1 CONTENTS

High Voltage Generation................................................................................................................................................. 3

2.1

Voltage stresses ...................................................................................................................................................... 3

2.2

Testing Voltages ...................................................................................................................................................... 3

2.3

Testing laboratories ................................................................................................................................................ 3

2.4

Generation of high voltages .................................................................................................................................... 4

2.4.1

Direct Voltages ............................................................................................................................................... 4

2.4.2

AC voltages ...................................................................................................................................................... 5

2.4.3

Impulse Voltages ............................................................................................................................................. 7

2.5
3

High voltage and current measurement ....................................................................................................................... 10

3.1

High Voltage Measurement .................................................................................................................................. 10

3.1.1

Sphere gaps ................................................................................................................................................... 10

3.1.2

Electrostatic voltmeter.................................................................................................................................. 10

3.1.3

Peak voltmeter (Chubb-Fortescue method) ................................................................................................. 11

3.1.4

Voltage dividers............................................................................................................................................. 12

3.1.5

Resistive divider ............................................................................................................................................ 12

3.1.6

Capacitive divider .......................................................................................................................................... 12

3.1.7

RC voltage divider ......................................................................................................................................... 13

3.1.8

Instrument voltage transformers.................................................................................................................. 13

3.2

Designing of impulse generator .............................................................................................................................. 9

current measurement ........................................................................................................................................... 14

3.2.1

Current transformers .................................................................................................................................... 14

3.2.2

Current error of CT ........................................................................................................................................ 14

3.2.3

Coaxial shunts ............................................................................................................................................... 14

3.2.4

Rogowski coil................................................................................................................................................. 15

Electrical Strength ......................................................................................................................................................... 15

4.1

Insulation systems................................................................................................................................................. 15

4.2

Electrical Strength of Gases .................................................................................................................................. 15

4.2.1

Ionisation Processes ...................................................................................................................................... 15

4.2.2

Breakdown in Gases ...................................................................................................................................... 16

4.2.3

Townsends ................................................................................................................................................... 16

4.2.4

Voltage-current Characteristics .................................................................................................................... 20

4.2.5

Kanal Mechanism .......................................................................................................................................... 20

4.2.6

Paschens Law ............................................................................................................................................... 22

4.2.7

Breakdown Voltage in Uniform Field ............................................................................................................ 22

4.2.8

Breakdown Voltage in Non-Uniform Field .................................................................................................... 23

4.2.9

Field Efficiency Factor ................................................................................................................................... 24

4.2.10

Polarity Effect ................................................................................................................................................ 24

4.2.11

Influence of Barrier ....................................................................................................................................... 25

4.2.12

Optimal Location of Barrier........................................................................................................................... 25

4.2.13

Overview of Insulation Gases........................................................................................................................ 25

4.3

Liquid Insulators .................................................................................................................................................... 26

4.3.1

Current Conduction in Insulation Liquids...................................................................................................... 26

4.3.2

Influence of Water Content to Breakdown Voltage ..................................................................................... 26

4.4

Solid Insulators ...................................................................................................................................................... 27

4.4.1

Breakdown of Solid Insulation ...................................................................................................................... 27

4.4.2

Intrinsic Breakdown ...................................................................................................................................... 27

4.4.3

Influence of Impurities .................................................................................................................................. 28

4.4.4

Thermal Breakdown ...................................................................................................................................... 28

4.4.5

Dielectric Losses ............................................................................................................................................ 30

4.4.6

Impulse Thermal Breakdown ........................................................................................................................ 31

4.4.7

Electromechanical Breakdown...................................................................................................................... 32

2 HIGH VOLTAGE GENERATION

2.1

VOLTAGE STRESSES

2.2

TESTING VOLTAGES

2.3

TESTING LABORATORIES

2.4
2.4.1

GENERATION OF HIGH VOLTAGES

Direct Voltages

2.4.2

AC voltages

2.4.3

Impulse Voltages

2.5

DESIGNING OF IMPULSE GENERATOR

3 HIGH VOLTAGE AND CURRENT MEASUREMENT

3.1
3.1.1

3.1.1.1

3.1.2

HIGH VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT

Sphere gaps

Correction on atmospheric condition

Electrostatic voltmeter

3.1.3

Peak voltmeter (Chubb-Fortescue method)

3.1.4

Voltage dividers

3.1.5

Resistive divider

3.1.6

Capacitive divider

3.1.7

RC voltage divider

3.1.8

Instrument voltage transformers

3.2

CURRENT MEASUREMENT

3.2.1

Current transformers

3.2.2

Current error of CT

3.2.3

Coaxial shunts

3.2.4

Rogowski coil

4 ELECTRICAL STRENGTH
4.1

INSULATION SYSTEMS

4.2 ELECTRICAL STRENGTH OF GASES

4.2.1

Ionisation Processes

4.2.2

Breakdown in Gases

4.2.3

Townsends

4.2.3.1

Townsends first ionization process

4.2.3.2

Townsends second ionization process

4.2.3.3

Townsend Breakdown Mechanism

4.2.3.4

Townsend Breakdown Criterion

4.2.4

Voltage-current Characteristics

4.2.5

Kanal Mechanism

4.2.5.1

Streamer Development

4.2.6

Paschens Law

4.2.7

Breakdown Voltage in Uniform Field

4.2.8

Breakdown Voltage in Non-Uniform Field

4.2.9

Field Efficiency Factor

4.2.10 Polarity Effect

4.2.11 Influence of Barrier

4.2.12 Optimal Location of Barrier

4.2.13 Overview of Insulation Gases

4.3

LIQUID INSULATORS

4.3.1

Current Conduction in Insulation Liquids

4.3.2

Influence of Water Content to Breakdown Voltage

4.4

SOLID INSULATORS

4.4.1

Breakdown of Solid Insulation

4.4.2

Intrinsic Breakdown

4.4.3

Influence of Impurities

4.4.4

Thermal Breakdown

4.4.5

Dielectric Losses

4.4.6
4.4.6.1

Impulse Thermal Breakdown

Thermal Breakdown in Steady-State

4.4.7

Electromechanical Breakdown

Electric discharges in electric power engineering

Corona discharge
Corona influence to overhead lines
Calculation of Corona losses
Bundled conductors
Surface discharges
Development of surface discharges along the bushing

Mitigation of surface discharges

Bushings
Condenser bushings
Resistive surface paintings
Equivalent circuit
Solution of circuit equations
Surface Electric Field Intensity
Partial discharges
Equivalent circuit
Apparent charge
Formation of partial discharges
Influence of partial discharges to electric strength