REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS FOR CHAPTER 4

1. What is the formal, scientific name for Vascular plants?

- Tracheophyta
2. Name the major apomorphies of the vascular plants.
- Independent, long-lived sporophyte, branched sporophyte,
lignified secondary cell walls, sclerenchyma, tracheary elements,
sieve elements, endodermis, roots
3. What two features of the sporophyte are apomorphic for vascular plants,
distinguishing them from liverworts, mosses, and hornworts?
- Independent, long-lived and branched
4. What are two early evolving branching patterns in the vascular plants?
- Dichotomous: apical meristem splits into two, equal meristems,
each of which grows independently more or less equally
- Pseudomonopodial: starts out dichotomous, but one branch
becomes dominant and overtops the other
5. How was the evolution of lignin a major adaptive feature of the vascular
plants?
- Lignin imparts significant strength and rigidity to the cell wall.
6. What is the difference between a primary and secondary cell wall in terms of
time of deposition and chemistry?
- Secondary walls are secreted to the outside of the plasma
membrane after the plasma membrane has been secreted, which
is also after the cell ceases to elongate.
- Secondary walls are thicker
- Secondary walls, like primary walls, contain cellulose
- But in secondary walls, lignin is secreted into the space between
cellulose microfibrils
7. What is a pit? What is a primary pit field?
- Pit: holes in the secondary cell wall
- Primary pit field: group of plasmodesmata opposite to pairs of pit
- Pits function in allowing chemical communication vetween cells,
via the plasmodesmata of the primary pit field
8. Is the secondary cell wall formed inside or outside of the plasma membrane?
Is it formed inside or outside the primary cell wall?
- Secondary cell wall is formed outside the plasma membrane and
inside the primary cell wall. (between plasma membrane and
primary cell wall)
9. What are the general characteristics of sclerenchyma cells?
- Consist of nonconductive cells that have thick, lignified secondary
cell wall, typically with pits, and that are dead at maturity
10.Name the two types of sclerenchyma and state how they differ.
- Fibers: long, very narrow cells; function in mechanical support
- Sclereids: isodiametric to irregular or branched in shape; function
in structural support and help prevent herbivory
11.What is the function and structure of tracheary elements?
- Function in water and mineral conduction
- Elongate cells, dead at maturity, have lignified secondary cell
walls

Joined end-to-end

12.What is xylem?
- A tissue composed of tracheary elements plus some parenchyma
and sometimes sclerenchyma
13.Name the two types of tracheary elements and cite how they differ
structurally?
- Tracheids: imperforate
- Vessel members: perforate
14.In what taxa are vessels found?
- Equisetum, a few leptosporangiate ferns, all Gnetales, and almost
all angiosperms
15.What is the function and structure of sieve elements?
- Function in the conduction of sugars
- Elongate cells, having only primary cell wall with no lignified
secondary wall
16.What is phloem?
- A tissue composed of specialized sieve elements plus some
parenchyma and often some sclerenchyma
17.What is a sieve area and what compound is associated with them?
- The primary cell wall has specialized pores, which are aggregated
together into sieve areas. Each pore is a continuous hole in the
primary cell wall that is lined with a substance called callose
(Beta-1,3)
18.What is the difference, in morphology and taxonomic group where found,
between a sieve cell and sieve tube member?
- Sieve cells: only sieve areas on both end and side walls;
albuminous cells; found in all nonflowering vascular plants
- Sieve tube members: have both sieve areas and sieve plates;
companion cells; found only in flowering plants (angiosperms)
19.What is the endodermis and Casparian strip, and what is the function of
each?
- Endodermis: special cylinder of cells
- Casparian strip: band or ring of lignin, acts as a water
impermeable material that binds to the plasma membrane of
endodermal cells
- Endodermis with casparian strips selectivey controls which
compounds are or are not absorbed by the plant
20.What is the function of the roots?
- Function in anchorage and absorption
21.What is the name of the region of actively dividing cells in the root?
- Apical meristem
22.Name five diagnostic features of roots and their function, if any.
- Rootcap: protect the root apical meristem; provide lubrication
- Root hairs: increase surface are available for water and mineral
absorption
- Central vascular cylinder:

Endodermis with Casparian strips: selective absorption

Endogenous lateral roots: where new lateral roots originate

23.What are mycorrhizae and what is their function in vascular plants?

- A symbiotic association between the roots of a vascular plant a
fungus.
- Aid the plant in both increasing overall surface area for water and
mineral absorption and increasing efficiency of selective mineral
absorption
24.What are the characteristics of the rhyniophytes in terms of sporophyte
morphology and stem anatomy?
- Sporophyte consisted of dichotomously branching axes bearing
terminal sporangia that dehisced longitudinally
- Stems were protostelic in which first formed xylem was
positioned at the center

LYCOPODIOPHYTA
25.Name and give the features of a (paraphyletic) fossil group that diverged
along the immediate lineage to the lycophytes.
- Zosterophyllophytes
- No leaves, but possessed lateral sporangia
26.Name a fossil lycophyte that was a large tree in the Carboniferous and now
makes up a large percentage of coal deposits.
- Lepidodendron, Sigillaria
27.What are the major apomorphies of the lycophytes?
- Dichopodial roots
- Root protoxylem endarch
- Stem protoxylem exarch
- Sporangia dorsiventral, transversely dehiscent
- Shoot with lycophylls
28.What are the features of a lycophyll (microphyll)? An enation?
- Lycophyll: has a single, unbranched (very rarely branched) vein,
lacking a gap in the vasculature of the stem, and developing by
an intercalary meristem
- Enation: external, peg-like appendages that lack vascular tissue
29.How are lycophylls thought to have evolved?
- Via the development of vasculature tissue leading from the stem
into the enation, allowing for more efficient transfer of water and
solutes
30.What is homospory? Name the group and family of lycophytes that have this
condition.
- Having one type of spore; Lycopodiopsida; Lycopodiaceae
31.What is a sporophyll? A strobilus?
- Sporophyll: a specialized leaf that bears one or more sporangia

Strobilus: aka cone; modified, determinate, reproductive shoot

system, consisting of a stem axis
32.Name three diagnostic features of Lycopodiaceae.
- Homosporous
- Dichotomously branched
- Erect, prostrate or pendulous
- Perennial
- Lycophyllous herbs
- Leaves eligulate
- Sporangia reinform and transversely dehiscing
33.What is a ligule?
- Tiny appendages on the upper side of leaf, near the leaf base; act
as glands
34.Define: endospory, heterospory, megasporangium, megaspore,
microsporangium, and microspore.
- Endospory: gametophytes develop entirely within the original
spore wall
- Heterospory: production of two types of spores
- Megasporangium: where megaspore develops
- Megaspore: large spores that are produced in small numbers
- Microsporangium: where microspore develops
- Microspore: small spores that are produced in large numbers
35.What group and two included families of lycophytes have ligulate leaves and
heterospory?
- Isoetopsida (Isoetaceae and Selaginellaceae)
36.Describe the basic morphology of members of Isoetaceae.
- Roots are adventitious, endogenous, and branch dichotomously
- Stems are protostelic, vertically oriented and corm-like, rarely
rhizomatous
- Leaves are simple, spiral, in a basal rosette, blades are widened
- Heterosporous sporangia
- Endosporic gametophyte
37.Name and define the two types of leaf morphology in Selaginella species.
- Homomorphic
- Dimorphic

EUPHYLLOPHYTA
38.Name the apomorphies of the euphyllophytes, and list two major, vascular
plant groups included.
- Roots monopodial
- Root protoxylem exarch
- Sporangia terminal on lateral branches, longitudinally dehiscent
- Shoot with euphylls
- 30kB chloroplast DNA inversion
39.How do euphylls differ from lycophylls?

Euphylls are different n being associated with a leaf gap, a region

of nonvascular, parenchyma tissue interrupting the vasculature of
the stem, and in having more than one vein per leaf
40.What paraphyletic fossil group diverged along the immediate lineage to
euphyllophytes?
- Trimerophytes
41.Describe a widely accepted hypothesis regarding the evolution of the euphyll.
Euphylls evolved via the transformation of 3D lateral branch
system by plannation and webbing
42.What is a shoot?
- Stem plus associated leaves
43.What is the name of the region actively dividing cells in a shoot, and how
does it differ among vascular plants?
- Apical meristem; In Selaginellaceae, the apical meristem may
contain one, dominant apical cell. In vascular plants, it may
contain a complex of several dividing cells
44.Define node and internode.
- Node: Attachment of a leaf to the stem
- Internode: Region between two nodes
45.What is the general morphology and function of leaves?
- Both an upper and lower epidermis can be defined
- Photosynthesis
46.What is a vein?
- Vascular bundle of leaf or leaf homologue, containing the
conductive tissues (sepal, stamen, carpel, petal)
47.What are the internal, chlorophyllous cells of a leaf called? Into which two
layers may these cells be organized?
- Mesophyll
- Upper, columnar palisade mesophyll cells
- Lower, irregularly shaped spongy mesophyll cells
48.What is the definition of a bud and where are they typically located?
- Buds are immature shoot system.
- Above the region of the junction of stem and upper leaf
49.What is monopodial growth?
- Lateral branches develop from axillary buds

MONILOPHYTA
50.Name the putative apomorphies of the monilophytes, and list the major
groups contained in it.
Siphonostele, stem protoxylem is mesarch
- Equisetopsida, Psilotopsida, Marattiopsida, Polypodiopsida or
Leptopsporangiatae
51.What is a siphonostele? Name the types.
- Siphonostele is a ring of xylem surrounded by an outer layer of
phloem (ectophloic) or by an outer and inner layer of phloem
(amphiphloic)

EQUISETOPSIDA
52.What fossil member of the equisetophytes makes up a component of coal
deposits?
- Calamites
53.Name the major apomorphies of equisetophytes.
- Ridged stems
- Reduced, whorled leaves
- Sporangiophores
- Photosynthetic spores with elater

54.What is the only extant genus and family of this group?

- Equisetum, Equisetaceae
55.What do equisetophytes have as a component of the cell wall?
- Silica
56.What is the difference between a scouring rush and a horsetail? Into what two
subgenera are these classified?
- Equisetum (horsetails): numerous, whorled, lateral branches and
stomates flush with the epidermis
- Hippochaete (scouring rush): lack lateral branches and have
sunket stomates
57.Describe the morphology of the strobilus, sporangiphore, and sporangia of
Equisetum.
- Sporangia are homosporous, born in terminal strobili, consisting
of an axis bearing numerous, peltate sporangiophore
58.What is unique about the spores of Equisetum? What is the function of this
novelty?
- Lack an attachment scar, spherical, green, each bearing four
spatulate, hygroscopic elaters which coil and uncoil with changes
in humidity, functioning in spore dispersal

PSILOTOPSIDA
59.What features about the roots and gametophytes are presumed apomorphies
for the Psilotopsida?
- Lacking both root branches and root hairs
- Gametophytes are not photosynthetic, contain mycorrhizal fungi,
and often subterranean
60.What is a eusporangium?
- Sporangia of all land plants; relatively large, derived from several
epidermal cells, has sporangial wall comprised of one or more
than cell layer
61.What is distinctive about the leaves of the Ophioglossales (ophioglossoids
ferns)?

Leaves are simple to compound; often solitary, lacking circinate

vernation
62.What is a synangium?
- A fusion product of two or three sporangia
63.What is distinctive about the roots, leaves, and sporangia of Psilotaceae (the
whisk ferns)?
- Rootless, leaves simple, spiral or distichious, lacking vasculature
or with a single vein, sporangia 2- or 3-synangium
64.What are the two genera of the Psilotaceae? What species is commonly
cultivated ornamental?
-