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Atoms
Atom Mass
A r is the relative atomic mass
M r is the relative molecular mass,
For example- HO has a relative
molecular mass of 18 [(2x1) + 16)
For ionic compounds the term
relative formula mass is used as
there is no separate molecules
Isotopes
Isotopes are different forms of the
same element
If an isotope has more neutrons than
protons, it can sometimes be unstable
and is likely to decay
Alkali Metals
Halogens
Group 7 in the periodic table
More reactive as you go up the group
Reacts with alkali metals
Halogens react with iron- iron wool bursts into
flames when it reacts with fluorine gas
Halogen displacement reactions mean the more
reactive halogen displaces the less reactive
halogen
Identifying Halides- identified using the
precipitation test using silver nitrate
Chlorine- white/silver
Bromine- Pale yellow/cream
Metallic Structure
positive
The structure
can easily pass
the vibration of
hot particles
along and the
free electrons
move faster
which is why
metals are
such good
conductors
Ionic Structure
Simple Covalent
Structure
A covalent
bond
happens
when
electrons are
shared
Giant Covalent
Substance
Diamond
Transparent + crystalline (used for jewellery)
Extremely hard ( lot of energy needed to
break down lattice)
Electrical insulator
High melting point
Graphite
Grey/black shiny solid
Very soft- used in pencils
Conducts electricity( along the layer as
electrons are free to move but does not
conduct across the layers)
High melting point
Slippery( hexagonal layers slide across each
other
Both different forms of carbon
Structure of diamond
and graphite
Diamond
graphit
e
Made up of layers
Arranged in hexagonal
rings
Each carbon atom is
connected to 3 other
atoms
Bonds between layers are
Carbon Nanotubes
One of the stiffest and strongest fibres known
High electrical conductivity
Formed when graphite layers are rolled up
into tubes
Covalently bonded hexagonal carbon sheets
make it very strong
Proposed uses for electrical connections in
smaller circuits
Used in bike components, boat hulls and
bonding of things like wind-turbines
Could be used for cancer treatment
Smart Materials
Thermochromic
Pigments
Special paints which
change colour when there
is a change in
temperature
Most are base on liquid
crystal technology
Used in mugs to see hot
temperatures
Also used in T-shirts
Photochromic Pigments
Contain organic molecules
which will change colour when
exposed to light, especially
ultraviolet light
Used in T-shirts and glasses
Smart Materials
Shape-memory
polymers
Shape-memory
alloys
Rates of reaction
We can measure the rate of reaction
by :
-Capturing & measuring the volume of
gas produced by a reaction
- Measuring the change in mass
- Measuring the amount of light
passing through a reaction that is
producing a precipitate
Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions occur when molecules/atoms/ions
collide but it only happens there is enough energy for
the bonds to break and be reformed.
Successful collisions per second = collision
frequency
Factors that affect the rate of reaction
1. Temperature
2. Surface Area
3. Concentration
4. Use of a catalyst
Catalysts
These are
substances that
increase the
rate of reaction
but remain
chemically
unchanged
It reduces the
amount of
energy needed
which will
increase the
Percentage Composition of
Compounds
Example
Calculate the % of copper in copper sulphate,
CuSO4 Relative atomic masses: Cu = 64, S = 32
and O = 16
relative formula mass = 64 + 32 + 4x16 = 160
only one copper atom of relative atomic mass 64
% Cu = 64 x 100 / 160 = 40% copper by mass in
the compound
1
3
CO
Mass(g)
1000
? = 525
Mr
160
40
Mass/Mr
6.25
18.75 (3x6.25)
Combustion of methane
Oil
Crude oil is a
mixture of
hydrocarbons
Fractional
distillation is how
you separate
different fractions
of oil
The larger the
molecule the
higher the boiling
Polymers
Examples: polythene , polypropene
Monomers (ie ethene) are used to form
polymers
Ethene can become polyethene by
heating it under pressure
Thermosets and
thermoplastics
Thermosets are plastics that are resistant to
heat. Used for kettles, saucepan handles etc.
Have strong cross linkages which hold the
structure together and make them resistant
to heat make them resistant to heat
Thermoplastics are plastics that soften when
heated. Used for packaging, containers. Made
up of polymer chains not linked together so
they can slide over each other
Water Treatment
When the water is in
the reservoir, the
large particles will
sink to the bottom
(sedimentation), the
smaller particles will
be filtered.
The water is
chlorinated to kill the
bacteria to make it
safe to drink. Fluoride
is also added
It is then stored until
it is needed
Desalination
Extracting water
If something is dissolved in
water, you can extract it by
evaporating & condensing
To separate a liquid from
water you need to use
distillation. Different liquids
have different boiling
points . If you heat an
ethanol and water mixture,
the boiling point of ethanol
is 78C so by heating the
mixture at this
temperature the ethanol
will evaporate and when
the ethanol vapour reaches
Chromatography
Paper Chromatography- a drop of
mixture is placed on the
Chromatography paper and placed in a
solvent used to dissolve pigment. The
solvent soaks into the paper and moves
upwards. The more soluble will travel
with the solvent and move further up the
The fR value is used to measure this
paper.
Hard water
Hard water contains dissolved calcium and magnesium ions.
Can be temporary or permanent
Temporary hard water contains magnesium/calcium
hydrogen carbonates . When heated the hardness is
removed but it forms calcium carbonate (scale) which clogs
up pipes.
Permanent hard water contains chlorides/sulphates of
Disadvantages
of hard
calcium and magnesium which does not
soften when heated
water
Advantages of hard water
-Difficult to form lather
-Some people prefer the taste
-Calcium is good for teeth and bones with soap
-Helps reduce heart illness
-Scum forms with soap
- Scale forms, clogs
- Some brewers use hard water in beer