

around

festive

so, where do they

chicken

We tend
that

eat eggs and chickens

neighbor's

from

affects

Do people

sellers

Or

of chickens

of the people

If

Does a

how

the lives

Do local

the
there.

awaken you?

or lack

or save them for

a chicken

esteem?

yourself

first

situa-

in the

you with

as a token

the supply

have bought

and know something

quality

you must know much more about

know quite

poultry

You most likely

work

you are in one of those

rare

places

without

chickens,
It

the reasons?
condition
break

In such cases,

drought.
able

population

to help

reintroduce

to the area.

In other

people

won't

and don't
ity

problems

out what kind

increase

know quite

a bit

or a long

and people,

you may be

self

chickens

now is

cases,

tions
only

want to have them around,

another

activ-

entirely.

both

chickens

you should

limit

your-

your

purpose

for

to learn.
in this

for

and illustra-

section

the purpose

are included
of showing

progression

of technology

basic

types

of poultry

view

in your
but

operations.

Following

may differ

the principles

advantages

and the

own village

be similar.
plain

you already

about

to questions,

somewhat,

Which Management
Systems are Used
In Your Area?

and

of improvements

The descriptions

where

are,

Unless

like.

eat eggs and chickens

you may want to find

their

they would

out-

a drastic

of disease,

think

finding

may be a temporary

caused by a severe

in the predator

they

what are

will

chapters

ex-

and disadvantages

each of the six

systems

of

shown here.

Country Chicken, Free Range

From the small
the lOO,OOO-bird
poultry

backyard

automated

management systems

classified

flock
house,

they

arbitrarily

guide
area.

farmers

no attempt

in any number of ways.

categories
your

In this

can be

We have chosen the following

rough

to

six

to give

you a

system the farmer

to control
intake,

may be thrown

an occasional

or handful

to what you may see in

flock

finds

You should

its

closely,

use and why,

seeing
finding

observe

local

which

methods

instincts

The farmer

out what

and the only

10

the flock's

food or water
scrap

its

although

of 'grain.
own shelter

to avoid
provides

makes
they

food
The
and uses

predators.

no sanitation,

vaccinations

that

may

occur
during

are given

by government

widespread

hen tries

epidemics.

to hide

eggs and often

her

few,

succeeds.

her eggs on her own.

agents

gets

The

and has very

small
She hatches

The farmer

very

Losses,
disease,
high.

few eggs,
little

especially
predators

little

meat

of either

to sell.

of chicks,

to

and theft

are

Partly Controlled, Free Range

and the farmer

eggs under

In this
vides

system

overnight

the farmer

shelter

and some

supplemental

feed.

Breeding

uncontrolled,

but

the farmer

provide
brood

a nesting
hen incubates

place

pro-

where

hatch

does

agricultural

her own eggs

some advice

hens'

(A brood

wants

eggs and take

The farmer

other

her as well%.

hen is a hen that

is
a

may place

to set and

care

of chicks.)

may make use of the local

extension

system for

and vaccinations.

stationary.

Contained, with Limited Range

There

The essential

system.
the

are many variations

flock

is contained

overnight
other

and during

times
within

a fenced
the shelters

portable,

have wire

times

within

the shelters

of this

every

few months

is

enclosures.

that
At

are free
food they

yard

Sometimes

and grass

to one yard,

bad weather.

and other

are moved frequently

fined

in a shelter

the chickens

eat any grass

find

feature

to fresh

the yard.
are larger

most,

if

as well

ground
Other
and

sometimes

as inside

may be either

may have the benefit

13

The

breeds.

of

beyond that

from neighbors.

is stationary,

it

The

from local

farmer

advice

outside

the house.

or improved

technical

the

not all,

flocks

able

adjacent

provides

farmer

can

and

to fresh

systems

feed and water,

and

or may be rotated

range

chickens

are small

may be con-

In limited
to

or run.

mesh floors

The chickens

If

avail-

the house

may use either

deep-litter

or raised-floor

sys-

tem (see below).

has the benefit

Losses

to predators,

theft

are greatly

to previous

Contained, Deep Litter

chickens

remain

The breed

source

inside

system the
at all

almost

always

a commercial

breeder.

provides

feed and water,

all

boxes and perhaps

inside

the house.

times.
is

The farmer

perches

nesting
(roosts)

The farmer

usually

reduced

house is

compared

The contained

a substantial

in-

of a deep-litter

covered

centimeters

with

up to 15

(cm) of bedding

(wood shavings;

or other

and

per bird,

The floor

rial

advice.

disease

systems.

system requires
vestment

In any contained

of technical

grain

rice,

hulls;

matewheat

shredded

cane or shredded

straw,

absorbs

from droppings.

14

moisture

etc.)

sugar
that

Contained, Raised Floor

Cage or Battery

The characteristics

of this

system are the same as those

deep-litter,

except

ens live

that

on a raised,

fall

ground

or to a light

layer

below.

The floors

usually

wooden slats,

times

mesh or expanded

metal

which

and stretched
gauge wire

metal

system is used only

The hens live

food and water

in cages
are provided.

The cages may be placed

sheltered

area.

for

in any

The farmer

most

of litter

likely

are made

investment

per bird

may be the high-

est

systems,

especially

but

somemetal

is

uses extension
of all

advice.

The
if

the cages are made of expensive

wire.

is sheet

has been partially

and looks
mesh with

where

to the

of spaced,

(Expanded

layers.

semi-open

and droppings

used.

of the

the chick-

floor,

wire

This

like

cut
heavy

Can You Help?

diamond-shaped

holes.)
We assume that
where no chickens
and where

there

anyone
are being

is little

them already

this

manual

for

rial.

If

poultry

reading
raising

egg and meat prices

and there

you contributing
highly

skilled

be looking

has traded
mate-

you are in an area where

large-scale
low,

other

raised
hope of

introducing

dant,

in an area

for

is little
unless
technician,
something

is abunare very
chance of

you are a
you should
else

Both of the above situations

15

to do.

are rare

in the developing

Usually

there

is room for

of the existing

situation.

you learn

chicken

general

about

the better

pared

to help.
will

local
graphy

ideas

improvements.
lists

technical

case,
poultry

people
poultry

chap-

farmers)

duction

facts

that

to determine

potential,

averages

that

conditions
you

are fair

the final

tial
this

of difference

or potential

tion

we suggest

uation

potential
equals

working

assess
your

poten-

Produc-

them.

minus the present

sit-

You will

be

the gap.

to help

fill

this

yourself

gap.

to the local

Don't worry about the big difgap.

ference between what you see and the
results

obtained

in industrialized

Work with

nations.

any poultry
its

operation

may yield

maximum producYou should

the production
area.

will

see some degree

between

try

potential

What you are seeking

labor

small

invest-

money and energy

large

and some supplies

tively

inexpensive

in

market

prices

decreases

16

local

relatively

to
is

possible

such as:

ments of more time,

potential.

always

to the present

you will

advantages,

tion

Local

guides.

outcome.

and compare it

situation,

Finding
the Gap
to reach

this

As you gauge the technical

Address

fails

is no

the pro-

although

and attitudes

determine

you keep in mind.

Almost

There

manual does give you some production

you dive

(in

formula

friends

they work willingly

exact

to working

farmers

by your

be pre-

matter

in development

can be expected
if

where

but what reason-

and seek good advice.

material,

is an approach

can occur,

and neighbors

suggesting

more reading

deeply
wijh

in

The biblio-

But before

into

for

ably

situation

in your

you essential

can order.
there

raising

The following

and some useful

no error

The more

you will

give

not some idealized

improvement

and the specifics

area,
ters

world.

returns;

may be rela-

in your

may be high,

area;
and minor

in them may increase

de-

mand exponentially

as poorer

see they now can afford

proper

people

food and water.

Although

some eggs

and meat.

will

bring

not

costly.

address

rapid

select

have the best

observable
increased

control

factors.

This

new methods

over production
may mean introducing

and resources,

mean cutting

the costs

and potential

situations

be overwhelming.

If

change everything

at once,

the

farmer

are likely

in your

gap down into

smaller

that

the farmer

can handle.

ample,

if

chickens

in a poorly
not

properly

watered
suggest

chickens

to reduce

increase
$8

ventilation,

This

manual will
incre-

determining
Specific

(Appendix

suggest.

the gap, use

Assessment

C) for

Cri-

each farmer

area.

to

Evaluating
Your Resources

break
increments
For ex-

Appendix

structure,

parasites

can%first

early,

are overcrowded,

ventilated

have intestinal

for

you and

this,

the

and that

the ones you might

often

to become

To avoid

frustrated.

absorb,
chances

they

you choose

teria

you attempt

that

may be of use and help

the existing
can

increments

ments that

the Farmer

now

to

one at

most of the basic

To aid'in

may

of those

The gap between

in use.

or it

problems

results.

describe

the gap is

and are

the gap by helping

can most easily

The key to filling

changes

Then you can begin

Close

farmers

these

results

the other

a time.

Filling
the Gap

small,

or fed,

selling

resources

and are
off

available

of them will

you

always

a few

able

and provide

17

be hard

is best

resources.

overcrowding,

F (p.207)

if

lists

to you,

a few
but most

to obtain.

to work with

There should
you seek them out.

It

local

be many avail-

Government Agencies
Before
activities

beginning

a part

poultry

The people

you about

the support

probably

with

agency,

usu-

of the Ministry

culture,
It

consult

includes

there

of Agri-

are and what they

can do.

Cultural
considerations
how to work with them.

Local language extension

publications
-- how to obtain them.

Topics not mentioned in this

list
-- there may be many.

any poultry

, you should

the government
ally

they

can tell

--

they offer.
recommendations

Private Companies

on:
0

Vaccinations
and medications -- dosages, schedules,
equipment,
emergency programs
and free service
available.

It

is

farmers

Nutrition
-- feed mix sources,
ingredient
sources,
costs,
seasonal fluctuations,
what
works best in your area.

do well.

information
obtain

elsewhere.

have a choice
in a field,

Water supply -- availability,

water-borne
diseases and
treatments.

for

--

sources

several
ious

Financial
assistance
-sources and application
cedures.
Laboratory

facilities

pro-

However,
is best

and try

offer

difficult

of more than
it

to have

They often

to
if

you

one firm

to check with

to balance

self-interests.

Firms

the varto look

include:
l

Breeding companies -- Unless

they also are egg and meat
producers
who might feel
threatened
by possible
cominformation
that
petition,
you receive from them should
be good.

Pharmaceutical
companies -They are good sources of information
on diseases and
their
control.

and

Stock -- sources of chicks

and pullets
(female chickens
less than a year old),
breeds
available
and which produce
best.

interest

and advice

Building
designs -- use of
local materials,
environmental considerations,
cost
reductions.

Equipment
designs.

in their

m cmanufacturersThis

--where
18

may be a local

artisan

International

in a small market stall,

a
shop in a town or an import
distributor.
With their
local
experience
they can help you
cut costs and avoid mistakes.

Groups such as the United

Food and Agriculture

Feed suppliers
-- They provide
feeding recommendations
with
their
ready-mixed
feeds.
If
you plan to mix your own feed,
they may advise you on the
leaat costly
ingredients
and provide vitamin,
mineral
and protein
supplements.

Technical Assistance Agencies

(FAO),

country

helpful

States

Agency for

Development

and many others

your

Organization

the United

International

(AID)

may have offices

advice

and publications.

able

and-what

they

just

institutions

sources

can provide
reduce

in Chapter

and risks.

schools

oratories

often

useful

9 (p.

of finances,

technical

(ICE) may be
with

a re-

you need.

are

The Market Network, Local and Distant

153).

are not

information

costs

& Exchange

Cooperatives

can offer.

are discussed
Lending

know where they

Information

to put you in touch

source

poul-

Peace Corps

or Peace Corps'

Collection

Cooperatives, Lending,
Education and Research Institutions
You should

Your local

expert.

staff

in

where you can obtain

They may even have a resident

try

Nations

they

Everyone

also

on how to

in poultry

Universities,

and research
are sources

lab-

of much

production
advice

supplies,

consumer preferences

on prices,

Sometimes their

be conflicting

seasons,

more often

you will

that

you in the right

leads

various
practices,

three

poultry

care

hear

and

advice

and confusing,

The next

19

and marketing

can offer
so on.

information.

you meet who is engaged

may
but

a consensus

chapters

direction.
describe

and marketing

Once you have these

basics

in mind,

you can use the suggestions

in Chapter

9 (p.

153)

to identify

people

who may want

raising

or who want

to improve

current

operation.

When they

expressed

their

can begin

planning

those

to try

needs,

chicken
their
have

you and they

how to fill

needs.

20

3. Gettingto

Know the Chicken

Before
duction

planning

effort,

information

with

about

chickens.

If

with

birds,

you

between

chickens.

colors.

bird

male and

in chicken

in poultry

dark

anatomy,

in color
brown,

adult

eggs which

can

green,

to

to

The number of eggs an

female

lays

in a year varies

you do need to know what the prim-

from none to 365, or one a day.

ary characteristics

typical

their

normal

life

live

birds.

handle
scribes

both

of chickens
cycle

anatomy of chickens;
will

be especially

when diagnosing
ens for

and how to

This

external

are,

chapter

will

and internal

and treating

later

chick-

disease.

exposure
weather,

Layers

usually

start

between

six

breeds
21

mostly

and predators,

time

has

usually

of the year.
laying

on conditions
to disease
and others.
producing

and eight

upon their

start

The

25 and 100 eggs per

depending

depending

which

improvement

such as feed,

on

chicken

lay between

year,

such information
useful

country

had no breed

de-

and

from pure white,

to olive

speckled.

production

come in many sizes

They lay

range

You do not need

to become an expert
to work

Chickens

the

of a healthy

and the differences

but

these

of a chicken,

appearance

female

Characteristics
of Chickens

need to become familiar

the parts

general

pro-

you need some basic

are inexperienced
you will

any poultry

eggs

months of age,
health

and the

The improved
at five

to six

months of age,

and under

tions

between

will

lay

with

eggs yearly,
of 100 birds

producing

specifically
Chickens
over

which

for

flock

covered

are

are intended

2 kg at only

seven to eight

hatch

tion

from fertilized

In noultrl7 J production,
broody
chicks
into

absorb
their

sac.

Before
the yolk

lower

This

yolk

gin

of their

egg

for

up to two

then

continue

the shell
it

on their

This

through

is weakened

process

is

at different

on breed,

be mature

nutri-

factors.
by six

months

Males are called

they

cockerels

reach maturity,
roosters

reaching
laying,

or cocks.

maturity,
pullets;

they
will

when they
Be-

female

chick-

once they

are called

be-

hens.

refer

to a whole
as pullets

flock

of female

chickens

until

the entire

flock

reaches

full

own.

through

to peck at it

can be entirely

mature

they must begin

by breaking

peck a hole

fea-

egg production.

an

Anatomy of
Chickens

--air cell in the large end of the

shell.
Using their
upper beaks,
chicks

other

and environmental

Some farmers

them with

The first

a week on

and tail;

ens are called

hatching,

supplies

days, at which time

drinking
and eating
hatch

means

body in the yolk

enough food and water

Chicks

fore

down.

within

depending

are called

means (a

or by artificial

(an incubator).

until

Within

grow in later.

of age.

incubation

be by natural

hen)

tips

rates,

can weigh

21 days of incubation.

can either

the wing

Most will

Chickens

a soft

Chickens

weeks of age.
eggs after

with

appear

thers

are wet.

they dry out and are

feathers

meat production.

from such breeds

chicks

a few hours

240 to 28G

There also

breeds

At hatching,

180 and 365

an average

eggs per layer.

improved

good condi-

shell,

until

enough so that

broken
called

the

To be able

open.

you first

pipping.

chickens,

must know the various

of a chicken
22

to work with

and their

functions,

parts
and

how to tell

male and female

ens apart.

The major

of a chicken
l

include

external

chick-

for fighting
and protection.
And third,
it functions
as
the teeth of the chicken,
enabling
the bird to break
grass, bananas and other
foods into pieces small
enough to swallow.

parts

these:

beak
Beak -- The chicken's
serves three functions.
First,
it is the chicken's
mouth.
Second, it is used

Comb and wattles

--

--

It

Comb
Eyes
Tail
Beak
\

Wattles

Wing

i /-Foot
-

23

Claw

is be-

lieved that the comb and

wattles
of chicken
serve
cool their
blood.
l

female of another breed.

This greater
size is not apparent until
the chicken attains four weeks of age. At
one day old there is no difference at all between male
and female chicks.

to

Ear lobes -- The ear lobes

of chickens
serve hearing
and other ear functions.
of a
Eyes -- The eyeball
chicken is stationary;
thus,
a chicken must move its head
to vary the range *:jf vision.

Feathers -- Feathers provide

insulation
and buffer
extremes of heat and cold.

Wings -- Chickens cannot

fly very well.
They can
flap their wings sufficiently to raise themselves about
three meters (m) off the ground .

Tail and tail

feathers
-The tail
is used for balance
while walking
and, in flying,
as a rudder for up-and-down
and side-to-side
motion.

Feet and claws -- In addition

to walking,
feet and claws
are used in fighting
(for
protection)
and in finding
food.

There
between

male and female

that should
These are:
0

are several
help

Comb and spurs

of the male will
larger
than the
female.
On the
hardly develop
compared to the

Vocal expressions
-- Everyone
knows that a rooster
crows
while a hen doesn't.
What
is not generally
known is
that roosters
crow intermittently
all day long, not
just in the morning.

Feathers -- Adult males have

distinguishably
different
feathers
from those of adult
females.
The most distinguishable
are the tail
feathers which are long and stringy
on the male.

Usually

differences

layer

chickens

breeds

the incubator
nomical

Size -- The male will

grow
taller
and usually
weighs
between 0.5 and 1 kg (1 to 2
pounds) more than females of
the same age upon reaching
maturity.
A male of one
breed may weigh less than the

are destroyed
because

to raise

value

24

female

of improved
within

they are taken

it

them for

the case of improved

both

The comb
become much
comb-'of a
female, spurs
at all when
male.

male chickens

day or two after

in identification.

--

a
from

is unecomeat.

In

meat breeds,

and male are of economic

and are raised.

Internal Anatomy of Chickens

functions

of the ceca are not underAfter digestion

in both
fully.)

stood
Although
you will

it

is not expected

become an expert,

useful

for

not have stomachs

like

goes halfway
(throat)

to a storage
it

the remainder
enters

ventriculous

secretes

grinds

enters

the small

nutrients

which

attachments

on the under

like

rings

around

Y-shaped

tic

intestine,

or dead end
(The

25

of
through

right

Both tubes
side

to this

are

of the neck
The

is standing.

a thin

air

tube is

The trachea

plastic
This

it.

junction

lead

off

look
tubes.

tube with
ends at a

and two bronchial

to the right

The trachea

and located

Food particles

enters

located

the larynx.

looks

tubes

of a chicken

at the back of the mouth and

called

lungs.

ceca.

point

located

the gizzard

the large

called

located

tube?

throughout

has two "blind"

the esophagus.

entrance

and circulated

then move into

beside

and

up by blood

body.

the trachea,

where

is

then goes down a tube

called

and is

called

material

Air

animals.

the nostrils

smaller

intestine

one opening

in the same way as these

most other

digestive

are

and stool

and lungs

when the chicken

are picked

the chicken's

function

is

in-

feces.
The heart

The pro-

materials

The excreted

down

to the gizzard

Food leaving

urine

through

called

the proventri-

food up into

both

excreted

and thus

continues

and acids),

attached

pieces.

area called

stomach.

(enzymes

directly

vessels

called

or true

juices

and

of the esophagus

what is

culous,

(mouth)

is moistened

Food then

softened.

the

down the esophagus

a crop where

which

means of food

the beak

cluding

animals,

First

the waste

intestines,

the vent.

do

other

and digestion.

food enters

the

Chickens

but have a different

be

of different

of chickens.

storage

will

you to understand

anatomy and functions

organs

it

that

like

and left

and bronchial

semi-transparent

The lungs
between

leeding

from either

bones

of the chicken.

back towards

the tail,

reproductive

system,

plas-

are segmented
the rib
side

bones

of the back
Going further
you find

then,

the

closest

to the tail,
larger
If

tiiere

are pockets

bone which

contain

the kidneys

normal,

in a

leads

the kidneys.

are brownish

red in color.
If
its

you open the chicken

back,

the first

see is the liver

two parts,
skin

thing
which

just

forward

or white

fat

and the liver.

the typical
marketplace.
liver

you will

green

fluid.

After

you pick

kidneys.
color
it

find

the rear

back the ovary,

which

mass of egg yolks

Egg yolks

enter

is

the funnel.

called

If

ball-

market,

chicken,

consists

find

to

and along

and buy a

yourself,

to

have it

killed.

get used to killing

you work with

there

them very

are no chickens

in the

buy one from a farmer.

all

Watch

You may want to

it.

take

it

the parts

described

above.

Do this

times,

until

of a

parts.

If

possible,

inarian

for

a test,

an inch

in

female

be opaque.
what

your

The funnel

early,
26

until

all

the

go to a veterusing

(Don't

own several

to

several

you have learned

chicken.

veterinarian

home and try

of the chicken

the

in size

through

place

is to

use the same method used by the farmer.

if

find

The best way

the chicken

the way he kills

in

may

up to 4 weeks and are

on, you'll
if

takes

you are not willing

a chicken

much.

above the

ones will

a tube

If

chickens

and the

to almost

The smaller

for

about

in the op-

Sperm

end.

in the oviduct.

Later

bladder.

a sma':

kill

sperm passes

Fertilization

at the ovary
viable

Upon

system

direction.

the

a process

24 hours.

a rooster,

In any case,

ranging

from microscopic

about

which

the egg white,

is formed,

the oviduct

chicken.

of the

through

and in which

than go to the market

sac of

you will

of the lungs

with

to learn

in a

is lighter
adult

eggs,

mating

stored

than the kidneys.

is laying

size.

color

found

the spleen,

In the female

takes

posite

is

is the gall

The spleen

into

liver

up the liver

shaped organ,

which
through

the skin

and forward

you will

the shell,

stay

a small

This

then

There is often

liver

find

passes

place

lighter

Under

yolk

of the soft

The normal
animal

intestines,

you will

between

the same or slightly

on

is divided

above the vent.

yellow

lying

to the oviduct

a male and a
go to the

you have tried

times.

you will

If

on

you go too

do is memorize

^- -----

and forget

what

is shown to you.)

Watch others

handle

chicks.

come from a hatchery

are usually
your

squeeze,

general

information
Now it

en.

to handle
to learn
best

is

about

time

live

to begin

er also

this

are any poultry

it.

activities

house

to another

ual.)

and extension

you to be involved
try

handling

natural

activities

skepticism

These

Stretch

to the side

later

and feel

these

terms.

in the man-

poul-

about

capability
its

To hold

and concern.
27

finger

to

still,

on you will

of holding
for

first

a chick

vaccinations
drink

an adult
place

find

of water.

chicken

your

for

middle

fingers

the legs with

the head of the

chicken

facing

you at your

rest

their

in

between
side.

you will

bone

the beak of the chick

Later

examination,

not want

in different

dipping

and giving

(You

its

in the other.

thumb and index

in one hand useful

veterinarians
will

your

in the water.
this

the wing

Hold a cup of water

practice

of

up and

and notice

keep the head of the chick

from one

about

need to be understanding

it

structure.

vaccinating,

activities:

how delicate

Using

the arrival

workers

to one side
is.

the

Hold its

leg a little
gently

is

it

down gently.

there

and marketing.

Some farmers,

it

Find out if

chickens

They are explained

setting

picking

one hand and the chick

future.

do not need to worry

Practice

examine

work-

from a hatchery,
moving

chick.

delicate.

as you can without

Carefully

it.

with

Do not

back.

veterinary

may include

debeaking,

and the

handling

coming up in the near

way

experience

or local

is doing

learning

The best

is by experience,

when a farmer

chicks

the chick-

chickens.

chance to get

some

up a chick

as gently

they

box or bam-

as they are very

dropping
you have learned

Pick

hand over its

Hold it
Thus far,

at day-old,

in a cardboard

boo basket.

Handling
Live Chickens

When they

behind

The breast
on your

arm.

back until

it

accustomed

to this,

of the chicken
Stroke

is calm.

will

the chicken's
Once you are

extend

your

arm

out

in front

look

of you to get a good

at the chicken's

head,

wings.

When examining

termine

the differences

layer

and nonlayer

chicken

at your

Handle
their

eral

feel

Handle

several

lair1

for

a long
for

and the keel

fingers

the head in

them out feet

may be caught
resulting

in

to the bird.
practice

chickens

holding

four

or

in one hand at the

Do this

another,

ween your

by adding

holding

fingers

of the chickens

chickens

both

straight

one
legs bet-

and with

Com-

between

the heads
down toward

bones

fingers

help

opportunity

are side-by-

spare

28

poultry

comes up.

a poultry

chickens.
flock,

clothes

take
between

farn :rs as well.

for

washed clothes

of transmitting

shoes

de-

be sure you take

handling

different

side.

that

and wear freshly

and change

If

in vaccinating,

handling

into

devel-

and so on.

moving or any other

cases,

any

feather

beaking,

any chance

the keel

Notice

in weight,

possible,

before

and the

and examining

ages.

comb size

bath

Measure how many

between

of all

opment,

In all

of the

bones)

handling

differences

week.

time.

the breast

you can fit

Practice

of the skin

side

bones.

bones when your

wings

after

differences,

the keel

between

their

same time.

laid

the distance

the bones on either

distance

first,

five

have not

the softness

(called

you take

Ask a

the past

some which

the vent,

If

Next,

healthier,

hens.

the chickens

below

first.

them by

them out head

injury

thin

catch

the floor.

any eggs for

especially

take

and

is a breast

eggs during

Ask also

hand,

in the cage opening,

of sev-

chickens

and, holding

over

comb and state

to show you one that

several

the free

older

or cages,

legs

In partic-

may be fatter,
meat.

vent

roosters

the breast

breast

pare

Look it

other

you will

farmer

One may be very

Others

bone.
with

Feel

roosters.

and all

their

side.

the spurs,

of health.

from crates

keep the

appearances.

notice

ular,

and

to de-

between

of eggs,

Find

compare

layers

a rooster.

carefully.

neck

When removing

entry

into

To avoid
disease
a bath
visits
Carry
a poultry

to

house.
this
is

Some farmers

will

is so important
the

vise

and if

case you probably

them in this
If

think

To use the hook,

target

this

cannot

ad-

into

regard.

or out

en's

and usually
thumb,

the air

space

and above a chicken

goes in first,

around,

the space occupied

by the

In hot

climates,

chii-.ken

itself.

the air

space must be greater.

larger

the chicken,

provision

for

when moving

This

should

sides

hinged

numbers

Before
the

the pen,

leaving

frame)

There

the box.

reach

in and pick
Now that

catching

are several

older

use a catching

methods

chickens.

of

One is

to

hook:

across

Catching

are inside,

you know what

inside

like

and feels

read

the

rest

the floor.

up a chicken.
and out,

like,

a chicken
tastes

you are ready

of this

manual

use the information

that

appropriate

conditions.

to your

and

is most

- 1.9 m (5 - 6 ft.)
-.---1.6
.---.____
\handle

the

Then you can easily

close

like

from

corral

When a number of chickens

looks

feeders,

as you move the opened box

(or catching

Catching
Chickens

method.

the chickens

Next,

litter.

chickens

this

equipment
only

\-heavy

48
I(

Hook

29

open.

but at least

remove all

and other

on

catching

are needed for

waterers

chickens.

mesh or
side

of chickens,

The

you.

the

the fourth

starting,

and the

toward

corners

box can be used for

large

must be

hook the chick-

a framed wire

with

the

and, when

way is to corral

using

two people

the greater

ventilation

three

approach

steadily

bamboo box with

below

in a crate

rapidly

and pull

chickens

As a rule-of-

out last.

leg

quietly
from behind

enough,
Another

of carrying

the head always

crates,

chicken

close

you have the chance to move

chickens

equal

not

)I
115

cm (6 in.)

to

Working with
Country Chickens

4.

The country
Through

creature.
years

the thousands

she has lived

she has developed

among
into

disease-resistant,
scavenger
any kind
matter

of vegetable

when it

safe

are tasty,

though

tough,

is delicious.

For good reason,

hen is a universal

three

turning

for

good a mother
to hatch
ducks

can.
hen is geared

to

enough eggs to assure

This

of her species.

means about

breakage
farmers
double

and her meat,

never

the country

4i) to 50 eggs a

and human consumption.

give

her good care she may

her egg production,

will

If

reach

but she

the levels

attained

by the new breeds.

to set and hatch

for

very

and water.

that

and care

and other

as the

year, many of which are lost to

predators,
heat, cold, dampness,

to shel-

on them continually
food

usually

Why Work With

Country Chickens?

them as needed

weeks except

forays

do is pro-

symbol of mother-

She is eager

and staying

just

the survival

Her eggs,

small,

her eggs,

produce

and how to find

at night.

breeds

The country

She can

way.

though

hood.

improved

on almost

knows where

rains

roosts

humans,

and animal

comeslIer

she can't

duce eggs and meat as well

parasite-tolerant

evade predators,
ter

of

a self-reliant,

who can survive

that

The one thing

hen is an admirable

she often

for

brief
She is

so

is used

for

the young of

species

of poultry.

Using

the country

be the only
Local
31

farmers

choice

chicken

may

in some areas.

may not be able

to

afford
that

the high

per-bird

new breeds

require.

may be too remote

of live

chicks

the balanced

Or, farmers
to work with

that

require
If

for

"&less
est

and

The market

Never

in the role

outsider
batable

cast

of an expert

presenting

an unde-

plan.

The effect
When country

on the whole
chickens

area

run free,

32

increased

pred-

in the

village

will

com-

sources.

increase

flocks,

all

the size

there

In most cases,

be
country

flocks

are improved

to benefit

family

consumption.

Is there

room for

your-

the remaining

Most likely

some farmers

the flock

among

from rats

the same food

enough food?

you won't

face

re-

some farmers

predators,

who

plan,

far.

chickens

one farmer

an

outbreak

their

problems.

For

might

protect

of their

setting

other

it
If

for

farmer,

vaccinates

chic!rqns.

If

you on

a farmer

other

will

may

outcomes.

a disease,

inter-

and developing

get very

if

the chickens

you

and desires

problems,

improvement

farmers'

single

flocks

in a disease

pete

to work with

priorities

influence

ator

to improve

identifying

and thus

farmers

country

However,

of at least

is willing

with

and other

don't

you have the active

wants

self

them

are many things

attitudes

Farmers'

interact

they

sult

breeds

can be done to improve

chicken production.
.
.
f'
must&--irst
consider

but

against

situation,

There

be discouraged.

to a particular

just

commercial

is your

"belong"

example,

and produce.

this

Individual

other

may not

of a large,

system.

be available

so much effort

to survive

are part

chickens

and

needed by the im-

may not

want

that

the transport

medications

feeds

breeds

locally.

The village

from a commercial

Vaccines,

breeder.
proved

for

they

investment

expansion

beyond

this?

Production
Potential
Keep in mind the limits

of the

Do not encourage

country

chicken.

farmers

to spend more money on their

flocks

than

benefits

they will

receive

You can assume that

average

country

potential

lay

the

of 80 eggs per year.

flock

of five

may have a higher

potential

than

average.

are 100 or more country

area,however,
suggests

more you must try

is,

your

area.

Local

or lower

will

If

number of farmers

there

hens in the
your

the flock
to reduce

For your
want

total

experfigure.,
the

the

cost

be helpful

as

area

as a whole,

you

with

they

concern

discovered

available
inputs,
free ones such as
and food processing

33

of

use and the

them.

by talking

as you can,

mind such questions

the

the average

management

systems

as the

chickens,

the types

individuals

side.

will

to know such things

that

in

and your

number per farmer,

best

situa-

the farmers

number of chickens,

problems

size,

chicken

officials

own observations

are:

Use locally
especially
harvesting
by-products.

of course,

tion

well.

to be on the safe

Some examples

good

of information

country

or small

a different

The smaller
of inputs

until

source

on the current

you can use 80 eggs

per hen as a goal

ience

This

or so hens will

Individuals

management.

The best

a particular,

80 eggs each a year under

groups

or

hen has a production

does not mean that

small

Gathering
Information

in,

from home consumption

sales.

Use government programs,

if
available,
such as veterinary
services,
vaccinations,
loans
and grants,
breed upgrading
help, lower-cost
feed, or
feed concentrates.

This

is

to as many
keeping

in

as:

Why does the farmer

chickens?

keep

How many years has the farmer

kept chickens?
Did previous
generations
of the family

keep chickens
l

How many eggs and chickens

does the family eat each
How many do they give
year?
away or sell?

What are the major causes of

egg and chicken losses?
What
protection
is given?

as well?

At what time of the year

does the farmer think that
having eggs and meat available is most desirable,
and
why? (For example, there
is usually
a heavy demand
for eggs and meat at the end
of-a religious
fasting
period in countries
with large
Islamic
populations,
and a
similar
demand for meat for
Christmas
celebrations
in
places with large Christian
populations.)
In addition
to
times of general demand,
farmers often can benefit
by
contracting
with local leaders for meeting special
demands for local celebrations,
weddings,
and so on.
If eggs and meat are relatively
expensive
food items,
when will
consumers have the
most purchasing
power?
After
harvest
season?
Will the
fishing
season have an impact
on egg or meat demand?

I-low many chicks were last

hatched,
how old are they,
and how many are stiL.
alive?
Are these the usual totals
for a chicken generation,
and if not, why not?

Which management techniques

does the farmer use and why?

If the farmer supplements

the
flock's
diet,
what foods are
used and why?

Has thkfarmer
advice?
If.so,
and how?

Did the farmer follow

vious recommendations?
not, why not?

Who in the family traditionally cares for the chickens

( women, men, children)?
Were they the ones who received previous
technical
advice?

Are this farmer's

responses
similar
to those of other
farmers?
If so, do they
indicate
area-wide
problems
that need attention
first?

Now that
tion,

When does the farmer or flock

hatch chicks,
and do they
reach production
peaks at
the time of the year when
eggs and meat are most desired?
If not, why not?

informa-

have a broad

of poultry

in your

underarea.

You have made contact

with

of different

and differences

farmers,

in the way they

ens should
better
contacts
34

preIf

you have this

you should

standing

had technical
who gave it

care

be evident.

farmers
for

for

a number
their

Also,

chickthe

may be good future

improved

ideas

which

are

appropriate
look

locally.

at possible

might

focus

Now you can

areas

poultry

Shelter at Night

where you

development

The country

efforts.

Possible
Management
Improvements
As often
ation

said,

can be improved.

techniques
country

that

that

does not

well

to a contained

system,

does need nighttime

shelter.

overnight

because

it

nocturnal
rats,

owls

adult

chickens

tors.

and an individual

farmer

As you
discuss

them,

the two of you together

begin

setting

goals

can

and form a plan

to meet them.
Study this
working

with

manual's

improved

sections

breeds.

on
Some

of the recommended management practices

for

and equipment
country

can be adapted

chickens.
Night

35

Shelter

adapt
but

it

is the
improvement

the chicks
of dogs,

and other

listed

by priority.

possible

attacks

Some of the

follow,

probably

protects

can be used with

chickens

approximately

creature

most important

any oper-

is an indepen-

dent

Shelter

almost

chicken

cats,

predators.

can be lost

from
tiven

to preda-

does,

Shelter for Chicks

she will

laying
Chicks
stantly

should

until

be protected

con-

are at least

four

they

is

chicks

available,

arated

a kitchen
should

Chicks
for

one week

after

hatching.

The sooner

this

done,

the sooner

the hen will

is

lay

side

them.

sure

they

of the yolk

hatching

remains

or other
place

suitable
where

trained

to lay

a hen,

introduce

each morning

litter

cannot

get into

Use whatever

the container
materials

,-ou have available

with

chicken's

in

pends heavily

the hen can be

her eggs.

it

to come

about

receives

the time

using

few days so that

it

the hen probably

a safe

place

to lay

should

be collected

country

hen will

eggs if

they

It
feed

doesn't

try

spoil.

in the nest,

will

decide
another.
every

want

accumulate.

de-

on the quality
during

early

of care

growth

stages.

Improved Feed

a new one every

already

potential

she

Put an egg in the nest

each morning,

production

{see
An adult

To train

her to the nest

lays.

an egg is

lined

inbe

as close to modern management

Chapter 5, p. 55) as you can.

Set a box or basket

If

after

Give them water,but

and drown.

Nests

usually

24 hours

part

and foods

a dark

weeks or

do not need feed or water

the first

because

eggs again.

straw

to eight

Care of Chicks

fire,

be sep-

from the hen about

six

and stop

even longer.

If a brooder
(see Chapter
weeks old.
5, p. 58) or another heat source,
such
as a box or pen near

for

become broody

it

is

If

a fully

is uneconomical

balanced

chickens;

coming

possible

to ideal

available

foods

on her
she
36

ration

to
to coun-

as close

nutrition

as

with

can be a challenge.

The main considerations

Eggs
day.
A

to sit

usually

are:

Vitamins
-- Feed fresh or
dehydrated
greens -- carrot
fruits
tops, weeds, over-ripe
They are
and vegetables,
etc.

rich in vitamins
and contain
some minerals
as well.

for

months

-- The country chickProtein

en's diet rarely
includes
Use meat and
enough protein.
fish scraps (not rancid),
white
ants (termites),
beans that
people won't eat, insects
that have been attracted
and
killed
by a kerosene lantern
Give priority
and so on.
to chicks and laying hens.

old

Surplus
or eat

The shelter

them when they

roosters

also.
it

Remove old

for

breeding

flocks,

with

four

clean

months.

or use it
Follow

for

local

vaccinations.
Chapter
mixed

litter

three

Compost the old

making

methane

recommendaitons

or

for

Country
(see

or upgraded

as recom-

mended by the manufacturer.

chickens

However,

since

country

roam,

use of coccidiostats

water

may not be of any use if

water

sources

are free

are available.

Even with

replacements

small

in case
can be

and inexpensively.

gas.

7, p. 123) when possible,

supply

operations

litter

Use coccidiostats

in the water

chicken

keep a second rooster

easily

to

keep two

purposes.

unless

Sell

Upgrading
the Flock

and replace

every

feed.

clean.

be dry and clean

litter

months

are eight

Always

in country

obtained

should

males waste

ten weeks old.

Health Care
and waterers

four

Male Chickens

one dies,

Keep feeders

and every

are four

thereafter.

Carbohydrates
-- Energy is
supplied
by such foods as
broken rice,
pressed coconut meat, stale bread and
other scraps.

worms when the chickens

the objective

of this

to increase
roosters

breeds

other

both
37

roosters
In most cases

type

of upgrad-

egg production.

from improved

are crossed

females.

Treat

by introducing
breeds.

Thus,

in the

can be improved

from improved
ing is

to

flocks

with

Do not attempt

egg

the country
to improve

egg and meat production

at the

potential

of 130 to 150 eggs

a year.
The more generations
the higher

upgraded,
However,
will

they will

potential

at a slower

rate,

need more intensive

and balanced

feeds.

If

eventually

the levels

obtained

simply

will

fall

to

upgrading.

meat production,

use improved

in place

care

potential

before

For upgrading

and

an upgraded

mates among itself,

production

are

the potential.

each generation's

increase

flock

that

meat breed

of the egg breed,

males

as above.

Farmer
Assessments
You may find

it

a simplified

version

pare

Farmer Assessment
page 193).
local

to preof the

Worksheets

In your

farmer,

useful

talks

(see

with

the two of you can

review

such a worksheet,

find

biggest

gaps and plan

how to fill

them to improve
try

production

the

of coun-

chickens.
39

5. rodtry

Husbandry
This

chapter

the improved
Even if

it

ent size,

breeds

with

it

could

not

the best

breeds.

its

offer

a dedicated

to provide

resources

care

needs,

all

for

will

needs
the n,:w
of

discussed

this

trying

farmers

the new breeds,

are raising
improve
tials
tant

are interested

will

or if

them already

their

this

them with

to consider.

they
chap-

some essen-

interest

In raising

there

is no substitute

der loving

care.

the new breeds

for

ten-

To do well

may influbut

completely
all

contained

41

profit
mean that
rely

of their
It

on producing

or meat,

not both.
market

on the
needs.

is best

centrate

the local

in gen-

fully

to con-

either

eggs

Which will

be the main product

of chickens,

con-

the new breeds.

decision,

Eggs or meat.

any livestock,
for

for

This will

the birds

and commit-

ment,

manual

a fully

a well-run,

farmer

Individual

this

considerations

potential.

The most impor-

de-

reasons

system has the highest

are:

with

later,

ence this
eral

small

system.For

system

Local

and want to

operations,

provide

in

require,

and failure.

recommends using
tained

If

that

success

Management

fill

they

the

may mean the difference

between

gap.

ter

attention

tails

their

to provide

and understand

infor-

help

must understand
be ready

daily

the

and accumulation

experience

a farmer

pres-

farmer

Good use of other

mation

raising

of chickens.

were many times

information

local

deals

depends

on

and the types

of breeds
fully

ilies,

production
sons,

Some fam-

successful

with

Try to pick

available.
occupied
during

may find

to ten-week
available

certain

thaf

cycle

meat chickens

crop
sea-

ilar

an eighttheir

time

as social

If

Breed
Source

today

for

tempt

to discuss

this

and breed

in a developing

is

few.

Chicks

can

by air,
delays

but

from other
that

or other

way can kill

If

problems

along

people
with

history

will

be helpful

you talk

Chicks

from the best

producing

breeds

probably

have the high-

breeds,

total

to try
being
breed

meat per unit

and

siderations

the

ness,

character-

to breeders.

is a very
costs--it

their

local

equal,

the most

has had
to find
42

Other

to your

management system
acceptability

lays

the most

are the breed's

farmers.

usually

to save money here.

of feed.

its

small

is the one that

adaptability

important,

in selecting

you can try

will

but this

of your
things

area's

the most eggs or produces

area have

If no one nearby

such experience,

before

selected

in your

improved

istics

desirable

them.

worked
a breed.

is expensive

or government

Know as much as

farms.

is unwise

countries

of

your

Ail

usually

have

you can about

part

available

country

to a very

be transported

to at-

from

you will

breeders

est p.rices,

them in any detail.

The number of new breeds

limited

the

manual

and feed

on the recommendations

breeding

world

cli-

advice

farmers,

commercial

throughout

in such

structure,

you cannot-get

to rely

exist

are as sim-

and water

experienced

combinations

areas.

availability.

off-season.

Far too many breeds

that

as possible

altitude

mate,

in other

areas

to yours

features

of raising

fits

farmers

con-

hardiarea and
and, most
among

Distinguishing

Layer
Breeds

feathers

weigh

lbs.);

about

breeds

that

that

decision

lay white

lay brown ones.

nutritional

difference

and brown eggs.

your

Leghorns

There is no

quite

nervous

proper

care,

between

this

should

layers

people

they

or the other,

begin

eggs during

laying

that

excellent

Not all

and

are known to be
and flighty.
however,

when

Rhode Island

and continue

shires

about

breeds,

250

well.

White Eggs

is

smaller

are two popular

but

there

brown-egg

are many others

These breeds

are heavier

Rhode Island

Red

white-egg

Leghorn.

than other

breeds

the most eggs per unit

thus,

it

has a higher

Generally,

the best

hybrid

White

breeds

or crosses

developed

in your

It

is

and produces

of feed
profit

producer

Leghorn,

eaten;

potential.
is

//

but special

may have been

area

they are

Reds and New Hamp-

the White

With

egg producers.

_-

breed

ear lobes.

Brown Eggs

time.

The most popular

white-

Good

producing

are 21 weeks old

12 months,

in

about

prefer-

be considered.

usually

white

2 kg

have white

White

However,

oqe color

egg layers

eggs and those

area may have a strong

ence for

for

is between

adult

males weigh

2.7 kg (6 lbs.).
The basic

-- White

and ear lobes;

females
(4.4

features

to meet local

conditions.

me
43

as
than

White
lay

Some of them will

Leghorns.

as many eggs as White

but will

Rocks,
breeds.

Leghorns,

eat more feed per egg

produced.
Distinguishing
vary

features

in color

from light

to dark brown;
red;

feathers

white

ear lobes
vary

to red,

combinations;
weigh

about

--

males weigh
crosses

weigh

weigh

about

2.3 kg (5 lbs.).

In ten

or

breeds

same weight

as egg breeds

another

egg breeds.
feathers

also
that

Rock (a heavy

such as a Cornish
another

White

day meat strains

breeds"
which

almost
reach

also

Some breeds

with

have dark

skins

many consumers

in

have more

of body weight

no meat breeds

the

than
dark
-don't

like.

If

able

in your

ical

to use males from the heavier

it

area,

breeds

for

are avail-

might

be econom-

meat production.

Dual-Purpose
Breeds

meat breed

breed,

reach

Meat breeds

meat per unit

at

weeks old when females

weeks these
20 weeks.

lbs.);

3.6 kg

with

are about
and males

brown-egg

of a White

they

1.8 kg (4 lbs.),

females

improved

until

They should

about

adult

breed)

of crosses

only

feature

A popular

thetic

4.5 kg (10 lbs.).

weigh

Meat
Breeds

times

about

males weigh

are

maturity.

is a cross

3.6 kg (8 lbs.);

weigh

to twelve

black

much less

about

females

eight

Some of the newer

(8 lbs.).

adult

Rocks and other

beige

brown,

about

Barred

Mature

be kept

Eggs

from almost

3 kg (6-l/2

Cornish,

medium-weight
or some-

Rock.

Present--

Generally,

are known as "synand are

to produce

the result

may include

eggs,

these

breeds

and the meat pro-

duced by them is a secondary

White

ation.

44

If

are used

you are concentrating

consider-

on producing
breeds
it

eggs,

evaluate

as you would

is meat that

layer

be more difficult,

will

be expensive

hens to maintain
specialized
to select

If

Chicks

the choice
because

the

it

When the

flock.

almost

always

should

are

hatchery

should

free
year
for

Starting a
New Flock

arrive

a current

source,
flock.

eggs are no more than

continuously.
either
tor

They will

by a broody

or

If

be hatched

you cannot

raised
breeds,
it

Day-old Chicks
Most countries

flock,

With heavier

(see below).

have commercial

45

and supplies
ordered

months

chicks

to arrive.

Sexed -- An expert examines

the chicks and disposes of
People who sex
most males.
chickens are about 95 percent accurate,
so expect a
few cockerels
in the flock.

layer

hen or an incuba-

time of the

the

cool

several

--

to have the

Straight-run,
or unsexed -Straight-run
chicks are half
males and half females.
This
is the way all chicks are sold
except specialized
layer breeds.

seven to ten

days old and have been kept

at the best

disease-

or use eggs from

Be sure that

Plan

be

may come in one of two ways:

Fertilized Eggs

commercial

pullorum

them are ready

Chicks

eggs from a neighbor

should

and when equipment

may take

diseases

Chicks

source.

at the

the chicks

and Newcastle

breeder

to the

the people

vaccinate

shipment.

chicks.

in warm and humid

transported

from a Salmonella

one of them.

day-old

possible,

Marek's

before

is wiser

while
If

far

supply
be kept

farmer.

chicks

Obtain

that

conditions

to keep poor-laying

meat and egg breeds

it

available,

breeds.

you want,

will

hatcheries

these

buy sexed chicks

unsexed

chicks

breeds,

males

as meat birds.

will

a
do.

can be

With smaller

such as the White

is best

for

to eliminate

all

Leghorn,
males as

soon as you can recognize

them (any-

where

weeks,

from three

to eight

de-

unless

you want

pending

on breed),

isoiate

and keep a few for

Layers

do not need roosters

to produce

eggs;

in

Coccidia

breeding.

are present

the different

around

fact,

ence of males may lower

to

uted

the presproduction.

strains

evenly

strain

everywhere

--

but

are not distrib-

and immunity

does not guarantee

to one
immunity

to the others.

Started Pullets
Young hens
who are about
started

are called

They will

day-old

to produce

but

saves

needed

raise

age.

started
they begin

as soon as they

equipment

as possible

about

the hatchery's

been fed properly,

vaccinated

Started
with

pullets

they

regfor

different

prevalent

coccidia

than your

strains
farm

using

an improved

progeny

disease

resistance

of the country

chicken

and some increase

rooster

well,

should

is

or four

with

the

in egg

days after

introduced,

be fertile

eggs for
a clay

had

hatching
pot

section

if

the rooster

of

can be kept

does.

days.

46

as described

If

and

Fertilized

can be kept

of Chapter

a healthy

the eggs laid

hens are good breeders.

the farm

came from possibly

you can ob-

to produce

Three

may come down

since

to

or meat potential.

come from good stock?

coccidiosis

where

cared

If

hens.

five

rooster

have the pullets

and otherwise

and do they

be ex-

the eggs.

is enough for
consider

one,

you will

to fertilize

country

tain

Know as much
--

rooster

fifteen

parasites

management methods
ularly

eggs

should
for

of disease.

One

to laying

pullets

and signs

need a rooster

and

to incubate

closely

To have more chicks

arrive,

the time

the chicks

Started

amined very

Hatching
Chicks

months)

cost much more

chicks,

and the farmer

and/or

to six

to or have already

laying

pullets.
than

(four

cool

in the marketing

9 (Pa 160).

Eggs

in the pot up to five

refrigeration

in

is available,

eggs can be kept

15.5O C (60'

Use clean,

F).

eggs from several

because

not all

fertile

eggs.

size,

hens if

fertile

hens will

treat

be average

or develop

In general,

do because

bred

out of them.

less

than

a broody

broodiness

a year

old)

A broody

often

hen ruffles

ers,

stays

on her nest

turn

to it

quickly

She is not as docile

move her or take
hens are broody
or four

hen (the

ones.

takes

her;

the

You should

of them female

it

about

Do this

fresh

container

the better)

side

every

tip
it

days,

may help

water

new eggs and eat the old

47

she is out,

from the nest

water.

be attached

and
to the

box so she can't

In very
litter

if

The water

dry

to sprinkle

on the

but never

and feed

While

should
over.

the incubation
become accustomed

of the nest
it

at the same time

be upset

any feces

provide

20 minutes

and will

is changed.

clean

Put a

to the
at dawn

to the routine

location

and

to eat and exercise

She will

eggs on a nest

from

chicks

her out

period.

keep water

be.

the

allowing

day throughout

three

laying,

pen day and night,

every

Do this

the eggs are

brooding

no
you

depends

male.

and at 2 pm. for

and

she becomes broody.

Always

half

If

fatter,

more than

seven or eight

each time.

at night.

at dusk.

until

re-

one by setting

eating

expect

to

pen in a quiet

on the nest

provide

10 to

will

you try

when needed,

is protected

it

Set about

Keep the hen confined

off.

her eggs.

to develop

in a small

If

(see

after

the hatch

half

hens

as usual

hatching

better

her feath-

taken

peck your hand if

evening

hen,
lice

The sooner

10 to 15 eggs,

do not

and will

if

set for

breeds

(females

as older

do.

healthy

pen.

for

eggs under

on her size.

hen.

has been

Pullets

make as good mothers

that

7, p. 126).

15 fertilized

cracks

hens from improved

won't

three

in the brooding

number of eggs she can cover

Select

can try

out of reach

her and the nest

Chapter

(see below).

will

just

When you have a broody

produce

shape and without

containers

of the nest

possible,

Eggs should

normal

in small

up to ten days at

climates,

a little

under

the eggs,

on the eggs themselves.

the hen will

In most cases,

eggs and keep them moist

to leave

In this
straight

up off

she doesn't

hen will
to eat.

lift

the eggs,

her

and body,

For small

making

have any tucked

her wings
Let

the nest
carefully

case,

and put her out.

later.

On the 7th day of incubation

(10th

day for

you can use a candle

for

fert-ility

while

(see p. 54).
may

so handle

embryos,

have cracked

shells'

chicks
not

should

disturb

period

of that

remove all

Dispose

shells.
can't

free

they

never

clean

litter

for

point

chicks

are ready

time,

from other

Other

incubation

be

reasons
for

educa-

or unavailability
sources

In order

of

when they

to succeed

in

you must have these

Selected

@ A source
l

that

clean,

A means of humidity
clean

are from hens ideally

of eight

At this

to eighteen

hens and,

brooding.

and parents

if

possible,
of these

the characteristics

48

fertile

eggs

of heat

More specifically,

Provide
for

chicks

greater

could

incubation

purposes

from the shell;

the nest.

include

chicks

basics:

eggs and broken

do well.

want

bring

which

elsewhere.

tional

your

you will

will

chicks

are wanted.
until

of weak chicks

themselves
will

could

ends in the

unhatched

more
the

eggs is to produce

than

obtained

Do

At that

to hatch

need to incubate

when grown,

returns

that

to hatch.

do the job

are no such hens

you want

you will

which,

or malformations.

day.

or if

to incubate

there

the hen on the nest

the hatching
evening

eggs

and those

there

The main reason:

day of incubation,

begin

around,

hens will

one

eggs artifically.

Remove all

eggs carefully.

On the 21st

for

embryo inside,

eggs without

If

eggs,

the hen is out

Remamberthat

be a delicate

nicely.

brown eggs)

to test

numbers of eggs,

or more broody

sure

between

or put her back 20 minutes

white'eggs

Incubation

the

by herself.

a brcod

Occasionally,
refuse

turn

control
fertiie

between

eggs
the ages
These

months.
sisters,
hens,
desired

brothers,

should
in the

have

1
I

Since

chicks.
infertile
eral

one hen may produce

use eggs from sev-

eggs,

hens.

In order

for

a rooster

to be fertile,
access

to the hens for

days prior

Again,

brothers,
sired
rapid

.growth

disease

saving

This

which

can be

resistance

to

or egg size.

The more factors

the slower

you select

the progress

For the purpose

will

of rapid

and simplicity

for,

The daughters

will

kept

progress

the following

lay

with

ideal

lay

excellent
lay

properly

results.

100 or more
and will

the same disease

under

chicken

male whose sisters

of the country

be.

hatching.

60 eggs per year

bring

nearly

the unbegin

of a country

250 eggs will

eggs if

of

have been re-

eggs for

averages

an improved

egg production,

rates,

Two weeks after

roosters

The cross

have the de.

those

moved from the village,

generations

should

of high

wanted

of eggs for

characteristic

a history

must have
four

except

breeds.

Step 4 --

the sisters,

and parent

df the rooster

improved

eggs
at least

to collection

incubation.

in the village

have

resistance
If

chickens.

conditions,

kept

they may

125 to 150 eggs.

is

recommended:
Step 1 --

Acquire

Since

breeders

destroy

males of egg production

at the time
commercial
source

from

breed.

an improved
commercial

roosters

is

of roosters.

Selection

the

flocks

of hatching,
breeder

4%

most

a
an ideal

Selection

They will

hatching

is important
First

be one day old when you get

them .

results.

Step 2 --

out

given

If

possible,

find

from farmers

which

chickens

the most eggs.

Step 3 --

lay
Cull

country

out all

49

to achieve

priority

should

to eggs from hens which

between

males

of good eggs for

eight

and eighteen

of age.

This

is because

interior

and shell

quality

good
be

are

months
the size,
of eggs

from this

age group

to be good for

hatching.

look

at the shell

nate

any eggs which

dirty

or misshapen.

to determine

is to lay

table.

Eliminate

What you have left

Next,

The best way

are typically
which

are

the shape of a round ball:

It

may have some specks

deposits

0
same size

at both

which

all

right

if

is smaller

the size
than

Bacteria
the

ends:

after

the size

shell

which

within

105'

F.

yin2

baskets

structure:

:[I>
50

by dipping

chlor-

of water)

a rust

at

metal

or containers

leave

hours

them in

(500 parts

parts

Quarternary

penetrate

Clean eggs

Do not use iron

they will
eggs

sentence.
two to five

solution

ine per million

have uneven

of the per-

the egg is laid.

a chlorine

is

of the specks

on eggs will

the egg shell

0
those

This

iod at the end of this

are nearly

of calcium

on the outside.

can be sanitized

Eliminate

like

are cracked,

those

those

look

this:

20 or so eggs on a

Eliminate

should

Elimi-

closely.

which

shaped
nearly

is most likely

dip-

because

residue

on the

ammonia is quite

effective

as a disinfectant.

500 parts

per million

Use

and dip eggs

into

a solution

which

than

the eggs.

In either

is warmer
case remove

the eggs from the solution

and do

not handle

are dry.

them until

they

box with

Incubator
Management

thermostat
to-read
tions

A hen on a nest
constant
turns

body heat

tions

of eggs provides
and moisture,

incubation

mimics

condi-

the.rmometer
of degrees

A good incubator

is an insulated

should

glass

through

window

and controlling

A tray

filled

l------

thermometers:

chamber

wet bulb
dry bulb

egg tray

LI
L,

humidity
control
water pan
I--

I
Kerosene-Heated

Incubator

51

that

easy-

shows fracIdeally,

have a small,
which

to read

and a means of mea-

suring

humidity.

source,

accurately.

an incubator

provided

in a nest.

heat

and a high-quality,

the thermometer,

and

Good

the eggs frequently.

artificial

a regulatable

with

humidity.
water

to generate
The humidity

should

be

the necessary
should

be

measured

using

a wet thermometer.

A wet thermometer
dinary

is

thermometer

simply

with

cloth

inserted

or a thermometer

a source

of water

wrapped

a piece

and the bulb

the water.

The incubator

tilation

use.
coal

a strong

clean

embryos

at least

once every

shorter

ven-

day so that
val.

tar

for

fumes that

three

run it

the

rotate

resi-

or bought

days to practice

ting

the temperature,

37.8

- 38.3O C (100 - 101'

hatching

well-ventilated

,hould
but not

Once the internal

- 38.3'

the hatching

at
it

eggs inside.

Pencil

an x on the upper

side

the tray

a quarter

This
of

on different
Keep an

of the incubator.
record

of temperatures,
and which

of the tray

is

turn

the eggs.

temperatures

time

numbered

is in front.

for

white

eggs and on the 10th day

for

brown

eggs,

to test

is
F),

it

to

On the 7th day of incubation

room.

c (100 - lOlo

If

even out the effects

side

the

x as a guide

of each turning

Then

inter-

is lost.

will

help

each

closing

so no heat

rotate

accurate

be in a

temperature

Turn

night

you turn

sides
at

F).

drafty

but

of the eggs

each time

eggs in the incubator.

The incubator

hours,

each long

the eggs 180'.

uneven

regula-

keeping

eight

the position

door

square,

can kill

empty for

be turned

are better.

Use the pencilled

disinfecting

When heated,

to the shell

Remove the tray,

incubator

and chicks.

an incubator,

intervals

the

the eggs an odd number of times

before

Once you have built

37.8

The eggs should

do not use phenol,

or pine

dues release

place

lining.

the incubator

disinfectant

an incubator.

least

of

should

in the in-

the eggs prevents

embryo from sticking

in

or fill

and keep them filled.

are alternated

Warning:
tar

provided

Turning

as well.
Thoroughly

with

cubator,

inside

above

placed

have some means of adjustable

of water

the receptacles

the end of the

thermometer

a tray

in

placed

with

around

an or-

the lower

end of the thermometer

water,

Place

p. 54).

place

the eggs for

embryo inside.
52

fertility

When handling

remember that

of the eggs.

you can use a candler

there
If

(see

the eggs,

may be a delicate
there

is no embryo,

the egg may be edible

the air

that

vents

millimeters

is no larger
(3/8

the humidity

also

help

next

The size

in.).

space will

than

of

gauge

for

maximum air

three

incubator
ature

if

about

days,
there

is no viewing

the dry bulb

day,

day

should

18th

day

21 days and 6 hours

have completed

in the
these

late

which

hatch

incubator

increase

area

available

smaller,

for

have cracked
temperature

crease

to 38.9'

humidity.

remove

Increase

shells.

surface

if

embryos or that

On the 18th
water

or not,

day,

area

the
F).

double

the

Open all

to inincubator

you should

If

one tray,

the temperature

open the
broken

or incompletely
distribute

the

to 35' C

Remove any shell

for

has

in them and gradually

to the chicks.

are ready

21 days

the incubator

reduce
F).

may

to those

After

on time.

evenly

(95'

setting

genetically

eggs.

exactly

have been shown

chicks

stuck

C (102'
available

hatched

chicks

in the day;

and unhatched

more than

it.

edible

eggs without

surface

evaporation;

decrease

Whether
all

the water

all

and remove all

shells
shown,

will

hatching

iater

chicks

and 6 hours,

than

the chicks

Some chicks

until

to be inferior

space is larger

to

after

incubator.

not hatch

the air

temperature

Ideally,

to hatch.

14th

If

window.

99O F.

begin

A candled egg showing normal

air space during incubation.

the

to check the temper-

On the 21st
7th day

and for

do not open the

except

Decrease

in the incubator.

circulation.

On the 19th day,

space in the egg (shown by

the candler)
the air

provided

brooding.

fragments

The chicks

then

Day 21
Day 15

Twenty-one-

Davs of Chick

Development

tric

interior

A candler

light

a light

a case or box with

light

through

hole

a circular

so that

and look

a candler.
source

in

Usually

in diameter.

light

source

is a 25-to

bulb,

but you can use a slide

60-watt

pro-

54

rotate,

for:
-- Thin blood vessels
from a dark red spot
egg has been ferand the chick has
developing.

Cracked shells
-- The candler
will
reveal cracks that can't
be seen otherwise.

the
light

the contents

in the

Embryos
emerging
mean the
tilized
started

3 cm

in.)

in a darkened

shining

(l-1/8

(elec-

or even a candle.

Turn the eggs quickly

room.

by using

encloses

torch)

flashlight

Use the candler

You can get a good view of an

egg's

a powerful

jector,

Candling
Et%s

Mold or rot -- Various colors

on or in the egg, or its
smell are signs of moldy
or rotten
eggs.

Always
handling

wash your

hatching

hands before

eggs.

Brooding
Chicks
Small

to a broody

After

she has set on a few eggs for

should

Shape and movement of yolk -Yolks noticeably

out of their
usual central
position,
stuck
to their
shell,
uneven in
color or of abnormal shape
indicate
poor quality
eggs.

slip
rest

accept

there
there

Size of air cell -- An air

cell more than 1.25 cm
(l/2 in.)
deep may indicate
a bad egg.
55

her and, if

them,

give her the

is no broody
are more than

they will

artificially.

This
their

a dozen or

is a critical

in

kept

warm and have water

times.

lives

hen about,

have to be brooded

time
at all

she

In the evening,

under

reject

for.

and remove the eggs.

so chicks,

Discolored
whites -- Clouded
or streaked
whites reduce
egg quality.

days,

chicks.

a few chicks

If
or if

hen to care

two or three

she doesn't

Blood spots -- Although

blood spots in eggs are harmless, many people find them
unappetizing,
so don't market eggs that contain
them.

can be

given

at least
0

numbers of chicks

--

they must be
available

their

Preparation

directions

following
If

the house

been used for

chickens

chickens

should

chicks

the chicks

disease

mix groups

problems

of chickens,

with

older

feeders,

waterers,

hoppers,

roosts

no visible
with

older

disinfectant,

days to dry out.

If

Depth
If

leaving

them with
let

litter

house.

Sweep walls,

floors

to remove dirt

scrub

with

water

with

a safe

lice

or mites

Warning:
any type
if

days so the chicks

if

ticks,

Possible

have been a problem.

careful

They can
Check with

local

authorities

to determine

which

insecticide

to use,

don't

eat
in the

of young chicks.
and install

at least

and

3 day; before

that

absorbs

of course,

moisture

Availability

litter.

litter

Any or-

must be considered.

materials,
in absorption

ranked
capacity,

are:
0

Peat moss -- Usually

pensive,
if available

Chopped oat straw

Softwood

chips

@ Hardwood

chips

to humans and chickens

used improperly.

the first

management --

approximately

when using

material,

arrive.

material

and cost,

(see below).

during

the equipment

can be used for

the house

insecticide

systems

the brooder

ganic

mois-

can cause problems

Deep litter

then

paper

Sawdust

the chicks

to house

of insecticide.

be dangerous

and

and dust,

repairs

Spray

Be very

three

test

and disinfectant.

Make any necessary

and equipment.

from the

ceiling

with

5 to

litter

it

Replace

old

capability
is used for

digestive

litter

deep on the floor.

cover
it.

them dry in the sun.

Remove all

sawdust

two

depends on its

ture-absorption

equipment

The house and

Spread

of litter

of

available;

have at least

10 cm (2 to 4 in.)

boxes,

possible,

should

and

solution

if

use water.

do not

and rinse

water.

disinfectant,

equipment

Wash them,
Clean

a two percent

otherwise,

Remove all

and other

with

a mild

On the

day, wash the walls

arrive.

nesting

dirt.

fresh

floor

especially

birds.

from the house.

a strong

before,

have

be removed at least

a month before
To avoid

and equipment

carefully.

and follow

56

very exat all.

Chopped rice

straw

Chopped wheat

The crop

straw

of a chicken

a substantial

Softwood sawdust -- (only

after four weeks of age)

feel

More often,

a few pieces

Hardwood sawdust -- (only

after four weeks of age)

on the lower

Shredded

chicken

maize

(corn)

stalks

feed

Rice hulls
Groundnut

(peanut)

Shredded
Dried

sugar

pineapple

Coffee

soft

cane stalks

then eats

and water

bird

hulls

it

will
caught
If

and drinks

will

The result

the

normally,

be clogged

cure for

--

there

of straw

and mushy crop.

practical

waste

will

end of the crop.

the straw.

shells

has eaten

amount of straw

hard.

be only

that

above

is a large,
There is no

a crop-bound

is best

to eat it.

Ground maize (corn) cobs,

or husks -- may
shucks
present mold problems
Broadleaf
leaves -- may
present mold problems
Sand --

use as a last

Watch for

mold in litter

good litter

materials

resort

since

most

are also

good

mediums for mold due to their

retention
straw

characteristics.

used should

the sun.
it

Chopping

moisture

because

dried

the straw,

than unchopped

NOTE:

Do not use fine

the chickens
be caught

although
its

absorbs

more

and can be turned

may eat it

Start
on its

straw.

ually
straw

--

a litter

depth

of about

absorption
increase

depending

capacity,
it

until

it

15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in.)

and some may

or bound in their

with

7.5 to 10 cm (3 to 4 in.),

more

grass

Chicken

in

increases
it

easily

Crop-bound

Any

be well

may be difficult,

usefulness

water

end of a laying

crops.

litter

57

cycle.

and gradis about

deep at the

Don't

get packed down --

turn

let
it

frequently.
should

In humid climates,

be done each day.

wet litter
lime

litter

In dry litter,
up to kill
fly

wire

Replace

immediately.

to moist

this

Add powdered
to help

dry

it.

enough heat builds

most bacteria,

worms and

next

electric

light

a heat

source.

are used in place

of

hens to

hover)

and protect

dering.

Either

warm (the

a kerosene

Bulb Brooder

for

or an

can be used as

Charcoal

stoves

too frequently

that

and distributes

have

to be

retains

can be made of wood,

either

or hung from

placed

on legs

When using
than

electricity,

have a vent

fumes to escape.

50 Chicks

58

heat

metal,

should

lamp with

It

is a hood

woven bamboo or sheet

other

from wan-

about

bulb

from

glass

-- A hover

beams.
chicks

to the hot

Hover design
evenly.

keep chicks

Light

crowding

to keep chicks

practical.

Brooders
Brooders

it

to be tended

larvae.

brood

around

any heat

and
source

the hover
on top to allow

hanging

wires

sheet

metal

cone

set on bricks

Mlm\'
(3-l/5
Colonv

Brooder

Place
bute

litter

feeders

Electric

light

lamps,
litter,

beneath
bulbs
for

brooders

of chicken

for

and waterers

be substituted
(Note:

Suitable

especially

100 Chicks

and distri-

base and careful

evenly.

to avoid

(200 watts)
kerosene

are a major

house fires.

can

lamps.

solar

cause

heat

heat

dry

tank,

level

sources

can include

and wood chips.

storage

there

If

solar

must be a means

such as a water

sand or rocks.

age is necessary

59

is a must

kerosene.)

heat

is used,

of heat

handling

spilling

Other

Kerosene

when near

must have a solid,

ft.)

for

This
night

storwarmth.

Basket

Brooders

Brooder

guard

outside

the hover

a brooder
guard
hover,

--

A temporary

or chick
allows

guard.

heat.

made of solid

material,

to reduce

has no comers

A brooder

near

floor
where

It

Brooder

usually

guard

temperatures

perature

is

floor

such as cardchicks

the brooder

As the flock
should

be

expanded.

the

drafts.

up and smother.

grows,

them to get away

from excessive
board,

pile

area is called

keeps the chicks

but

fence

heat

It
can

60

--

5 cm (2 in.)

from the

and 30 cm (1 ft.)
source.

Start

Read temfrom the

the brooding

35O C (95'

F) for

the first

and reduce

the temperature

at

week,
by 2.8'

( 5' Fj each successive

week by ad-

Brooding

justine

or height

days chicks

the heat

source

feeders

and will

of the hover.

Too cold

will

The first

pick

area
so it

to tell

from the rest

is wise

a
of the

to have feed

scattered

over a large

newspaper

or cut cardboard

down on the floor

few

at anything

not be able

feeding
floor,

--

Put

area.

boxes

and scatter

on them to supplement

feed

the chick-size

feeders.

.JTnst right
2.5
(1

chicks'

Too hot
Chick-size

Brooder Temperatures
of chicks distributed
brooder heat source.

-- Top view
around

For their
will

first

three

need about

feeding

weeks,

100 chicks

2.5 m (100 in.)

space --

33 cm (13 in.)
61

Feeder

four

long

feeders,
should

of
each

be enough.

backs

Brooding

waterers

--

use four

waterers

made of small

clay

jars

saucers
cans

or tin

cans inverted

or the bottoms

Increase

of waterers

grows

(see chart,

cause

chicks

in waterers
to allow

drown

easily,

must not
chicks

if

are to do well.

they

at least

number

clean

as possible
Distribute

throughout

openings

first

enough

be more than
waterer

Keep lip
at level of
chicks'
backs

Disease
water

(1 in.)

around
It

Chickens
20 minutes.

around

is better

slatted

or wired

them dry.

need water

every

15 to

They must have a con62

should

from a
3.5 m

quickly

when
Keep

dry

and

to place

rocks,

the

bricks

platforms

or

than on

Remove and replace

wet

as soon as possible.
of brooding

equipment

the equipment

the hover

a good chance

and

no chicks

waterers

on flat

often

their

on litter.

waterers

position

During

can start

the area

under

evenly

1 m (3 ft.)

spilled

Distribute

Waterer

waterers

is

Placement

hole 1.25 cm (0.5 in.)

from open end of can

keep the area

rusty

thereafter.

clean.

boards

as

and replace

and not more than

litter

on flat

and preferably

Keep waterers

week or two,

litter.

waterers

water

Change the

the house.

(10 ft.)

Place

clean

ones.

the water.

Chick-size

once,

each day.

or be pushed

of fresh,

twice,

Be-

be large

to fall

supply

tin

as the flock
page 100).

tinuous
water

in

of larger

(see page 101).

and size

into

For 100 chicks,

to give
to eat.

of waterers
to keep litter

--

evenly
all

chicks

Shift

the

and feeders
clean

and dry.

feeder

Layout

of Brooding

Equipment

all

Brooding the Chicks

A few hours
arrive

completely

waterers,
and put

water

some feed

cardboard.

Before

the chicks

ens against

any disease,

in the

from the appropriate

fill

the feeders

on the paper

The temperature

the hover

should

be 35'

When the chicks

them and dip

to be sure

gets

a drink.

Vaccinate

this

disease
hasn't

Check with

F).
count

local

that

authorities

disease
against

obviously

them for

(see page 119)

been done.

duce that

at least

(Note:
for

63

instead

the brooder

source,

in your
of pro-

If

any are
The

remove them.

whether

will

tell

is

you

temperature

they huddle
it

Watch the chicks

it.)

behavior

heat

for

you may intro-

two hours.

ill,

If

government

serum,

chicks'
correct.

chick-

get approval

is not present
live

for

it

that

and

vaccinating

you vaccinate

area using
tecting

the beak of each one

a waterer

if

disease

under

arrive,

If

ministry.

or

C (95'

into

Newcastle

recommendations

schedules.
before

, put clean

vaccination

is

close

too cold;

to the
if

they

crowd

the brooder

hot.

Check the distribution

chicks

and see that

and water
for

guard,

often

the first

it

is too

eating

of the

every

three

24 hours,

For the rest

hours

lives,

including

will

eat through

light

,c

stage,

the night

is available

They should
for

never

(the

same is true

during

daylight).

because

be without
for

feed

mature

serving
see if
size

If

utes

for

most likely

feeders.
feeders

half

full.

of coccidiosis

there

is

(see page 122).

a serious

outbreak,

the flock

if

recom-

least

(see

day just

ob-

they

about

the same
so,

ations

the

(90'

7th day,

feeders

is

the temperature

on,
If

fill
chicks

day,

(see chart,

the
are

(see page 120).

to 31.1'

lower

the

C (85'

F).

provide

to 26.6'

larger

C (80'

lower

the
F).

to 23.9'

C (75'

recommended

by local

authorities,

against

Newcastle

guard.

temperature
vaccinate
64

pox vaccin-

page 106).

On the 28th day,

the feed in the

From

available.

fowl

to 29.4'

On the 21st

the

that

Remove the brooder

F).

more than ten minallow

have grit

the temperature

temperature

sick.

is at

in the feeders.

On the 14th day,

one that

for

be sure

may be recommended

Decrease

good feed.
--

grit

On the

out feathers
If

is

then on, always

grow,

take

12 weeks old.
On the 6th day,

While

chicks

From then

looking

until

On the 3rd day,

to finish

begin

coccidiosis

and receiving
still

chicks

signs

avail-

times.

The feed should

are from good stock,

inactive

have water

Be alert

the same rate.

Watch for

should

action.

every

are all

probably

stands

at all

out as you do

immediate

and are putting

healthy

able

there

they

chicks

Chickens

water

afternoon,

birds

authorities

the flock.

at about

the waterers

so.

for

page 123).
Spend time

change their

On the 4th day,

at a time

a coccidiostat,

mended by local

chicks

continuously.

more than 30 minutes

contain

completely

rinsing
the brooding

or

of the chickens'

at dawn and in the early

the night.
During

remove the paper

cardboard.

they have feed

--

well,

Lower
F).
If

disease

and bronchitis.

Remove any sick

On the 35th
vaccinating

for

appropriate

Place

waterers

or wire
nighttime

post

C (70'

temperatures

F).

do not

drinking

water

should

laying

have been vacci-

year.

Moving
several

for

yond ten.- weeks,

need larger

they
they

feeders

are kept
probably

be-

Layer

will

if

page 106).
Watch the

for

house equip-

vaccinate

for

--

On the

fowl

pox,

authorities.

On the 52nd day, vaccinate

for

and treat

outbreaks

of worms,

coccidiosis,

increase

parasites

and other

health

chart,

castle

65

The figure

are high.
layer

calcium

recommended by local

flock

problems.

continuously

management schedule

42nd day,

(see chart,

They need

and their

daylight,

ment arrangement.

If

weeks.

and feed available

care,

weeks of age.

them when they

laying

requirements

by ten

their

may cause them to stop

shows a typical

be sold

in the

are laying

during

day (see page 120),

should

for

be kept

same house or cage during

they may not need any more special

as they

to a

freeze.

water
on the 35th

the birds

Layer
Management

Meat Breed
Management
nated

(see

or a laboratory

Layers

Once meat birds

fall

Make sure

does not

perform

If

you may remove

a week later.

or take

there

analysis.

remove the brooder.

the brooder

mortem examination

page 128))
veterinarian

Lower the

Even in cold weather,

that

and fowl

on a slatted

to 21.1'

this,

are more than one or two,

(see page

mesh platform.

temperature
below

you may begin

bronchitis

if

cholera,
120).

day,

If

birds.

disease.

On the 84th day,

feed and water

page 106).

New-

Begin

space
lighting

(see

grit

and calcium

hoppers,

waterers

l-l
roosts

nest boxes
on darkest
side of
house

11
-feeders

I
Layout

of Layer

if

wogra
page

House

appropriate

(see

you are going

69).

hens in them this

In the --15th week, if you plan

to use roosts,
put them in the house.
In the 16th week,
culled
begin

birds

show signs

In the 19th week,

in the house

until

dead or
of worms,

In the 20th week,

laying

ration

pullets

place

nesting

look

ration

are laying.
a laying

ration

(fed

to layers)

and a growers

ration

(fed

to growing

birds)

shouid

start

is

the

Chickens

in it.

not be fed extra

50% of the flock

change to a
sick.

(One does

between

amount of calcium

laying.

(see page 140).

that

50% of the flock

The main difference

so the pullets

get used to them before

all

if

week.

place

not have to change to laying

medication.

boxes

to use cages,

calcium

until

to lay.)

In the 21st week_, white-egg

Cull

breeds

If

chickens
66

should
might

begin

laying.

start

laying

The
at 16 to

22 weeks of age if
program

it

the lighting

for

is wrong.

Look for

any eggs outside

Hens found

nests.
places

should

to a nest
hens begin

laying

laying,

be disturbed

they

egg birds

begin

Egg production
about

determined

fall

peak at

gradually

today

appear

place

feathers)

adult

lives

to molt

a period,
There

again.
which

prices

general

and seasonal
layers

replacement

6-month

is

poultry

making

decisions.
price

considerations,

available,

will

sources

help

This,

preparations

laying

in

of course,

for

time

to

the 5- to

period.

Lighting

a flock

Light

economically.

a direct

egg and feed

Increasing

factors

for

is

a stimulus

impact

day length

influence
day length

Nor-

Thus,

has a negative

under

has

has a positive

on egg laying.

weather

natural

country

where

begins

laying

are high,

longer

in spring.

67

which

on egg production.

12 months

cases,
costs

local

data on breed

rearing

is

and it

must be done in sufficient

their

management,

are kept

a flock

factors

considerations.

In certain

if

used,

allow

how long

breeder,

up to 15

feed and market

seasonal

and re-

and start

produce

may

to lay eggs

and environmental

including

of lay.

than

are several

will

These include

mally,

(lose

can influence

of layers

before

and historical

to

layers

throughout
molt

with

decision-making.

improved

rather

to consult

history,

of laying.

Genetically

breeds

to replace

Checking

55 to 70 eggs at the end of

12 months

Leghorns

by many factors

authorities

85 to 95 eggs per day per

about

flock

wise

brown-

to lay.

should

100 hens and then

for

The time

in any way.
should

conditions,

months.

not

In the 23rd or 24th week,

Under good

months.

some heavier

level,

Once

should

six

to keep them

lay up to 18 months at an economical

gently

an egg in it.

another

management

the

in other

be introduced

with

may be economical

Decreasing
influence.

lighting,

hen not near

the equator

eggs as the days grow

She tapers

off

as

the days become shorter

in the

fall.

The new breeds

respond

the same

way when kept

in natural

light.

This

means that

on a natural
production

all

schedule

will

If

hit

If

you want your

duce best

of the

during

to the length

brooder
lanterns

of light

during

a day for

before

or if

suffer.

they receive

the length

of the day

But,

egg production
if

pullets

weeks old are exposed

under

This

egg prices

you can take

are

bulb

If

advantage

lighting

buy chicks

21 or 22 weeks before

the shortest

and hatch

day of the year

21 in the northern

about

July

for
for

160 square

light

bulbs
sunset

bulb
feet.

will
The cor-

time.

lighting.

and waterers.
get very

dirty

of one

square

feet.

is sufficient
For large

to ensure

feeders

clean

to

the natural

each four

of light,

day will

68

use kerosene

proper

tribution

If

18-25

off,

or amount of light

a 40-watt

house --

That means

of day until

need the equivalent

watt

bulbs

hemisphere,

June 21 in the southern).

the flock

(Decem-

should

peak production

intensity

of

When the

or after

use more bulbs

or

length

at the desired

Thus,
for

the length

lengthen

You will

pro-

of natural

sunrise

you can

and pullets

turned

is necessary

are even throughout

the year,

starting

rect

(monsoon rains

or electric

result

to lengthening

can harm them.

is

day so that

21

they

Chicks

availa-

condi-

by heavy winds),

artificially

will

before
days, they may start
physically
ready to maintain
duction.

op-

weather

are 21 weeks old.

need 14 to 16

is decreasing,

ber

they

If

local

have a decreasing

of high

or chick

manipulating

the day.

Layers

timum production.
less,

consider

day.

of their

in the

does not match

are prohibitive

accompanied

in others.

periods

19-26

conditions

or if

tions

and

timing

market

bilities,

hens to pro-

pay attention

prices,
hours

prices

this

local

peak

year, thus causing overproduction

and low prices
in some seasons,
and high

January

south.

hens in an area

at the same time

scarcity

in the north,

areas,

even dis-

especially

onto

Lamps and light

in a chicken

them once a week.

you know how long

be when the pullets

the natural
are 21

weeks old and you decide

artificial

lights

determine
needs.
help

your

will

you in this

Your breed of chickens will

begin laying during the 22nd
week of age and will
be producing at peak levels
for
about three months.
Their
peak three months will
be from
the 27th through the 40.th weeks.
This will
occur during the months
desired using the following
lighting
program:

be necessary,

artificial

The following

4.

use of
light

example will

decision:

Assumptions:
1.

Egg prices
be highest
of October,
December.

are projected
to
during the months
November and

to the

2.

You are in the southern

hemisphere.

3.

The longest
The shortest

6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21

vide

chick

supplier

them on March 20.

from the day length

Dates
Mar.
May
May
May
May
May
June
June
June
June
July
July
July
July
July
Aug.
Aug.

you need to count

20 - Apr. 30
1 - May 7
8 - May 14
15 - May 21
22 - May 28
29 - June 4
5 - June 11
12 - June 18
19 - June 25
26 - July 2
3 - July 9
10 - July 16
17 - July 23
24 - July 30
31 - Aug. 6
7 - Aug. 13
14 - Aug. 20

69

back

time you need day old chicks.

Assume your

day is December 21.

day is June 21.

Weeks of Age
l-5

First,

can proWorking

back

at 21 weeks:

Day Length
Brooder

(hours)

Lights
16
15-314
15-l/2
15-l/4
15
14-314
14-l/2
14-i/4
14
13-314
13-l/2
13-l/4
13
12-314
12-l/2
12-l/4

Now, you want

into

production.

length

is

21.

the natural

Since

chickens
tion

after

21.

begin

de-

want

the

you don't

we must begin
lighting.

-- August

day

Beginning

the natural

lighting

day length

21

14 hours:
Day Length

Dec.
Dec.
Dec.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Jan.
Feb.
Feb.

21
Natural
22 - 28
29 - Jan. 4
5 - Jan. 11
12 - Jan. 18
19 - Jan. 25
26 - Feb. 1
2 '- Feb. 8
9 - Feb. 15

(hours)-

- 14
14-114
14-l/2
14-3/4
15
15-l/4
15-l/2
15-314
16

For a step-up
portant

From February

15 on, keep a

that

program

day length

not be made too rapidly

can result
tive

system.

it

is im-

increases
because

this

in damage to the reproducAn increase

ments of 15 to 20 minutes
is

--

The day length was artificially

increased
beginning
on December 22.
If this were not
done, egg production
would
have slowed down substantially.
This series of light
increases
is called a "step-up"
program.

21, assume
on December

objectives:

and no

is needed.

December

has accomplished

The day length was increasing

after
the 21st week, the time
when we wanted to stimulate
If this had
egg production.
come at another time of year,
we might have had to use
artificial
lights
beginning
at the 21st week.

21 - December 21, the nat-

artificial

sometime

to use arti-

increases

cycle,

The day length was artificially

decreased up to the 21st week.
This part is often called a
"step-down"
lighting
program.
The step-down program prevented the chickens from
starting
to lay eggs too
early.

Thus:

day length

the end of

of the equator),
will

schedule

the following

in the south-

due to the decreasing

ficial

August

to slow down in egg produc-

length,

is

(south

daylight

creasing.

Decem-

through

laying

This

until

day of the year

16 hours

the 12-month

December 21, the

ern hemisphere

--

day

21 is 12-l/4

increasing

After

longest

ural

steady

and you know the natural

daylength
ber

them

The natural

on August

hours

to bring

the maximum recommended.

in increper week

Forced Molting

Generally,

forced

not a procedure
After

a year's

a hen normally
then molts,
her

stops
About

she resumes

a lower

rate

resulting

Although

forced

but

at

vironmental

than with

in a drop

have-thinner

you feed new chickens

they

begin

flock

to lay

only

the molted

birds

eat more per day.

to start
There

seven weeks,

the old flock

full

at

if

replacement

able,
very

or if
high

months

in the period

a car engine

and puts

all

birds

It

usually

avail-

per day.

be

lights,
next

higher

to

is like

re-

begin

more

when the

at a rate

you are using

the first

breeds
feed

requirements.

Do not

two days,

two days

before

is un-

due to their

If

feed so they

on the

brown-egg

forced

to make it

a molt,

stop.

the first

the time

to force

to

of less

than 45 or 50 eggs per 100 birds

In such cases,

reduces

economical

molting

hens are producing

two to ten

molt

to recover

unless

Forced

is a

efficient.

such as

will

between

at a 50 percent

likely

production

building

could

aren't

egg prices

same schedule.
to molt,

birds

in the future.

a forced
needed

flock,

has resulted

time

perhaps

To force
when it

pay to keep the old

by that

one not

molt.

laying.

are times

which

there
or en-

in egg production

laying

level,

18 months of age and have a new one

ready

nutritional

stress

The situation

for

birds
sell

case for

the 6th and 8th month of production.

and molted
Most farmers

used in

is one in which

has been a severe

before.

egg layers.

A typical

molting

is

the most

is a procedure

seven weeks

in more breakage.

22 weeks before

it

some situations.

the year

will

However,

used for

advanced

and replacing

be larger

new pullets,but

genetically

She

laying,

than

The eggs will

shells,

laying.

shedding

feathers.

later,

egg production,

molting

give
finish

sunset.
day,

feed

then

the flock

for

the

them just
it

enough

two hours

Do not provide
provide

half

water

the nor-

mal amount on the second

day,

them a continuous

thereafter.

On the 5th day,

71

artificial

supply

and give

resume the lighting

program,
take

if

you use one.

about

bring

will

to eight

weeks to

them back to full

production.

The flock

six

It

should

another

six

produce

to eight

well

in production
future

--

culling

eggs.
As you gather

for

examine

months.

Their

combs will

wattles

ducing

chickens

called

culling.

you lessen
disease,

their

will

village

flocks

for

pen.

If

sick

birds.

the flock,

than 50 chickin a

recover,

recovered

they

chicken
it

obviously

chickens.

Examine

them closely,

from a laying
percent.
for

This

some layers

flock
takes

If

for

weeks,

for

will

be

they have
they

the yellow

bodies

is going

You can place

between

pubic

bones,

and four

begins,

sick

a good layer's
fingers

bet-

and pubic

may be a bit
from visiting

bones.

worn
the nest

will

the profits

experience,

72

weeks after

A hen that

comb, her wattles

lobes

will

vent

small,

puckered,

isn't
pale

scaly

be rough

laying

the obvious

have a shriveled,

dry and her

pauses

four

you can cull

non-layers.

by up to ten

go through

and moist.

eggs.

About

them to a veterinarian.
may increase

vents

several

soft

often.

often

to destroy

bones

and their

fingers

and dirty

pubic
be large,

in their

Her feathers

and

will

three

back to the

flocks,

their

bleached,

their

bright

ear lobes

ween her breastbone

but be careful

the disease

Culling

look

into
In

is better
or take

will

five

birds

they

In larger

oval

been laying

the waste

of less

an apparently

flock.

large,

of spreading

first

you can put sick

may carry

and pliable,

pigment

a flock's

watch

can rejoin

is

non-layers,

months,

special

and breastbones

birds,

laid.

be smooth and soft.

pro-

When you cull

and you reduce

During

--

from a flock

the chance

of feeding

ens,

or poorly

gently

be large,

The area between

Removing sick

eggs,

hens who have just

red and waxy,

Culling

them loses

laying
and

and ear

and dry,

her

yellow

and

abdomen hard

and fatty.

comb:

large,

red,

waxy

shriveled,
scaly

pa le,

eye ring and beak:

yellow pigment
present
wattles:

wattles:

soft,

smooth
Non-layer -

Good layer

vent:
\

large,
moist,

small, puckered,
dry, yellow

oval,
bleached

Non-layer

Good layer
HOW

to Tell

dry,
rough

a Good Layer

from a Non-layer

73

'

3 fingers

1 finger
Poor l.ayer

Good layer
Examining

Distance

Between

Pubic

Bones

Poor layer

Good layer

Examining.

Distance

Between

Pubic

Bones and Breast

74

Bone (Keel

Bone)

Vaccinations
-- The stress of
vaccinations
cannot be avoided,
but it can be reduced by
following
the right
schedule
and handling
the birds gently.

Other General
Management
Principles

Moving the flock -- If possible,

keep the birds in the same
house all of their lives.

Stress Factors
Chickens
will

not

tial.

produce

Examples
l

subjected

Damp litter
-- The smell of
ammonia given off by damp
litter
is a stress.
Also,
damp litter
is an ideal
medium for the growth of disease-causing
organisms.

to stress

at maximum potenof stress

Noises -- Barking
nearby automobiles
chickens.

are:
dogs and
frighten

New chickens
in the flock -During the early weeks of their
chickens in a flock
lives,
establish
a hierarchy
of
or pecking order.
dominance,
When new chickens are introduced to the flock,
the order
has to be re-established
over
several weeks while growth
New
and production
suffer.
birds in the flock also can
cause disease problems.

m Rats and predators

-- These
disturb
the flock as well as
eat chickens and feed.
l

Strange people in the house -If possible,

the same person
should attend the flock
every day throughout
the
chickens'
lives.
Other
than a veterinarian
or an
extension
agent, no visitors
should enter the poultry
They can view the
house.
flock through the windows.
This practice
not only
reduces stress,
it reduces
the chance of introducing
disease.
However, many
farmers will
have children
assist
in tending
the flock.
This is acceptable
as long
as it is also done on a
regular
basis.

@ Changes in routine
-- The
farmer should visit
the flock
at the same time each day.
75

Violent
weather -- Reduce the
effects
of storms by partly
windows with shutters,
d covering
burlap or mats.
Allow some
air circulation
for ventilation
and remove the window covers
as soon as the weather clears.

Very hot weather -- When the

temperature
in the chicken
house exceeds 32.2' C (90' F),
it is an extreme stress.
Above 37.8' C (100' F),
some chickens may die.

Cannibalism
-- Chickens may
attack
and even kill
other
chickens.

Decreased day length -Layers need at least 14

hours of light
to produce
at their
maximum.

a stress

In short,
with

each deviation

ment practices

If

advice

other

routine.

warning
It

can be kept
erels

unknown

causes.

Bury

lated

cockerels

as well
stress

should

to bother

mature

show rapid

This

occur

they

the females,
a

combs

of the flock

will

die suddenly;
signs

is not

the bodies

or

in the ground

flocks

or less,

an isolation

of 50 to 100

you may want to use

pen for

the period

In larger

of

operations,

this

a good practice.

Hot Weather

12 and 18

Mortality

obvious

chickens

you will

cover.

For small

Chickens
relief

cent

burn

or dogs

development.

between

to lose

chickens,

in

are

weeks of age.

Expect

a solid

who die of

animals

a deep pit

sickness.

creating

when their

and spurs

At

be iso-

Cockerels

situation.

will

with

because

as each other,

sexually

the cock-

mature.

from the females

begin

construct

outbreak.

the bodies

If wild

up buried

may be an

to eat obviously

or those

chickens

until

become sexually

maturity,
will

together

not

birds

have to either
Young male and female

This

diseased

dig

exceeds

of a severe

is best

the ground.

Males and Females

mortem exam-

per month seek veterinary

immediately.

early

chickens

a post

the mortality

one percent

from good manage-

to something

the daily

ination.

occurs

and whenever

are subjected
than

situation

them and perform

about

one perSome

per month.
others

of disease.

will

show

Remove

do not perspire

from heat --

pant

and hold

their

bodies.

their

wings

they
out from

When the temperature

exceeds

37.8'

may die

from heat

the chickens

instead,

for

C (100'

F),

drinking

open all

ventilation

Make sure

stroke.

have plenty

and cool

chickens
of shade

water.
areas.

Completely
Add

extra

waterers

or buckets

reduce

crowding.

should

be sprinkled

especially

if

Chickens

Chickens

water,

any deaths

occur.

itself

to

Placing
evergreen boughs
(such as pine) with needles,
leaves,
fresh-cut
green grass,
torn up newspapers,
etc.,
in
the pen when pecking begins
The chickto be a problem.
ens will be diverted
to
pecking at these, rather
than each other.

Improving

Treating

Spreading pine tar or other

non-toxic,
bad tasting
substances or commercial preparations
over the wounds
of pecked birds.

Always removing
from the flock.

Removing the most aggressive

birds from the flock temporarily.

in cages

with

on deep litter

deep litter

of water

and the

can be sprinkled

at mid-afternoon

to increase

evapor-

ation.

Cannibalism
An accidentally
with

blood

on it

sometimes
chickens

also
diet

protein

are growing
when there

by other
may start

birds.
when the

fed an

(especially
deficient

or

or mite

to prevent

a standard

cannibalism,

good management is of prime

the lower

ance.
the best
debeak
measures
l

action

problem

to take

occurs,

But other

may help.

These include:

and reduce
make it

beak and the tip

Other

if

the flock

of

farmers
starts

pecking.
Do not

is to

the chickens.

chickens

to cut a portion

beak off.

debeak only
Once a pecking

pecked birds

many farmers

practice

of the upper

import-

or mites.

eaeh other

feed wastage,

infesta-

lice

To prevent

--

from pecking

feathers

for

Debeaking

a salt
diet),

permanent
is a lice

Thus,

bird

be pecked,

are overcrowded,

inadequate

tion.

will

to death,

Pecking

and/or

injured

the diet.

to range
cannot
If

Reduction
of flock density
by expanding space available or removal of some birds.

for
pick

77

up food

chickens,

of both

they

are allowed

Debeaked

food.

a cannabalism

in range
tips

debeak if

chickens

from the ground.

problem

develops

cutting

top and bottom

the
beaks

or just

equally,
beak with
usually

a red-hot
solve

Layers
should
type

burning
iron,

put

chickens
they

older

will

debeaked.

should
start

mash, just

l/3

this

fed growing
of the top beak
feed and

for

specifically

debeaking

in

most countries.

Debeakers

may be

found

at poultry

extension

offices,

larger

poultry

or equipment
trical

devices

farms,
dealers.

are designed

and cauterize

with

and are quite

efficient

beaking

numbers

large

a red hot iron

birds
will

and the other

beaks

the feeder

78

take

debeaking,

the next

tender

just

knife

to cut

for

can

clippers,

similar

sharp
of the

of the lower.
the bleeding.,

can be debeaked

It

at least

also

to the beak to

and stop

ject.

kept

at any age.
To debeak baby chicks,

Press

a sharp

Where

to l/2

beak and the tip

After

of chickens

l/3

upper

to cut
de-

nail

Cut off

using

a hot blade
for

or another

Older

These elec-

chicks

sharp

it

finger,

is too expensive

with

knife

back

below.

be debeaked

cauterize

Tooperatives

index

For

the beak as shown

available,

device.

designed

is now available

of your

equipment

or not

eggs.

eat more easily.

Equipment

tip

the tongue

in the illustration

be debeaked

can scoop up-the

the

hold

cut and cauterize

Layer

producing

being

cut

cages

the top beak quickly.

birds,

with

in colony

For meat birds

so they

burn back

the problem.

be severely

before

back of the

or similar

ob-

two people,
to cauterize
feed

should

2.5 cm (1 in.)
from banging

it.
be

deep

two days to prevent

bottom.

one

against

the

213

Debeaking
for meat
and not
only if
tant to

-- The top beak should be cut back l/2 to 2/3 for layers and l/3
chickens while the bottom beak should be cut l/4 to l/3 for layers
Birds on an open range should be debeaked
at all for meat birds.
In this case, it is very impora problem with cannibalism
occurs.
debeak both top and bottom beaks equally.

Rat Control

in a small
entrance

Rats and mice are

enemies

of people

One rat

eats

adult
spread

raising

as much feed

chicken

every

disease,

day.

eat young

or near

as an

to rat

holes

They also

the perimeter

chicks

or feed

Snap traps

and locally

recommended

poisons

care

that

and children
Poison

chickens,
cannot
bait

but
other

take

animals

get at them.

should

inside

house corners

the flock.
effective,

and located

poultry.

and disturb
can be quite

or box with

be placed

79

an

at one end and an exit

the other

the financial

tunnel

tunnel
storage

poultry

entrances

found

around

of the chicken
areas.

at

house

6. Housing

and Equipkent
Local

climate,

building

management systems,
and size

of flock

methods,

space available
all

will

ence the construction

influ-

of a chicken

house and other

equipment.

considerations,

the management sys-

tem selected

probably

Of these

is the most

basic.

Free-Range
Whether
is provided,

or not
any kind

system usually

high

to justify

Losses
will

shelter

of free-range

is unacceptable

the new breeds.

and p-redators

overnight

Contained,
With Limited Range

for

to disease

The many variations

be much too

tem all

costs.

seek to protect

from disease
allowing
for

81

sys-

the chickens

and predators

them to find

themselves

or range.

of this
while

some food

in a fenced-in

area

Advantages:
o

The cost of feeding the

chickens can be reduced by as,
much as 20 percent
if the
range is well managed with
a good growth of grass.
Using grassy areas under
fruit
or other crop trees
as range can mean more
efficient
use of that land.

Exercise
and outdoor life
produce tougher,
but tastier
chickens
that some people
prefer.

Inside a fence, the chickens

receive some protection
from
predators.

When the range is large,

stress
due to crowding is reduced.
Disadvantages:

Sunshine provides
vitamin
D;
chickens kept out of the sun
need supplemental
vitamin
D
in their
feed.
(Note:
depending on their
diets,
chickens will
need other vitamin
supplements
as well.)

Isolating
the flock from
other chickens
provides
some
degree of disease protection.

82

What the chickens

eat outside
the house can be estimated
and allowed for when mixing
feeds.

In areas with prolonged

rains,
the chickens stay
inside
the house both night
and day.
Therefore,
houses
have to be as large and
well equipped as those without ranges.
Thus, in addition to equal housing costs,
farmers must pay for fencing.

If grass on the range is

sparse,
savings on feed
costs will be slight.
Land
that grows lush grass often
is more profitably
used for
cereal grains or other food
crops.

Unless the fence is at least

2 m (6 ft.)
tall,
the farmer
will
have to clip the flight
feathers
on one wing of
each bird.
Small, light

breeds
taller

can fly
fences.

over even

thousands
concentrates

Other species of birds entering the range will

carry
pests and diseases,
especially
fowl cholera.

Recommendation
local

--

Unless

circumstances

system,
using

farmers
a fully

will

farmer

systems

yield

more control
and provide

one.

the birds

against

systems
in

the

to fully

the

protection

predators.

to
These

vary

from makeshift

cages

corner

of a veranda

or porch

automated

batteries

kinds

of

managed deep-litter
excellent

the improved

valuable
0

over diseases

and feed,

are three

fertilizer

environbreeds

and

as well.

Advantages:

this

allow

provide

ments for

Contained
Systems
Contained

systems.

systems

do better

contained

contained

Properly

unusual

favor

there

the project.

Deep-litter

Maintaining
a range as well
as a house requires
more
labor than maintaining
just
the house.

are the

how large

Basically,

manual

of smaller

the principles

same no matter

The chickens
should be rotated to fresh range every
few months to prevent the
build-up
of disease-causing
contaminants
in the soil,
which requires
more land.

on those

but

scope,

This

of birds.

of

83

Deep litter
is a good insulation.
It protects
chickens
from cold weather,
and during
hot seasons they can nestle
into it and reach the cool
floor below.

Studies show that when all

other factors
are equal,
layers produce more eggs on
deep litter
than in cage
systems.

Chickens can be brooded and

kept through their produc.tive lives
in the same house.

Deep litter
allows the bird
to dust itself
against
lice
and other parasites.

When a production
cycle of
100 layers
is finished,
the
litter
and manure combination
will
be enough to fertilize
a 0.4 hectare
(ha) (1 acre)
area of rice, wheat or other
cereal grain,
or 0.2 ha
(l/2 acre) of intensively
cultivated
vegetables.
(Note:
Do not apply manure directly
to growing crops -- its
high nitrogen
content will
harm them.)

chickens are kept using the

deep-litter
system.
Also,
fatty
liver
syndrome is less
likely
in floor birds.
Disadvantages:
There is a grea.t.er chance of
worm and tick infestation
and coccidiosis
(internal
Trotnzoan
narasites)
than
with cages or raised floor
systems.

The deep-litter
system is
inappropriate
for very humid
-areas (80 - 90% humidity)
damp litter
spreads diseases.

The litter
must be turned
often,
particularly
in damp
and this requires
weather,
more labor than other contained systems.

Sometimes
difficult

adequate litter
to obtain.

Recommendation

Deep litter
is an improved
system which is readily
adaptable
to traditional
night shelters
used in many
village
situations,
The chicken,
by nature,
scratches
and pecks in the
litter,
reingesting
wasted
and undigested
food.
In
this process,
some of the
feed is recovered.
At the
time, the chicken picks up
enzymes which are believed
to reduce the char..E
"gizzard
erosion",
a problem
which rarely
occurs when

is

--

Deep litter

recommended for

birds

is

both meat

and layers.

Raised Floor
Floors,
(3 ft.)

to about

above the ground,

wooden slats,
metal.

raised
wire

The chicken

be collected

84

are made of

mesh or expanded
droppings

frequently

the house and composted.

1 m

should

from under

very difficult
for chicks.
Thus, a separate brooder
house is needed.
a

Advantages:
l

Unless the droppings

are well
they
can
attract
managed,
flies
and cause objectionable
Their value as
smells.
fertilizer
also is reduced.

Egg production
probably will
be lower than.with
deep--litter.

Recommendation

In very humid climates,

this
is a healthier
system for
chickens
than is deep litter?
because disease transmission
through fecal matter is
minimal.

This system often is better

suited for a few birds than
is deep litter.

In some areas, it costs

to build a raised-floor
house than a deep-litter
house.

less

Disadvantages:
l

These systems are unsuitable

for hot, dry climates
because
the floors
heat up, unless
they are built
near shade
They also are unsuittrees.
, able for use in cold seasons
due to their lack of insulation.

Young chicks cannot be

brooded well in these houses.
Since the floor
is not insulated,
it is difficult
to
maintain
the high temperatures the chicks need, and
walking
on such floors
is

Use in humid

where litter

areas,
not

available

tion

costs

deep litter.
for

--

both

material

.and where

is

construc-

are lower

than for

Also

recommended

meat breeds

and layers.

Cages
Cages allow
trol.

the maximum in con-

They can be used for

ber of birds,

and construction

can be geared

to the desired

any numcosts
size

of

the flock.
Advantages:
l

Cages can be placed under

existing
roofs;
thus, a spe-

properly.
l

They involve very high

investment
per bird.

initial

There must be constant

excellent
ventilation.

and

There are more broken

than with deep litter.

eggs

The feed must contain

all
necessary vitamins
and minerals needed by birds.

Recommendation
cial building
required.
e
.-

may not be

for

cli.mates

where

With cages more birds can be

than on
_ kept in a building
deep litter.

labor

--

Cages are good

with

high

costs

when a farmer

humidity,

are high,

wants

to keep a

large

flock

of layers.

are a problem,

Where

Less labor per bird is needed

than with other systems.

ticks

Poor layers
immediately
thus saving

Cages are recommended for

are especially

can be identified
and culled,
feed.

Problems with parasites,

particularly
ticks,
are reduced,
but nutrition
may be a problem.

When properly
constructed,
cages can last many years.

Fewer disease problems

caused by transmission
through fecal matter.

Cages are a cheaper investment in the long run due

to ease in care and feeding
of the birds.

but

Cages are hard

cages

advantageous.

generally

layers,

used for

meat

birds.

Building a
Chicken House

are

A good chicken

Disadvantages:
l

not

and

to construct

what its

size

used for

it,

features.
86

house,

or which

no matter

materials

has certain
These essentials,

essential
dis-

are

cussed

further

water-tight
with

beivw,
roof,

no cold

faces

that

quate

floor

of birds
floors

include

cially
litter

good ventilation

drafts,

intern,1

sur-

are easy to ciean,

space for

contained,
and walls

I)

Near a source

In areas of high winds, the

site should be protected
by
a hill,
stand of trees or
other windbreak.
Otherwise,
a solid wall facing the prevailing
monsoon or rain direction may be better.

Well away from other chicken

houses to reduce the spread of
An absolute
minimum
disease.
of space between houses is
10 m (32 ft.),
but the more,
the better.

In hot climates,
placing
the
house under tall
shade or
crop trees,
such as coconuts,
will
protect
it from the
sun.
Bushy trees that block
ventilation
won't do.

Away from roads, work areas,

and other noisy places to
reduce stress caused by disturbances.

location.
Some sample chicken
signs
(p.

are given
175).

house de-

in Appendix

Number 6, Self-Help
One-Story

Buildings,

general

construction

house,

first

out of paper

a chicken

to build

a model

or cardboard.

considerations
house

front
on

principles.

be building

try

are given

of

(available

ICE - see inside

offers
information

you will

Manual

Construction

through
cover),
If

The Peace Corps'

in building

General
a chicken

below.

deep-

Within sight of the farmer's

home, but far enough away
from other buildings
to
allow for good ventilation.

the number

and a well-chosen

for

ade-

rat-proof

important
systems.

of

clean

water .

Sites
Sometimes

there

is no choice

where

to put a chicken

there

is a choice,

good site
8

house.

features

Floor Space Requirements

of

If
of a

A crowded

are:
Well-drained
to flooding.

unprod'uctive
land not s-object
This is espe-

other
that
87

chicken

chickens,
they

chicken

die.

is an unhappy,
prone

sometimes
Putting

to peck
so severely

too many birds

.9

in a confined

space is a false

110 chicks

economy.

probably

Below are recommendations

space requirements.
breeds
than

will
small

needed

ones.

and/or

Some farmers

mented with
poseiy

crowding

to reduce

investment

sophisticated

centimeters

usually

less

have found

than 2,250

per bird,
ventilating

sq.

cm

other.

The only

available
provide

page

pecking

reduce

which

longer

start

with

every

100 layers

be

than meat birds,

115 sexed chicks

for

desired.

Aver-

age space requirements

of layers

sq.

ft.)

remedies

layer

are to

recommended

for

small

sq. m

breed

and this

using

a deep-litter
floor

On slatted

(see

0.18

sq. m (2.0

good care and good luck.

0.225

is

for more experienced

tem.

may attain

Leg-

per lighter

of the

chickens

(White

is sufficient,

farmers

sq.

sys-

systems,
ft.)

is suffi-

cient space per adult bird.

A space of 27 sq. m (300 sq. ft.)

--Meat breeds -- Space requirements

should be based on the maximum
the flock

Because they will

kept

(2.5

each

77).

size

be

age.

Under good management,

may be

the size

or debeak the

should

fcr example) are given in

horns,
the table on the following
page.

farmers

more space,

by

equipment,

practical

to small

difficult,
flock

begin

ft.)

breeds

of overcrowding

is when the birds

--

this

at

even with

is unprofitable.
A common sign

but they

ft.).

12 weeks,

need more space --

before

Layers

the space per bird

beyond

28 sq.m (300 sq.

sold

and equipment.

but
ft.)

pur-

period.

ready-for-market

are kept

they will

per-bird

(1 sq.

sq.

humid cii-

they

14 weeks,

as 930 sq.

(2-l/2

If

chickens

to as little
providing

be

growing

the

need 14 sq. m (150 sq.

least

in housing

ft.),

birds

ten

die during

One hundred

have experi-

their

They have reduced

that

layer

More space will

hot

wil

8- to 12-week

need somewhat more space

in very

mates.

Large

on

are pr:chased,

should

be enough for

with

throughout

If

for

88

their

200 broilers

life,

100 layers
and enough

up to the age of

Age in
weeks

Space per
Bird

06
7 - 12

650 sq. cm
930 " "

Space p.p1( Birds

100 sq.
1 sq.

in.
ft.

6.5 sq. m
9. 3 11 11

75 sq. ft.
100 II 11

13 - 16

1,860

"

"

It

,I

18.0

" "

200

"

"

17 & up

2,790

"

"

"

"

27.5

" "

300

"

"

12 weeks.

Note:

space needed.
elude

*
$~
':*
t:-:,
,\6,
",
,i

This
It

living

does not

space occupied

waterers

is

and other

Ventilation

in-

by feeders,

Chickens

equipment.

unit

6 m (20 ft.)

a?/l

of body weight

In addition

they

or excrete

exhale

per bird
4.5 m
(15 ft.)

chicken

I
Space Requirements
on Deep Litter

for

Chickens

requirements

for

breeds

--

Space

dual-purpose

are the same as for

meat

birds

until

the males are sold.

After

that,

use the recommenda-

tions

for

gravity

systems

houses

wider

in a
is

fan systems

air

or

circulation

should

not be used

than

9 m (30 ft.).

In hot,

humid climates,

many large

windows

or screened
They should
or nearby

are

populated

circulation

(natural

by flues)

pint)

the spread

wide or densely
Natural

brush

89

High humidity

Electrical

needed.

layers.

(3/4

important.

for
breeds

liter

so good ventilation

assisted
Dual-purpose

amounts

of disease,

houses.

air,

large

house encourages

needed for

per

to stale

up to 0.37

each day.

air

than any other

livestock.
of moisture,
27 sq. m
(300 sq. ft.)

need more fresh

openings

are

not be blocked

buildings.

by

Framing
Local

the weight

materials,
placement
used)

of doors

will

to support
(3 in.)

the roof,

Chickens
especially

for

of floor

need overhead

in hot

be six

hot

air

of the building

tle

and daub,

as long

also

The

In areas with

it

should

wire

parasite

flocks

of the walls,

ideal),

and can be cleaned

partitions

to

problems.
if

(plastering
so they

be

mesh and

and disease

be smooth

cold,

possible,
with

don't

ce-

harbor

easily.

In-

are not needed in a

they just

house;

reduce

ven-

Roof

is deteruse it.

The roof
as possible.

equipment

without

shutters

excessive

the roof

material

such as wat-

bamboo slats;

adobe,
and so on,

is relatively

rat-proof.

cold

walls

seasons,

should
If

be as rainproof

the house has no

or." other window protection,

should overhang the walls
It

by

can be made of:

the cheapQ Thatch -- Usually

est material
available
and
it provides
good insulation.
It probably will
have to be
replaced
every three years,
and if ticks get into it,
it should be replaced
immeThatch
should
be
diately.
interlaced
with bamboo slats
or similar
material
to keep
predators
out.

can be made of any lo-

or used lumber
as it

very

tilation.

Walls

inexpensive

but

reduce

1 m (3 ft.).

cal

gets

be changed between

The insides

In

and ammonia to

as cleaning

The walls

it

should

chicken

bending.

low-grade

can be used,

terior

above the

to work within

litter

thatch

ticks

They should
and turning

never

space.

who will

at such tasks

where

ment is

mined by the people

be able

places

every

The roof

away from the chickens.

height

or insulated.

should

space,

climates.

to ten feet

to allow

of the

an 8 cm

support

be thick

backed by rodent-proof

may be needed

usually

ft.)

and

(if

the design

pillars

9 sq. m (100 sq.

rise

and windows

or thicker

should

of the roof

determine

Internal

frame.

birds

iu~i;hocis and

CoiiStiuCtlUn

should

90

Sheet metal

--

This

usually

is too expensive,
and in hot
climates
it should be covered
by thick thatch or other
It is easily
insulation.
an important
adcleaned,
vantage where ticks are a
problem.
Tile -- Although
usually
more expensive
than thatch,
sun-baked tile
will
last
Because of
much longer.
the framing for
its weight,
a tile
roof must be stronger
than for other materials.

During

trolled.
windward

side

covered

storms,

burlap

mats,

etc.

dow design

permanent

bags,

straw

should

take

climate.
air

Chickens

than

need more fresh

humans, but

tered

from wind,

vailing

strong

on local

dust
winds

should

bt, shel-

and rain.
should

Pre-

win-

as much advanto re-

duce the amount of moisture

in the

house,

but

the chickens

some shade at all

this

should

are best

mesh or expanded

will

reduce

covered

metal.

Bam-

can be used,

ventilation.

the end walls

of gable

a ventilation

hole

near

peak.

the roof

have

times.

boo or wooden slats

depends

or bamboo

tage of the sun as possible

by wire

Window design

shut-

In humid climates,

Window areas

Windows

on the

of the house can be

by hinged,

ters,

windows

but
In

buildings,

should

be located

be con-- -- ...___

-----__ .-----_ _

ventilation
hole

bamboo/wooden

wire

Gable

Chicken

House

Door
Whether
bamboo,
wire

made of metal,

and whether

solid

wood or

should

be sturdy

and closed

enough

more than

it

and very

is firm
can't

possible,

the door
to be opened

1,000

Pack it

water

or of

mesh in the top half,

drainage.

times

year.

of cement.

layer

of clay

litter

house

signed

for

floor

good drainage

mesh imbedded

rats

out.

flat

This,

stones

bricks

to clean.

to clay

possible,
rats

is ex-

or wire
out.

Turn

the walls.

disease

problems,

poultry

house must be constructed

surrounding

ground

from the center

thorough

between

flocks

recommended part

farmers

of heavy

house is a shallow,

water-tight

basin
sill

with
First,

advantages.

it

the transmission

helps

reduce

it

is a

to the farmer

of

of sanitation.
important

farmers,

not have spare

each chicken

Second,

dirt.

as important,

reminder

barefoot

than the

with

A disinfectant

is especially

be

flush

and filled

the importance

to join

set

dip has several

'daily

to keep

o'f a

deep-litter

and just

to the sides

of

Dip -_- An optional

If

and slope

is pos-

or batches

area.

higher

of a

cleaning

of disease-carrying

should

to reduce

the floor

be

25 cm (1 ft.)

15 cm (6 in.)

In order

disinfectant.

the edges of the

The floor

be applied

should

mesh first

a fresh

flocks.

the door

are

put down a layer

mesh up about
about

to keep

floors.

in a well-drained

should

but highly

or large,

floors

Otherwise,

Disinfectant

heavy

Many small

Deep-litter

gravel

in it

can be used,but

are limited
built

with

a 5 cm (2 in.)

chickens.

one de-

of course,

Strong

harder

a deen-

is a concrete

wire

pensive.

for

with

If

between

sible
The ideal

in holes.

it

layer

until

smooth so that

collect
cover

such that

Deep-litter Floors

by tamping

where

or those
pairs

house,

It
who do

of shoes for
visit

more

slightly

than one such house each day.

for

dip

92

can be formed with

The

mud or clay

door sill:
about
20 cm (8 in.) above
floor level to
clear litter
extends bey
door frame

Cement-lined
is difficult

Disinfectant
Dip -- The dip
to avoid stepping
into.

and lined
sheet
it

with

metal

concrete

tray.

may be better

a shallow
more than
large

l/2

center

advantages
because
tion

dip
should

Again,

inch
area.

instead.

influence

be no

deep with

resistant

should

has

crete

over a deeper

dip

of wood, bamboo,

solu-

blocks,

dirt

can be swept out.

also

are more likely

People
than a

deep one.

should

of materials
that

have stone
Pillars
oil

and

are not rot

or con-

may be made

drums,

are difficult

higher

ones result

on their

be about

above the ground

floors
building.

93

will

concrete

etc.

(3 ft.)

to walk
dip

footings.

Floors

and the accumulated

a shallow

it

practicalities

selection
Pillars

design.
a

local

This

the disinfectant

through

so that

Raised Floors

to construct

dip

largeenough

be

In some cases

basin-like

A basin-like

or a

should

Floor
strength,

--

1 m
lower

to clean

under;

in an unsteady
joists,

depending

are spaced

1 to

2 m (3 to 6 ft.)

apart.

The floor

Expanded metal -- Expanded

expensive,
metal, although
is extremely
durable.
It
should meet the same requirements
as wire mesh (above).

can be:
l

Wire mesh -- The wire should

be strong or "heavy gauge,
as large in diameter
as a
standard pencil
lead, if
The maximum
possible.
space between wire in at
least one direction
sh '_d
be 2.5 cm (1 in.).
Slats -- Made of either wood
or bamboo, slats should be
2.5 cm (1 in.)
at the top
and slightly
tapered downThey should be set
ward.
2.5 cm (1 in.)
apart.

Making
Wire Cages
In many poultry
artisans

producing

specialize

in making

areas,
en-

or they may provide

tire

cages,

just

the front,

the most complicated

L----- ~E;ni~~~o~i~~g~:e(~~s~om~~e
,
cost

less

cages,
2.5 cm'

2.5 cm

lower.

than double

but

If

94

like

may be

in cages should
(see page 77).

to make your

cages,

you can use this

simple

design.

boards

to catch

own

relatively

More elaborate

use dropping

of tarpaper

Floors

placed

Severely

you would

signs

Slatted

egg production

Layers

be debeaked

(two-thirds)

de-

or rolls

droppings.

Materials

5xlOcm(2x4in.).
is used for

Wire mesh A -meter

Wire with

of 2 mm (l/8

into

mesh spaced

used for
except

all

parts

welded

2.5 x 5 cm

This

(1 x 2 in.).

the front.

Wire --

Any heavy gauge but

pliable

wire,

join

to be used to

cage parts.

mesh is
of the cage

Form

the front.

Wire mesh B -wire

in.)

dia-

This

welded

into

Cut a piece

Same diameter

of wire

mesh A

3.66 m x 150 cm (12 x 5 ft.)

mesh spaced

bend it

as shown.

40
(16

in

A Wire Mesh Cage Form -- The 2.5 cm (1 in.) spaced wire

inside
the cage so that the eggs will
roll
out.

95

should

be

and

38 cm x 3.75 m (15 in.

Sides and Dividers

Use the protruding

Cut pieces

of wire

4Ox45cm(16x18in.).
four

spaced

apart,

for

use 17 spaced

22.8

(4 ft.)
for

double

colony

122 cm

Secure

15 cm (6 in.)

sides

that

touch

with

apart

the front

wire

At the center

on the three

a door opening

the form.

wire.

of each cage,

15 x 30 cm (6 x 12 in.).
Door --

Using

cut

as shown I)
by the darker
Bend the horizontal
wirc!s

below.

30 cm
(12 in.)
L

A Sliding

Door
96

wire

mesh B,

a piece

-of the door -opening-,-asmesh B

cut

Sliding
lines.

of wire

to

Door Opening

Front
Cut a piece

it

the sides

to the form with

every

the cage dividers

on the sides

to join

Secure

ft.).

cages;

cm (9 in.)

cages.

and dividers

to the form.

Use

such pieces,

wires

and top of the front

mesh A

x 12-l/4

shown

Feeders and Waterers

as high

as possible

reduce
Feed and water

troughs

made of

sheet metal

and mounted with

hangers

the length

If

run

possible,

secured

of the cage.

the waterer

on tile opposite

cage from the feeder.

can be used for
feeders

should
side
Split

feeders.

and waterers

wire

should

be

on the cage to

feed wastage

water

onto

house

floor,

and splashing

the feeder
certainly

and poultry
not higher

than

the chicken

can reach.

rule

of thumb is

to place

of the

no higher

bamboo

the chicken

than

the tail

being

put

of

A good
equipment

feathers
into

of

the house

or cage.

Both
be hung

cm (2 in.)
cm (3.6

in.>

.O cm (4 in.)

Feed and Water

Troughs
97

A single

Use of
Cages

stand,

cage can be placed

or one or more cages can be

hung from beams.

shows a 72-bird
8.75

This
layers,

cage is suitable
six

to each colony

or two to each double

The cage must
back

higher

be

of the floor
than

be at least

above the ground

the area below

the

cleaned

out.

as they

be

frequently.

allows
cause

roll.

(25

--level

Hang cage on a slant

role out.

li
so eggs will

Cage on a Stand

98

62.5 cm (25 in.)

them should

62.

--

The cages
and

Excessive
will

ft.).

on page
occupies

or floor,

is 7.6 cm (3 in.)
This

The figure
system that

sq. m (85 sq.

should

Note:

hung 30 that

of the cage floor

the eggs to break

18

cage

cage.

the front.

the eggs to roll

slope

for

on a

99

Cages Hung from Beams

The above cage designs,

slant

on all

sides

when hung,

recommended where wire

high.

This

design

costs

disadvantage:

which
are

waterers

are

secured

has a certain

will

and

have to be tightly

to the cage to prevent

from hanging

99

the feeders

them

away from the cage..

An alternative
little

more wire

design
for

uses a

the front

cleaned

of

often

so it

should

be sturdy.

Local wood and metal workers

with design and construction.

the cage:

can help

Waterers
Watering

space -- Whether

use a straight
waterer,

trough

the length

ference
(space)

is given

the lip

available

trough,
twice

used in rbicken

can be made of local

equipment

receives

houses

materials.

the lip
the

length

heavy

Minimum Water

Space Requirements
Daily

Measure

to the birds
sides

--

the volume

capacity

must be sufficient
requirements

Space required
(length)

o-1

2 liters

0.5 - 1.0 gal.

2-4

"

2.0 - 4.0

4-9

15

"

9 or more

19

Layers

36

0.7 m

30 in.

"

1.0 "

40

"

4.0 - 8.0

1.5 11

60

"

"

5.0

II

2.0 v

80

"

"

9.5

2.5 )1

100

"

100

of a

of the trough.

100 Birds

consumption

--

is

of the chickens.

Age in
weeks

below.

to meet the daily

use and is

is

length

available

of the waterers

This

lip

use both

Additionally,
Equipment

or circum-

Minimum lip

when chickens

Equipment

or round

of the waterer's

important.

you

Very

Important

dry climates,

chickens

may con-

times

the above

sume up to four
volumes
watch

Never

volume capacity.

allow

chickens

clean

water.

Waterer

design

waterer

is a tin

to run out of
--

The simplest
can inverted

a soup or pie

Waterer

of a larger

Punch a hole

plate,

or

about

tin

can.

2 cm (3/4

from the open end of the tin

Fill

the can with

it

with

water

on the tin
both.
the tin
water

can,

and one
invert

of the

and the vacuum in

can will
level

can.

With

quickly

The position

in.)

and

the plate.

one hand on the plate

punched hole

5 cm (2 in.)

Inverted

the bottom

cover

consumption

You may need to in-

carefully.

into

Therefore,

of water.
the water

crease

In hot,

Note:

in

regulate
the plate.

the

Here are some other possible

designs for waterers.

with

sink

Other

hole

CLAY POT
or groove

REMOVEABLEBOTTLE
Strapped to Wall or Stand

in lip

Cut holes in sides and

into ground for stability.
Not for chicks.

BUCKET
Set into slatted
platform.
Not for chicks.

Waterers
102

Automatic

waterer

--

clean

oil

drum with

other

type of valve

Fit

a large,

a faucet

will

or

serve

drink

from both

the trough

and a tight

cover.

Set the drum on a 1 m

blocks,

(3 ft.)

stand

the trough

or reinforced
inside
house.

clay

or outside

the chicken
from

the bottom
side

sheet

metal

trough

about

high

and 12.5

cm

(5 in.)

wide.

trough

depends

flock;

a 1.2 m (4 ft.)

Watering

The length
on the size

flow

water

the house.

of the

trough

or valve

System
103

rocks,

wood

is as high

as the

Fit

of the trough

above
in the

the incoming
pipe

to a place
will

water.

o?ltside
where

over-

not run back into

Adjust
so that

of

an overflow

5 cm (2 in.)

Run the overflow

of the

Level
the lip

opposite

the house

they

so that

backs.

hose or pipe

if

sides.

on flat

etc.,

birds'

mud either

to one end of a gal-

10 cm (4 in.)

Automatic

bricks

Run a hose or pipe

the faucet
vanized

of blocks,

100 birds

the faucet
the overflow

of water

Ls minimized.

the trough
by birds,
that

a cover

increased

from contamination
using

rotates

roost

Protect

a spinner

so chickens

on it),
over

Chickenproof
-- Birds can't
get into or roost on it
(using a spinner).

Efficient
-- It should have
a lip to prevent birds from
"beaking"
feed out onto the
floor.

(a bar
cannot

or constructing
it.

Distribute

Feeders

out the chicken

A well-made

feeder

should

Durable
frequent

Stable -- It should not tip

over when bumped by farmer
or chickens.

--

is:

of the lip

The correct
height
and depth
-- As birds grow, the feeder
height and depth should be

feeders

evenly

house.

No feeder

Adjust

of the feeder

even with

the backs

This will

help

scratching
the feeders.

Feeders

with

Lips

to Prevent

sheet

metal

Waste

104

the height
to a level

of the birds.

prevent

contaminated
In fact,

the lips
depending upon the size of the feeder,
should measure l/4 - 3/4 in. (l/2 - 1 l/2 cm).

wood

through-

be more than 4.5 m (15 ft.)

from a waterer.

It must withstand
cleaning.

(see p. 106).

bamboo

them from
litter

into

the more they

have to stretch
feed,

the less
Except

with

day-old

three

feeders

more than half

be wasted.
even less

has to be supplied
To reduce
problems

to reach

When feeding

be wasted.

the first

chicks,

as feed will
wastes

necks

feed will

for

not be filled
full

their

mental

days

throw

feed,

try

to adjust

feed

supplied

so that

finish

it

take

practice.

at sundown.
Supply

it

at beak level

full,

it

in a hanging

but

a wire
feed

matter,

on the floor

it

Feeder

and moid
amounts of
the birds

(length)

feeder
distance

of lip

able

to the birds

--

the feed

feeder

and about

2 p.m.;

more frequently

if

tray

empty the feeder.

105

if

a feeder
As with
avail-

either
the length
feed

Minimum space

sides.

and depth

requirements

below.

--

the birds

from both
given

in

of a round

or twice

of a trough

the birds

it

space is the

linear

the circumference

at sunrise

put

mesh.

This will

regularly

or place

hopper,

space

waterers,

suspend

a rope,

net,

or slatted

suppledon't

--

with

made out of wire

more often.

spoilage

vegetable

should

One-third

chickens

are

Feed Requirements
Age ih
weeks

-Dailv consumption
Meat birds

(will

for

vary)

Layers

100 Chickens
Suggested
Feeder

depth

1.8 kg

4 lbs.

1.4 kg

3 lbs.

2.3

1.8

,I

2 in.
II

4.6

10

2.7

1,

II

5.0

11

3.2

6.8

15

4.1

8.9
1,

7.3

16

5.0

11

II

3-l/2
1,

8.2

18

5.5

12

11

8.6

19

6. 4

14

9.5

21

6.8

10

10.5

23

11

11.4

12

cm

Space required

II

(length)

2.5 m 100 in.

,I

II

II

II

3.8
II

150
11

II

6.1
IS

240
1,

,I

,I

II

15

,I

II

7.3

16

25

7.7

17

12.5
,I

5
II

9.6
,I

13.2

29

8.2

18

1,

13

14.1

31

8.2

18

14

15.9

35

8.6

19

15

9.1

20

16

9.5

21

17

10.0

22

18

10.0

19

1,
380
II

,I

1,

1t

I,

I,

II

,I

1,

1,

11

I,

1,

,,

6
1,

12.7
1,

,I

11

I,

1,

II

22

,I

1,

,I

10.0

22

11

II

11

500
II

20

10.5

23

,I

I,

1,

1,

21

10.5

23

11

1,

I,

,I

22

10.9

24

,I

11

1,

II

23

11.4

25

1,

,,

II

11

24

11.4

25

II

1,

II

1,

15
II

106

1,

Feeder

design

--

trough

feeder

is designed

layers

15 or more weeks old.

Dimensions
feeders
for

be used for

for

should

spinner,
feeder

be adjusted
of the

Bamboo can

inexpensive
out,

or tightly
with

wire,

feeders.
use a

wrap the
as shown

below.

(see feed space requireI/

ment table).

spinner:
5 cm (2 in.)

--

To keep the birds

of intermediate

the age and size

birds

Bamboo feeders

This wooden

hanging

wire

square

nail(2 in.)

(10 in.)

'

Wood Feeder
\ wood brace

A spinner

is made from a rod of

wood with

a metal

to each end so it
rotate.
simply

The metal
off

its

tipping

Bamboo Feeders

rod attached
is able

to

rod can
Dimensions

be made from a nail

by cutting

to prevent

depend upon the

number and size

head.
107

of birds.

Hanging

feeder

--

Hanging

to adjust

feed-

their

height.

ers have several

advantages,

can be made from large

including:

have diffi-

(sometimes

them;

restaurants),

culty

rats

getting

into

continuously
the proper

supply
height;

they

-hanginn

tin
from

or from sheet

metal.

feed at
it

available

They

is easy

wire

-----

least '
12 in.)

at least
45 cm (18

e
&
3
---.-F--

e
--- \ / c
tray:
sheet

Hanging Metal Feeder

diameter
is sufficient

--

,-__- -i

metal

Such a feeder with a tray

for 10 mature layers.

108

in.)

3-I
3-1
\

at least
5 cm (2 in.)

of 40 cm (16 in.)

in

cans

Grit Hoppers

size

of small

surface.
Instead
muscular
their

of teeth,

organ,

food.

gizzards

the gizzard,

To crush

must contain

stones,

or grit.

or dissolves

replaced.

Country

farmer

their

to grind

tively

can be served

yards,
grit

but

inate.

ranging
the

closed

to contained

for

so the grit
grit

or the chickens
Good grit

stones

are about

the

feed well.

60 cm
(2 ft.)

Hopper

109

that

can supply

a week is

Keep the cover

remains

always
will

Grit

and contam-

that

about

below.

Make sure

can be bought

enter

hopper

is

Rela-

feed suppliers.

A grit

illustrated

that

grit.

grit

can't

200 chickens

usually

gravel

in any container

the chickens

the grit

birds.

Grit

inexpensive

hard,

small

river

smooth is excellent

from commercial

chickens,

own grit,

must supply

not

and must be

or in fenced-in

can find

have a

Small

food well,

Over time,

crumbles
free

birds

peas and have a rough

clean.

is available
not

digest

their

start

Oyster and Egg Shell Hopper

to eat their

shells
Chickens
to maintain

need a source
their

hens need extra

amounts

strong

egg shells.

source

is crushed

limestone,
Powdered
because
This

oyster

purchased

like

egg shells
what

they

A Two-compartment

calcium

take what

or

A calcium
in a container

boiled
very

hopper.

the hens don't

Grit

supply

and the chickens

need.

It

feed,

calcium,

and Calcium-source

110

Hopper

will

Also,

in hot weather.
can be included

or provided
similar

separately

to the grit

may be convenient

two-compartment

and

source

re-

Old hens require

hens need more calcium

with

are eating

Keep a calcium

than young ones.

in a mixed

into

do not provide
flock's

they

more calcium

The egg

to meet that

available

to eat it.

broken

so that

enough calcium
always

does not work well

can be supplemented

recognize

to produce
shell

from a flock

quirements.

commercially.

limestone

pieces

and laying

The usual

hens do not

and dried
small

bodies,

of calcium

own eggs.

hopper

as shown below.

for

to use a
grit

and

Nesting

Nests

boxes --

a few laying
Providing
helps

nests

keep eggs clean

breakage.

Baskets,

sun-baked

clay

used for

nests

clay

vide

litter

side

climates,

wire

be placed

Line
every

nests

with

five

hens.

should

be

metal,

and line

it

Well-constructed

litter.

stand

up to frequent

cleaning.

Pro-

clean.

sheet

ft.)

or mud bricks,

etc.,

boxes will

them with

m (1 cubic

wood,

mesh, clay

woven mats,

sun

a volume of space
cubic

with

pays

The concept

to enclose
0.028

it

y constructed

special1

per bird

of

that

find

boxes.

about

of the house,

and keep it
for

is

can be
Usually

the morning

them.

one nest

In hot

should

will

nesting

the farmer

hens,

to provide

with

to the outside

where

not hit

fresh

reinforced

Nests

probably

hens

and reduces

(see below).

on the darkest
preferably

laying

or cow dung,

is applied

the basket.

will

for

Wi th more than

Boxes may be placed

raised

by supports

to the wall.

well-ventilated.

have one,
boxes
birds
ing

two or three

a perch

should

tiers.

Any

should

in front
before
Ideally,

where
enterthere

be a means of closing

the nests
dirty

floor

can alight
the nest.

that

or attached

A set of boxes may

above the

provide

on the floor,

in

birds

the evening

don't

roost

so
in and

them.

Two types

of nest

boxes could

be used:
l

111

Individual
nest boxes
are
constructed
so that only
one hen will
be able to
fit in one compartment at
a time.

Individual

Nest Boxes

Colony nest boxes

are
constructed
large enough to
allow four or more hens to
lay at one time (4 sq. ft.

or more of floor space

These
without
dividers).
are not recommended because
more eggs will
be broken
than with individual
boxes.
112

Roosts
When they

to spend the night

Contained
but

birds

the presence

concentrate

chickens

can,

roosting

don't

in trees.

need roosts,

of roosts

droppings,

prefer

can help

making

sanlta-

Building

tion

easier.

time

and money.

place

a removable

you use them,

droppings

board

them or screen off the area

Clean the boards or the
beneath.
Allow 20 cm
screened area often.
(8 in.)

of roost

,hanging
\

Roosts

takes

under

3.0 cm (1 ft.)

If

roosts

for

each bird.

wires

7. Keeping

Chickens Healthy
Chickens
ailments

are subject

as humans are.

en and human diseases

same names:
chitis

and so forth.

and poisonous
aflatoxin
ens as well
trained

degree

of certainty,

treatment,
cannot

be treated,

attention
feed

parasites

attacking

signs

thers,

wings

hanging

only

eral

the healthy

who don't

(assuming

experience
with

stongly

special
quality

sick

signs
of

greatly

that

the flock

of health
total

or

one percent

the flock.

Know-

Observe
115

gen-

size

than

your

is all

which

the

is

Two major

problems

in a flock

feed consumption
or if

decreases,

of diseases

fea-

members of the flock

recommended).

are if

condition:

loosely,

and smaller

chickens

scraggly

same age and breed,

Good man-

may sleep

of poor

some diseases

weakness

It

of diar-

or walk with

Older

gait.

show obvious

small

traces

vent.

body,

to sanitation,
the chances

its

hunched

of chickens,

reduces

eyes or dried

thin,

Plenty.

and vaccinations

and may have

effective

have the veterinarian's

agement

erect

strange

for

for

stand

with

there

be alert
is inactive,

in an odd position

prevented.

can occur,

chick

can identify
a good

of

A sick

rhea around

and extensionists

and equipment?

runny

but even then

So what hope is
farmers

should

backed by a

prescribe
because

good management,

farmer

doesn't

A well-

these

place.

problems

them.,

diseases

in the first
health

such as

and

as preventing

course,

substances

chick-

problems

them is important--but

Even with
and the

laboratory,

can't

bron-

and lice,

as humans.

most chicken

problems

ticks

veterinarian,

competent

cholera,

attack

health

not as important

Parasites,

and botulism

major

how to treat

even have the

pneumonia,

such as tapeworms,

ing about

Some chick-

colds,

Pox,
hepatitis,

typhoid,

often

to as many

mortality

exceeds

in any seven-day
flock

for

period.

deviations

from normal

for

at least

the farmer

15 minutes

ter,

each day.
Even in a well-managed
you can expect
one percent

an average

each month.

if

words,

to lose

you start

you should

expect

with

at the end of a year.

wiil

die

obvious
sick

suddenly;
signs

digest

100 chicks,

done,

can be put in

feathers

for

gas diges-

will

have to be

because

they do not

many months.

If

this

is

burn the feathers.

90

Some
will

Diseases

show

Remove

of disease.

and dead chickens.

For small

50 chickens,
for

In other

others

but

removed first

of

to have about

left

dead chickens

this,

flock

has a methane

flocks

operations,

birds

and perform

examination

slaughter
a post

to see if

mortality

percent

sick

rate
of 100,

a chicken

into

categories:

three

in the ground

Those prevented
by locally
recommended vaccines
(such
as Newcastle).

Those prevented
by or treated
automatically
in a good management schedule
(such as coccidiosis).

there

are more

chickens

in a

Those for which good sanitation and nutrition

are the
best means of prevention
(such as cholera
or coryza).

seek veterinary
dead chickens
to eliminate

chance of disease

in a pit

transmission

chickens.

A dead bird

posal

pit

have a tight

to prevent
from getting

predators

Prevention by Vaccination

any

these

should

may be divided

immediately.
Bury all

that

the cause of
the one

or if

diseases

can affect

mortezl

exceeds

than one or two sick

advice

For

can be determined.

If

flock

pen

of sickness.

larger

The innumerable

than

use an isolation

the period

sickness

of less

from
Before

dis-

you should

cover

diseases

such as rats

at the chickens.

doing

any vaccinations,

become familiar
are prevalent

or you may needlessly

If
116

with

what

in your

area

vaccinate

for

a non-existent
with

local

which

authorities.

contains

introduced
the

number of ways
minimize
all

swiftly

receive

from poultry

to directions;
before

Don't

spill

ens.

When working
of birds,

the person

using

mixing

if

neighboring
birds,

If

virus

num-

farmers
already

the live

help-the

you are
teil

because

if

vaccinated
virus

to their

one farmer

vaccinates
be certain

means of transmitting

they

their

could

spread

chickens.

If

and the next

there

if

lose

is no

the disease

its
sterilize

you plan

is best

visiting

the

vaccine,

the disease
doesn't,

large

not handle

possible.

a live

chick-

and giving

will

keep

to use it

to dispose

other

of it

Change your
your

shoes

chickens.

of vaccination

include:

e Medicine or eve drODDer--PIIt

a drop of vaccine in the
bird's
eye and wait for it to
blink,
or place a finger
over
one nostril,
put the drop in
the other nostril,
and wait
until
the drop is breathed
in.

using.

have adequate

should

have not

with

at once and

Thoroughly

Methods

many

them on or near

as it

and disinfect

before

Mix them away

just

(it

clothes

vacStore

birds.

is dangerous.

and use new equipment).

with

recom-

of the remainder--don't

equipment

again

that

give

less--stretch-

mixed vaccine

overnight

your

to

than

give

supplies

effectiveness.

dosage.

careful

need refrigeration.

it

in a

Handle

but be sure

can kill

them according

get rid

Don't

per bird

and don't

Administer

by

but smoothly

birds.

ing vaccine

of antibodies,

the proper

cines--they

birds,

mended,

(see below).

stress,

vaccines

or viruses

to chickens

Be extremely

bers

more vaccine

disease

formation

can be administered
the birds

A vaccine,

the body to produce

to a specific

causing

non-vaccinated

bacteria

into

immunity

Check first

disease.

to

117

Feather follicle--Pull
feathers
from the
thigh and rub the
licles
in the area
cine-soaked
cotton
brush.

a few
bird's
feather
folwith a vacswab or

Wing web stick--Dip

a web
stick into vaccine and use it
to puncture
the skin on the
Be careunderside
of a wing.
ful not to hit a blood vein.
Always stick
the same wing of
all birds
(either
the left
or
the right
wing) so that you
can check later
on for a scab

disease
.heads of sewing needles
filed
to sharp points

and attempting

Seek professional
possible.
Newcastle

advice
(Ranikhet)

Newcastle

is

widely

feared

around

the world.

high
Asia,

it

Disease

the disease

most

farmers

When it

strikes

mortality

as 100 percent.

it.

whenever

by poultry

young chickens,
tube or narrow
bottle
for handle

to cure

may be as
In parts

of

is known as Ranikhet.Dis-

ease,
Cause--Virus

Wing Web Stick

other chickens
cies of birds.

transmitted
and other

Symptoms--Coughing,
raspy

which shows the vaccine has

been effective,
or "a take."
l

breathing

gasping
and/or

Other

than knowing

the obvious

sytnptoms of the most common chicken

and what

an inexperienced
cautious

to do about

them,

farmer, should

be

about

diagnosing

Puncturing
118

the Wing Web

and

extreme

vaccinate

Diagnosis

very

spe-

Drinking
water--Some
vaccines
are mixed into the flock's
drinking
water.

0 Intramuscular--Use
a syringe
to inject
the vaccine into
the breast.

diseases

by-

i
I

nervousness,

and distended

crop .

Inactivity,

uncoordination,

before

drowsiness,

huddling

age.

source,

drooping

paralysis,

head,

of ali
lab

Newcastle

Pigeon

ment if

The
symptoms

there

pox vaccine

appears

contact
and wild

before

condition

Symptoms--Fowl
in

are three

trachea,

and

There

thickened

air

hemorrhages

yellow

sacs;

possible

Treatment--None.
vaccines
eral

available.

rule

poultry

A gen-

experts

is

should

months.

to vaccinate

schedule,

days of age,

'and four

have

of thumb used by many

on a 4-4-4
four

countries

meaning
four

at

weeks,

But you

use local

recommenda-

tions.
Fowl Pox
Fowl pox is a disease
attacks

birds

months

when they
old.

It

that

are three

with

then
infected

birds.
birds

to five

when they

months old.

are two types:

a Dry pox or modular form,

which generally
appears as a
wart or insect bite.
Causes
swelling
of comb, wattles,
face and sometimes eye.
By
itself,
dry pox doesn't
usually cause much mortality.

in proventriculus.

Prevention--Most

by insects,

pox most fre-

attacks

Post mortem signs--Mucus

of fowl

mosquitoes,and

by direct

quently

treat-

flock.

spread

chickens

possibly

is only

is an outbreak

condition

appears.

weeks of

emergency

Cause--Virus
especially

illness

are five

as a respiratory
a nervous

this

pox in a non-vaccinated

can do that.
often

for

the chicks

the diagnosis

tests
quite

to vaccinate

needed to provide

partial

these

does not confirm

--only

near heat

coma, death.

presence

five

sary

to

Wet or diptheritic
form
begins with discharge
from
e?es and nostrils,
tken a
cheesy material
forms in the
mouth.
This can cause suffocation unless it is removed.
Wet pox results
in high mortality-up to 50 percent--and
egg production
in layers
decreases
substantially.

Post mortem signs--Mucus

in

trachea,

and

thickened

possibly
air

sacs,

in the proventriculus.

is not neces119

yellow

hemorrhages

Treatment--In
if

an affected

the birds

detected

disease

before

affected.

can often

many birds

In this

nate

the unaffected

fowl

or pigeon

case,

be

vacciwith

pox vaccine

immediately.
If

a neighboring

the disease,
flocks

flock

vaccinate

in the area

There
chickens

already

gets
all

immediately.

is no treatment
having

for
fowl

pox.

dations

the recommen-

of local

In most cases

Acute and chronic:

sudden,
almost total
lack of appetite;
greenish-yellow
diarrhea;
difficulty
in breathing;
high
fever and increased
thirst;
head turns blue; enlarged,
hot,
swollen combs and wattles;
affected
birds feel very hot;
swollen eyes and thick discharges from nasal passages
similar
to that found in coryza.

iacide

authorities.

this

means:

of infected

contaminated
water.
birds

soil,

Vectors

and the feet

mortality

and change lit-

birds
Thoroughly

Remove

disinfect

and house.

Prevention--Primarily,

by drop-

ter

If

cleanli-

vaccines
it

may help

are recomto adminis-

them in accordance

recommendations

through

with

of local

the

author-

ities.
Infqctious

wild

of people

Bronchitis

Cause--Virus
spread
--or via contaminated

and animals.
Symptoms--There

may reduce

equipment

feed or
include

in feed

affected

mended,
birds

drugs)
flock.

ter.

Fowl Cholera
spread

recommended bacter-

in an infected

ness.

pings

or severe cholera:
symptoms are dead

(sulpha

and water

0 If fowl pox is prevalent

in
an area, the best action
is
to vaccinate.
Many experts
suggest vaccinations
around
the sixth week of age and
again at 12 weeks.

Cause--Bacteria

chick-

Peracute
the only
birds.

Treatment--A

Prevention--Follow

affect

are

birds

which

ens:

have been observed

this

daily,

of cholera

flock:

Symptoms--Chicks:

are two types

120

through
material.
sneezing,

air

gasping,
in throat,
trils

clicking

mucus,

discharge

and eyes.

production

shells,

misshapen,

whites).

zero

Antibiotics

to lessen

where

in

to two perthe infec-

mended by local

if

their

authorities,

recommendations

with

and vaccine

major

and sche-

airborne

on clothing

from infected

nearby

difficulty

their

ing and droop

chests

or car-

and

recommended by local
Disease

(Leukosis)

spread

dander

through

(cells

sloughed

follicles),

component

the

of chicken

Symptoms--Droopiness,

poor

ering

may be

and weight
signs

Some birds
pletely

have extreme

their

may

loss
before

are mildly

paralyzed;
sides

Mortality

their

weeks.

when exhaling,

to comlie

on

starve.

may be up to one per-

cent per day for

heads on

feath-

death.

they

and slowly

necks when inhal-

may cough up bloody

is

use the schedule

the only

and equipment

breathing,

an outbreak

house dust.

birds.

Symptoms--Birds

also

occurs

from feather

Laryngotracheitis
Cause--Virus,

of

If

chicken

dules.

their

is no history

Cause--Virus

recom-

can be used in accordance

vaccinate

the disease.

Marek's
nearby

vaccines,

birds

authorities.

complications.

outbreaks,

stretch

there

methods

can be given

Prevention--Following

ried

so unaffected

available,

tion.

spreads

Prevention--Never

mortality

for

the infec-

can be vaccinated.

cent.
Treatment--None

from 5 to

for

but disease

slowly,

watery

In chicks,
birds,

tion,

(thin

may be 5 to 60 percent;
mature

Treatment--None

remaining

poor quality

may range

50 percent.

egg
by

abruptly

10 to 50 percent,

Mortality

from nos-

Layers:

drops

production

heard

two to three

Treatment--None.
Prevention--Vaccination

mucus.
121

of day-

old

chicks--usually
if

breeder,
cinated

done by the

done at all.

egg-breed

especially

Coccidiosis

Vac-

chicks

Cause--Nine

are

dia

valuable.

Cause--Salmonella
mitted

bacilla

through

the

one generation
parents
Can also

trans-

eggs from

to the

are not

next

if

be transmitted
feet,

animals,

taminated

feed,

equipment,

other

con-

wings,

huddle

and

near

heater.

is white,

sticky

ing.

Chicks

may have

cent

mortality.

depressed,

intestines

or ceca,

appendage.

may have

vary

birds

for

of immunity

the

that

General

type.
birds

50 per-

tails

and ruffle

in

Diarrhea
dish

only

ment sanitary

management

of cocdegree

has to
indications

in food

consump-

hunch backs,

droop

feathers.
and the loose

may be bloody
Following

brown).

mortality

(redbloody

may increase

rapidly.

use

Post mortem

breeding.

chicks

flock

may start

droppings

drugs

2Prevention--Buy
pullorum-free

chickens

and the

tion;

do not

extremely

the type

involved

diarrhea,

stock;

market

is

of the disease

with

and foam-

diarrhea.

for

attacks

an intesti-

to isolate

decrease

greenish-

Sulfa-based

water

of the

It

are:

are weak and

Treatment-infected

Diar-

Adults:

outbreaks

brown

portion

will

droop

rhea

acute

a different

Symptoms--Signs

sudden
chicks

food,

Each species

cidia

deaths,

spread

from coccidia.

birds.

Symptoms--Chicks:

parasites)

contaminated

difficult

through

of cocci-

or litter.

nal

salmonella-free.

visitors'
wild

(protozoan

through

Pullorum

species

ens less

certified

specks

and imple-

intestines

prac-

ple

tices.

wall).
than
122

results--In

than

16 weeks old,

on interior

spots

chick-

(in

wall
severe

Intestinal
normal.

Other

of
case,

show through

red
pur-

exterior

wall
signs:

thicker

gray-white
upper
dish

streaks

intestine,

on wall
pink

substance

on intestinal

In chicks

weeks)

ceca may be filled

(under

and swollen

nine
with

to the

For birds

of a finger.
than

the outside
air is consistently
under 50 percent.
Sudden, massive invasions
of
coccidia
can hurt the flock
severely,
and large doses of
medication
can prevent
future
immunity.

or red-

wall.
blood

of

16 weeks,

a lab

size

Complete prevention--Give
the
flock
the recommended medium
level of coccidiostat
through
This
its first
15 weeks.
most likely
will
prevent
the
birds
from contracting
coccidiosis
at all,
but they won't
develop immunity
either.
Use
this method only for broilers
and for layers
that will
be
kept in wire cages.

Immunity plus treatment--Use

the low-level
dosage recommended during
the first
15
This should allow
weeks.
the birds
to develop some immunand
they
may not need any
ity ,
further
attention.
In case of
a mild outbreak,
treat
broilers
and layers
going to cages with
the largest
recommended dosage.
Treat layers
that will
be kept
on litter
with heavy doses only
during
severe outbreaks
so that
they otherwise
build
up as much
This
immunity
as they can.
method is the safest
overall,
and would be the best single
recommendation
for smalland
medium-sized
flocks.

older

test

is

needed.
Treatment--If
break
twelve
treat

a confirmed

among chickens
weeks

old

immediately

recommended

one to

is

severe,

with

locally

coccidiostats.

Prevention--There
ways to deal

out-

are
with

three

coccidiosis.

Natural
development
of immunity--Allow
the flock
to build
immunity
without
administering
any drugs unless there is
a severe outbreak.
This works
well when the flock
is exposed
only to low levels
of coccidia.
Under very dry conditions,
there may not be
enough infection
present
to
develop
immunity.
In a very
dry environment,
sprinkle
the litter
with water at
weekly intervals
to maintain
a constant
exposure
and
immunity
level
in the flock.
This may be necessary
where
a well-ventilated
poultry
house is located
in an area
where the humidity
level
of

Coccidiostats--These
in many forms,
and under

come

many combinations

many names,

and proprietary.
123

drugs

It's

both

generic

a good

idea

to switch

from one type

drug

to another

each chicken

cycle

so that

not

local

establish

particular
with

another--

F'ollow

for

arsenobenzine,

glycarbylamide
chickens),

(not
stop

days

plus
stop

slaughter;
for

laying

stop

before

slaughter;
use at least

before

slaughter;

methiotriazamide,
least

five

ter;

3,5,

(not

for

that

and

feed

slaugh-

problem

chickens);?
Other

and

as those
raymicin,

not

above,

drugs

nidrafur,

and birds

consumption

Mortality
--Sulfa
will

agribon,

the
124

in

the

eliminate

two weeks

the

if

or complications

present.
not mix birds

ages:
with

before

de-

rare.
drugs

within

different

ter-

are

egg production

diseases

found

found

Rare in adults,

Prevention--Do

as effective

include:

together

are not

rid

ages of birds

or water

other

their

to get

often

feed

use at

difficult

trying

different

Treatment

dinitro-o-Toluam.ide

though

as if

creases.

days

dis-

shake

but when found,

can be used as coccidio-

stats,

chicks

five

days before

sulfaquinoxaline.

breathing;

drops,

stop

laying

sneezing;

aklomide,
bithionol

birds.

eyes and nostrils;

overcrowded.

days

from

Foul-smelling

are kept
nic-

use four

infected

coughing;

where

slaughter;

dinitrodiphenyldisulfide;
arbazin,

or acutely

of something;

use at least

before

spread

from

heads

(Cold)

bacteria,

to healthy

charge

laying

days before

Coryza

Symptoms:

amprolium

chickens);

stop

chronic

coccidiostats

(not

four

Cause--A

direc-

ethopabate
use five

(SEZ).

birds

amprolium;

and sulfaethoxypy-

Infectious

may be harmful.

Some effective

phthalysulfacet-

(TSC),

ridazine

closely.

are:

NF-180-furazolidone,

amide

mix one

manufacturer's

tions

do

to any

Don't
it

3-Nitro,

nitrofurazone,

coccidia

resistance
nne.

of

they

flock;

swollen
infect
there

cull

all

of

birds

head parts
the rest

of

may be bacter-

ins

or vaccinations

in

available

some countries,

Use proper

but

roundworms,

not most.

management

practices.

found

small

intestine,

white,

from

to 3 in.)

Parasites
Parasites,

both

weaken

external,

and can kill

In addition

ens.

to getting

food

from

a chicken's

site

also

can carry

increase

the

internal

body,
disease

bird's

At least

nine

may infect

various

chickens.

Chief

roundworms,
worms.

species
internal
among

cecal

feces

or

mediate
slugs,
roaches

through
hosts,

earthworms,

flies,

and other

insects.

Symptoms--Initial
feed

consumption

no weight
cases,

gain.

chickens

rapidly.

of

Laying

long.

Tape-

in the small
flat,

white,

and segmented.

in

size

They

to 15-17.5

cm (6 to 7 in.).

Preatment--

Each type
a specific

of worm
drug:

piperazine

for

roundworms,

nothiazine

for

cecal

tape

phe-

worms

dilaurate

for

Some manufacturers

worms.

combine

one or more of these

snails,

drugs

in a single

medication.

cock-

Treat

as directed

for

in

little

Prevention--Primarily,
or

tion.

!vkIke

In severe

replaced

lose

wild

weight

chickens

duce

fewer

Post

mortem results--Large

major

infestations.

increase
with

rib-

from microscopic

and dibutyltin

of inter-

and about

in.)
are

requires

through

including

are white

found

bon-like
vary

in blind

cm. (l/2

or

worms and tapea variety

ceca,

intestine,

them are

Worms are spread

ends of

a para-

parts

and compara-

found

worms,

of worms

long,

worms,
1.25

Worms

4 to 7.5 cm. (1 ,1/2

Cecal

chick-

to disease.

are yellow-

thick-bodied.

the

susceptibility

of

tively
and
its

in middle

sanita-

sure
between

birds

out

flocks,

roaches

eggs.

hosts
125

litter

is

keep

of the house,

use insecticides

pro-

that

and other
and do not

against

cock-

intermediate
feed

snails

or

slugs

to chickens.

pect

that

(they

If

worms are

probably

broilers
layers

present

are),

at four

and every

treat

weeks

two months

at ten weeks

two months

you sus-

of age

thereafter;
and every

thereafter.
Lice

The most common poultry

sites

are

entire
.
bird.

lice.

life

They spend

cycle

Symptoms -scabs,
in

Skin
gains

egg production,

young

chickens

tions

are heavy.
--

on raised

floors,

baryl,

with

litter
all

market.

About

sulphur

powder

ashes

or a 1:50

chickens
cages

the

If
with

In deep-

are

available,

fumes

and

--

of

or dusted.
Mites
like
126

is

said

paint

kill

will
the

in the
roosts

--

clean.
them
the

create
lice.

Some

cracks

and

(carbolineum).

Mites

too expensome

ratio

Keep nests

body heat

joints

local

to 1 kg of cold

sulfate

use creosote

and

the

20 grams of

nicotine
that

or gun

from

you use roosts,

bird's

feeders

powder

of ashes

effective.

Prevention

couma-

litter

sulphur

to be quite

car-

naled,

can be sprayed

or not

or

be sprayed

except

Where chemicals
sive

obtained

sprayer.

equipment

waterers

powder

preparations,

systems,

use a mixture

some dead

malathion,

phos or similar
a crop

farmers
with

in

should

pyrethins,

using

Louse

or decrease

Infested

free

diarrhea,

when infesta-

Treatment

or dusted

of Chicken

irritation,
feathers,

weight

ranging

One Kind

their

on the body of the

ruffled

small

para-

are

creatures

almost
that

invisible,
come in var-

spider-

ious

Some stay

species.

continuously,

while

on the birds

others

attack

weight,

only

then

lame,

legs

leg

swelling,

scaly

Red mites

crusted.
loss

of weight

tion,

anemia.

(base

of

out

Treatment

--None

birds

tation,

and

equipment,

for

pull

itching.

scaly

six

leg,

is

house

as for
lice.

to sucking

dish-brown

bugs),

can carry

chetosis.

Spirochetosis,
in rapid

any other

symptoms.

areas.

found

in walls,

other

wooden

hard

to find.

presence,
with

only

pry

a knife

into

death

If

the

it.

Some farmers

go

over

and other

cement

materials

non-inwith

ticks
those

dry

of the

time

and

and are very

cracked

their

boards
closely.

of appetite

and
127

and other

easier

than

hung by wire

Usually,

metal

boxes

ment are

with-

you suspect

and examine

Symptoms--Loss

roof

a new one.

nesting

spiro-

roosts,

equipment
If

red-

in hot,

They spend part

in cracks

the

building

old,

Prevention--Sheet

or tick

results
are

and once

consider

is

flammable

blood,

egg-shaped,

ticks

change

twice

blowtorch.

(flat,

out

thatch,

ticks,

that
If

later.

in

every-

intervals

months

For other

as for

for

and repeating

at two-week

Ticks

fever,

cracks

thing,

Prevention--Same

ticks

in

feeling

Depluming

lice.

fowl

and

and spraying

birds

infes-

litter

cleaning

birds.

In addition

removing

and egg producmites

lice,

attack

and elsewhere

same treatment

mites,

aggressively

feeders

to relieve

affected

for

(nocturnal):

feathers):

feathers
cull

mite:

anemia.

Treatment--Same'as

at night.
Symptoms --Scaly

possible

to keep

wooden ones.
are

on stands.

safer

feeders,
equipfree

of

Roosts
than

It

Other
Health
Problems

the

will

insides

healthy
they

are

or kept

is

too long

botulism

or other

Be very

careful
rat

cared

pecking

can go bad,

causing

ter

for

organs,

prepared
This

chickens

give

with

Note

bird,

gasoline

most diseases

and other

possible

special

when you

illustrations--but

may start

signs

will

not

attempt

--that

is best

you should

color

there
look

done by

are some

for.

Performing a
Post Mortem
Examination

and insides
died

carefully

of unknown

cover

those

birds,

with

should

be killed,

approved
their

at the body

of a chicken
reasons

reasons.

that

has

may help
Very

dis-

sick

no hope of recovery,

methods,

using

Killing
a Chicken.
Stretch
neck and bend back around
thumb.

locally

or by dislocating

necks.
128

to

on how to diagnose

each other.

Looking

be bet-

abnormalities.

publications'with

or impro-

of all

you will

to spot

instructions

the posi-

and texture
Then,

manual

poisons,

chickens

as you can when

color

on a sick

poisoning.

Crowded

sources.

perly

work

food

engines

poison

stored

around

insecticides,
(petrol)

improperly

of as many

slaughtered.

size,

internal

to examine

and outsides

chickens

tion,

Feed that

be helpful

Examine
death

a bird

as soon after

as possible,

ditions
take

before

have changed.

erinarians
they

or lab

are

or send a few sick

but

this

vet
if

a knife

or shears,

side

the

of

the

the

for

lice

of pox,

fungus,

around
tributed

ber

and trachea,

excess

mucus,

cheesy

matter.

or lab
is

for

diag-

impracti-

neck,
the

pull

that

throat

smell.
scaly
mites.
wing

If

tongue

joints

skin

from

the skin

flaps

aside

breast.

With

heavy

for

through
both

cheesy

the

sides

which

can be caused

or you will

cavity.

In females

ity
fluid

abdominal

blackened

for

spots

broken
if

broken

body cavity
Slit

by scorpion
(noting

stings.
129

for
the

if

the

shears,

cut

and ribs
(center

it

fluid

ridge

with
internal

in body

check

egg yolks
yolk

body cav(a black

has been in

a while).
crop,
smells

on

the keel

damage the

may indicate

of

to bare

Do this

muscle.

the

poi,nt

and remove

of,breastbone),

and

the body

Pull

of the keel

Check for

leg

joints

head.

bones

organs.

swollen
for

heavy

rough,

are

the

comb and

care

Also

below
to the

the

hip

and

first

and cut

the breastbone

a putrid

fat.

just

the

blood

them so that

Discolored

and examine

and excessive
look

flat.

for
it

the

Puncture

lies

for

the bird,

over

and dislocate

and breast

legs

looking

inside

and
Slit

inflammation,

skin

of pox.

and swollen,
Look for

the

signs

nostrils
the

Look

Straighten

(lumps),

Check the

bird.

slit

of a num-

and windpipe

nodules

exam-

may have con-

indications

the

first

particularly

of diseases.

or muc-

larynx

such as the
are

wattles,

blood

excess

living

the

still

to the death.

head parts,

a.r.eas>

but

of the

the vent,

(injured

take

mortem,

or mites,

the

through

you would

often

outside

cut

lesions

To look

ine

With

mouth and esophagus.

Look for

cal.
In a post

carefully.

us 9 and other abnormalities

foreign
matter
and nodules.

to the vet

nosis,

help

to identify

Ideally,

chickens

As you Work,

technicians,

available,

problem.

body con-

They will

good notes.

Open the bird

remove

food

sour),

and

examine

lining

and other

for

its

brown),

ions

or nodules

for

Examine
tubes

ones

the

spleen

red

(pneumonia),

tumors,

congestion

(dark

tional

kidneys

for

fat,

in

inside.
Note

the

lungs

for

will

sink

water).
Remove the
for

tumors,

Slit

the

intestines

nodules

or hemorrhages.

intestines

to check

worms and other

problems.

ened

walls

intestinal

microscopic
Also

look

in

the

scarred

Thick-

may indicate
coccidiosis.

blood,

inflammation

mucus.

If

look

for

ceca,

for

worms or
for

and excess

and look

lining

you find
cheesy

and cecal

matter,

worms.

Open the proventriculus

stomach,

located

the

esophagus

ing

for

at

the

(true
joining

and gizzard),

hemorrhages,

blood

worms,

of

checkor
139

urates

(white

Examine

leukosis.

Note

der

and color
check

for

excess
that

body

the

lead

areas.

the
may

gall

(normally

fat

the

material)

indicate
size

the

Check

swollen,

other

in

seen.

of

nerves--if

(breaks)

and

indicated

peeling

is

ero-

by a nutri-

brachial

duct

fluid

and is

passages.

In layers,

will

caused

and/or

internal

gizzard,

Gizzard

is

deficiency

lining

nodules,

red,

often

gizzard

and spongy,

Look

in water).

most

the

erosion.

the heart

and nodules.

bright

for

when ulcers

on the

of

Slit

may

fluid

and texture

(normal,

sion

is

and bronchial

lesions

color

float

or

looking

les-

Check

matter

for

for

hemorrhages

and cheesy

the

(soft

leukosis).

lesions,

the

(normal

and looking

dark

indicate

color

inflammation.

fungus

Examine

problems.

noting

liver,

worms,

ovary

bladgreen).

and ovi-

and ruptures
egg yolk

into

8. Feedand
Nutrition
For

every

optimum

amount

or nutrients
physical
and,

that

the

It

stand

that

fresh

can't

taste).

of humans,
often

in

that

proper

of the

takes

chicken

frequent

mistake
feed

various

of

ruin

excessive

amounts

right

final

case

learned--

this

manual.

easily

have

a short
contained,

Much has

them.

too much to cover

improving

breed

farmer

will

most

more money on feed

best

for

combined.

For

this

reason,

care

be taken

choosing

a feeding

be an assured

of what

for
A

the

birds,

cial
with.

by

they

fresh

not

131

feeds
In

are

of

either

easiest

some remote

may be too
available.

it

is
in

There
good

must

feed

locally

prepared.
the

on

operation

plan.

source

or commercially

feeding

of

that

the

likely

than

in

important

in

operations,

else

and,

how

everything

balance

bal-

studied

affect

chicken

spend

have

and are

been

the

needed.

if

these

is

poultry

that

the

chickens

diets

In

a nutritionally-balanced

and then

feeding

in

cycle

these

chicken

is

all

most

farmer
in

on the

includes

formulating

many scientists

poultry
farmer.
Thus,
. .
nutrition,
proper
balance

the

feed

life

the

by the

to

is

is

program

Because

the

etc.,

ance.

to

a lot

as in

in

grains,

practice

feeding

to under-

because

which

and control

is

pro-

enough

eat

This

items

(chickens

But,

well-being
turn,

to

what.appeals

not

rates,

she can.eat.

to it

the

maximum

not

cereal

side.

and balance

and corn

appeal

peak

attaining

like

greens

things

the

all

would

produce

chickens,

is

greens,

foods

important

It

an

of

amount

productivity.

chicken

of

in

a layer

is

growth

is

both

important

feed

will

case

ductivity.

there

and balance

condition,

in

are

animal

grown
Commerto work

locations

expensive

or simply

Where commercial

'

feeds are
successfully
are

available
and being
by some farmers,

most

source

certainly

for

all

the

of

choice

of

be explained.

cost

is
of

feed

than

itself.

result

in more profit

a feed

which

is

always

is

per

bird

than

half

as costly,but

available

or is

balanced

in

is

may

not

nutritional

good commercial

available

or is

next

alternative

best

breed

operations

mixing

local

energy

sources)

concentrate"

the

improved

to consider

ingredients
with

Protein
are

coastal

not

expensive,
for

is

is

(usually
a "protein

and vitamin/mineral

mixture.
often

too

feed

concentrates

available

areas

where

imported

or mixed

or other

protein

centrates

near

urban

they

are

locally
sources.

areas

maize,

rice

and mixed
polish,

either

These

can be transported

remote

and

using

with

tapioca,

feed

the
using

last

alternative

only

locally

is
avail-

nutritional

dependent

upon

approach
needs
several

take?1 in
of poultry
factors:

o Type of Chicken--Improved
breeds do not produce well
unless
the feed given them
contains
a proper
nutrient
balance.
Country
chickens
can withstand
a varied
diet
and can survi,-e
under less
than ideal
feeding
conditions.
Country
chickens
may
do quite
well on locally
produced
( non-commercial)
feed because these birds
are
low producers.
But they too
will
grow faster
and produce
better
if food intake
is
improved.

content.
If

ingre-

ingredients.

meeting

the

feed

carbohydrate

The specific

.4 steady

of a well-balanced

properly

a'ble

can be made using

supply

not

expensive"

more important

the

Finally,

The end result

how much profit

a feed

feed

to mix

"too

high

dients.

farmers.

The concept
should

and other

used
they

fish
con-

to more
local
tubers
132

0 Size of Operation--If
a farmer has only 100 chickens,
it will
probably
be more
costly
and certainly
more
'time-consuming
to mix feed
than it will
be to purchase
from a commercial
source.
the
smaller
the
Additionally,
poultry
operation,
the less
reliable
or steady will
be
the supply of necessary
If there are 20
ingredients.
or so small farmers,
a poultry cooperative
which has
feed mixing
and storage
services
could well be an answer.

Q Type of Operation--A
broiler
operation
will
require
a
steady supply
of feed for
only seven to ten weeks.
Ingredients
may be available
for short
periods
in line
with harvest
and grain milling,
fishing
times and other
Layer
seasonal
variations.
operations
are different.
The feed must be available
without
interruption
throughand year after
out the year,
year,
to be successful.

Climatic
Conditions--In
hot
climates
with humid conditions,
feed cannot be stored
more than a month without
Vitamins
deterspoilage.
iorate
rapidly
in hot climates and must be used within a few days after
purchase
unless
refrigeration
is
Again,
large
a,vailable.
feed mixing
operations
can
purchase
and use vitamins
All ingredients
rapidly.
which contain
fat must be
used quickly
as well.
If a
commercial
anti-oxident
is
available
and not too -costly,
buy it and mix with any ingredients
which contain
fat.

Commercial
Feeds

Availability
of Commercial
Feeds--In
addition
to the
cost factor
mentioned
earlier,
other
factors
in favor of
commercial
feeds must be
taken into consideration.
The commercial
supplier
takes
care of ingredient
purchasing, price
negotiation,
transport,
advance planning,
storage
of buffer
stock and
contracting
with ingredient
If a commercial
suppliers.
feed is available
and you
cannot answer where ingredients
will
come from a year
from now for your own mixing
.
operation,
you probably
should
rely
on the commercial
source.
You must be
certain
you will
have the
proper
mix of ingredients
to
provide
all necessary
nutrients at all times.

Except
farmers
feeds

in

will
for

probably
improved

Commercial
come in
called

feed,
the

form

home-mixed,

ers

protein
(stage

broilers

of

a dry

must

needs

ages

which

mixture

match

or

the

of chicks,

difgrow-

;md adult),
is

the

pro-

distinguishes

be given
and types
feeds

will

commercial

It

should

designations:

most places,

or layers.

feed

operations.

in

chick

content

Commercial

breed

between

tein

ferent

133

feeds

areas,

use commercial

Whether

mash.

ferent

some remote

are

to these
of
sold

what
dif-

chicken.
with

these

Chick mash--Fed
from a
chick's
hatching
until
eight
weeks old, chick
or starter
mash contains
20 percen'L protein.

Greens

darker
try

feed,

you are

using

you may want

checked

out

sionally

to ensure

have

proper

the

government

cereal

will

want
grains

this

using

to give
to the

amount

fed

mixing

plans.

can eat

Every

etc.,

(which

tein)

eaten

protein,
in

Among the

the

of

a chicken

corn,

of
rice,

almost
the

feed

no pro-

intake

and minerals

balanced

of
con-

ration.

ways of

feeding

chick-

ens are:
l

Whole grain--Feeders
often
are used for whole grain,
either
by itself
or mixed
with other nutrients,
Sometimes whole grain
is scattered
in the litter.
The
whole grain method of feeding
is not recommended.
When fed
in with other ingredients,
the grain
is eaten first,
resulting
in improper
diet;
when scattered,
much is contaminated
or lost.

Wet mash--Chickens

local

capacity.
commercial
greens

the

amount

contains

the

bean,

Feeding Methods

to

Your

in

a certain

reduces

protein

unless

Remember,
grain

used,

Discourage

included

vitamins

tained

are

clover,

grains

only

egg yolks

use of high

greens.

is

feed.

occa-

continues

content.

Some farmers
feed

it

may have

cereal

to reduce

greens

as alfalfa,

use of

it

by a laboratory

If

to encourage

a commercial

to have

color.

such

used

to make the

pea and lentil

Layer mash --Through

the layhens receive
ing period,
mash containing
16 to 18 percent protein.
(This level
is usually
recommended.
However research
indicates
that
a 15 percent
level
is sufficient
to maintain
a high
level
of production
as long
as the essential
amino acid
content
is balanced.
Where
protein
costs are very high,
it may be wise to try the 15
percent
level.
Otherwise
use 16 to 17 percent
to
allow
a good margin of safety*>

If

or

in

types

e Broiler
mash--From
hatching
to sale,
broilers
need large
amounts of protein
for rapid
growth and their
feed contains
22 percent
protein.
l

sometimes

cannibalism

Grower mash--Fed
from 9 to
20 weeks old,
grower mash
contains
16 percent
protein.

are

and

chickens.

134

usually

eat more wet mash than dry

because
they enjoy its consistency.
However,
wet
mashes, particularly
in hot
weather,
go bad very quickly.
If wet mash is fed to increase
feed and water
consumption
in hot weather,
feed
only an amount which will
be
consumed within
two hours.

feed
local

If

is

not

too

in

the

Pellets
or crumbles--Commercial
mixtures
in pellet
or
crumble
form are excellent
but usually
too expensive.

Mixing

feed

Home-mixed
feeds--The
decision
of whether
to mix feed or use
a commercial
source has already been discussed
to some
extent.

ing

especially
If

something
H
nutrients
are,

Economics-Is it really
less
expensive
and/or
more profitable to mix feed?

and
ious

the mechanics
nutritive

o%ers

you will

need

mixtures.

feed

must

Technology--Will
provisions
be made to ensure that
the
knowledge
required
for proper

ing

section

appendices.
135

what

of nutrients,
ration
the

be properly

toxic

suband

avoiding

these

in

once

this

be included

your

mixed,

stored.
in

var-

properly.

Finally,

will

chick-

much fiber,

of

to

those

to know about

information

mix-

of

contain
too

try
need

of mixing

inclusion

feed

the

you will

ingredients

stances,

of

to

a balanced

Some ingredients

Equipment-Is feed mixing

equipment
available?
If not,
can it be made locally?

rations.

sources

formulate

excessive

and patience,

decided

about

ingre-

concern.

requirements

ens,

how to

of

formulating

own feed,

know nutrient

be reviewed:

time

is

The prob-

one of most

you have

your

process

supply

takes
in

the

to learn.

lem of a continuous
the

and feasible

feeds,

difficult

is

should

cheaper

to mix balanced

a Logistics--Will
there
be a
reliable
and constant
supply
of ingredients
available
which will
result
in having
the proper
mixture(s)
yearround?
l

it

dients

factors

stays

feed up to
a Is the commercial
par with what you can mix
yourself?
Does the commercial
company do a consistent
job in preparing
the feed?

Dry mash--When
it is wellbalanced
and stored
properly,
dry mash usually
is the best
way of feeding
contained
chickens.

These

mixing
area?

Much
feed
in

mixthe

(starch).
Crude fiber--cellulose
and
other
difficult-to-digest
alfalfa,
sormaterials:
Crude
ghum, bran,
oats.
fiber
content
of feed ingredients
must be considered
in relation
to formulation.
Too much crude fiber
is
usually
what you must watch
If the diet contains
for.
will
too much, the chicken
not be able to eat enough
feed to meet its needs for
energy,
protein,
etc.
A
common problem
in many
countries
is using too much
rice bran in the feed.
Rice bran is a good, inexpensive
ingredient,
but it
often
contains
a high fiber
Mixed feed should
content.
not contain
more than five
to seven percent
crude
fiber
where possible.

Nutrient Requirements
of Poultry

Energy
measured

Energy,
is

required

digest,

by birds

grow,

ature

and,

produce

in

eggs.

in

calories,

to move,

maintain

body

the

of

case

Chickens

eat,
temper-

layers,

get

energy

from:
l

Carbohydrates--Grain,
roots,
tubers
and other
starchy
foods and sugars provide
carthe main source
bohydrates,
of energy in most balanced
When the chicken
rations.
eats starch
the large
insoluble molecules
are broken
down into
glucose
(a sugar).
This process,
digestion,
is
brought
about by the action
of digestive
enzymes which
are secreted
into the intestinal
tract.
Once formed,
glucose
is absorbed
through
the intestinal
wall,
into
the bloodstream
and on to
Carthe cells
of the body.
bohydrates
can be divided
into two categories:
Nitrogen-free
extrgg--easily digestible
to form glumaterial
case, energy-rich

136

Not

all

is

used.

Fats--Have
more than twice the
energy value of carbohydrates.
Fats are usually
too expensive for use in poultry
feeds
because of the demand for
human consumption.
Additionally,
fats break down rapidly,
The
causing
feed spoilage.
more fat in the feed, the
shorter
time it can be safely
Feed spoiled
due to
stored.
breakdown
of fat is called
Feeds containing
rancid.
fats are fish meal and peanut meal.
energy

eaten

The energy

by the
that

chicken

can be used

is

called

Other

metabolizable

energy

is

energy

ejected

in

(ME).

the

feces.

which

acids

are

imal
The specific

ments

of

chickens

production

level

vironmental

factors.

poses

feed

of

requirements
of

acid

requirements.

Of the

13 amino

the

of

as well
the

pur-

Appendix

energy

methion<ne,

different

of

because

(ME)

calories/lb.

calories/kg

1,250
1,280
1,335

2,750
2,815
2,950

they

to meet the

cient
if

the

total

is
for

body
are

amino

essential

for

functions.
those

of various
acids.

tissue

cannot

High

quality

sources

are

amounts

of

building

Essential

which

chickens.

Amino

those
the

which

essential

amino

com-

the

acids

likely

requirements

acids

has enough
to meet

protein
contain
amino

larger

the

that

you will

ma1 protein

acids.
137

these

acids

they

to meet.

It

amino

are
is

acid

a feed

which

In order

requirements
is

need at
source.

and

because

three.

it

and

important

be in

minimum

amino

even

require-

other

will

these

acids

Of these,

most

all

of

be defi-

of the

difficult

that

it

content

be met first

most

could

methionine

the

in

minimum

amino

protein

are

and

be made by the

five

lysine,

limited

essential

feed

adequate.

should

are

these

are

and therefore

these

Mixed

in

in

formulation,

is

nutrients.

listed

the most

of

and

lysine,

sources,

cystine

consists

protein

many protein
difficult

low qual-

and tryptophan
feed

are

and

and vege-

arginine,

in

An-

meal

acids

cystine

requirements

Protein

E for

E, only

importance

ments

of

considered

amino

(degree

feed

binations

are

See Appendix

Energy

Protein

quality,

ity.

are:

O-8 weeks
8-20 weeks
20 weeks on

high

proteins

formulation,

Metabolizable

as fish

table

are

amino

quality.

such

on age,

For

chickens

proteins,

depend

and en-

essential

in protein

meat meal,

(layers)

for

low

low in

require-

temperature)

as other

are

energy

conditions

confinement,

ages

Those

most
least

of
likely
one ani-

flavin.

Vitamins
l

Vitamins

are

required

in

ties

essential

but

health

organic

extremely

compounds

small
for

normal

quantigrowth,

and productivity.
s Vitamin
A--Requirements
are
expressed
in United
States
Pharmacopoeia
units
(U.S.P.),
which are the same as International
Units
(I.U.).
Vitamin A is easily
destroyed
by
sunlight
and contact
heat,
minerals
or rancid
with air,
Vitamin
A is found in
oils.
sorghum,
soybean,
alfalcorn,
fa and all green leafy
vegetables.

Vitamin
E--Since
cereal
grains
contain
a large
amount of Vitamin
E, deficiency is not likely
in most
poultry
feeds.

Riboflavin--Feeds
cereal
grains
in
probably
deficient

acid--Rations
riboflavin
pantothenic

will
acid.

Other vitamins--Vitamin
K,
thiamin,
pyridoxin,
niacin,
choline
are other
biotin,
vitamins
required
by chickensjbut
deficiency
is not probable in an otherwise
balanced feed mix.

Minerals
Minerals
required

Vitamin
D--Requirements
are
expressed
in International
Chick Units
(I.C.U.),
which
measure only the quantity
of
D3 and not D2 because chickens can utilize
only D3.
Chickens
under daily
sunlight
can make their
own D3.
Other chickens
must have D3
in their
feed.
Use of artificial
VT?-amin D3 is usually
necessar;
for contained
units.

Pantothenic
with enough
have enough

for

port

functions.

sary

minerals

otherwise
eral

are
use

in

will

supplements

elements

many life

Not

balanced

(See Appendix

basic

all

the

be found
feed.
must

supnecesin

an

T'nus min-

be added.

E.)

m Salt--Will
have to be added
to the feed mix unless
fish
meal with a very high salt
content
is included
in the
mix..
l

with only
the mix are
in ribo13s

Calcium and phosphorus--Of

particular
concern
are calcium and phosphorus,
which
most certainly
will
have to
be provided
separately
(for
laying
hens).

Non-nutrient
Feed Substances

Ingredient
Use Limits
Appendix

consists
of small
.-Grit-- Grit
stones which are used in the
gizzard
of the chicken
to
grind
up feed.
It is usually
provided
in a feeder
separate
from the mash.
Water --Necessary

for

all

ingredients
only

tion

tinm
c&I.-

Some reasons

a list

should

be used

amount

in

for

this

of

a feed
iimita-

are:
in the
m Crude fiber--Content
feed will
be too high if
more than the recommended
amount of some ingredients
is
used.

Medications--To
control
coccimedications
often
are
diosis,
mixed into
the feed.
Coccidiosis
medications
are called
Antibiotics
coccidiostats.
sometimes
are included
at
very low levels
in feed for
growth promotion.
When used
for medical
purposes,
high
levels
for short periods
of
time as per specific
disease
control
is recommended.
Antibiotics
are not used for
disease
prevention
because
if fed at a constant
level
over an extended
period
of

Toxins--Cottonseed
meal contains
a toxin
and should be
used only in limited
amounts.
So does soybean meal unless
it is heat-treated.

Palatability--Excessive
use
of some ingredients
or its
texture
(too powdery or gummy) will
make the feed unpalatable
to the chickens,
resulting in lower
feed consumption.

Fishy tasting
result
if too
is used.

~ntibi~tic-rPsistan+

bacteria
biotics
growth
age of

which

to a limited

mix.

life.

E contains

will
result.
Antiare not used for
stimulation
after
the
20 weeks.

139

eggs--Will
much fish

meal

Poor nutrient
balance--Too
much of any ingredient
(over
50 percent
rice
polish,
for
example)
will
make it difficult
to balance
the ration.
The listed
amounts are given
in some cases to simply help
you in attaining
a balanced
ration.

feed

Sources of
Feed
Nutrients

ble

(ration)

requires

amount

patience

of

trial

a consideraand error,

and determination.

But,

with

a good formula

will

save money and control

costs,

which

is

the

the

farmer
feed

farmer's

major

expense.
The charts
the

amount

in Appendix

of nutrients
Using

the

requirements

listed

in

ces,

methods

the
late

following

sources.
meat

from

house

to cook,

grind.

up,

and potential

appendion

area.
feed

own list

of

in

bananas,

papaya,

are

formulation

protein

sun and

quantity

bread-

Consult

with

information

on

a feed

of
and/

essential

amino

come close,

local

source

ingredients

to

they

concerned

safe

and recommended.

source.

methionine

with

140

(amounts
acids).

meeting
for

lysine

(methionine

in place

alone

will

methionine

for

To

pro-

Be particularly

tine,

requirements
chicken

both

use one animal

requirements

Formulating a Ration

the

and one vegetable

tein

are

by satisfying

and quality

unconventional

a balanced

on the

a local

requirements,

regarding

at

listed

formulating

l--Start

authorities

Arriving

not

may have

actual

in your

charts,

in

and

of all

feedstuffs

Steps

price,

availability

they

Step

siaughter-

sp.),

ensure

the

are:

(Leucena

beans.

If

them.

termites,

the

with

characteristics

nutritionist

a local

dry

ipil-ipil

or winged

the

to use as nutrient

scraps

value,

other

feed.

You may have

fruit,

nutritive

you can calcu-

You can add your

ingredients

in

nutrient

outlined

pages,

a balanced

Become familiar

contained

33 sources.

and the

D list

the
and
+ cys-

of methionine

do).
for
dre

Meeting
lysine
generally

and
most

difficult
they

are

anced.

of

all,

the

first

While

tein

which

calculating

such

sources
as maize

cassava

for

Some protein

found

in

this

these

costs.
methionine

other

check

requirements

are

2--Next,

tein

and energy

needs.

will

low-energy

If

the

ens will

eat

less

meeting

the&r

energy

but

their

other

a .diet,
should

the

the

than

protein.
protein

be increased.

to keep

of
it

percent.

per

kg (per

lb.)

acid
calorie
requirement

2,750

calorie
content

3,000

20%

(1,250)

protein
requirement

pro-

more of

energy,

especially

Try

the

content

(1,3;

21.9% protein
level
adjusted
for
energy
content

This

in

not

calculate

to meet

eat

ration

one.

all

contents.

energy

high

ensure

balance
primarily

energy

have

met.

eat

mnsthey

and

amino

Step

their

feed

lysine

to

In

Example--If
feed for chicks
(20
percent
protein
requirement)
has
3,000 cal. per kg (1,373 cal.
which is more than
per lb.),
the 2,750 (1,250)
needed,
protein
content
must be increased
to 21.9 percent.

and

total

essential

Poultry

be

requirements

been met,

too

will

Once the

short.

fiber

five

protein

polish-

sources

can reduce

fall

also,

feed.

below

the

wheat,

and rice

ings,

than

crude

the

car'bo-

exceed

step

total

energy,

(corn),

flour

this

look

low-cost

to

minimum

pro-

also

high-energy,

hydrate

safer

why

to be bal-

requirements,

for

is

a high-

ration
the

feed,

is

protein

thus

ious

needs--

to

such

in

stay

of

line
of

within

the

to

the var-

birds.

Try

two percent

of

ratio.
ratio:

of

simplicity,

orie/protein

ratio

141

calories

with

Calorie/protein
poses

is

ration

needs

the

content
It

the

chick-

needs,

In

Keep

For purthe

is

cal-

calculated

by dividing
centage

the

points

requirement
type

number

of

number

in

or

is

as a guideline

in

be sure

you have

tein

the

tein

as much calcium

energy,

the

2,750

calories

Since

the

we had

To test

the

and

the

calcium

feed

content
up to 21.9

is
must

137,
be

percent,

in:
=

feed.
60 percent

requirement

itself

if

the

in

flock

to a calcium-source

4--Most

fish

or meat meal,

contain

salt.

Therefore,

add about

0.25

percent

that

is
per

Step

Cal/protein
ratio
ratio

have

Step

oz.

calorie/protein

proper

resulting

correct

about

need

the

birds

hopper.

Cal/protein
ratio

150

protein

3,000
21.9

You only

has access

is:

protein

in

foods,

salt

250 g

137,
ratio.

some

to the

per

5--Balancing

ration,

100 kg

contents
requires

lations.

An easier

of varimany calcuand accep-

ted

way to meet

with

a commercial

vitamin-min-

eral

supplement.

If

the

supplement's

the

birds

get

without

excesses.

(4

the vitamin

ous foods

needs

142

especially

100 lbs.).

and-mineral
=

adjusted

the

ratio

twice

the

protein.

For the

as phosphorus

of

is:

3,000
20

the

you

and a 20% pro-

between

ratio

pro-

The rati"

example

balance

to meet

cioout

enough

requirement.

or bone meal

effectively,

feed

calories

dicalcium

to use both

The calorie/protein

3,000

is

to

and 20 percent

prior

formula

add limestone,

phosphate

chick

137

your

checking

per

In the

low,

in

and

requirements.

least

age or

calcium

only

need at

2,750
20

the

phosphorus

otherwise.

For

3--If

useful

feed.

is meaningless

kg

Step

The resulting

ratio

Example:

per-

protein

of a given
bird.

in

the

of

these

needs

you follow

directions,
enough

is

of

any harmful

their

Example of Feed Formulation for Chicks

Assume

the

following

is

available:
Percentage
of protein

cost

# Source

Protein
per kg

cost
per

--

--

100 kg

100 lbs.

$ 4.95

$ 2.25

8.25

3.75

--

--

9.90

4.50

8.5

--

--

7.70

3.50

44

18~

17.60

8.00

50

35

16

24.20

11.00

60

40

18

lb.

Carbohydrate:
22.

Rice

24.

Sorghum

5.

polish

Maize

(corn)

11

Protein:
7.

Cottonseed

27.

Soybean

ll3.

Fish

meal
meal

meal

Balance

the

quantity

least

1.1

0.75

2,750

calories

kg

(1,250

protein

meal
source,

for

of the

feed

bean meal
and will

is

the

but

it

(see
is

the next

help

balance

low

lysine

lb.).

equal

protein

about

same.

the

polish

cheapest

cent)

because

can't

est.

Although

198).

in

much Vitamin
Soy-

this

it

the

maize
A, it

second

the

source.

are

use

maxi-

(50 per-

is

ghum as the

143

its

rate

cheapest,

of

energy,

example

at near

Instead,

content

of

contents

expensive.

rela-

three

supply

amounts

mum permissable

be

All

sources

and their

rice

15 percent

page

meal.

Therefore,

ME per

per

more than

and

contain-

of

calories

Cottonseed

about

methionine

a ration

cottonseed

carbohydrate

pro-

lysine,
(or

in

ing

tively

20 percent

methionine

the

Chicks

percent

+ cystine)

used

protein

and quality.

need at
tein,

ration's

8~

cheap-

supplies
still

is

use sorcarbohydrate

too

ample Test Formulation

Methionine

Lysine

Protein

ME*
Calories

Cystine

polish

45

11

4.9

0.5

0.22

0.2

0.09

-%
0.11

'rghum

20

1.8

0.2

0.04

0.16

0.03

0.15

0.03

66,000

ttonseed
15
meal

45

6.6

1.8

0.27

0.66

0.10

0.90

0.135

30,030

;i;y

-20

50

10.0

3.2

0.64

0.7

0.14

0.74

0.15

50,600

tal
kg

100

-%

ce

kg

test

951 calories
needed,

-%

-kg

&g

23.2

* Total

This

1.17
x calories

ration
per

per

To find

0.049

148,500

0.364

0.36
kg

kJ$

ME per

lb.,

295,130

divide

by 2.2.

has about
kg,

more than

so more protein

should

added.
calorie

requirement

2,750

20%

protein

requirement

21.5%

adjusted
protein
level
needed in this
ration

calorie

The test

Protein
Lysine
Methionine

requirement

ration

2,951

actually

+ Cystine

has:

Test ration
content

Requirement

23.30%
l.i7
0.17

21.5%
1.2
0.8

144

(adjusted)

The test
protein

ration

quantity,

lysine

is
but

meal might

for

some cottonseed

since

the

former
However,

be short

total

proportion

might

be increased,

tonseed

meal

protein

level

cally

the

be substi-

ration

of

ration

because

If

lysine

soybean

still

will

meal

leaving

the

cot-

of

then

the

(rice

but

of

meal,

in

already

be uneconomi-

of

is

sorghum

at

polish

the

is

substituted

for

quality
the

first

the

needs

protein

test

high,

should

and methion-

Since
too

test

cost,

protein
the

which
first

its

lysine

some is

quantity

meal,

in

be met.

soybean

is,

would

included

ine.

The

fish

wasn't

good source

meal,

on methionine.

as it

However,

in

has a higher

would

in

+ cystine.

tuted

content.

high

deficient

and methionine

Some soybean

too

ration
proportion

be increased

already

is

the maximum level

being

used

allowed).

high.

Example Second Test Formulation

Protein
Rice
polish
Sorghum

Lysine

Cystine

Methionine
2

45

-% k&
0.5 0.22

25

0.2

ME
Calories

kJ$

0.2

!z
0.09

0.11

0.049

148,500

0.05

0.16

0.04

0.15

0.037

82,500

Cottonseed
meal
15

44

6.6

1.8

0.27

0.66

0.10

0.9

0.135

30,030

Soybean
meal

50

2.5

3.2

0.16

0.7

0.035

0.74

0.037

12,320

-10

60

5.2

0.52

0.2

0.95

0.095

26,400

Fish
meal
Total
kg

100

22.2

1.22

0,465

145

0.353

299,750

The second
1.22

percent

methionine
quality

test

ration,

lysine

and 0.82

+ cystine,

meets

requirements.

ME is

2,997

adjust

cium,

percent

Looking

protein

per

level

to

kg.

at

0.35

level:

percent

calorie
requirement

2,997

ond test

21.8%

adjusted
protein
level
needed in this
ration

content

ration,
higher

need,

protein
requirement

The protein

little

20%

but

22.2
than

that

is

of

the

percent,

the

is

adjusted

we find

and other

mineral

that

these
have

(The

ration

ine,

more than

required

has

amino
been

1.49
the

and 0.25

E, page

fulfilled.

percent
1.2

percent

percent

more than

the

0.20

argin-

tryptopercent

required.)
Now that
energy,

the
you

ration

is

can calculate

balanced
cal146

- 2,2

to 1).

percent

salt

ration.

the

will

Vitamin

needs

will

be

commercial

supple-

content

of your

But

this

is

difficult.

and usually

less

to use a commercial
supplement

all

you are

in

and mineral

easier,

almost

ratio

the

min/mineral

acid

to keep

calculate

expensive,
204),

side.

You can also

mix.
is

safe

percent

this

by the

vitamin

on arginine

(Appendix

requirements

for

in

feed

The min-

percent.

(1.8

to 0.4

be needed

It

and tryptophan

0.3

ration

phosphorus

0.28

range

E,

so add about

calcium/phosphorus

ment.

a good safety

checking

about

add 0.4

provided

margin.
Finally,

is

About

the

calcium.

available

recommended

sec-

find

to be on the

Therefore,
the

needs.

(Appendix

one percent,

content
2,750

phan,

you will

The ration's

calorie
requirement

tables

percent

imum is

energy

and salt

the

2051,

has 0.79

To

that

phosphorus

page

The ration's

calories

protein

with

countries.

adding

other

substance,

tions

on their

available

packages.

in

Finally,

a coccidiostat
follow

vita-

the

if
or
instruc-

sing a Protein Concentrate

When commercial
rpensive
Len is

kd perhaps

a concentrate

Lry to know all

: and their
).

the

: has been
:operly,

the
it

kept

the

feed.
is

deteriorate
is

im-

may have

To find

be-

work

rme useless.

.ne the
!in

square

relative

concentrate

ceded for

method

of

types

I.5 percent

tese

protein),
protein

calculations,

with

the

combinations,

the

the
larger:

44

in

maize

the

parts
a

feed,
by the

the

concentrate

parts

maize

percentage

divide
total

21.1%

7.5=

In
parts

parts

35.5

to obtain
ration.

7.5

= 28

of

with

mixed

from

To find

protein,

; percent

8.5

44 - 16

hickens.

Lrcent

right

subtracting

numbers

16 -

pro-

and carbohydrate

Example--Concentrate

parts
concentrate

to deter-

proportions

particular

the

diagonally,

smaller

Use the

desired
protein
level
in
feed

old,

transported

vitamins

I
concetitrate
protein
percentage

in
make-

concentrate
or

44

neces-

nutrient

vitamins

If

16%

available,

ingredients

specific

Remember,

ipidly.

the

sources,

if

len using

8.5

The con-

formulation,
you to balance

local

carbohydrate

-11 help

\,

which

with

some calcium.

sntrate's

ra-

concentrate

vitamins

parts
maize

too

you can mix

protein

or other

are

a complete

impractical,

-so contains
-ains

feeds

and mixing

lmmercial

maize
protein
percentage

each
parts:

concentrate

35.5

are

28

r weight:

35.5

147

78.9% maize

of
number

each
of

Mixing Feeds

remaining
Don't

Feed must
so that
anced

all

be mixed

chickens

ration.

thoroughly

receive

Coccidiostats,

min and mineral

supplements

other

additives

are

small

amounts

incorporated
in

that

used
they

mix very
ture

again,

then

with

vita-

separately

to

must

be

First,

5 kg of

additive

and salt

are

several
l

put
and
mixfeed,

add to the

Mixer
148

mixing

the vitamin

phosphorus

such

Then add this

to approximately

mix well

Tumble

well.

mineral

and

1 - 2 kg of an ingredient

pre-mix

before

a bal-

in

gradually.

feed

the

and

the
--

total

it.

calcium,

add them
feed.

ways of mixing

There

feed.

By hand--You
can mix lo-20
kg
(22-44
lbs.)
of feed at a
time in a large
tub.
Or,
you can layer
ingredients
on a cement floor
or sheet
of plywood or metal.
Shovel the feed out from the
center
and then back, repeating
the process
until

Storing Feed

the feed is completely

mixed.
Repeat several
times and
remember when shovelling
to
the center
always to allow
the shovelful
of feed to fall
on the tip of the cone that
is being created,
which
allows
more even spread of
the nutrients.

Mixed
in

hot

ground

with

If

is

it
it

it

is

the

rest

Very

the
too

out
too
to

finely

impacted
will

chicken

the

feed

tent--

if

and leave

the

it

will

bottom

a bird's

be reluctant

the

rest.
sift

of

grain

the

to eat

goes

probably

putting

in

above

the

If

Peace

Corps'

through

Corps

office

feeder.

front

cover).

it.
149

of

or

feed.

ingredients
where

on slatted
least

they
plat-

30 cm

so cats

(1 ft.)

or dogs
For other

feed,

Small
from

rancidbefore

underneath.

on storing

age Manual

and birds

stop

room,

floor,

ideas

flock

buy one with

or

be stacked

can patrol

will

feed

at

the

container

a pest-tight

raised

con-

deficiencies.

a new supply

forms

fat

or will

to help

Bags of

be

sick

a premix,

the

at

careful

nutritional

Clean

supply

rancid,

get

In

to mix and

has a high

an antioxidant

can become

beak,

it

con-

floor.

a week's

the

When buying

to be

birds

more than

experience

ingredients.

coarse,

fine,

should

coarseness

other

ground
in

feed

not

when

should

to a medium

mixed

pick

for

try

Be especially

ity.

be stored

the

a time.

need

Grain

off

weather,

will

Grinding Feed

should

and rodent-proof

raised

store

Powered mixer--If
enough
local
farmers
are mixing
feed manually,
they may want
to join
to build
or buy a
powered mixer.
Agricultural
extension
agents should
have
suggestions
on designs
or
sources.

a pest-

tainer

Tumble mixer--A
clean oil
drum, mounted eccentrically
on a stand,
makes an excellent manual mixer.
If fitted with ball
bearings,
it
can handle
up to 70 kg (150
Ibis.).

feed

obtain

Farm Grain

the
from

local

the
Stor-

Peace

ICE (see

inside

Vitamin
A--Decreased
growth
in chicks,
reduced
egg production
in layers,
along
with reduced
quality
of
eggs produced
and paling
of
(Symptoms could
egg yolks.
be a result
of many other
Odorless
substancauses.)
ces in eyes and nasal passages.
Staggering
walk and
nodules
in the esophogus.

Nutritional
Deficiencies

The definite
tional

diagnosis

deficiencies

requires

in

experienced

sophisticated

This

chickens

technicians

pathology

facilities.

of nutri-

is

and

Vitamin
E--Deficiency
causes
uncoordination,
poor growth,
stumbling,
general
muscular
uncoordination
in chicks,
beginning
no earlier
than 3-4 weeks of age.
It
is frequently
most severe
when accompanied
by coccidiosis disease.
Also causes
death of chick embryo after
incubation.
3-4 days'

laboratory
because:

o Deficiency
symptoms are
noticed
until
severe.

not

usually

0 Symptoms of any specific

nutrient
deficiency
are similar to symptoms of non-nutritional
diseases
and/or
other
deficiencies.
Deficiency
symptoms are not
easily
diagnosed,
even in a
laboratory.
The fastest
way
to diagnose
deficiency
of
amino acids is to calculate
the amino acid content
of
the feed mix and if possible
have the feed analyzed
by a
laboratory
for confirmation.

Riboflavin--Vitamin
B2 deficiency
causes poor growth,
low hatchability,
curled
toes (although
some chicks
have curled
toes at hatching, which is probably
a
genetic
problem and not a
deficiency
symptom).
If
many chicks
develop
curled
toes after
hatching,
it
could be a riboflavin
deficiency.

Vitamin Deficiencies
Vitamin
perly
loss

deficiencies

balanced
of'vitamin

rations

are

potency

or storage

conditions.

deficiency

symptoms

in

due

Vitamin
D--Deficiency
causes weak legs,
soft or
brittle
bones, poor growth,
weak egg shells,
enlarged
joints,
low hatchability.

pro-

caused

by

to age

Vitamin

There

include:

and minerals
150

are

many more vitamins

which

can cause

poor

growth,

paralysis,

increased
real
the

mortality

answer
feed

is

being

possibility

foods
tially

case

of

inclusion
the

reduce

country

where

supplements

in

to the

The

chickens
the

of
diet
the

the

chickens

not

availa-

following

will

substan-

chance

Vitamin
A--Edible
oils,
grasses,
yellow
maize,
alfalfa,
clover,
most green leafy
material.

C defifound

Vitamin
D3--Sunshine,
oils
and concentrates,
cured grasses.

fish
sun-

Vitamin
K--Alfalfa,
most
green leafy
vegetable
matter,
meat scraps,
fish
plant
oils,
meal.

Thiamin--(Vitamin
Bl> Whole
grain
and grain by-products,
peanut meal, soybeans,
grasses,
and alfalfa.

and peanut oil

EL2 --Bean
meals,
dried
cow manure, various fermentation
products.

Riboflavin--Residues
from fermentation
processes
such as
brewery
residues,
alfalfa,
grasses,
some fish meals.

Other Deficiencies

Pantothenic
acid--Peanut
meal,
cereal
grain
brans,
alfalfa,
grasses,
fermentation
residues.

Salt--Simply
put enough salt
For country
in the ration.
chickens
just
add a pinch of
salt
to their
feed mixture.

Pyrodoxine-(B ) Rice bran,

fish,
wheat an Iz rice by-products,
alfalfa.

Anti-Gizzard
Erosion
Factor-Kale,
grasses,
alfalfa,
wheat products,
soybean meal.

Niacin--Rice
bran, wheat,
peanuts,
meat, greens and fermentation
residues
from corn distillers.
grains,

Ascorbic
acid--Vitamin
ciency
has never been
in domestic
chickens.

Vitamin
E--Found
in all cereals and cereal
brans,
polishings,
green foliage,
alfalfa
meal.

of vitamin

deficiencies:

Choline--Whole

peanut

Cholic
acid--Grasses,
kale,
alfalfa,
wheat by-products,
soybean meal.

artificial

are

and polishings,
soybean meal.

Biotin--Root
tubers,
alfalfa,
grasses,
whole grains.

in

deficiencies.

locations

vitamin
ble,

to know sJhat is
given

of

In the
and in

and so on.

as much as possible,

and avoid,

brans
meal,

low hatchability,

Minerals--Other
and phosphorus,
are not likely

cereal
151

than calcium
deficiencies
if a variety

as human food.

of ingredients
is used in feed.
In isolated
cases,
if there
is
a mineral
deficiency
in the
soil on which plants
and animal ingredients
are produced,
there also will
be a deficiency
in the mixed feed.
A final

word

those

who don't

mercial

feeds

dients.
for

on nutrition

have
or

All

dients.
weeds

are

Since

little

types

potential

feed

you must

ing

stages

If

you find

of

that

eyes

feeding

some local

common sense.

Some seaweeds

must

be washed

dried

and fed

extent

dur-

research

use

in protein

results.

Use
are

and minerals,
with
only

due to high

fresh

but

water,

to a limited
salt

Remember that many plant

origin
foods are likely
to
contain
toxins--thus
restrict
use of these substances
in large
quantities.

done

these.

has been done,

high

open

ingredients.

use caution

the

Processing
methods used
will
determine
the energy
and protein
and vitamin
content of various
feed ingredients.
For example,
note
the differences
in the percent of protein
content
of
soybean meal in the Feed
Formulation
Chart,
Appendix
D
(page 197).

and

has been

content.

Points to Consider Before

Using Non-Traditional Ingredients
o Don't
consider
using
ingredient
that also

an
serves
152

to
meat.

ingre-

insects

research

com-

ingre-

feed

of

on these,
early

to

keep your

on alternative

6 It may be even cheaper

import
eggs or chicken

for

traditional

You must

ideas

access

If energy feed stuffs

(or
protein
feed stuffs)
are
not available,
it will
probably be easier
and cheaper
to import
a complete
feed.

9. Poultry
Marketing and
Finances
Before
try

field

farmers

current
consider

must

carefully

they

will

do with

families

a market
where

the

Suddenly

putting

broilers

up for

munity

may depress

small

numbers

planning
1,000
the

large
sale

of

--a

flock

dozen

eggs

low

they

in
the

of
in

production

ducts

com-

need

rate

tant

advance

50 per-

alSQ

expand

must
their

of

other

operations

good years,

p rices

will

Seasonal

enter

for

fall.
into

market

inevitably

considerations

plans

as well;

farmer's

that

quality
to buy

good progreatest

in

153

farmers

or unable

them,

cult

.spot

to

it

a key
is

relucyet

success.
diffi-

and correct

practices

and the
a loss

to

extremely

problems

Wasteful

at

are

to keep records,
are

Without

operate

all

and have

almost

the

unnoticed,

farmers
If

be considered.

high

A reputation

them;

cent.
The plans

and of

continue

is

to market

must be sure

consumers

good records

even at

of

seasons.

who wants

Many small

100 may produce

a year,

fresh

and are

asset.

Even

price.

layers

them.

of

a small

are

are

foods

rainy

products

so that

prices.

numbers

cool,

poultry

Forming

best

in

eggs

as heating

Any farmer

and eggs will

the

instance,

of

eaten

what

means identifying

receive

for

thought

flocks,

eat.

and when birds

to

India,

poul-

meat and eggs

don't

plan

be mid

the

or expand

they

their

enter

can go

farmer

may even

and not

know it.

Marketing
Chickens

Country

although

meat birds,
some eggs

for

The worksheet
flock
If

you are

working

with

began

and brooded

country

t;lere

consumption
below
with

assumes

ten

chicks

will
or

be
sale.

that

the

hatched

by a hen.
I

consider

chickens,

them primarily

as

Country

--Expenses

Chickens

and Income

Expenses
Night

shelter,

if

Feed supplement,
Nest,

if

Worming

if

...........

any

.......................

any

medication,

Other

.............

any

if

(vaccinations,
Total

.........

any

.........

etc.)

....................

expenses

Income
About

60 eggs
x price

Sale

of

4-5

per
per

egg

males

at

x average
Sale

of

3-4

year

x average

(210

x --?
15 weeks

price

hens

at

x 3-4 hens

(4.5

x -2
years

l-1/2

price

(3.5

...................................

Total

income

Less

expenses,

Profit,

(or

loss)

if

any

. . . . . . ..*.................

..............................

154

==========I

age weights

Marketing
Medium-Size
Broilers

for

vary

meat birds

less

weight

feed

consumed.

sell

them as soon

of

they

gain
It

age as possible

weight.

The chart

per

the

mers,

unit

of

flocks,

important

after

eight

if

they

below

are
lists

1
2

with

may find

it

flock

and to weigh

of

birds

at least

aver-

158).

Feed
Consumption
Per Week

lbs.

especially
before

Added Weight
Per Unit of
Feed per Week

medium-size

giving

to
it

to the

a sample

of

a week

(see

page

Weight of Feed
To Produce 1 Unit
of Weight Gain*

lbs.

0.21

kis
0.11

0.25

0.20

0.44

0.15

0.33

0.69

1.43

0.39

0.86

0.29

0.64

0.66

1.52

0.59

1.30

0.37

0.82

0.54

1.86

0.82

1.81

0.48

1.06

0.48

2.08

1.07

2.36

0.54

1.19

0.46

2.16

1.33'

2.94

0.61

1.35

0.43

2.33

1.60

3.53

0.67

1.48

0.40

2.51

1.88

4.13

0.72

1.59

0.37

2.65

10

2.16

4.75

0.81

1.78

0.34

2.87

*Multiply
this
value by the
is near the estimated
price
continuing
to feed them will
not adjusted
formortality.

may

Many far-

helpful

once

feed

on quality

and care).

weeks

Age in
Weeks

kg
-0.09

feed

feed

Broiler

gain

depending

weigh

to

Feed Consumption--Male
Weight
of Bird

breed,

(actual

and weight

widely,

are,

is

consumption

a male meat bird

consumption

of
The older

and feed

1.19

price
of feed per
per unit of weight
be unprofitable.

155

unit
of weight.
If the result
the birds
can be sold for,
Figures
in this
chart are

Feed Consumption--Male

Broiler

&

lbs.

Weight of Feed
To Produce 1 Unit
of Weight Gain

Added Weight
Per Unit of
Feed per Week

Feed
Consumption
Per Week

Weight
of Bird

Age in
Weeks

(Cont.)

&.
1.98

0.29

3.47

11

2.42

5.32

!s
0.90

12

2.70

5.94

1.00

2.21

0.28

3.56

13

2.95

6.50

1.09

2.39

0.23

4.27

14

3.21

7.06

1,27

2.80

0.20

5.00

Rare

is

the

developing

to

refrigeration.

within

small

world

a few hours

most

broilers

directly

are

of

but

sale,

plenty
the

market

kept

cold,

stop

they

it

is

night

good to

eight
water

Chickmarket

or wooden

early

day

trip

to the

have

commercial

based
bird,

grades

on size,

skin

usually

cerned

with

only

good quality

meat
of meat

and condition

not

grading,

the farm's

for

A small-scale

need

tect

stan-

amount

color

factors.

farmer

set

but

be conshould

reputation
birds

eating

others

pro-

by sending
to market
or selling

them locally.

to

In

or more,

assumed

birds

mortality

weather,
birds

or

and either

receive

hours

In hot

transport

the

the

countries

and other
an

them on the

If

may die.

or in

to the

they

per

either

or through

be sure

and supply

or

live,

system.

feed

takes

birds,

unless

baskets

of water.

dards

spoils

can be transported

Don't

access

meat

marketing

crates.

Most

in

Since

sold

in well-ventilated

farmer
who has

to consumers

established
ens

the

while

at

Actual

morning.

sale

156

the

worksheet

that

good management

and feed
producing
feed

may very

below,

it

is
has kept

consumption

healthy,

consumption
considerably.

heavy

down,
birds.

and weight

at

100 Male

and Female

Broilers,

Sold

at

9 or

12 weeks--Expenses

and Income.

Expenses
sold at
398 kg

Feed:

9 weeks
(875 lbs.)

x
(feed

sold at
636 kg

12 weeks
(1,400 lbs.)

price)

x
(feed

price)

. . ..*.....e......................

Housing*
Waterers,

and other

feeders,

Heating

and lighting

Brooder

and equipment*

IlO-day-old
Interest

chicks,

equipment*...

.....................
..................
plus

on financing,

.... ..

transport
if

any

...........

Contingency
for emergencies
(medicine,
extra
feed,
etc.),
add 10% . . . . . . . . . . . .
............................

Vaccinations
Containers

and transport

Total

......

to rarket

expenses

...................

sold at
(375 lbs.)

9 weeks
x
(est.

Income
100 broilers:
190 kg
sold at
241 kg

12 weeks
(530 lbs.)

x
(est.

Value

of manure

sold

price)

or used

price)
............

...... ...............................
.Total
income
..............................
Less total
expenses
.
.
. . . ..a........................
Profit,
(or loss)
*If you think
houslng
and equinment
will
last
three
these expenses
for each 14-week cycle
(preparation,
they will
last
four years,
6 percent,
etc.

157

years,
growth

--------====
use 10 percent
and sale).
If

of

Weighing
Chickens

Keeping
of

records

a flock

eats
in

and the

helps
body

feed

the

With

ways.

farmer

this

weight

of

in

the

information,
in

two major

f.a,;mer

rates

The easiest
chicken

first

in

Adjust

a sheet

the

cone,

from

the
It

all

the

five

or

reached

feed

it

metal

cone.

for

its

necessary

percent

to be average-size

a*
head-

of

weight

reading.

chickens.
ten

uneco-

the weight

or subtract

is not

see

consumption.

to place

scale

scale

of

In addi-

way to weigh

is

the

signs

can more easily

have

of

it

losses

or decreases

when meat birds

nomical

feed

several

can be spotted.

disease,

live

the weight

weight

consumption,

tion,

of

to weigh

A sample
of what
birds

will

of
appear
do.

Weighing
a Chicken
Sheet Metal Cone

158

Using

Storing Eggs
for Market

Prior
be kept
at
hot

to marketing,

as cool

4.4

to 12.8'

the

and the
eggs

third
direct

C (40 to 50"

F).

often

farmer

Don't

isn't

at

One way to store

is

neck

in

ground

a shaded
around

leave
in

to bury

the

pot

of

in

pot

the

collected,
cloth

Water

the

pot.

Put

the

pot

C (10'

probably

it

osene,

etc.,

store

resists

lower

eggs with

clean

prices.

protective
the

entrance

of

moisture

inside.

water

and eat

removes

cleaning

them lightly

with

emery

or

cloth

this

eggs as

washed

eggs as

A preferred

as possible.
of

An
coat-

so save washing
resort

method

eggs
fine
steel

is

rubbing

sandpaper,
wool.

and

the

Et%

eggs

Grading

are

with

than

eggs

The inside
will

F) cooler

Eggs absorb
don't

the

as soon as they
and cover

soon

don't

in

faster

fetch

or the

or broken

and retains

a last

the

eggs

any water

that

Washing

or a mat

the

they

bacteria

to its

but

and damp straw.

5.5'

ly;

area.

to cushion

them above

bottom

in

tempor-

pot

straw

spoil

only

leaking

protection,

eggs

pot,

not

ing

a few min-

a clay

Put

puddles.

keep

of

the

of

by droppings

egg has a natural

utes.

contents

ones,

every

eggs
for

In

send

least

even

Eggs soiled

pos-

should

leave

sunshine,

arily

must
ideally

to market

day.

eggs

as possible,

this

weather,

sible,

Cleaning
hw

be about
than

strong

outside.

odors

them near

or in mildewed

The main
to
ity

quick-

orions,

sort
eggs

that

ker-

prices.

areas.
159

they

idea

in

them so that
are

sent

receive

grading

eggs

is

only

good qual-

to market,

and

the

The simplest

best

possible

and most

important
divide

method

of

sorting

eggs

into

three

the

--cracked,

dirty

cracked

eggs

or sold

locally

tion.

are

eaten
for

locally

for

three

days,

while

than

sent

quickly

to the

much longer
will

fertile

will

stay

in warm weather
ones.

family

cleaned

Storing
Eggs f&
Home Consumption

and

within

clean

major

These

consump-

consumption
the

be fertilized.

The

by the

are

not

edible

immediate

ones

to

categories

and clean.

The dirty

sold

is

eggs are
marketing

outlet.
If

people

pay a premium

of certain

colors

mer should

sort

Most

countries

size

standards.

your

area,

their

or
for

eggs

the

A clean,

far-

egg,

qualities.

established

If

people

sizes,
those

have

for

none

may want

edible
egg

exist

are

in

Egg Size

Jumbo

to set

only

Categories

2-3/4

- up

57 - 63

2-l/4

- 2-l/2

Large

50 - 56

- 2-l/4

Medium

43 - 49

l-1/2

- l-3/4

Small

35 - 42

l-1/2

or less

Large

People

in

a few areas

eggs.

If

you are
allow

in
for

prefer

an area,

this

by keeping

roosters

with

the

layers.

the

part,

all

eggs

most

fertile

such

But,
sold

in

shade,

and untracked
should

remain

up to two weeks.
ways

without

of

storing

them

refrigeration.

good eggs--use
to

There

Store

a candler,

determine

their

if
quality.

Oil--A
thin film of oil on an
egg fills
its pores,
and reduces
evaporation
and oxidation
of the
With a wire basket,
contents.
dip the eggs into .slightly
heatk!d oil,
about 11" C (20' F)
A light
warmer than the eggs.
mineral
oil is best,
but almost
any cooking
oil
(such as coconut) that doesn't
turn rancid
If you re-use
rapidly
will
do.
the oil,
filter
it and heat it
to 116" C (240" F) to sterilize
Oiled eggs will
last
for
it.
at least
three weeks--longer
if
kept under 10' C (55" F).

Ounces

64 - up

you should

three

possible,

Grams
Extra

for

longer

own.

Suggested

kept

unwashed

for

Clay pot--Place
buried
in the

should

160

eggs
ground.

in

clay
Cover

pot
the

pot tightly
water gets

and be sure no
into
the pot.

Size of
Flock

Water glass --For

100 eggs, use
a 25-liter
(6.5-gal.)
pot or
Mix 5.25 liters
(5
jar.
quarts)
of previously
boiled,
cool water with 0.5 liter
(l/2
quart)
of water
glass
(sodium
Place the eggs in
silicate).
the pot and cover them with
the water glass solution.
Cover the pot and keep it in
The
a cool,
shaded place.
eggs should keep for anywhere
from 1 to 6 months.

To take
of

scale,

that

this

a laying

50 to

about

the

as will
for

them.

assumes

Packaging
eggs--With
a mediumsize laying
flock,
it may be
worthwhile
to investigate
purchasing
special
cardboard
egg
containers
--100
layers
may
produce
2,000 eggs or more a
month.
Place the eggs small
end down in the containers
to
reduce breakage.

161

of

manual
flock

100 birds.

as housing

2.3 kg
(5 lbs.)
Lime water --Mix
of quick lime (finely
powdered
lime)
in 6 liters
(6.3 quarts)
of boiled
and cooled water
and
allow
to stand overnight
so
Place
that the lime settles.
eggs and the clear
lime solution in pot,
cover aad keep
cool.
The eggs should
last
more than a month.

advantage

recommends
contain

at least

Many costs,

such

and equipment,
same as for

be the

time

will

smaller
needed

The following
good stock,

economies

feed

be
flocks,

to care
worksheet
and care.

100 .Layers--Expenses

and Income

Expenses
Feed,

to 24 weeks
White-egg
1,136 kg

breeds
(2,500

lbs.)

. .

(feed

price)

price)

Housing'

(feed
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..O..................

Feeders,

waterers,

Brown-egg
1,418 kg

breeds
(3,120

lbs.)

other

.......................................

Heating

and lighting,

Brooder

equipment

Brooder

fuel

. . . ..I.....

if

any

..................

............................

.................................

115 day-old

chicks2
of

Interest

. .

equipment'

Litter

Transport

-.

...........................

chicks

..........................

on financing

........................

Contingency
for emergencies
(medicine,
etc.),
add 10% .............................
Vaccine

......................................
Total

Production

initial

investment

Cycle--100

Layers

(adjusted
Feed,

for

for

1% per

.............................

month

mortality)

1 year

White-egg
4,150 kg

breeds
(9,125

Brown-egg
5,000 kg

breeds
(11,000

lbs.)

x
(feed

lbs.)

price)

x
(feed

price)

Housing

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..c......

Feeders,

waterers,

other

.*

equipment'

. . ..I......

162

'

if

Roosts,

used

Additional
Cages,

...........................
..........................

litter
if

............................

used'

..............................

Nesting

boxes'

Heating

and lighting,

Collection
etc.)1

...............

any

and storage
(baskets,
...................................

Egg containers,
Transport
Hired

if

of

labor,

Interest

if
eggs
if

....................

used
and hens

any

pots,

........................
......................

on financing

Miscellaneous
(worming medication,
add 1% ...................................

etc.),

...............................

Vaccinations
Total

.......

to market

production

expenses

........... ..............

Income
Sale

of eggs
White-egg

breeds

--

24,000

eggs

Brown-egg

breeds

--

23,000

eggs

(price)

Sale

or use of manure
Total
Less

income
initial

Profit,

expenses

as fertilizer

Prorate

over

2.

If sexed chicks
aren't
on equipment
and feed,

. . . . . . ...*...............*..
and production

(or

1.

<price)
......

loss)

expected

expenses

.....

.......................

life

of

housing

===========

equipment.

available,
buy about 225 chicks,
adjust
adjust
income for sale of 100 broilers.

163

expenses

for

Records

ways

to

(seeking

in

should

analyzing

point
records

the

operation

to help
and pin-

problems.

To be useful,

should

be uncomplicated

and accurately
keep

be kept

track

kept.
of

all

A farmer

expenses

to post
on the
house
nearby.

should

(looking

them)

methods

good way to
Records

cut

next
with

to increase

record

a form

to

inside

a pencil

can be recorded

it).

egg produ,:tion

similar

page

A full

and production

the

the

year's
on such

is
otn-

chicken

on a string
production
a form.

Egg Production

Record

Breed Source
Date Housed
Eatch Date
Farmer
------r-tl-t--l---rl-rl-~--l
1 --_.1 12 13 (4 15 {6 17 (8 19 ~~n~~~~~2~11~74~15~16~17~18~19~20~
1

No.

Eggs

1.~ -

A.M.
A.M.

P.M.

P.M.
I

TOTAL
Birds

Removed
Pounds
Mash

Other
Feeds

I
21 22 23124

Date
A.M.
A.M.
P.M.
P.M.

25126
I

27 28 29 30 31 %%@

for
First
Month

NgirZg
of

Sold
\

TOTAL

End of Month

--7--

TOTAL
Birds
Removed
Pounds
Mash
Other
Feeds
Month

165

of

19

If
extension,
mation

you are

working

you will
on expenses

in

want

poultry

more

Increasing
Poultrv
Profits

infor-

and production,

including:
Breed,
source,
and cost.

hatching

date

Number of birds
at the
and current
number.

start
Cutting

Type of feed, daily

or weekly
consumption
and cost.
Cost of
ment.

housing

and equip-

Feed supplement
and cost.

used,

if

or parasite

Type of litter
and cost.

used,

Average

weekly

egg production.

Weather
change).

(hot,

Number of
reasons.

cold,

birds

Receipts
from
and meat.

sale

Family consumption
and meat.

ditions,

and price

and
eggs

of

eggs

con-

fluctuations

all

Concentrate

Space utilization--Try
for a
full
but not crowded house,
to
keep per-bird
house expense as
low as possible.
An experienced
farmer
can raise
a mixedsex flock
to ten weeks, filling
sell
the males as
the house,
and let the females
broilers,
grow to laying
size,
filling
the house again.

any,

of

profits.

to market

pro-

Feed wastage--Well-designed,
durable
feeders
are worth the
expense,
for ttey reduce wastage.
Fill
them one-third
full
for minimum wastage.

sudden

culled

responding

increasing

on:

any,

problems
if

duction,

can increase

Type of medicine
or vaccine
administered
and cost.
Disease
present.

costs,

Maintaining
production--A
2-kg
(4.4-lb.)
hen eats about 27 kg
(60 lbs.)
of feed a year just
She
to maintain
her weight.
uses about another
6.8 kg
(15
lbs.)
to produce
her first
100
eggs, about 5.9 kg
(13 lbs.)
for the second 100, and 6.4 kg
(14 lbs.)
for the third
100.
Good management and culling
of
of non-layers
are essential
for
profits.
166

--An inexpensive
Feed quality
feed that is not well-balanced
does not save money--it
reduces
production.

mers have

Breed source--Breeds
that produce best usually
cost more,
but make up for it through
increasing
sales.

dule

repaying
fit

Timing--Try
to bring
eggs
meat to market when prices
be highest.

cash needed

loans
try

farmers
to

hard

raising

is

to

get

often

and
will

that

inexperienced

studies

may exceed
have

small

farmers

they

will

misuse

One way around

this

is

chases

flock

for

lender.

the

may avoid

the

to have

for
money.
pur-

made through

Some funding

sources

shown

and

because

It

International
agencies--The
World Bank, Oxfam, U.S./A.I.D.,
CARE, UNICEF and others
sponsor
rural
development
in some counOften such programs
are
tries.
administered
by the host governInformation
on these
ment.
groups and others
may be available through
your local
Peace
Corps office
or through
the
Peace Corps Resources
Manual.

raising

viewed

business.

failures

to

lender

Government
agencies--Most
developing countries
have agricultural
loan programs
channeled
through
administrative
or agricultural
extension
networks.

have

flocks,

high-risk
with

don't

start

poultry

are

making

also

sche-

Private
lenders--Banks,
traditional
local
money lenders,
and
marketing
middlemen
are possible private
lenders.
Of course,
some may be better
than others,
and all possible
sources
should
be investigated
thoroughiy.

Many small

medium-size

to overcome
Lenders

that

up a speci-

are:

Sources of
Finance

the

may help

loans

of

and repayment

reluctance.

the

lay up to
--Chickens
Deep litter
five percent
more eggs when
kept on deep litter,
in addition
to producing
more valuable
fertilizer.

good record
Drawing

loans.

management

fear

Broken or soiled
eggs--Good
management and frequent
collection will
minimize
losses
from
broken or soiled
eggs.

a very

is

poulas a

true

farmers,
successes,

that

small

Others--Cooperatives,
credit__ women's groups,
chick
unions,
suppliers,
feed manufacturers

but
far167

and others
sourcesu

may be good

to,

but

the

government,

of

application
course

following

would

isn't

Co-ops

limited

bulk

information:

A current

balance

o A chronological
plan.

ers

cut

its

can reduce

and increase

op is

well

co-op

usually

run.
is

create

if

the

The formation

of

regulated

extension
they

marketing

may pro-

side,

costs

inspect

purchase

refrigeration
products

they

by pooling

and grade

large-scale

Farmers

a farmer's

income,

to distribute

ship-

products,

contracts

and

equipment

during

can

low-price

to
sea-

sons.

Poultry and
Egg Cooperatives
to

own feed,

financing.

transport

store

and

may buy mix-

In addition,
low-cost

through
chicks

and provide

negotiate

coa

by the
168

also

may profit

ing

to

finance

for

it

and by sharing

other

costs

chicks

ments,

A repayment
plan:
10 to 12
weeks later
for meat breeds,
beginning
in seven months
for layers.

also

and rear

On the
by exten-

feed,

their

vide

Q, A market plan,
including
names of potential
buyers
with allowances
for losses
during
transport.

cooperative

monitors

costs

and prepare

advice.

management

or helping

of
They

to members

and

a A schedule
of visits
sion personnel.

Joining

purchases

breed

sheet.

e A projected
income
expense statement.

also

can cut

equipment.

e A description
of the current
operation
and past successes.
l

which

operation.

A good loan
include,

credit

members.

the

co-op,

by helpby working

experience

with

10. Poultry
Extension
Good agricultural
a two-way

extension

results
er;

from

the

person

helped

several

come research

ably

of

in

of

the

actual

results.
agent

in

acts

different
from

one farmer

information

the

village

tain
exten-

of

good

training.

and transfers

units,

Training and
Visit System

lished
Training
Benor
booklet

Agricultural
and Visit

Extension:
System

and James Q. Harrison.

describes

a system

worker

other

than

latest,

of orga-

area,

extension

digestible
this

farmers,

to make the
impact.

recom-

Far-

morsels.
service

because

the VEW will

and that

practical,

on

easily

well-timed

time

immediate
169

the

most

small,

what

but

who
cer-

in

krzow where

contact

The

(VEW),

in-service

the

be at

VEW will

current

The VEW focuses

by Daniel

the

of visiting
in

they

The

is

research

or

offer

system

agricultural

mers welcome

Bank pub-

the

farmers

the

adapted

World

to

The VEW concentrates

supplying

to others.

1977 the

situation.

regular

mendations

In May,

extension

schedule

and receives

to others.
can be adapted

extension

contact

has

ideas

has no duties

between

and learns

their

has a set

the

as a relay

farmers

is

that
consider-

spreading

The key

The

personnel
countries

to any local

both

In addition,

and is

Some of

channeling

information

agent

farm-

come questions

the middle,

directions.

ideas

to

extension

flow

this

From scientists

farmer

agricultural

sion

extension

and suggestions

and reports

the

nizing

system.

and administrators

is

advice.

on selected

not

to

widest

favor

a few,

possible

Contact

farmers

should

not

be the

progressive

farmers,

be the

unwilling
tact
of

least

to

their

peers
help

--

the

contact

recommendations

received

with

spreading

Contact

examples

of

those

do and see the

resources

managing

techniques,

the

what

they

nightly)
with

the

the

adheres

to

the

contact

farmers

rather
of
kind

encourages

contact

invite

others

crops,

the

farmer

limit

to a small

for

all

(fort-

sessions

to confer

technical

experts

lenders

or suppliers,
for

the

two weeks.

farmers

in

Contact
Poultry
Farmers

of visits

with
of

two weeks)
farmer

the

Depending

and

ces,

to

you

either

on local

can apply

formally

this

to your

situation.

VEW recommends

that

the

forming

a good picture

poultry

practices

obvious

production

recommendations
his

field,

thus
170

circumstansystem,

or informally,

some

of

best

an area

or bi-weekly

With

portion

is

VEWs in

to attend.

using

immediate,

recommendations

following

gaps,

This

supervisors,

best

VEW concen-

inputs,

same time

one or

use

The VEW rigidly

schedule
(the

than

the

of advice
of

time.

the

estimated

production

training

and perhaps

and improved

same day every

the

use of

weekly

and price

of

results.

done by having

who watch

on the

at

them first

attend

by the majority

area

filling

as

VEW pro-

and informs

important,

observable

traditional
the

and lenders

on obvious

serve

purchases

concentrating
desired

thus

results.

available

increased

are

addition,

trates

also

The VEW emphasizes

of

to

them immedi-

farmers

for

asked

and pro-

with

and credit

Most

farmers.

neighbors,

discussion

ately.

demand.

is

risk

on availability

supplies

community

as they

several

of

suppliers

contact

In

advice

respect

the

farmer

vides

Con-

new.

farmer's

a comparison

methods.
those

local

the

viding

as

should

have

to select

Each
share

viewed

something

should

reducing

most

progressive,

try

farmers

should

those

But neither

exceptional.
they

community's

As you begin
of

local

and the

most

gaps,

you can

on

consult

with

others

contact

farmers.

and identify

Timing of Suggestions

They may be:

Inexperienced
with poultry-While the farmer's
potential
risk
and your responsibilities
may be greater,
you
won't
have to overcome traditional
but inefficient
management practices.

Once you have

tact

farmer

you have
agreed

Experienced
with poultry-With experienced
farmers,
you should
know their
history and the current
condition
of their
flock
and
review
with them how they can
improve.
If,
for example,
the farmer has lost
between
one and two percent
of the
flock
per month, there
may
have been a feed, disease
or
other
problem,
but the flock
may ha-Te potential.
If mortality
has been much higher,
the flock
may have less potential
for recovery,
especially
as layers.
If there
are only
a few runts
(distinctl/y
smaller than hatching
mates)
in
the flock,
the farmer
can
remove the runts
and,work
with the rest of the flock.
If 20 percent
or more are
runts,
the flock
probably
will
not be a good one to
work with.
In selecting
contact
farmers,
it may be helpful to review with them from
a form similar
to the Farmer
Specific
Assessment
Criteria
sheet
(see Appendix
C).

upon

at

general

a farmer

the

signs

of

tion,

talk

about

improved

about
the

severe

atten-

flock

infestanot
local

cus-

all

fam-

involve

ily

members who actually

the

flock.

not

shows

If

feeds.
to

chicks

brooding,

treatment,

try

If

of

coccidiosis

about

tom permits,

man-

two weeks.

a shipment

If

and

is

specific

next

talk

egg storage.

it

to receive

expects

a week,

and they

plan,

techniques

during

a con-

a mutually

to discuss

agement

in

farmers

arrived

important

tion

or

identified

work

with

Training
In many countries,
ians
cerned

with

other

poultry.

ists

may have

that

they
work.

are
livestock

Even poultry

with

field
171

and laboratories

veterinar-

so many other

have

very

little

A good poultry

more conthan
specialduties
time

for

extensionist
place

can help

in

with

the

field

only

a severe

to

invite

short

is

or

course

disease.
the

In

the

the

If

extensionists

in

information

you can create

training

program,

you can,

writing

answers

visiting
If

poultry

experience,

when appro-

both

to people

who may

poultry

and

no previous
you should

you can gain

actual

poultry

and
production.

to

students

their

for

hens

eggs.
the

and the

teachers

dissection
how the

and how embryos

incubator

172

interest

in

may have much to offer,

old

able,

exten-

Teachers

'Biology

the
seek

in

munity.

work

poultry

is

can be helpful

local

explaining

opera-

assignment

than

you still

away,

problems

other

involvement

as much as

you have

where

far

primary

increasing

and

reading

to local

tions.

poultry

area,

your

something

own in-service

successful

places

If

sion,

are

your

molting,

The farmers

no other

sources

mortem

of

improvement

your

a post

Projects

thus

can tackle

are

layers

POUlQ

or problems.

there

dis-

Special

farmers

applications

specialists

and other

of

chickens

two weeks,
with

coccidiosis
ease control

forced
priate.

them

of

thoroughly.

areas

for

problem,

see immediate

other

out

next
work

practical

have

time

sick

debeaking

coming

the

learning

and the

the

on treatment

coccidiosis

should

that

for

extensionists

theory

in

recognizing

performing
examination

coccidiosis

problem

in:

culling

in

go to an expert

on the

the

that

local

That

ser-

needed.

be emphasized

weeks.

their

extensionists

may agree

should

for

when most

For instance,
an area

experience

their

by consulting

them and calling

vices

is

take

If
class

com-

can use
studies,

various

organs

develop

a thermostat

within
is

avail-

can make and use an

and a candler,

obtain

fertile

eggs

(perhaps

dents'

family

flocks),

of

temperatures

from

the

keep

and,

accepted

by local

egg or
various

two every

few days

stages

embryo

Math

custom,

and economics

poultry
with

in

nutriton

agents

explain

and demonstrate

preparing

eggs

Chemistry

teachers

simple

analysis

dients

with

and poultry

of

their

almost

birds'
to

could

their

taking

in

A variation
project
tion

and carry
parents.

would
studies,

diets

hone

the

be to
having

egg produc-

or

with

the

small

stu-

business

raising

areas

is

for

or assisting

ripe

a poultry
helping

their

or

groups

accounting

and

problems.
such as Peace

with

feeds

by the

training

being

in

can help

Corps

Vol-

chemistry
analyze

used and devise

low-cost

with

organi-

improvements.

some ideas

Anyone

The project

zational

and/

ingenuity,

ability

by students

no matter

or by selling

can become

the

in

situation

and nutrition,

stu-

what

and perseverance,
his

involved

or her
in

background,

projects

such

as:

m.srket.
of

the

pullets

sale.

in poultry

farmers

unteers

in

or for

People,

week pro-

be pos-

some started

working

marketing

by a school

dinner,

the

of

limitless.

managed,

may even

egg cooperative,

The pos-

be impressed

chickens

birds

if

two or

to supplement

development

ingre-

rations

in

studies

Those

meat.

8-12

be culminate:1

or community

dents'

of broilers

properly

growth,

back

the

flock

be an excellent

should

can

students

It

either

tion,

developing

are

dents

to obtain

feed

sibilities

If

sible

may find

available.

ject.

and

of birds

of

evident

weeks.

can perform

is

A school

become

them

The effects

qualities

and conduct

exercises

groups

day-olds.

three

ways of

laboratory

could

can use

and teachers

with

should

and feeding

small

of various

growth.

Home economics

students.

starting

if

to see

their

rations

to separate

open an

teachers

examples

different

records

and turning,

of

stu-

school

conduct
students

e Market promotion --To help

deal with seasonal
surpluses.
a Volunteer
in
Example:
India
helped a youth club

flock

nutrimix
173

open a successful
shop selling
omelets
and cold drinks
during
the hot season when many people otherwise
could not eat
e&F '

in the design
and construction
of the actual
item and
also serve as excellent
visual
aids for extension.
Information

Pest eradication--To
improve
conditions
for everyone,
not
just
poultry
farmers.
Study
local
traditions
before
you
start
such a project.
Grain storage--This
benefit
everyone,
poultry
farmers.

the

above

Peace
tion

also could
not just

in

Exchange

Extension
publications--Concise publications
in the
local
language
that explain
how farmers
can improve the
management areas under their
control
can be very helpful.
Often feed suppliers,
breeding companies
or others
will
help pay for such publications,
either
through'complete
sponsorship
or by
advertising
in them.
Model equipment--Small-scale
cardboard
or paper models of
houses,
feeders,
waterers,
can help you or others
etc.,

174

contained

publications,

ICE.

You can help

from

Corps

that

feedback

office

times

valuable

a Peace

Corps

to make farmers
network
them.

of

resources

far-

accuracy
Some-

contribution

Volunteer
aware

small

on the

of materials.

most

or

information

and usefulness
the

in

available

Peace

through

many of

and Collec-

local

and provide

Use of manure--In
some areas,
chicken
manure is wasted.
Help compost it and use it on
a demonstration
garden,
build
a model methane gas generator
or use the manure to fertilize fish ponds.

is

Information

mers benefit

Feed production--Helping
grow
and process
grain
and other
agricultural
products
while
keeping
in mind the use of
by-products
as chicken
feed.

for

projects

Corps'

your

needed

can make is
of

the

broad

available

to

Appendix A:
Housing Designs
It

is

ers will
other

unlikely

h;lve

there

hang

to prevent

a three

overhang

foot

I
I

which

from

even in windy

too much with

I

or any

must

not

ventilation.
overhang

I
I

14-5 ft.
I
I
I
Gf-------.
I
r6-8 ft.
\k ---- -_- --"

of

look

the

entering

where

interfere

about

roof

isn't

more

the

the

----

30 foot
maximum

175

overhang

the
local

wall
climate

-----..-----3

than

point

In hot
helps

up to

and the
is

shade
The

the

roof

not

per hour).

four
where

the building.

can go right

window

k--------.-.-.---------

the

the bottom

the wall.

of

(15 - 20 miles

right

below

meets

interior

window

weather.

where

feqt

climates,

over-

houses

the window

the

Usually
is

poultry

or five

construc-

must be sufficient

the building
the

shelters

rain

for

any two farm-

In building

alike.

tion

But

night

structures

poultry

exactly

that

point

meet

very

if

windy

The total

height

will

be determined

width

of

the

the

building,

the

be to allow

tion

area.

feet

wide

should

should

feet

full

length

wall

high

for

at

most

loca-

should
of

the

by rain,

buildings

attached

to the

tied

extend
poultry

woven
mat

conditions,

buildings

consistently

bamboo

is
the

a woven
lower

part

area.
also

correct
where
strong

can be used
improperly
there

de-

are

winds.

-hinged

176

the

structure.

to

fixtures

to permanently

of

bamboo mat

this

securely

These

part

roof
to

the window

a hinged

can be swung down.

can be a permanent

signed
weather

which

or a weighted

of

feet

accompanied

may have

building

mat

house.
For severe

winds

An alternative

25 to 30 feet
five

high

It

20

have windows

especially

attachment

ventila-

15 to

have windows

Windows

high.

the

increased

A building

wide
the

higher

A building

three

tions.

The wider

building.

must

least

by the

attachment

End of building
rain

entering

best

to have

-the
the

In order
building,
entire

to avoid

except

it

under

is

end closed,

177

for
the

a screened
roof

gable.

vent

just

The vents
air

to rise

be about

serve

to allow

and escape

one foot

wide

hot

high.

and should

must

and two

not

feet

The overhang
be adequate

so that

the vents
rain

enter.

I
I

i
I
I

over

vent

T
\\
I ---

---~
I

'2 ft.
overhang

11

window

area

178

does

/,/

in

Raised Floor House

Interior
floor

1.2
(4 ft.)

house

structure
for

59 broilers

of

raised
or 25

layers.

For

mates.

Cover

use in hot,
floor

with

wood slats

and enclose

wire

or wooden

mesh,

humid

bamboo or
house

\
I
m

3
nl

3.7

with

or .bamboo slats.

I
0.9
(3 ft.)

cli-

m (12 ft.)

Deep Litter House

Cut-away
house

for

view

of

warm climates.

in wire

mesh or wooden

slats.

This

broilers

deep-litter

house

or bamboo

can hold

200

or 100 layers.

Enclose

m (4 ft.)

0.9

181

m
(3 ft.)

Pole-type House
Fole-type
to 75 layers.
be assembled
raised
the

.2

into

poles.

laying

house

for

The roof framing

in two sections,

50

and secured

Sheeting

may be plywood

local

Leave

openings

small

rafters

can

position

or any available

to

ft.)

152

eaves
with

slot

at both
for

the

ventilation.

plastic,

mats,

cold

weather.

front

substitute.
between
and rear

Cover windows
burlap,
etc
l

during

Kerosene-Heated Incubator

front

door

side

view

Key
lamp, 200 watt light
other
heat source.

A.

Kerosene
bulb or

B.

Tin can, about

in diameter.

30 cm (12

c.

Exhaust,
about
in diameter.

10 cm (4 in.)

D.

Damper
hole.

E.

Heat inlet,
in diameter.

F.

Weight:
slide
towards
heat
source
to increase
internal
temperature;
away to decrease.

fits

snugly
about

over
7.5

G.

Hinged arm suspends

damper.

H.

Set screw joins

from thermostat.

I.

Rod connects

J.

Chamber, sheet metal

sealed
and venter'.

K.

Dry Bulb thermometc?r,

accurate
in 35' C (9.5" F) to 40.5'
C
(105' F) range;
bulb of thermometer about 1.25 cm (l/2
in.)
above eggs.

L.

Egg tray,
60 x 60 cm (2 x 2 ft.)
for 100 eggs; 43 x 43 cm
(17 x 17 in.)
for 50; made of
sheet metal,
or wood with
fine
wire mesh bottom.

M.

Water

N.

Thermostat,
liquid
or gasfilled
disc that expands with
contracts
with
rising
heat,
falling
-- usually
purchased.

in.)

exhaust
cm (3 in.)

and moves

arm and rod

133

pan,

therlnostat

sheet

and arm.
bottom,

metal.

0.

Insulation
on cabinet

-- optional,
materials.

depending

P.

of soft wood (for

Cabinet,
insulation
value)
or two sheets
of veneer c;r metal filled
with
sawdust,
r:'.ce hulls
or other
insulation!
in front
and back of
cabinet,
help adjust
internal
temperature
and humidity.

Q- Vents,
R.

Latch,

holds

S.

Window

of

T.

Door,
metal.

U.

Door hinges.

v.

Wet Bulb
humidity.

door

glass

wood or

--

closed.
optional.

insulated

thermometer,

sheet

to measure

184

! Appendix Br
Other Poultry
:

Ducks

domestic

breeds.

Due to
eggs,

local

from
Domestic

ducks

to

for

easier
they

are

care
There
Khaki

breeds:
(lays

are

Campbell

years

under

and Aylesbury
reaching
seven

the most

than

Muscovies
Older

geese).

unfeathered

faces.

Mallards

head),
are

normally

raised,

but

ducks

are

classified

ducks,

(male

with

wild,

also

smaller

than

per year,

more than
depending

can be raised

be deep

submerge

their

true

geese).

for

they

care

are

raised

are

than

using

Farmers
for

(the

same is
are

be taken
litter.

to coccidio-

and tolerant

to

can be transmitted

chickens,
usually
every

very

on deep

more resistant

to

Waterers
them to

should

(Cholera

the

for

Ducks

chickens

by ducks

(male)

heads

great

cholera.

185

produce

enough

sis

on their
green

a week).

about

should

Ducks

en-

has

(in

as chickens.

if

widel.y

Duck eggs are

same equipment

messy;

(some-

have

skin

are

meat,

varies

age.

Ducks

in villages,

true

found

for

Muscovy

Muscovies

larged,

three

of duck

eggs and spoil

seldom

on their

or more at

common birds

larger

times

of age.

for

Pekin

3 kg (7 lbs.)
weeks

eggs

taste

chicken

60 to 90 eggs

good management);

or White

than

Muscovies

for

year

to area.

more quickly

principal

strong

acceptance

area

larger

chickens,for

three

300 to 350 per

or four

are

than

are much

disease-resistant

hardy,

foragers.

often

the

however.)
keep

one drake

two females.

Duck

eggs

take

28 days

to hatch;

take

35.

Opinion

is

whether

ducks

(Muscovies
broody
As in

the

hatching
the

divided

case

of

chicks,

for

the

by 2.8'

it

a broody

32.2'

first

week,

C (5'

F) each

weeks,

ducklings

first

is

starter

feed

although

moistened
and/or

fresh

Once outside,
on grasses

and slugs.
growing

garden

in

plucking

in

When catching

ducks

them by the
can be held

There
breeds

(see

geese).

the

devour
feed,
scattered
evening

house.

by the

not
neck

the

noisy

little

attention

and may live

for

geese.

and African

30 years.

recognized
Of them,
do best

in

black
African
-- distinctive
knob on the head; black bill;
light
brown head; ash brown
Good layer,
wings and neck.
but dark pinfeathers
make it
an unattractive
meat bird.
They produce
about 45 - 90
eggs per year.

-Chinese -- two varieties

brown and white;
smaller,
more
swan-like
than other breeds.
Good layers
-- 40 to 65 eggs
per bird
per year.

or Muscovies,

wings,

They

aggressive,

domestic

tropics.

the

hardy,

to weed

dogs.

of

the

grain

ability

as watch

for

feathers,

nine

of

wili

eggs,

their

need

raised

at least

Chinese

snails

are

are

the

in

them nearer

that

and will

no supplemental

a trough

large,

when mature
do.

them in

of

are

geese
large

or act

birds

do well

free

they

a few handfuls

keep

will

let

--

They need

placed

greens
ducks

Don't

crops

pellets,
whole

meat,

and sometimes

weeks

mash,

garden

Domestic
their

early

and insects,

a mature

it

be kept

the

Ducks

wax helps

are valuable;

F)

four

should
their

hold

melted

often

but

duck-

following

In

ideal

for

C (90'

warm and dry.

wili

feathers

to pluck,

near

and reduce

their

During

it.

difficult

hen

keep water

at

week.

keep

are

them.

Geese
set

grain

to

ducklings.

you use a brooder

lings,

or

use

hen.
If

but

Ducks
their

so many people

to raise

any discomfort

on

make good mothers

do),

hens

Muscovies

legs.

without

186

Geese Weights
Weight

Breed
African
Chinese

9 kg
5.5 "

Toulouse

- 1 year

Emden

old

male

Weight

12

"

4.5

"

10

"

"

26

"

"

20

"

12

"

26

"

"

20

"

one gander

selectively

should

(male)

and for

have

for

at

every

least

dry

for

the

housed,
per

bird

deep

first

allow

0.09

litter.
are

than

young

for

needed

need

by the

chicken

which

turn
big

swimming,

to do so to breed.

goslings

under

mother,
can care

a hen moist,
them each
for

a hen

they

should

do not

If

Eggs

can be

not

to six

two

need more

12 weeks

are

too
they

needed

for

goslings,

warm and

a 20 to 22

and then
old.

period.

Geese are

selective
eat

in

tough,

and some other

plants.

can be confined

in

A
them.

geese

do

- 1 kg

supplemental

not

weeks.

can go on range

growing

will

six

feed

than. 0.5

arc

through

geese

plentiful,

they

as they

be kept

is

week,

them and

after

confine

per

Keep eggs

Goslings

will

bird

up to

goslings

of age.

fence

pasture

and

weeks

for

turn.
is

They

form.

(1 - 2 lbs.)

and mark

day,
to

but

for

starter

or by a female

(chicks).

No brooder
but

protein

1 m (3 ft.)

hatches

six

percent

ft.)

of age on

chickens.

feed

If

m (1 sq.

feeders

need housing

from

two

sq.

Larger

waterers

do not

few weeks.

by two weeks

pellet

females.
Geese like

18 lbs.

kg

12

Ideally,

Flocks

female

feathered:
white
-.Fmden -- tipht
body.
Egg production
averages
30 to 40 per year under good
management.

life.

old

20 lbs.

Toulouse
--loose-feathered;
Load,
deep body; pale orange
beak, dark grey back shading
to white
breast,
deep orange
They produce
shank and toes.
about 35 to 50 eggs per year.

Geese mate

- l-year

feed
only

per

until

Provide

grit

grazers;
dry

grasses

Thus,

they

orchards,

vine-

yards

and in

(until

blossom

maize

(once

cotton
with

fields
time),

shoots

shade

and water

1:ttle

grain

have

aren't

Most

geese

are

weigh

five

5 to

are

7 kg

'of

soda

(sodium

areas,

goose

fetches

and

Geese are

wax,

they

and wax

Remelt

and re-

feathers

in

solution

or borax

and washing

carbonate).

In

down

(small

a good price

in

competes

some

market.

(purplish

grey

lavender

guinea

ender

with
(all

is

pearl

the

raise

there

are

where
species.

In

originated
a number

ancient

in

Africa

of wild

times,

Greeks

wild

game

fowl:

of

pearl

with

white

(light

guinea

flecks);

grey

flecks);

or

lav-

and white

The most

common

guinea.
fowl

they
eggs

are

more difficult
than

chickens

are wilder
and do not

--

they

take

hide

contain-

They may mate with

ment well,
chickens,

but

the

offspring

are

sterile.
It

is

diff'icult

male

frOri.

have

a slightly

but

Most

people

female

female

this

is

hard

sounds

sex differentiation

all

voices:

like

the
shriek

usually

to see.

to their

buckwheat";

flock

helmet
and a coarser

listen
call

Males

guineas.
larger

a one-syllable
the

to distinguish

and wattles,

head,

wheat,
fowl

which

varieties

profitably

because
their

three

white).

Guinea

the
Guinea

by some

meat,

with

white

guinea

(comb)

Guinea Fowl

tasty

are
guinea

to

prized

favorably

domestic

feathers)
the

are

in price.

are

the wax allowed

feathers

together.
wash

old

to 15 lbs.),

often

and the

detergent

weeds

them as meat birds,

their

There

when

months

(11

in melted

wax,

if

marketed

to six

to pluck;

;:laim

evening

they

for

birds

abundant.

difficult

Temoved

people

Start

them a

on breed.

to harden

crops.

and give

depending

dipped

and today

toughened),

provide

the

and Romans raised

beets,

goslings,

in

and grass

strawberries
sugar

and some other

g-week-old

they

of

"buck-

male has
-call

still

but

since

at once,
is

diffi-

In

tlr.

In

Lirs.
lie

the wild,
controlled

usually

* five

guineas

is

flocks

kept

for

in

chicken

one

every

four

a year.
from

keets

tised

by their

'oody

hen usually

(chicks)

on the! eggs

Ltched

(about

until

in

the

C (103'

the

!eks,

C ( 104'

!ep the

If

the

you
the

that

of

week,

age and

usually

to

3-l/2

American

been

developed

the

should

still

be

to the

mash

find

less

on

while

16 to 18
meat.

1.25

At

to 1.5

kg

lbs.).

at

are

smaller

than

order

turkeys

wild

cousin
size

at

slightest

189

fences

many meaty

but
mainly

You can

that
--

are

they

and thus,

to panic

can breed

and break

are

stupid

and stampede

actual
They

closer

have much

The new breeds

prone

the
have

varieties,

birds,

or

of

turkeys

and the White.

breast

the

bird

forests,
into

more easily.

afternoon

shelter

Bronze

provocation.
eggs

she

a hardy

North

the

mash until

they

late

.ght.
Guinea

her

for

weigh

Originally

and

grower

feed

the
to

to

are

when sold

age they

have

then

to a 15 percent

return

returning

Turkeys

F) each week

starter

the

so that

the

37.8'

should

protein

Feed in

they

old

(2-3/4

three

F) for

first

keets

lpplementing
nge.

disturb

difficult-to-breed

.x weeks
ritched

in

it,

laying.

weeks

leresfter.

1 percent

find

three

(no

first

at

educe by 2.8O C (5'

Ideally,

two or

use a brooder,

temperature

.OO" F) for

safe

100 eggs

at

a still-air

for

1st week.

but

oz.).

Eggs also

m) incubator
and 40'

the

chicken

incubated
F) in

feels

Guineas

and perhaps

evening.

:y be artificially

is

all

when you

and don't

are

keeping

grass,

them to enter

lelter

job,

40 g (1.4

hen may lay

a nest

it,

most

averaging

Collect

the hen

a better

28 days),

of wet

caching

but

does

laying

Lets out

may be

mothers,

eggs,

A well-managed

females.

Guinea

1.4'

mate

or

can run
their

imagined
into
necks

walls
or

pile

into

corners

and smother.

Poults

(chicks)

may starve

unless

they

taught

drink.
are

are

Very
too

large

felt

catch

also

are

but
is

well

less

the

with

both
In

(male)

Eggs

to hatch.

should

chickens

take

are

possible,
six

to

need

they

of

exercise

grass,

and protein.

may eat

to 8.2

age when
kg

(10

When

up to 45 kg

of well-balanced
of

supple-

feed

they

will

by

weigh

to 18 lbs.).

be
un-

is

A broody

chicken

but

increases

with

26 to

the

the

--

Turkeys

they

the

pigeon,

one

that

can be kept,

do a good job,

larger

breeds

chance

of

and

susceptible

chicken

Eggs under

Giant

are

throngs
but

coccidiosis

house

only

portion

to

of

chickens
190

the

will

King

Homer.

do,
of

city

better,

the White

Any waterproof,

to

estab-

The common Rock

self-sustaining.
turkeys

is

can be practically

parks,

diseases:
the

lished,

they

of pigeons

business.

the
are

Once a flock

eggs.

a difficult
will

each

28 days

gobblers

and brooding

artificially

and blackhead;

they

if

one gobbler

to breed

to break

two protozoan

when

grain

lbs.)

4.5

better,

turkeys

with

24 weeks

head

is

chickens.

Pigeons

Watch

Hatching

coccidiosis.

loss

diarrhea,

flocks,

hens.

disease.

(100

feed

than

and plenty

confined,

species.

needed

that

pox and

starter

has much experience

turkey

try

mented

(lethargy,

away from

farmer

on range

need

old.

Growing

dangerous

Turkeys

is

often

most

yellow
death).

raised

ten

their

weeks

suscep-

fowl

it

to buy poults

and are

blackhead

appetite,

darkens,

be

Poults

equipment

All-in-all,

chickens.

easily

turned.
protein

and larger

often

more

than

cold

parasites,

of

and

eight

co coccidiosis,

disease

eat

turkeys

to disease

subject

to

be hand

a 28 percent

artificially.

Turkeys

'l'hey

to death

to mate and must

inseminated

tible

must

as will

a shed.

house,

place

easily

cleaned

an unused
In dark

corners

nesting

shelves

with

lips

so that

the

roll

off.

Cats,

dogs,

rats

eat

pigeons,

house

on legs

they

for

need

parasites

the

containment.

If

them well-

feed.

Treat

them

and coccidiosis
treat

pair

or more squab

each year,

as

chickens.

A breeding

will

produce

(young

pigeons)

two at a time.

usually

are

25 to

30 days

completely

eaten

when

old,

to

fly.

weigh

400 to

At

that

are

have

not

age they
to

may live

or more and may weigh

are

they

but

680 g (14

pigeon

Squabs

they

when

feathered

begun

A mature

and

to home,

give

chicken

you would

ten

close

contained,

balanced

snakes

so place

stay

don't

are

don't

or poles.

Pigeons
so they

eggs

24 oz.).
12 years

800 g (l-3/4

lbs.).

191

Appendix C:
Farmer Specific
Assessment
riteria
Date:
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

8.
9.
10.
11.

12.
#
-7
13,

14.

Farmer name:
Location:
Number of birds:
Age of birds:
Breed source:
Meat:
Feed source:
System of operation:
History
of prior
advisory
assistance
received:
Visual
appearance
of birds:
Number of years farmer has kept chickens:
Other:
Other:
SUBJECT

Existing

Potential,

Breed Sauce
Egg production
Meat production
Body weight
avg.
Feeding/Nutrition
a. Nutrition
b. Feeding
equip.
c. Water equip.
d. Layout
e. Grit/shells
f. Feed storage
g. Feed sources

193

Eggs:

Gap/Comments

Ref.

Page #

SUBJECT
15.

Disease
6 Control
a. Vaccinations
- Newcastle
- Fowl pox
- Marek's
- Inf.
branch.
- Other
b. Coccidiosis
c. Other disease
d. Antibiotics

16.

Parasite
Control
a. Internal
b. External

17.

Cannibalism

i8.

Rodents,
Wild
Birds
& Predators

19.

Nesting
Prov.
a. Space
B. Mgt.

20

Brooding/Rearing
a. 1 day to 8 wks.
b. 8 to 20 wks.

21

Mgt. Systems
a. Range
b. Deep litter
c. Cage
d. Slatted
floor

22

Layer mgt.
a. Stress
b. Other

23

Housing
a. Range
b. Deep litter
c. Slatted
floor
d. Cage

Existing

Potential

194

Potential

SUBJECT

-1

I
II
1

General
Mgt.
a. TLC
- Interest
- Routine
b. Sanitation
- All out/in
- Cleaning
- Isolation
- Hygiene
- Dis. dip.
- Feed storage
c. Daily
sanitation
- Waterers
- Feeders
- Litter/droppings
d. Cost reduct-lon
- Egg collection
- Feed wastage
- Space use
- Culling
- Upkeep
- Keeping males
- Joint
efforts
Sex Separation

Stress
Reduction
- Disturbances
- Feed changes
- Caretaker
changes
- Routine
changes
- Violent
weather
- Moving birds
- Dampness
- Ventilation
contr
Lighting
Marketing
- Prices
- Seasonal
- Yolk/shell

consid.
color

195

Gap/Comments-

Ref.

Page #

Existin

SUBJECT
-

Egg cleanliness
Meat qualities
Egg grading
Meat grading
:
Handling
& storage

Other
a. Incubation
- Natural
- Artificial
I
b. Country
chicken
- Breed improve,
- Debeaking
- Night protect.
- Feeding
c. Forced molting
- Methods
- Economics
of
d. Progress
gauge
- Body weight
gai
- Egg production
durve
- Uniformity
of growth
- Feed consumptio
- Mortality
rate

Potential

Gap/Comments

Ref.

Page #

Appendix D:
Feed
Formulation

197

/ FatTI-?--Fi~r------~~t.
Protein
Pounds
in Mix I
Amt.1
I Amt. I

rngredient

.027
.Ol
^_ ^
.UlY

.06
--1.035
I.023
1.012
1.016

1
I
1
I
i

-1.001
10
11
1.2
13
14
15
16
17
18

Feather
meal
Fish meal, anchovie
Fish meal, herring
Fish meal, menhaden
Fish meal, sardine
Limestone
flour
Meat meal w/bone:45%
Meat meal w/bone:50Z
Meat meal: 55%

1850
1650
1706
1600
1650
,450
1506
1550

-~~

I.030
I.038
I.075
I.075
~~
I.040
I
'.080
.095
.080

1
1
I

nca

.260
.Ol
a-,.
. u3u

, Amt.

iKcal/lb
490
1400
4 ?.A,.

1 lLU3

.12
^^^

I
1

1
1
I

.040
.llO
.llO
.008
.OlO
.OOl
.OOl
.OOl
.OOl

1
I

1475
_910
1000
1010
1078
1020
1350

27
28
29
-30
31

I% I

1 Soybean meal: 5C
IWheat bran
I
[Brewers'
dried
yeast1
\Dicalcium
phosphate
1
[Bone meal. straight
1

1soo-

(150
[446

,.-A
.OOl

I.015
.O03
.OOl
,002
.ooo
.002
-002
IO02
.002
,002
.045
.0:29
.050
.045

.002

1300

1
I

i2n

780
870
910
-iinn

1000
1500

1 .llO/
1 . 1061

TOTALS
VALUES FOR RATION
ADJUSTED VALUES
~ALL~WANCES 0~ REQUIR!
* This means that in every
kilogram
of alfalfa
meal

nnnl

of alfalfa
is 0.170

j
1

I .051

;-r--.7z!&jq-

fun

nl-2

.065
.070
. 030
1 1120
.030
1

r..Yh
.OOl

, n-l

.002
.OOl
,001
.270
nnr-l

a-L----.003
--l-x%--t-x nnh
i .007
.OlO
.014
i ,191
I 7 -I/

1597

l OOl

.002

1100
1020
1150
510
840

-0021
,002

u..v

-+---

pound
there

.Oll
.014
.008
.028
.022
.028
.027

-I--oso+--

T
V
AV
AR

1200

1
1

.070
.028
.035
.005
.nn5
--_.030
,011

JCalcium--rPhosphorus
1 Amt
Amt.
I
I

.178

.025
.020
.025
I

Energy
IAmt.

meal there
is 0.170
kilograms
of protein,

pounds of protein,
and so on.

and in

every

0
r,E
I-

- - 1
E:
0
3 23
.

z>
.
-

..
--

- 5
s!
0 3
.

2
0

- J/
2
3. ;I*I
- I

-2
3. T;3.
--

::
C

/ I ~
--I--ltl-i

-1

30
? 10, 1
.I

1
I
I

;
>.
I

n
x

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3
4
5
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1 Amt.1 lb/lb
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1 Amt.Jlb/lb
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bt.1
lb/lb
! Amt,
1
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1

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--

Appendix
E:
n 4
Peed
Requirements
Energy Requirements

Metabolizable

energy

O-8
weeks

8-20

20 weeks

weeks

and on

(ME)

calories

per

lb.

1,250

1,280

1,335

calories

per

kg

2,750

2,815

2,950

Vitamin Requirements

O-8

weeks

9-20
weeks

20 weeks

and on

(units

per

Breeding
Chickens

kg /lb.)

Vitamin

Al

2,640/1,200

2,640/1,200

4,400/2,000

4,400/2,000

Viatmin

D32

200/90

200/90

500/225

500/225

(amount
Vitamin

in

mg

per

kg /lb.)

0.5/0.24

Thiamin

1.7/0.8

Riboflavin3

2.4b.3

1.7/0.8

2.211

3.711.7

9.2/4.2

9.214.2

4.612.1

9.214.2

2.9D.3

2.911.3

Panthothenic

acid4

Naicin

26/12

Pyridoxin

2.911.3

203

9-20
weeks

O-8
weeks
Biotin

0.09/0.04

Choline

1,320/600

Vitamin
Notes--l.

E--Needed

2.
3.
4.

in

feeds,

but

requirements

20 weeks
and on

Breeding
Chickens

unknown.

International
Units
(IU).
International
Chick Units
(ICU).
Feeds only containing
grain may not have
Feeds that have enough riboflavin
usually
tothenic
acid.

enough riboflavin.
have enough pan-

Protein and Amino Acid Requirements

(percentage

Crude

protein

Amino acids
2
Arginine*
2
Lysine*
2
Methionine*
1
Cystine*
2
Tryptophan"
Glycine
2
Histidine
2
Isoleucine
2
Leucine

2.
3.

9-20
weeks

20

16

feed)
20 weeks
and on
16-18

unknown

Broilers
- 0
weeks to sale
22

0.80

1.20

1.10

0.70

0.50

1.10

0.45

0.35

0.28

0.45

0.35

0.30

0.25

0.35

0.20

0.18

0.15

0.20

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

0.30

0.15

0.15

* Many feeds
Notes--l.

O-8
weeks

1.20

(minimum)

of total

unknown

0.60

II

0.80

0.80

1.40

II

1.20

1.40

do not

have enough

of

these

acids.

Remember cystine
is synthesized
from methionine
and is not essential
unless
methionine
is limited.
The essential
amino acids.
Tyrosine
is synthesized
from phenylalanine
and is not essential
unless
phenylalanine
is limited.

204

O-8
weeks

Broilers
- 0
weeks to sale

9-20
weeks
-_

20 weeks
and on

unknown

0.70

0.90

'henylalaline
(minimum)

0.90

lyrosine

0.70

II

1.00

0.70

'hreonine

0.60

II

0.55

0.60

raline

0.80

11

0.80

0.80

Mineral Requirements
(percentage

of

total

feed)

O-8
weeks

9-20
weeks

20 weeks
and on

.cium

2.75

jsphorus

0.60

0.60

0.60

0.60

.t

0.50

0.50

0.50

0.50

:assium

0.20

0.16

(amount
lganese

55/25

line

l-1/0.5

gnesium

490/220

:e--Mineral
overuse

in

mg

per

Breeding
--chickens
2.75

kg /b.)
33115

contents
of a feed should
of one may block utilization

0.4/0.2

not

greatly
exceed these levels;
or digestion
of another.

Maximum Limits of Feed Ingredient Use

Percentage
of
total
feed weight

# Source
1.

Alfalfa

2.

Blood

5-10

meal

4-5

meal
205

l.UO.5

Percentage
of
total
feed weight

# Source
Barley

4.

Coconut

6.

Maize

7-9.
10.
11-14.

6-18,

20

3.

oil

meal

(corn)

gluten

Cottonseed

15-40
15

meal)

meal

5-7

meal

10-15

meal

15.

Limestone

31.

Meat and bone meals

19.

Groundnut

20.

Rice,

21.

Rice

bran

lo-15

22.

Rice

polish

50

23.

Sesame seed meal

30

Soybean

30

25-27.

flour

(peanut)

10
35

meal

30

broken

meal

15

28.

Wheat bran

29.

Brewer's

yeast

32.

Cassava

(yucca,

Sweet

potato

5-10

maniac)

meal

chicks
layers

- 10
- 20
20

meal

Wheat

50

Salt

0.5

Straw

(depending
on
fiber
content)

10-15

meal

Feather
Fish

(copra

and rice

hulls

206

(30% of high
quality
and
low in fiber)

Appendix F:
Bibliography
and Resources
Resources

1,

433,

Murray

New York
Peace

Corps

Publications

Several

other

Peace

Corps

plement

the

material

in

They may be obtained

Peace

Corps

staff

or by writing

to

tion

D.C.

this

Peace

20525,

com-

$15.00

or

the

provide

them

Corps

in-country

Corps,

New York,

U.S.A.

Enclosing

for

less,

handling

Collec-

U.S.A.

10016,

one.

country,

Information

and Exchange,

ington,

manuals

your

Station,

Payment 9 especially

through
in

Hill

saves

charges.

orders

of

postage

and

In some cases

free

of charge,
resource

ICE will

to Peace
centers

or

Volunteers.

Wash-

Bibliography

The-Y

include:
Self-Help
Construction
of
One-Story
Buildings,
Manual
Number M6 (Peace Corps).
Farm Grain
Manual NumberM2

Storage
(Peace

Small

Note

Manual,
Corps/VITA).

E'AO Pubaications
The United
tural

Organization

helpful
are

Food and Agriculoffers

publications,

listed

obtained
your

Nations

below.
through

country,

a number

the

of

or write:

Unipub,

below

books

overseas

good

idea

order

the

include
are

in

the

you can order

Box

Peace
207

Corps

is
in

the

U.S.

you and forward

generously

Otherwise,
airmail
your

to change.
through
office

send

It

someone
for

with

subject

normally

by mail.

books

it

publishers

do not

to have

estimate

be

FAO office

listed

them by mail.

some of which
They might

on ordering--Most

postage

and

order.

Prices

In
your

some cases
local

or through

ICE.

to

Chicken

Husbandry

The International
Trade Development
Board of the Poultry
and Egg Institute of America,
1815 N. Lynn Street,
Arlington,
Virginia
22209, U.S.A.,
which cooperates
with the Foreign
Agricultural
Service
of the U.S.
Department
of Agriculture,
will
try
to help you find layer
chick suppliers with experience
in breed requirements and import
regulations
in your
country.
They ask that you be as
specific
as possible
about the objectives
of your project,
including
the
number of birds
you desire,
the houstemperature
conditions
and
ing plan,
medical
and technical
assistance
Through their
affiliation
available.
with the World Poultry
Science Association,
they also may be able to
provide
advice
on unusual
technical
Again,
the more specific
problems.
and detailed
your request,
the better they will
be able to serve you.

ABC of Poultry
Raising,
J. H. Florea.
Dover Publications,
Inc.,
180 Varick
St.,
New York, New York 10014, U.S.A.,
Although
directed
to
1977, 142 pp.
farmers
in northern
temperate
zones
in industrialized
nations,
this book
contains
basic
information
needed to
raise
smalland medium-scale
chicken
flocks
successfully.
USS4.00.
Poultry
Husbandry
II:
Notes for students of animal husbandry,
G. J.
Price and J. E. Reed.
FAO, 1971,
Describes
poultry
management
91 PP=
systems,
housing
and equipment.
uss2.00.
Poultry
Keeping
in Tropical
Areas,
W. Thomann.
FAO, 1968, 56 pp.
Manual intended
for agricultural
leaders
in applied
nutrition
projects,
and for rural
poultry
producers.
uss3.00.

Breeding

Poultry
Science,
M. E. Ensminger.
The
Interstate
Printers
and Publishers,
Danville,
Illinois,
1971, 276 pp.
This is one of several
good textbooks covering
all aspects
of poultry husbandry
with a United
States
perspective.
Breed

Source

1979-1980
Who's Who International
in
the Egg and Poultry
Industries.
Watt
Publishing
Company, Mount Morris,
Illinois
61504, U.S.A.,
204 pp.
Contains
breeder
performance
characteristics,
world
poultry
production
outlook,
and an international
buyers'
guide in English,
German, French,
Italian
and Spanish for poultry
and
products
in 73 countries.
us$10.00.

Practical
Poultry
Breeding,
Warren.
MacMillan
Company,
1966.
A good book on basic
breeding
principles.

D. C.
U.S.A.,
poultry

The Genetic
Basis of Selection,
LerJohn Wiley and Sons,
ner I. Michael.
New York, New York, U.S.A.,
1965.
Another
good breeding
reference
for
those needing
more detailed
genetic
information.
Nutrition
Amino-acid
Content
of Foods and Biological
Data on Protein.
FAO Nutritritional
Studies
No. 24, 1970, 285
Tables
show
amino
acid levels
PP.
in 384 foods,
plus data on biological
value,
digestibility,
net protein

208

utilization
and protein
efficiency
Intended
for use in human
rate.
nutrition,
but valuable
for poultry
as well.
US$15.00.

The Morrison
Publishing
Company,
Ithaca,
New York 14850, U.S.A.,
1956,
1165 pp.
An excellent
source of
information
on feedstuffs,
feed mixing and nutrition
pr-nci?le=.
Found
in most agricultural
libraries
around
the world.

Poultry
Feeding
in Tropical
and SubFAO Agricultropical
Countries.
tural
Development
Paper No. 82, 1965,
special
problems
96 PP* Discusses
of feeding
poultry
in tropical
countries
and lists
sample rations
used
in 36 nations.
uss4.50.

Cooperatives
Training
and Extension
in the Coonerative
Movement,
A. F. Laidlaw.
FAO
Agricultural
Development
Paper No.
74, 1962, 78 pp.
The author describes
training
and extension
experience in India,
concentrating
on
teaching
methods.

Marketing
Marketing
Eggs and Poultry,
G. F.
Stewart
and J. C. Abbott.
FAO Marketing
Guides No. 4, 1961, 194 pp.
Reviews organizations,
methods and
services
of marketing,
with detailed
information
on quality
standards,
handling
methods,
packing
and container
specifications.
Feeds

Extension
Agricultural
Extension:
The Training and Visit
System, Daniel
Benor
and James Q. Harrison.
Publications
Unit,
World Bank, 1818 H Street,
N.W.,
Washington,
D.C. 20433, U.S.A.,
1977,
copies.
57 PP* No charge for single
Probably
the best booklet
on extension.

and Feeding

The Scientific
Feeding
of Chickens,
Titus
and Fritz.
Fourth
Edition.
The Interstate
Printers
and Publishers,
Danville,
Illinois,
U.S.A.,
An excellent
source
1972, 247 pp.
of information
on priciples
of feed
mixing
and nutrition
of poultry.
It is found in most agricultural
libraries
around the world.

Guide to Extension
Training,
D. J.
Bradfield.
FAr? Economic and Social
Development
Series
No. 6, 1966, 176
Deals
with
teaching
methods,
PP*
social
and cultural
factors,
evaluation,
etc.
USS6.50.

Poultry
Feed Mixing Manual,
Pran
Vohra.
U.S. Agency for International
Development,
New Delhi,
India,
1962.
This,
and an edition
revised
by Peace Corps Volunteer
Keith Pheuler,
is by far one of the best
introductions
to practical
feed mixing.
Copies are available
in the
ACTION library.
Feeds

and Feeding,

Frank

Diseases
Salsbury's
Manual of Poultry
Diseases,
Dr. Salsbury's
Laboratories,
Charles
This is a superCity,
Iowa, U.S.A.
ior manual and one of a kind in quality in terms of functional
value to
It is
the poultry
extensionist.
almost mandatory.
This manual is
condensed,
filled
with color
photographs and covers most disease
information essential
to poultry
work.
Do

B. Morrison.

209

Glossary

Uroiler

--

Chicken

grown

Breeder

--

Sexually
mature
used to produce
eggs.

Capon

--

Castrated

Cockerel

--

Male chicken
less
one year old.

Fryer

--

Young broiler,
usually
less than one year old.

Grower

--

Intermediate
stage
chick
and adult.

Hen

--

Female chicken
year old.

Layer

--

Female chicken,
usually
21 weeks or older,
kept
for eggs.

Pullet

--

Female chicken
one year old.

Roaster

--

Fat,
ally
old.

Rooster

--

Male chicken
more than
one year old.
Also
called
cock.

male

for

meat.
chicken
fertile

chicken.

over

less

heavy broiler,
more than ten

than

between
one

th8n
usuweeks

21.1

Index

Advantages , poultry
keeping,
3
Aflatoxins,
115
Air,
25, 89
Air cell,
22, 53-55
Amino acids and requirements,
131, 137, 204,
Anatomy,
external,
23, 24, 128-130
Anatomy,
internal,
25-27
Antibiotics,
139
Assessment
-- checklist,
(Appendix
C, 193-196),
ii,
-- information
sources,
18, 19, 26, 33,
-- observation,
16, 17
-- country
fowl,
33-35
"Automatic"
waterers,
103, 104
Basket brooder,
60
Battery
cages,
15
Blood,
24, 25
Blood spots
(eggs),
see Candling
Body weight,
2, 43-45,
155, 156, 193
Breathing,
25, 89 (see also Diseases)
Breeds,
dual purpose,
44, 45
Breeds (meat types),
44
Breeds,
layer
types,
43,44
Breeds and breeding/sources
-- choosing
a breed,
37-42,
44-46
-- classification,
2, 3, 43-45
-- country
fowl,
37-39
-- improvement
breeding,
37-39,
48,
-- dual purpose,
44, 45
-- layers
types,
43, 44
-- meat types,
44
Broilers,
see Meat Chickens
213

49

205

3-6, 9-20,
32-35
166 (Appendix
F, 207-210)

Broiler
management schedule,
56-65
Bronchial
tubes,
25 (see also Diseases
and Post
Bronchitis,
120,121
Brood hens, 12, 47
Brooder
designs,
58-61
Brooder
guard,
60
Brooding,
operation
and management,
56-65
-- preparation,
56
-- hovers,
58-60
-- temperatures,
60, 61
-- feeders,
61
-- waterers,
18, 62, 76, 77, 100-104,
139
-- layout,
63
-- houses,
86, 87
-- country
fowl,
36
Broodiness,
12, 47
Budgets,
18, 33, 153-157,
161-168
-- layers,
162, 163
-- meat type,
157
Buildings
(see Housing)
Cages
-- vs floor
layers,
15, 66
-- design
and construction,
94-100
Calcium,
66, 110, 138
Candler,
52
Candling,
54, 55
Cannibalism,
75-79,
87, 94
Caponizing,
37, 136
Carbohydrates,
37, 136
Castration,
2
Catching
chickens,
28, 29
Ceca, 25, 122, 123, 130
Cecal coccidiosis,
122, 123, 130
Cecal worms, 5, 65
Chickens
-- external
anatomy,
21-24
-- general
information,
l-8
-- getting
to know, 21-29
-- internal
anatomy,
25-27
Chick guard,
60
Chicks
-- buying
of and cost,
42, 45, 157,
-- color
of, 21-24
-- country
type,
care of, 36, 55
214

162

Mortem)

-- debeaking,
77-79
-- feeding,
36, 61, 63, 104-108,
134,
-- hatching
of, 46
-- improved
breed management schedule,
-- sexed vs unsexed,
45
-- watering,
62, loo-104
Chlorine,
50
Cholera,
83, 116
Claw, 22
Coccidiosis,
64, 116, 122-124
Cocks, cockerals,
22, 37, 76
Colds,
116, 124, 125
Colony brooders,
59
Colony cages,
98
Colony nests,
112
Comb, 22
Confinement
and range rearing,
35-36,
81-99
Control
concept
in managment,
of environment,
Cooperatives,
19, 168, 173
Coryza,
116, 124, 125
Country
fowl,
2, 3, 10, 11, 31-39
Costs,
16
-- broilers,
157, 166
-- country
chickens,
33, 154
-- layers,
162, 163, 166
Crop, 25
Crop, impacted
or bound, 57
Crowding,
effects
of, 87-89
Culling,
66, 72-74,
86
Cultural
beliefs,
5, 32
Day length,
65-71,
76
Dead chickens,
66
-- disposal
of, 76, 128-130
Debeaking,'
77-79,
94
Deep litter,
14, 56, 57, 75, 83, 84
Diagnosis
of diseases,
65, 118, 128-130
Diarrhea
(see Coccidiosis)
Digestive
system,
25 (see also Nutrition)
Dipping,
matching
eggs, 50
Dirty
eggs, 48, 111, 159, 160
Disadvantages
, poultry
raising,
3, 4.
Diseases,
115-130
-- diagnosis,
65, 118, 128
215

137,
56-65

17

143,

155

-- mortality
rates,
76, 116
-- nutritional
deficiencies,
150-153
-- prevention,
92, 115-130
-- resistance,
2, 3, 39
-- vaccinations,
116-121
Disinfectants,
52, 56
Disinfectant
dip,
92
Down, 22
Drowning,
36
Dual purpose
chickens,
2, 3, 44, 45
Ducks, 185, 186
Dust, 87
Ear lobes,
23
Economics
(see Records,
Finance,
Marketing)
Eggs, 16, 17, 21, 26, 33, 38, 66
-- breakage
prevention/handling,
111, 112, 159
-- candling,
52, 55
-- cleaning,
48, 111, 159
-- color
of, 2, 43, 44, 66, 67
-- dipping,
50
-- grading,
159, 160
-- hatching,
47-50
-- production,
39, 67, 166, 167
-- quality,
52-55
-- stoiage,
159, 160
-- thin-shelled,
66, 71, 77, 110, 138
of, 2, 6, 19, 20, 153, 154, 159-163
J%gs 9 marketing
-- eggs vs meat, 41, 42, 88, 89
-- planning
for,
6, 19, 20 34, 153
-- seasonal
considerations,
34, 167
Egg breeds,
2, 3
-- buying
and starting,
42-46,
56-65
-- starting
time,
34, 167
Egg shell
hopper,
110
Embryo, 48
Energy in feed, 136, 137, 203
Energy,
for equipment
-- electric
brooder,
58
-- kerosene
brooder,
59
-- kerosene
incubator,
183
-- lighting,
65-71
-- solar,
59
-- wood, 59
216

Energy,
from litter/methane
gas, 37, 174
Environment,
2, 22, 32, 75-79
-- control,
17
Equipment/materials,
81-114,
183, 184
-- brooding
and rearing,
58-63
-- brooder,
-- cages,
85, 94-100
-- catching,
-- cleaning,
56
-- country
chickens,
31, 35, 36
-- debeaking,
77-79
-- disinfectant
dip, 92, 93
-- egg candling,
54, 55
-- feeders,
104-108
-- feed mixings,
148, 149
-- floor
space,
87-89
-- grit
hoppers,
109, 110
-- incubation,
48, 51
-- layers,
65-67,
88, 89
-- lighting,
67-70
-- litter,
56, 57
-- meat breeds,
65, 88, 89
-- nests,
111, 113
-- planning
for,
18, 19, 193
-- pullets,
newly housed,
46, 66 (see
-- rat control,
79
-- records,
164-166
-- roosts,
113
-- vaccination,
117, 118
-- waterers,
loo-104
Erosion,
gizzard,
84
Esophagus,
25
Examination

-- external.,
22-24,
27-29
-- internal,
25-27
-- post mortem,
119, 128-130
Extension,
169-174,
193-196
--special
projects,
172-174
Eyes, 23 (see also Diseases)
Farmer assessment
(see
Farm location,
87
Fats, 136
Feathers,
22, 23

Assessment)

217

Lighting)

Feather
mites,
126, 127
Feather
pulling
(see Cannibalism)
Feces, 25 (see Deep litter)
Feed (see also Nutrition)
-- concentrates,
147
-- consumption,
layers,
66, 106
-- conversion,
broilers,
155, 156
-- country
chickens,
36, 37
-- deficiencies,
150-152
-- feeding,
61
-- formulation,
140-146
-- grinding,
149
-- ingredients,
131-152
-- mixing,
148
-- nutrients,
136-140
-- storage,
149
-- wastage,
77, 84, 104, 105
Females vs males,
2, 22, 24, 26, 37
Fertilized
vs unfertilized
eggs, 5, 22, 26
Fertilizer,
3 (see also Deep litter)
Finances,
18, 33, 153-157,
161-168
(see also Marketing)
--increasing
profits,
104, 105, 166, 167
--sources
of finance,
167, 168
Flock
-- sizes,
3, 4, 132, 161
-- upgrading,
37-39
Floor,
flooring,
87-89,
92-97
-- deep litter,
15, 83
-- raised,
15, 84
-- cage, battery,
15, 85
Fly control,
58
Food poisoning,
57, 128
Foot, 22
Forced molting,
71, 72
Fowl cholera,
83, 120, 121
Fowl pox, 64, 65, 115, 120
Free range,
10-12,
81
Fryer,
2
Fumel, 26
Gall bladder,
26
Gap (existing
vs potential),
Geese, 186-188
Gizzard,
25, 109

16,

17,

33,

218

34 (see Assessment)

ssary,
211
in 134 (see also Feed)
en feed,
31, 131, 134
t, 104, 110, 139
uer mash, 134
wth rates,
155, 156, 158
nea fowl,
188, 189
dling
-- eggs, 111, 112
-- chickens,
27-29
thing,
22, 46-55 (see also Incubation
lth
(see Diseases)
t stroke,
76
ting sources
(see Brooding,
Incubation)
s (see Layers)
sing,
81-94,
175-182
-- cages,
85, 86, 94-100
-- construction,
86-94
-- contained
systems,
83
-- country
fowl,
35, 36
-- deep litter,
83-85,
92, 93
-- floor
space requirements,
89
-- free-range,
11, 12, 81
-- limited
range,
13, 81, 82, 83
-- principles,
86-89
-- raised
floor/slatted
floors,
84,
-- ventilation,
89
weather,
75, 76, 87, 89
'ers, 58-61
idity,
52, 84, 86
acted crop,
57
ome
-- eggs, 154, 162-167
-- meat, 154, 157
ubation
-- artificial,
22, 49-55
-- broody hen/natural,
22, 47,
-- egg selection
for,
47-50
-- equipment,
183, 184
ia poultry,
7, 8
ectious
bronchitis,
120, 121
ectious
coryza,
116, 124, 125
1

48

219

and Eggs)

93,

94

Information
sources
and gathering,
Ingredients,
feed,
198-202
Ingredient
use limits,
139, 205
Intestine,
25
Intestinal
coccidiosis,
64, 116,
Intestinal
worms, 5, 65, 125
Investment,
16, 33
-- layers,
154, 162, 163
-- meat-type,
154, 157
-- return
on, 166
Isolation
pen, 76
KeeL bone, 71-74
Kerosene
brooder,
Kidneys,
26, 130
Killing
chickens,

18,

19,

26,

33,

166,

207-210

122-124
c

59
128

Larynx,
25, 129
Laryngotracheitis,
121
Layers,
2, 22, 37-39
breed source,
43-46
costs,
returns
and profits,
154, 162, 167
culling
nonlayers,
72-74
equipment
(see Equipment)
feed consumption,
66, 106
floor
space,
89
forced
molting,
71, 72
housing
(see Housing)
lighting,
67-71
management principles,
65-71
production,
eggs, 39, 67, 166, 167
records,
164, 165
replacement
flocks,
42, 44-46,
63-66
second year,
71, 72
start
of lay ages, 66, 67
stress,
2, 75-79
upgrading
through
breeding,
37-39,
48, 49
vs meat/broiler
operations,
41, 42, 65, 84,
Lice,
47, 126
Lighting,
65-71
-- step-up
vs step-down,
70
-- in forced
molting,
71, 72
Lime on litter,
58
Limited
range,
13, 81, 82
--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

we

--

220

88,

89

Litter

(see also Deep litter)

built-up,
58
changing,
56
depth,
57
eating,
57
fertilizer
vaiue,
3, 83,
hot weather
and humidity,
management,
56-58
types of, 56, 57
Liver,
26, 130
Location
of poultry
houses,
87
Lungs,
25
---------

84
58,

83,

Males vs females,
2, 22, 24, 26, 37, 76
Management schedules
-- broilers,
63-65
-- layer
flock
replacements,
63-66
-- layer
flocks,
66-70
Marek's
Disease,
121
Manure,
3, 83, 84
Marketing,
32, 34
-- eggs,
2, 6, 19, 20, 153, 159-163
--

--

meat,

2,

6, 19, 20, 155-157

6, 19, 20, 34, 153

planning,
seasonal
considerations,
34,
-- weight,
broilers,
155-160
Mash and grain
feeding,
134, 135
Meat vs eggs, 41, 42, 65, 84, 88, 89
Meat breeds,
44, 65
-- growth
rates,
155, 156
-- marketing,
155-157
Medications,
139
-- coccidiosis
control,
122-125
-- worms, 125, 126
Methane,
37, 174
Minerals,
138, 151, 205
Mites,
126, 127
Molt,
forced,
71, 72
Mortality
rates,
76, 116
Moving,
75
--

Nests,
36, 111, 112
New Hampshires,
43
Newcastle
Disease,
63,

64,

116,

118,

167

119

84

Night protection,
35
Nitrogen-free
extract,
136
Noise,
75
Non-Layers,
72-74
Nose (nostrils/beak),
25
Nutrient
requirements
of poultry,
136-139,
203-206
-- energy,
136, 203
-- minerals,
138, 205
-- protein/amino
acids,
131, 137, 204, 205
-- vitamins,
138, 203, 204
-- other,
139
Nutrition,
18, 66, 131-152
-- country
fowl,
36, 37
-- commercial
feed,
133, 134
-- feeding
methods,
134, 135
-- home-mixed
feed,
135
-- mixing
and formulation,
140-148
Oats (for cannibalism),
Other poultry,
185-191
Ovary,
26
Oviduct,
26
Oyster
shells,
110 (see

77

Calcium)

Parasites
-- external,
65, 84, 126
-- internal,
65, 84, 125, 126
Peanut shells
(see Deep litter)
Peat moss (see Deep litter)
Pecking
(see Cannibalism)
Phosphorus,
138
Pigeon pox (see Fowl pox)
Pigeons,
190, 191
Piperazine,
65, 66
Pipping,
22
Pits,
disposal,
76, 128-130
Post mortem examination,
119, 128-130
Poultry
keeping
-- advantages,
3
-- disadvantages,
3, 4
-- methods and systems,
81-86
-- prerequisites,
4-6
-- products,
demand for (see Marketing)
Pox (see Fowl pox)

222

Predators,
10, 35, 75
Production
-- eggs, 16, 17, 21, 33,
-- meat, 16, 17, 33, 38,
Profits
(see Finance)
Protein/amino
acids,
131, 137,
Proventriculus,
25
Pubic bones,
71-74
Pullets,
22, 46
Pullorum,
122
Quarternaryammonia,
Raised
Range

floor,

84,

38
155,

156

204,

205

50
93,

94

-- free,
11, 12, 81
-- limited,
13, 81-83
Rats,
35, 75, 79
Rearing
(brooding),
56, 65
Records,
153-157,
164-166
Reproductive
system,
25
Returns
on investment
(see Finances
Rhode Island
Red, 43
Rice hulls
(see Deep litter)
Roaster,
2
Roosters,
37-39
Roosts,
66, 113
Routine,
75
Salmonella
pullorum,
45, 122
Salt,
151 (see also Cannibalism)
Sanitation
(see Diseases)
-- cleaning
between flocks,
-- disinfectant
dip,
92
Sexed or unsexed chicks,
45
Sexual maturity
-- female pullets,
21, 22
-- males,
22
Shank, 22
Shavings,
56
Shells,
-- hoppers,
110
-- starting
chicks,
66
-- thin eggs, 138

and Marketing)

52,

56

223

Water,

139
-- hot climates,
101
-- cleanliness,
37
-- consumption,
100
-- in incubation,
51, 52, 53
-- requirements
of iayers,
47
-- requirements
of starting
chicks,
-- space requirements/length/volume,
Waterers,
loo-104
Weather,
3, 4, 75, 76
Weight,
2, 155-157
White Leghorns,
43
Whole grain,
134
Windows,
91
Wing, 22
Wire cages,
94-100
Worms, treatment
and control,
5, 65, 66,
Yolk,

sac,

36, 56,
100

62

125

22

GPO

225

tl83-307

more than 80,000 U.S. citizens

have rerved
Since 1961 uhtn the Peace Corps wan created,
living
and working among the people of the Third
aa Volunterrm
in developing
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Today 6000 PCVs art
involved
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World aa colleagues
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to help l trangthen
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to l ddrer@ much fundamental
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