(EW-512-4) - Discontinuities and Defects - Training Workbook-Hobart Institute of Welding Technology (Yasser Tawfik)

DISCONTINUITIES
AND DEFECTS
Training Workbook
EW-512-4
Written by
the Staff of Hobart Institute
of Welding Technology
Additional copies can be obtained from:

Hobart Institute of Welding Technology
400 Trade Square East
Troy, Ohio 45373
www.welding.org
(937) 332-5433
2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology, 400 Trade Square East, Troy, Ohio, U.S.A.
All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
ISBN: 978-1-936058-21-1
2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology
EW 512-4 Discontinuities and Defects
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TOPIC
PAGE
Glossary of Welding Terms
iv
Welding Inspector Responsibilities Related to Discontinuities and Defects
Identification and Definition of Weld Discontinuities and Defects
Common Causes of Discontinuities Related to Shape, Size, and Contour
15
Common Causes of Discontinuiies Related to Internal Inconsistencies

and Weld Metal Irregularities
23
Common Causes of Discontinuities Related to Weld and Base Metal Properties
32
iii
TOPIC 1
WELD INSPECTOR RESPONSIBILITIES RELATED TO

DISCONTINUITIES AND DEFECTS
OBJECTIVE
To list the specific responsibilities or duties that welding inspectors assume as related to discontinuities and defects.
INTRODUCTION
This section includes the responsibilities of the welding
inspector as they relate to the evaluation of weldments;
the identification and classification of discontinuities; and
the conditions that exist when evaluating discontinuities
in order to decide whether they are acceptable or
unacceptable.
DEFINITIONS
Evaluating for discontinuity
The term discontinuity has many meanings, but for

purposes here, we will refer to it as an interruption of the
typical structure of a weld or a weldment; this means that
the weld or weldment lacks uniformity in mechanical,
metallurgical, or physical characteristics. A discontinuity
is not necessarily a defect unless it is unable to meet
minimum acceptance standards or specifications.
The term defect means the unacceptability of a weld or
weldment.
Discontinuity, Undercut
QUALITY
Quality has many meanings. A quality weld will
successfully sustain the service it encounters. The
quality of welds must be based on codes and standards
that anticipate the service of the product. For some,
there are no applicable codes or specifications. For
these products, the producer must maintain quality
in order to compete. The success of maintaining the
balance between quality requirements and cost factors
is decided in the field and in the marketplace. The
responsibility for producing quality products rests on
engineers, designers, welding supervisors, welders, and
quality control and inspection personnel.
Defect
WELDING INSPECTOR RESPONSIBILITIES

The responsibilities of the welding inspector are many.
Perhaps the most important responsibility is the ability
to read and understand all welding drawings and written
specifications. Also, the welding inspector should review
all documented instructions such as codes, construction
details, welding procedures, material specifications, and
any special procedures required for the weldment.
Read engineering drawings.
The inspectors duty is to assure that the proper

evaluation of test results is accomplished. With the
use of codes and standards as a guide, the inspector
can determine the results. Documented workmanship
standards, based on codes, are used as a guide for
evaluating weldments.
Maintaining and preparing
reports for records is another of the inspectors jobs.
The reports should state general characteristics of the
job, the jobs conformity to the code, and any difficulties
that may have occurred, with a clear and descriptive
statement of any defects.
Maintain reports.
The inspector examines yet-to-be-welded joints to

confirm their conformity to the weld joint detail included in
the procedure. Proper joint fit-up and edge preparation
are equally important. The alignment and root opening of
parts must be inspected to determine their conformance
to the construction of joint detail.
Proper joint fit-up.
A common cause for many weld failures is the use

of inadequate welding procedures, the inaccurate
interpretation of procedures, or not using procedures
during production. The inspector must verify the
procedures are correct and properly implemented. The
inspector should maintain records of qualified welders
and weld operators. A weld can meet all standards, but
if the welder or operator is not qualified to do the work,
the weld may be rejected.
Verify procedures.
The inspector must verify the correct purchasing of

welding materials and consumables. To assist in making
selections, filler metals are specified by the American
Welding Society (AWS), and base materials are
commonly specified by the American Society of Testing
and Materials (ASTM). The inspector must identify
and verify the materials received, verify the chemical
composition and mechanical properties of the material,
and check for imperfections and deviations that might
cause problems during production. The inspector also
verifies correct storage of filler materials according to
specifications.
Verify correct purchasing of material.
Special procedures may be written for post-weld heat

treatments, assembly, and final finishing. The inspector
verifies the condition of equipment to be used for
welding and testing, and any special equipment required
for other treatments. The capability, calibration and
safety of equipment should be accurately investigated to
prevent possible nonconforming workmanship in weldfabricated parts.
SUMMARY
Many weld defects can be eliminated before they occur if
the inspector knows and accepts his/her responsibilities.
Investigate for proper workmanship.
TOPIC 1
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
What is the difference between a discontinuity and a defect?
2. On what documents is weld quality often based?
3. List the responsibilities of a welding inspector.
TOPIC 2
THE IDENTIFICATION AND DEFINITION OF WELD

DISCONTINUITIES AND DEFECTS
OBJECTIVE
To be able to identify and define the various types of discontinuities and defects.
INTRODUCTION
Shape, size, and contour.
In order to evaluate weldments, the weld inspector

should have the ability to identify weld discontinuities.
Discontinuities can be grouped into three classes. The
first group relates to shape, size, and contour, which
are the external dimensions of a weld. The second
group relates to the internal consistency of welds, and is
referred to as structural discontinuities. The third group
is weld and base metal properties, which relates to the
match between weld metal and base metal.
Internal consistency
of welds.
SHAPE, SIZE AND CONTOUR

Shape, size and contour can be broken down further
to welds with excessive reinforcement, incorrect
size, incorrect profile, and incorrect final weldment
dimensions.
Structural discontinuities.
Excessive Weld Reinforcement

Excessive face reinforcement is extra metal deposited
in a weld, forming a highly convex contour on the side of
the joint from which welding is done.
Excessive root reinforcement is extra weld metal
deposited in the root of the weld. It is more common
with joint designs which have root openings.
Size.
Incorrect Weld Size

The size of a groove weld is measured by the shortest
distance from the root of a weld to its face, less any
reinforcement. It is generally equal to the base metal
thickness, on full penetration welds. When the plates
are of unequal thickness, the thickness of the thinner
plate determines the size of the groove weld. A slight
reinforcement is usually specified.
Excessive face reinforcement
Groove size
Face reinforcement
Excessive reinforcement is not only wasteful, but

decreases the working strength of the joint due to the
concentration of stresses at the toes.
Weld size
The size of a fillet weld is designated as its shortest leg

length, a measurable dimension used to deposit the
weld. The leg is the distance from the root of the joint to
the toe. For strength, the size of a fillet weld is the leg
length of the largest isosceles right triangle that can be
inscribed within the weld. The effective size for strength
for flat and convex welds is equal to the leg size, but
for concave welds it is less than the actual leg length.
Incorrect size welds may be determined visually with
gages or by comparison with approved workmanship
samples.
Leg and
size
Leg and size
Size
Leg
Incorrect Weld Profile

Incorrect weld profile is a weld that does not meet the
requirements for size or contour.
Overlap is the bulging or protruding portion of a weld
that extends beyond the toe, face, or root. In both fillet
and groove welds, it can reduce the size and strength,
and concentrate stresses at the weld toes.
Overlap of a weld
Insufficient throat or underfill is a weld face or root that

is depressed or extends below the adjacent base metal
surfaces.
Insufficient throat or underfill
Undercut is a groove melted into the base metal

adjacent to the toe or root of a weld, and left unfilled. It
is usually found at the side wall or face of a groove, at
the edge of a weld or layer, or at the toes of the cover
pass, resulting in a reduction of base metal thickness at
the point of undercut. In fillet welds, it tends to reduce
the size and strength of the weld, as well as promoting
stress concentrations at the toes.
Undercut
Excessive convexity is a highly convex contour formed

by excessive reinforcement.
Excessive convexity
Incorrect Final Weldment Dimensions

Distortion and warpage are caused by the nonuniform
expansion and contraction of weld and base metal
during the heating and cooling process of welding. If
warpage changes the required dimensions of the total
weldment, the weldment may not be acceptable.
Distortion
Warpage
INTERNAL INCONSISTENCIES OR IRREGULARITIES

Internal inconsistencies are cracks, porosity, slag
inclusions, tungsten inclusions, incomplete fusion, and
inadequate joint penetration.
Cracks
Inclusions
Porosity
Inadequate joint penetration
Cracks are fractures that cause an opening or a split in the

weld or base metal. They can be classified as hot cracks,
which occur at high temperatures during solidification, or
cold cracks, which occur after solidification is complete.
Both types can be categorized by physical relationships,
which is their location within the weld or weldment.
Cracks are fractures that cause an opening or a split in the
weld or base metal.
A longitudinal crack runs along parallel to the axis of the

weld.
A transverse crack runs perpendicular to the axis of the
weld. It is often located near or in poor restarts or other
internal discontinuities.
Longitudinal crack.
Transverse crack.
Crater cracks occur in the depression left at the

termination of the weld bead. Crater cracks are serious
when located near the end of a weld because they can
lead to other cracks. They can be star-shaped or in a
single direction, either longitudinal or transverse.
Weld metal cracks are longitudinal in the weld and

originate from the face or root.
Weld metal crack
Toe cracks originate and grow from the toe of the weld
where high amounts of stress are most common.
Toe crack
Root cracks are located along the root of the weld.
Root crack
An arc strike is a heat-affected surface, any localized

remelted metal surface, or change in surface profile
caused by an arc. Arc strikes are often considered as
blemishes but can be serious and lead to cracking of the
weld or weldment if not removed by sufficient grinding.
Arc strike
Heat-affected zone cracks or underbead cracks occur

during the cooling cycle after solidification of the
weld and normally do not extend to the surface of the
weldment. They are short but can connect with others to
become continuous cracks. They can occur after a part
is in service because of the embrittlement of the weld
and the heat-affected zone.
Heat affected zone cracks
Porosity is entrapped gas cavities formed during

solidification of the weld. Uniformly scattered porosity is
found throughout the weld.
Uniformly scattered porosity
Clustered porosity is found in groups at specific points.
Clustered porosity
Linear porosity generally follows a line parallel to the

axis of the weld.
Linear porosity
Piping porosity, or worm holes or blow holes, appear as

a cylindrical cavity.
Piping porosity
Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material trapped

within the weld metal or between the weld and base
metal during solidification.
Internal slag entrapment is elongated and generally
parallel with the weld axis. It occurs between passes or
next to the face of a groove weld. It is sometimes called
wagon tracks.
Tungsten or metallic inclusions are electrode particles

trapped in the weld deposit. These discontinuities are
associated with gas tungsten arc or plasma arc welding
processes. They can be either scattered in fine particles
or in one large particle when the electrode is broken off
in the puddle.
Tungsten inclusions
Incomplete fusion is the failure of the liquid weld metal to

flow into and fuse the total face area of the joint.
Incomplete fusion
Inadequate joint penetration is penetration which is less

than specified. It is located at the root of the weld.
WELD AND BASE METAL MECHANICAL AND

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Seams and laps
Sometimes specific mechanical, chemical, or physical

properties are required in welds. These requirements
depend upon the type of material being welded and
service requirements of the weldment.
Mechanical properties that must be checked against
prescribed requirements include: tensile strength, yield
strength, ductility, and impact strength.
Tensile strength is the resistance to breaking offered by
metals when subjected to pulling stress.
Yield strength is the maximum load per unit area that
a material can withstand without being permanently
deformed.
Ductility is the ability of metals to be drawn, stretched, or
twisted without breaking.
Impact strength is the ability of a material to resist

sudden or shock loading.
Impact strength
Chemical properties must be checked against prescribed

requirements. The base and weld metal must be
chemically compatible. Other chemical elements in the
environment surrounding the welding process, such as
nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen, as well as flux and
shielding gases must also be considered.
Any incorrect match of mechanical or chemical
properties between the weld and base metal may lead
to weld failure.
Base metal property requirements may be defined by
applicable specifications or codes. Departure from
these requirements may be cause for rejection.
Comparison of metals
Other conditions of the base metal which may impair the

ability of a material to perform as expected can include
laminations, delaminations, seams, laps, and lamellar
tears.
Laminations are flat, elongated, sandwich discontinuities

normally found near the center of structural metals.
They run parallel to the manufactured surface of the
plate. Metals containing laminations cannot reliably
carry stress in the through-thickness direction.
Lamination
Delaminations are laminations that have separated due

to stresses.
Delamination
Seams and laps are longitudinal base metal

discontinuities. These are most critical when located
perpendicular to the principle stress. When they are
perpendicular to the applied stress they can become
a crack. Welding over them may result in additional
cracking. Cracking is less likely to occur when the stress
is located parallel to the seam or lap.
Seams and laps
Lamellar tears are discontinuities that occur during or

after welding. They usually appear as a stair step defect
caused by contraction forces during solidification. They
may extend over long distances and are deeper than
heat-affected zone cracks.
SUMMARY
The weld inspector should have a working knowledge of
the service requirements of the weldment, as well as the
codes and standards that apply to any particular job. The
inspectors goal should be to insure the closest possible
accuracy to the details of the weldment specifications.
Lamellar tears
13
TOPIC 2
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
What are the three groups of discontinuities?
2. Excessive reinforcement can be described as:
3. What is undercut?
4. What are two factors contributing to dimensional defects?
5. What are the types of cracks? (Give a brief explanation of each.)
6. What are the four types of porosity?
7. What are slag inclusions, and tungsten inclusions, and what is the difference between them?
8. Name and define the four mechanical properties that must be checked against prescribed requirements.
9. What is the difference between lamination and delamination?
10. What usually happens when you weld over a seam or a lap?
TOPIC 3
THE COMMON CAUSES OF DISCONTINUITIES RELATED

TO SHAPE, SIZE AND CONTOUR
OBJECTIVE
To be able to identify and determine the common causes of weld discontinuities.
In order for welding inspectors to perform their duties

effectively, the causes of weld or weldment discontinuities
must be clearly understood. Knowledge of the causes
permits quality control personnel to determine where
further or earlier inspection should be performed and
to be sure that procedures are being properly followed.
One of the jobs of a welding inspector is to inspect the
weldment and assure that it meets the requirements
of the design. The inspector must be familiar with the
standards which spell out acceptable limits and must
also be familiar with the weld procedure that pertains to
the particular weldment.
Excessive reinforcement refers to extra weld metal that

is deposited in the joint either at the root or face, forming
a highly convex contour. The most common causes of
excessive reinforcement are: poor joint fit-up; incorrect
welding technique; incorrect welding current settings;
and improper selection of filler metals or electrodes.
Excessive reinforcement adds unnecessary cost and
weight to a weldment.
Excessive root reinforcement

Different
sizes
A fit-up or root opening which is too wide or a root

face which is too small will contribute to excessive root
reinforcements.
Root opening
15
Poor welding technique such as incorrect work or travel

angles and/or slow travel speed may result in excessive
reinforcement. Traveling too slowly adds more weld
metal to the puddle than is necessary. Incorrect
electrode angles improperly direct the filler metal which
may cause the weld to pile up or droop. Improper
sequencing of weld beads or depositing too many layers
of beads is another poor welding technique that causes
excessive reinforcement.
If the current settings are set too high, excessive weld
metal will be deposited.
Excessive face reinforcement
Using an electrode or filler metal that is too large for the

joint design or base metal thickness will deposit more
weld metal than is necessary.
Electrode too large for the joint design.
When excessive reinforcement is found, determine the

cause by reviewing the requirements of the welding
procedure. It is possible that the welding procedure isnt
suitable for the weld required, or the welder may not have
the ability to weld the requirements of the procedure.
Excessive root reinforcement
16
When working to codes and standards, tolerances can

be very precise. The amount of precision is based on
the code and the design of the particular weldment.
Complete information should be on the engineering
drawings through the use of welding symbols.
Codes and standards
Welds that arent of the correct size may be detected

visually, with the use of gages designed for this purposes,
or by comparison with approved workmanship samples.
Too small a weld may not support the weldment.
However welds which are too large can also cause
failure. The larger the weld, the stronger it is expected
to be, but only within sound engineering principles. If
a weld is too large for the joint design, more heat and
residual stresses are present, which can lead to failure
of the weldment.
Incorrect weld size
A lack of communication to the welder is a common cause

of incorrect size. Incomplete or missing information on
engineering drawings or joint details result in welds of
various sizes. The weld itself may be sound and have
good appearance but can be rejected because of its
size.
A contributing cause of incorrect size is the use of an
incorrect welding process or the wrong electrodes. The
key to preventing incorrect weld size is to make sure that
the welder or operator is informed of all requirements
pertaining to the weld.
Missing information on joint detail
17
These types of discontinuities are undercut, overlap, and

underfill. These discontinuities can alter the strength
and appearance of a weld.
Undercut is an unfilled groove that is melted into the
base metal adjacent to the toe or root of the weld. It
damages a weld because it reduces the cross sectional
area of a weld, and may introduce stress concentrations
in the joint.
Undercut
Undercutting may be caused by poor torch, gun, or

electrode control, using the wrong work or travel angles,
applying to much welding heat or current, or by using the
wrong travel speeds.
Many welding processes require the arc and filler metal
to be manipulated during welding. If manipulations arent
consistent and controlled, undercutting is possible.
If the work and travel angles are held incorrectly the
filler metal will be deposited too high or low in the joint,
creating undercut along one of the toes.
Undercut
When the welding current is set too high, the puddle can
be too large and wash away the sides. While welding
in the horizontal position, a slow travel speed will cause
the weld metal to drop down from the upper toe to the
center of the puddle, leaving undercut along the upper
toe.
Too fast a travel speed may not allow the weld metal
to flow out into the base metal before it freezes. When
undercut is present the variables of the welding procedure
should be checked to determine requirements are being
followed. These include welding current, voltage, bead
sequence and travel speed.
Incorrect weld profile
18
Overlap is the bulging or protruding portion of a weld

that extends beyond the toe, face or root.
Overlap on a fillet weld reduces the actual size of the
weld and creates stress concentrations along the toes,
reducing strength. On groove welds, overlap produces
stress concentrations at the toes.
Overlap can be produced when a weld puddle is too
large and becomes difficult to control, flowing ahead of
the arc.
Improper cleaning of the base metal can also lead to
overlap, especially when oxides cover the surface
preventing weld metal fusion. Failure to remove mill
scale or other surface coatings such as paint and oil will
also prevent fusion.
Overlap
Underfill is the lack of sufficient weld metal at the face or

root of a weld.
On a multipass weld, the joint may not fill properly if
improper sequencing occurs.
Underfill
On a fillet weld, the face will be concave resulting in a

reduction of the throat area of the weld. This creates
weak points and possible failure.
On groove welds, underfill can be on the face or root
side.
On pipe welds, underfill is most common at the root side.
It is refereed to as internal concavity or suck-back.
Concavity
19
When welding in the overhead position, the puddle will

sag in and become concave after solidification if the root
opening is too wide or if the joint gets too hot.
Internal underfill causing concavity
The face of a weld can become concave when too wide

an oscillation is used. It occurs when a large puddle is
created in an attempt to deposit a relatively large or wide
weld.
Excessive face concavity
INCORRECT FINAL WELDMENT DIMENSION

Incorrect final weldment dimension is directly related
to distortion and warpage. Welding processes involve
heat and it is high temperature that is largely responsible
for welding distortion, warpage and internal stresses.
When metal heats, it expands in all directions. When

it cools, it contracts in all directions. Distortion and
warpage are caused by the nonuniform heating and
cooling of a weldment and by the partial restraint
resulting from the parts.
Distortion and warpage
Shrinkage of the weld during cooling can cause various

types of distortion and dimensional changes.
20
To overcome the effects of the heating and cooling

cycle, keep the shrinkage forces as low as possible by
depositing only the amount of weld metal that is required
by the procedure and the drawing.
The total heat input must be balanced to produce the

desired weld. It is estimated that the temperature of
the molten steel in the puddle is 3500 F. Extra heat
is required over and above the amount needed to melt
the filler metal and the surface of the base metal to
compensate for the heat conducted away from the weld.
Heat input can be calculated by multiplying volts times
amps times sixty, then dividing by the travel speed,
which will give you a measurement of joules per inch
of weld.
Balanced heat input
Proper edge preparation and fitup can also minimize the

required amount of weld metal. By making shrinkage
forces work in a desired way such as presetting the
parts, the parts will be pulled back into proper alignment
by the same forces. You can control distortion by the
use of clamps and fixtures that hold and lock the parts in
place during and after welding.
Alternating sides or sequencing welds at given intervals
balances heat on both sides of the weldment thereby
controlling distortion. The use of intermittent welding
can accomplish the same effect where design permits.
Use of a back-stepping technique, in which segments of
the weld are deposited in the opposite direction of the
progress along the joint is another way of balancing the
heat input.
It is important that all conditions leading to welding

defects are understood, with reference to the welding
procedure. This includes conditions before, during and
after welding. Many weld or weldment failures can be
eliminated if conditions are carefully controlled during all
phases of fabrication.
Use of clamps and fixtures

21
1.
Name four causes of excessive weld reinforcement.
2. If a weld is too large for the joint design, what may be the result?
3. On fillet welds, what happens when overlap occurs?
4. Explain what occurs when undercut forms from:

A. Current too high?
B. Travel speed too fast?
5.
What are two causes of underfill?
6. Warpage and distortion result from:
7. Name two common methods of reducing and controlling warpage and distortion.
TOPIC 4
COMMON CAUSES OF DISCONTINUITIES RELATED

TO INTERNAL INCONSISTENCIES AND WELD METAL
IRREGULARITIES
OBJECTIVE
To be able to identify the common causes of structural weld discontinuities.
Quality control personnel must have a working

knowledge of the acceptance standards that spell out the
acceptable limits for weld discontinuities. The welding
inspectors job is to insure that welding fabrication is
performed as specified in the weld procedure. Defects
such as cracks, porosity, slag inclusions, tungsten
inclusions, incomplete fusion and inadequate joint
penetration can be prevented during fabrication through
careful consideration to the procedure variables.
Cracks are usually devastating to the strength of a weld
or weldment. The two main types of cracks are hot and
cold cracks. Both can occur with most welding processes
if procedures are not carefully followed.
Inspecting the weld
Hot cracks occur at temperatures above 400 F.

Typically, they appear in the throat, root or crater of a
weld.
Hot cracking is often caused by the use of incorrect
material that is not recommended for welding; improper
selection of filler metal; poor weld shape; incorrect weld
size; and incorrect methods of breaking the arc.
Hot cracks can also be caused by excessive amounts
of sulphur, phosphorous and lead content in the base
metal. These elements are commonly found in freemachining steels and some stainless steels.
Hot cracks can also develop when low melting point
contaminants from improperly cleaned joint edges
gather at the throat of a solidifying weld.
Hot cracks can also occur through the use of improper
filler metal.
Hot cracking can occur if procedures are not followed.
23
Hot cracking sometimes occurs in the root pass of deep

penetration welds due to contraction forces caused by
solidification.
Root cracking
Welds that are too small for the plate thickness or

excessive joint restraint can also led to hot cracking due
to contraction forces during solidification.
Hot cracks also occur because of improper methods of
arc breaking.
Weld too small
Crater cracks can be minimized through the use of a

run-off tab at the completion of the joint. Crater cracks
can also be controlled by decreasing the current and
adding filler metal while the arc is being broken, filling
the crater to bead height.
Cold cracks occur after the weld metal solidification
is complete. They may be toe, throat, or underbead
cracks and can occur up to several days after welding
is complete.
Run-off tab
Cold cracking is caused by rapid cooling of the weld and

the heat-affected zone in higher carbon and alloy steels.
Excessive joint restraint and inclusions of hydrogen can
also cause cold cracking.
Cold cracking
24
The higher the carbon and alloy content of steel, the

higher the hardenability. Hardenability is the ability of
a material to become hardened. High carbon and high
alloy steels produce high degrees of hardness in the
weld and heat affected zone when the weld is cooled
rapidly. The weldment is then more crack-sensitive and
prone to failure in many loading applications.
Toe cracking
Many engineers use a carbon equivalent equation to

determine the hardenability of steel. The equation is the
sum of the carbon percentage plus reduced amounts of
other existing alloys present in thematerial which affect
the hardenability. The amount of preheat increases
with higher carbon equivalents and the thickness of
the base metal. Thickness becomes important since
greater thickness produces greater heat sinks, thereby
increasing the cooling rates that contribute to cold
cracking.
High joint restraint, which promotes high residual

stresses in the weld and heat affected zone causes cold
cracking. It is caused by nonuniform thermal expansion
and contraction forces caused by the heating of welding.
It can be caused by rigid clamping, thick sections, and
the geometry of the joint and weldment.
Preheating is often used to reduce the nonuniform
heating and cooling of the weld during solidification.
Preheating reduces residual stresses in the weld and
the heat affected zone that can result in cold cracking
when the part is placed in service.
Residual stress
25
Hydrogen entrapment in the weld and the heat-affected

zone can also promote cold cracks. Hydrogen tends to
form small cracks in areas under the weld bead, called
underbead cracks. Hydrogen is produced from the
breakdown of moisture in the weld joint, or from materials
such as filler metals, fluxes, and shielding gases which
are damp. Hydrogen can be reduced in the weld deposit
through the use of low hydrogen processes, proper joint
cleaning, and the use of preheat.
Low hydrogen electrodes are used to reduce hydrogen

content in the weld. All low hydrogen materials must be
properly stored to prevent moisture pickup. Also welding
grade shielding gases which contain no significant
moisture content should be used.
Ovens prevent moisture in electrodes
Preheating can be used to reduce the amount of

hydrogen in the weld and heat affected zone.
POROSITY
Porosity is caused by the exposure of molten metal to
oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen in the atmosphere. It
can be contained within the weld or it can be exposed
to the surface.
Porosity may also result from the presence of foreign
matter, water, humidity, oil, grease or other contaminants
in the weld puddle
Porosity can be classified as uniformly scattered,
clustered, linear, or piping.
Uniformly scattered porosity can be caused by moist or
dirty base or filler metal. It can be caused by improper
welding technique.
26
Clustered porosity is likely to result form improper arc

starting or breaking, or periodic loss of shielding gas
coverage.
Linear porosity aligns along the boundary of a joint and

is directly related to contamination in the base metal,
weld metal or both.
Linear porosity
Piping porosity results from breaking the arc too

suddenly which allows the puddle to cool too quickly.
Conditions leading to porosity can be eliminated
with the use of proper shielding of the molten weld
metal, proper preparation of surfaces, and removal of
moisture from filler and base materials.
Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid materials trapped
within a weld or between weld layers. They occur
during solidification of the puddle.
Piping porosity
27
Tungsten inclusion with torch
28
INCOMPLETE FUSION
Poor joint design and poor edge preparation are the
most common causes of incomplete fusion.
If the heat input is too low during welding, the molten
puddle may not fuse into the base material. Lack of
fusion can also be caused by incorrect work and travel
angles.
Incomplete fusion cannot be detected without the

use of a nondestructive testing method other than
visual. Welding procedures are qualified through the
use of destructive testing to insure that the procedure
variables do not produce this defect.
Incomplete fusion
INADEQUATE JOINT PENETRATION

Inadequate joint penetration is commonly located at
the root of a weld and is caused by an insufficient heat
input while welding.
29
SUMMARY
Incomplete fusion
Results of arc strike
30
TOPIC 4
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
What methods are used to avoid crater cracking?
2. What causes cold cracks?
3. The lack of shielding gas in the weld puddle can cause
4. Slag inclusions between weld layers result from
5. What are the two types of tungsten inclusions? State the causes for each type.
6. Name three causes of incomplete fusion.
7. How can inadequate joint penetration be prevented?
TOPIC 5
COMMON CAUSES OF DISCONTINUITIES RELATED TO

WELD AND BASE METAL PROPERTIES
OBJECTIVE
To be able to identify the common causes of weld and base metal discontinuities related to their properties.
INTRODUCTION
Weld quality depends on understanding and insuring
that the materials specified for a job are used. The
weldability of metals depends on many factors including
physical properties, alloy content, welder appeal, and
the ability to meet the specified service requirements.
It is important to be able to identify the types of metals
before they are used in fabrication.
Identifying types of metals
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Mechanical properties determine the behavior of metals
under applied loads. They are tensile strength, yield
strength, ductility, and impact strength. These properties
are critical to the overall quality of a weldment. If any
are not in conformance to the design requirements, then
failure can occur. It is important for the engineer to verify
the type of base metal and then select a suitable match
of filler material. The quality control department then
assures the specified materials are used.
Verifying type of base metal and its properties
The minimum tensile strength of a metal is the greatest

load per unit area that a material can withstand without
failure. This minimum tensile strength is stated in terms
of stress. Stress is equal to the force, in pounds, applied
to the specimen, divided by the cross-sectional area in
square inches.
Tensile testing determines

strength.
Tensile strength is measured

in pounds per square inch.
Tensile strength is measured in thousands of pounds

per square inch. If a weld has a tensile strength of
70,000 pounds per square inch, but the base metals
tensile strength is 110,000 psi then the weld is obviously
weaker and prone to failure at loads over 70,000 psi.
32
Impact testing
Toughness properties
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Chemical property refers to the presence of additional
elements such as carbon, silicon, phosphorous, nickel,
sulphur, chromium, and so forth. The nature and amount
of these can affect the performance of the material. A
material with a high content of nickel and chromium,
such as stainless steel, has the property of corrosion
resistance which hinders oxidizing and rusting.
Therefore, it is important to insure the proper match
of base and filler metal. An improper match may
create insufficient strength and inadequate corrosionresistance, such as welding a 500 series stainless
steel with a 300 series filler metal. The mechanical and
chemical properties of both could differ enough to cause
the weld to fail.
OTHER CONDITIONS
It is important to inspect the base metal for any structural
flaws. Inspect for laminations, seams and laps. Also
inspect for rough surface conditions such as pits, gouges
and tears.
Structural flaws are the result of nonmetallic (slag)
inclusions that occur during the steel-making process.
Porosity is another type of structural flaw. Porosity
develops in ingots as they cool. However, modern steelmaking techniques involve the formation of large slabs
of steel instead of ingots. This has greatly reduced flaws
resulting from porosity.
Structural flaws should be repaired prior to use and the
material should be replaced if any discontinuities exceed
allowable limitations.
Steel-making process
The control of materials involves many individuals

including the design engineer, the welding engineer, the
purchasing department and the welding inspector.
Materials control involves many individuals.

34
The welding inspector is responsible for verifying that

the specified materials are being used, providing
feedback concerning any discrepancies and reporting
discrepancies to the welding engineer.
As a rule, the strength of the deposited weld metal
should match or slightly exceed that of the base metal.
When the engineer selects a filler metal, the criteria to
be considered include the mechanical, physical, and
chemical properties of the base metal and the service
conditions and specifications.
The American Welding Society has published a series

of specifications that govern filler metal mechanical and
chemical properties, methods of manufacture, storage
and classifications.
American Welding Society filler metal specifications.
A shielded metal arc electrode might be classified as

E8018-C2. The E refers to the electrode. The next two
or three numbers indicate the tensile strength of the
weld deposit in one thousand pound increments. The
next digit refers to the electrodes position capabilities,
and the fourth digit indicates the type of flux coating and
welding current characteristics of the electrode. The
suffix C2 refers to the chemical composition of the weld
metal deposit.
35
The classification system is similar for gas metal arc and

gas tungsten arc welding. In the case of an ER-70S-6,
the ER indicates that it can be used as an electrode (for
GMAW) or a filler metal rod (for GTAW). The next two
digits indicate the minimum tensile strength, in thousand
pounds per square inch increments of the weld deposit.
The letter S designates a solid, bare electrode or filler rod.
The suffix indicates a particular classification based on
the electrodes chemical composition as manufactured,
its usability, and its shielding gas requirements.
For flux cored arc welding, the classification might be

E-70T-1. The E designates an electrode. The first
digit indicates the minimum tensile strength of the weld
in ten thousand pound increments. For example, a 7
means 70,000 psi. The second digit specifies welding
position (0=flat and horizontal; 1=all positions). The
letter T designates a tubular composite electrode with
a powdered flux core. The suffix indicates a particular
classification based on the chemical composition of
the weld as deposited, the shielding gas requirements,
and the usability of the electrode for single or multipass
applications.
The welding procedure should list the proper filler
metal by specification and classification. The use of an
incorrect filler metal is probably the most common cause
of weld related defects.
Weld quality control doesnt stop with the verification
of materials. Failure of the weld and base metal may
also result from the fabrication process through such
conditions as lamellar tears, excessive weld spatter and
arc strikes.
Lamellar tears are separations found within or beneath

the heat-affected zone. They are most common in heavier
weldments. Lamellar tears occur when the through
thickness of the plates cannot withstand the pump effect
of the shrinking weld during cooling. They are found in
the areas of the base metal where inadequate refining
is present. Insure careful inspection of materials prior
to welding, follow welding procedures, and attempt to
design joints so that shrinkage stresses are brought in
line with the worked direction of the material
Lamellar tears
Excessive weld spatter is an appearance problem

associated with welding processes. It does not affect
the strength of the weld, but does increase cleaning
costs. Spatter is caused when metal transfers through
the arc, but does not become part of the weld. Instead,
it adheres to the surface of the weld and base metal.
It can be controlled by keeping the current and voltage
within the recommended range, using the correct
polarity, maintaining the proper arc length, and reducing
arc blow.
Excessive spatter
Arc strikes are the remelting and changing of the surface

profile outside of the intended weld area. They can be
caused by the weld arc or by an improperly secured
work connection. Arc strikes create small, localized
areas of remelting, hardening and undercutting that can
lead to the formation of cracks. They can be prevented
by ensuring that the work connection is properly secured
to the work and by carefully striking and breaking the arc
in the intended weld area only.
SUMMARY
Weld discontinuities are not necessarily weld defects,
although they do help to pinpoint potential problems.
Quality control must locate discontinuities and decide
whether they are acceptable or not.
Arc strikes
37
TOPIC 5
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
What is the minimum tensile strength of a metal?
2. What is the difference between a metal with high ductility and a metal with low ductility?
3. What are base metal discontinuities that originate at the steel mill?
4. What criteria should be considered when an engineer selects a filler metal?
5. Fill in information:
A. SMAW
B. FCAW
E8018-C2
E70T-1
6. Why is excessive spatter a problem?
7. How do arc strikes occur and how do you prevent them?
38
GLOSSARY OF WELDING TERMS

Base metal the metal or alloy that is to be welded,
brazed, soldered, or cut.
Clamps A device designed to bind, constrict or press
two or more parts together so as to hold them firmly.
(See also fixtures.)
Codes A system of principles or rules.
Contaminants To make unfit or unclean. Implies
intrusion of or contact with dirt or foulness from an
outside source.
Concavity The maximum distance from the face of
a concave fillet weld perpendicular to a line joining the
weld toes.
Convexity The maximum distance from the face of a
convex fillet weld perpendicular to a line joining the weld
toes.
Electrode A component of the electrical circuit that
terminates at the arc, molten conductive slag, or base
metal.
Face of Weld (See weld face.)
Filler Metal The metal or alloy to be added in making
a brazed, soldered or welded joint.
Fillet Weld A weld of approximately triangular cross
section joining two surfaces approximately at right
angles to each other in a lap joint, T-joint, or corner joint.
Fixture A device designed to hold and maintain parts
in proper relation to each other. (See also clamps.)
Groove Weld A weld made in a weld groove between
two members to be joined, on a workpiece surface
between workpiece edges, between workpiece surfaces,
or between workpiece edges and surfaces.
Holding Ovens - A heated oven used for storage of
electrodes.
Interpass Temperature In a multipass weld, the
temperature (minimum or maximum as specified) of the
deposited weld metal before the next pass is started.
Postheat The application of heat to an assembly after
a welding, brazing, soldering, thermal spraying or cutting
operation.
Preheat The application of heat to the base metal

immediately before welding, brazing, soldering,
thermal spraying, or cutting, immediately before these
operations are performed, to attain and maintain preheat
temperature.
Procedure The detailed elements or series of steps of
a process or method, followed in a definite order, used
to produce a specific result.
Root of a Weld (See weld root.)
Shielding Gas Protective gas used to prevent or
reduce atmospheric contamination.
Specifications - A detailed precise presentation of rules
or information, or of a plan or proposal for composition
or construction.
Throat (Actual) The shortest distance between the
weld root and the face of a fillet weld.
Toe of Weld (See weld toe.)
Travel Angle The angle less than 90 degrees between
the electrode axis and a line perpendicular to the weld
axis, in a plane determined by the electrode axis and
the weld axis. This angle can also be used to partially
define the position of guns, torches, rods, and beams.
Weld Face The exposed surface of a weld on the side
from which welding was done.
Weld Root The points, shown in cross section, at
which the weld metal intersects the base metal and
extends furthest into the weld joint.
Weld Toe The junction of the weld face and the base
metal.
Work Angle The angle less than 90 degrees between
a line perpendicular to the major workpiece surface and
a plane determined by the electrode axis and the weld
axis. In a T-joint or corner joint, the line is perpendicular
to the nonbutting member. This angle can also be used
to partially define the position of guns, torches, rods, and
beams.
Workmanship Samples Finished quality samples of
how a weld or part should visually look when complete.
Based on Standard Welding Terms and Definitions, AWS 3.0. American Welding Society.

(EW-512-4) - Discontinuities and Defects - Training Workbook-Hobart Institute of Welding Technology (Yasser Tawfik)

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