Flow Master Users Guide

USERS GUIDE
FlowMaster PE
- Version 6 for Windows
19861999 Haestad Methods, Inc. All rights reserved.

FlowMaster v6 Users Guide (Second Printing)
This book is published by Haestad Methods, Inc. and is intended for civil engineers
and hydraulic modelers (including professional engineers, technicians, and students).
This book may not be copied, photocopied, reproduced, translated, or converted to
any electronic or machine-readable form in whole or in part without prior written
approval of Haestad Methods, Inc.
Trademarks
The following are registered trademarks of Haestad Methods, Inc.: CulvertMaster,

Cybernet, FlowMaster, PondPack, SewerCAD, StormCAD, and WaterCAD.
The following are trademarks of Haestad Methods, Inc.: HECPack, POND-2,
Graphical HEC-1, and Graphical HEC-Pack.
Haestad Methods is a registered trade name of Haestad Methods, Inc.
All other brands, company or product names, or trademarks belong to their
respective holders.
HAESTAD METHODS, INC.

37 Brookside Rd.
Waterbury, CT 06708-1499
Voice: (203) 755-1666
FAX: (203) 597-1488
e-mail: info@haestad.com
Internet: http://www.haestad.com
FlowMaster Users Guide
7DEOHRI&RQWHQWV
Chapter 1 - Orientation
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
What Is FlowMaster?
How Can You Use FlowMaster?
Whats New in FlowMaster v6?
FlowMaster Documentation
1.4.1 How to Use Help
1.4.2 How Do I?
1.4.3 Help Command
1.4.4 Glossary
1.4.5 Tutorials
1.5 Installation and Updates
1.5.1 System Requirements
1.5.2 Installing Haestad Methods Products
1.5.3 Uninstalling Haestad Methods Products
1.5.4 Troubleshooting Setup or Uninstall
1.5.5 Software Registration
1.5.6 Globe Button
1.6 Contacting Haestad Methods
1.6.1 Sales
1.6.2 Technical Support
1.6.3 Your Suggestions Count!
Chapter 2 - The FlowMaster Environment

2.1 FlowMaster Main Window
2.2 Menus, Toolbars, and Shortcut Keys
2.2.1 Pull-down Menus
2.2.2 Toolbars
2.2.3 Shortcut Keys
2.3 FlowMaster Menus
2.3.1 File Menu
2.3.2 Edit Menu
2.3.3 Worksheet Menu
2.3.4 Report Menu
2.3.5 Options Menu
2.3.6 Windows Menu
2.3.7 Services Menu
2.3.8 Help Menu
2.4 FlowMaster Toolbars
2.5 The Status Bar
2.5.1 General Status Information
2.5.2 File Status
2.5.3 Unit System
1
1
1
1
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
6
7
8
9
9
10
10
10
10
11
11
12
13
14
15
15
16
16
17
18
18
18
18
ii
Table of Contents
Chapter 3 - Project Settings

3.1 Project Management
3.1.1 New Project Setup
3.1.2 Opening an Existing Project
3.1.3 Saving a Project
3.1.4 Project Summary
3.2 Global Options
3.2.1 Welcome Dialog
3.2.2 Unit System
3.2.3 Enter Key Behavior
3.2.4 Tool Pane
3.2.5 Status Pane
3.2.6 AutoCalc
3.3 FlexUnits
3.3.1 Set Field Options
3.3.2 Set Units
3.3.3 Display Precision
3.3.4 Scientific Notation
3.3.5 Minimum and Maximum Allowed Value
3.3.6 FlexUnits Table
Chapter 4 - Engineering Libraries

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
Engineering Library Manager

Engineering Library Editor
Usage
Material Library
Chapter 5 - FlexTables
5.1 Tables
5.2 Table Manager
5.3 Table Management
5.3.1 Creating New Tables
5.3.2 Editing Tables
5.3.3 Duplicating Tables
5.3.4 Deleting Tables
5.3.5 Renaming Tables
5.3.6 Reseting Tables
5.4 Table Setup Dialog
5.4.1 Table Type
5.4.2 Available Table Columns
5.4.3 Selected Table Columns
5.4.4 Table Manipulation Buttons
5.4.5 Allowing Duplicate Columns
5.5 The Table Window
5.5.1 Table Navigation
5.5.2 Editable Table Columns
5.5.3 Non-Editable Table Columns
5.5.4 Table Customization
5.5.5 Sorting Tables
5.5.6 Filtering Tables
5.5.7 Changing Column Headings
5.5.8 Globally Editing Tables
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
21
21
21
22
22
22
22
22
23
23
23
24
24
27
27
28
29
29
31
31
31
32
32
32
32
33
33
33
33
34
34
34
34
35
35
35
36
36
36
36
37
38
38

5.5.9
5.5.10
5.5.11
5.5.12
5.5.13
5.5.14
5.5.15
5.5.16
Local vs. Synchronized Units

Mixing Units in a Tabular Report
Abbreviated Labels
Changing Column Display Properties
Exporting a Table to an ASCII File
Copying a Table to the Clipboard
Printing a Table
Table Print Preview
Chapter 6 - FlowMaster Theory

6.1 Uniform Flow
6.2 Critical Flow
6.3 Inlet Hydraulics
6.3.1 HEC-22 Inlet Computations
6.3.2 Flows in Gutters on Grade
6.3.3 Flow in Ditch or Median Section on Grade
6.3.4 Inlet Analysis
6.3.5 Grate Inlet on Grade
6.3.6 Curb Inlet on Grade
6.3.7 Slot Inlet on Grade
6.3.8 Combination Inlet on Grade
6.3.9 Grate Inlet in Sag
6.3.10 Curb Inlet in Sag
6.3.11 Slot Inlet in Sag
6.3.12 Combination Inlet in Sag
6.4 Weir Flow
6.4.1 Sharp-Crested Weirs
6.4.2 Non-Sharp-Crested Weirs
6.5 Orifice Flow
6.6 Pressure Pipe
Chapter 7 - Pavement Drainage

7.1 Design Frequency and Spread
7.1.1 Selection of Design Frequency and Design Spread
7.1.2 Selection of Check Storm and Spread
7.2 Surface Drainage
7.2.1 Hydroplaning
7.2.2 Longitudinal Slope
7.2.3 Cross (Transverse) Slope
7.2.4 Curb and Gutter
7.2.5 Roadside and Median Channels
7.2.6 Bridge Decks
7.2.7 Median Barriers
7.2.8 Impact Attenuators
7.3 Flow in Gutters
7.3.1 Capacity Relationship
7.3.2 Conventional Curb and Gutter Sections
7.3.3 Shallow Swale Sections
7.3.4 Flow in Sag Vertical Curves
7.3.5 Relative Flow Capacities
7.3.6 Gutter Flow Time
7.4 Drainage Inlet Design
7.4.1 Inlet Types
iii
38
39
40
40
40
40
40
40
41
41
45
46
46
47
49
50
51
53
54
55
55
56
58
59
60
60
64
66
67
69
69
70
71
72
73
73
74
75
76
77
77
77
77
78
79
84
88
88
90
91
91
iv
Table of Contents
7.4.2 Characteristics and Uses of Inlets
7.4.3 Inlet Capacity
7.4.4 Interception Capacity of Inlets on Grade
7.4.5 Interception Capacity of Inlets in Sag Locations
7.4.6 Inlet Locations
7.4.7 Median, Embankment, and Bridge Inlets
7.5 Grate Type Selection Considerations
91
92
102
115
124
136
142
Appendix A - HEC-22 Charts
145
Appendix B - Engineers Reference
161
Appendix C - Other Haestad Methods Software
169
Glossary
173
References
185
Index
189
3UHIDFH
Thank you for purchasing FlowMaster. At Haestad Methods, we pride ourselves in
providing the very best engineering software available. Our goal is to make software
that is easy to install and use, yet so powerful and intuitive that it anticipates your
needs without getting in your way.
FlowMaster is a feature-rich program with extensive online documentation. Dont
be fooled by the existence of this users guide; you dont need to read anything to get
started!
When you first use the program, FlowMasters intuitive interface and interactive
dialogs will guide you. If you need more information, go to our online help by
simply pressing the F1 key anywhere in the program. Help text regarding the area of
the program in which you are working will be displayed.
Were betting that youll be able to use our product right out of the package. After
you install it, you can get right to work. Enjoy!
1RWHV
&KDSWHU

2ULHQWDWLRQ

:KDW,V)ORZ0DVWHU"
FlowMaster is an easy-to-use, Windows-based program that aids civil engineers with
the design and analysis of pipes, ditches, open channels, weirs, and more.
FlowMaster computes flows, water velocities, depths and pressures based on several
well-known formulas: Darcy-Weisbach, Mannings, Kutters and Hazen-Williams.
It also utilizes the HEC-22 methodology to perform pavement drainage and inlet
flow calculations.
FlowMaster allows you to solve for a variable you select, computing the solution
from the parameters you provide. The program will also calculate rating tables, and
will plot curves and cross sections. These graphs and reports can then be viewed on
the screen, copied to the Windows clipboard, saved to a file, or printed on any
standard printer.

+RZ&DQ<RX8VH)ORZ0DVWHU"
FlowMaster can trim hours off your next drainage project. It replaces solutions such
as nomographs, spreadsheets, and BASIC programs. Because FlowMaster gives
you immediate results, you can change your input to test different alternatives and
quickly choose the best one. Additionally, you can perform your hydraulic
calculations while taking advantage of Windows many features. Some examples of
ways you can use FlowMaster are to:

Analyze various hydraulic designs
Evaluate different kinds of flow elements
Prepare data for other HMI programs
Generate professional-looking reports for clients
:KDWV1HZLQ)ORZ0DVWHUY"
Existing users will find many useful new features in this version of FlowMaster,
including HEC-22/HEC-12 inlet, weir and orifice computations. Check the online
Help for more information on the topics below.
New Features
Weir flow computations
Orifice flow computations
Calculation of pavement/gutter flow using the HEC-22/HEC-12 methodology
Analysis and design of curb, grate, slot and combination inlets, on grade and in
sag, on composite road cross-section using the HEC-22/HEC-12 methodology
Analysis and design of grate inlets, on grade and in sag, in ditch or median using
the HEC-22/HEC-12 methodology
Enhanced Features

New options for calculating composite Mannings coefficients
Customizable material library for roughness coefficients
Improved printing options
Long filename support
)ORZ0DVWHU'RFXPHQWDWLRQ
FlowMasters online documentation delivers extensive detail without cluttering your
bookshelf, filling our landfills, or wasting trees. We can maintain more up-to-date
information and deliver it at a much lower cost to you and the environment. This
printed material does not document all of the powerful features of FlowMaster, such
as online tutorials and WYSIWYG reporting.
However, the online help system is always up-to-date with information on these
features, and many other topics. Once you have mastered the fundamentals of
navigating the Help system, you will find it far more efficient than thumbing through
printed documents. The only information not found in the online help is Chapter 7
of this printed documentation, where you will find a reproduction of Chapter 4 of the
HEC-22 manual. The HEC-22 manual now replaces the HEC-12 manual for inlet
design, and was used as a reference for inlet calculations. The HEC-22 manual, also
titled Urban Drainage Design Manual, was produced by the FHWA in 1996.

+RZWR8VH+HOS
All of our products feature extensive context sensitive help. There are several ways
to obtain help on a topic:
1.
To get help for the window you are working in, press the F1 key or click on the
Help button in the window.
2.
To get help for a specific item, point to it with the mouse and click the right
Mouse button.
To navigate within Help:

1.
When you click on text that is underlined, Help jumps to a related topic or
definition. If the text is dashed underlined, a pop-up window will appear.
2.
To return to the previous topic, click on the Back button at the top of the Help
window.

3.
To print a Help topic, click on the Print button at the top of the Help window.
To make the Help window stay on top of other windows, in the main Help window,
select Option\Keep On Top\On Top from the pull-down menu.
An Example:
Lets assume you are looking for Mannings equation. In order to find this equation,
follow these steps:

1.
Select Help from the menu bar at the top of the FlowMaster parent window.
2.
Select Search for Help on
3.
In the Find tab, where the cursor is flashing, enter: MANNING. This will bring
up the section of the index that contains that topic.
4.
Select the Mannings Formula topic and click on Display to view Mannings
formula.
+RZ'R,"
How Do I is an easily referenced topic in FlowMasters online documentation. It
is a listing of commonly asked questions about FlowMaster. Just follow these steps
to find your way to How Do I:

1.
Click on Help\How Do I from the pull-down menu
2.
The listing of How Do I topics will appear. Just click on the topic of your
choice for a detailed explanation.
3.
To return to the listing of How Do I questions, click on the Back button.
+HOS&RPPDQG
Accesses the Help Menu. Using the Help command is the same as choosing
Help from the top pull-down menu.

*ORVVDU\
The glossary contains many terms used throughout the dialogs and the online Help.
To use the Glossary:
1.
Click on Help\Search for Help On
2.
Click on the Contents tab and double-click on the Glossary Book.
3.
Double-click on the Glossary topic to make it appear.
4.
Click on the first letter of the word for which you are looking for more
information.
5.
Click the term; a pop-up box will appear with a definition of the selected word.

7XWRULDOV
The tutorials quickly introduce you to specific features of the program. Click on
Help\Tutorials to access the online tutorials from the pull-down menu, or click the
Tutorials button on the Welcome dialog. Run a tutorial by selecting one of the
entries in the list and clicking the OK button. End a tutorial any time by pressing the
Esc key. If you need further information, hit the F1 key to access the online Help.

,QVWDOODWLRQDQG8SGDWHV

6\VWHP5HTXLUHPHQWV
Below are the minimum and recommended system requirements for running
FlowMaster without significant delays.
Minimum:
Pentium-166 processor
32 megabytes RAM
Hard disk with at least 12 megabytes free disk space
Microsoft Windows 95 or later, or Windows NT 4.0
VGA graphics adapter and monitor
Mouse
CD-ROM Drive
3.5 Disk Drive
Recommended:

Pentium-266 processor
64 megabytes RAM
Hard disk with at least 12 megabytes free disk space
Microsoft Windows 95 or later, or Windows NT 4.0
VGA graphics adapter and monitor
Mouse
CD-ROM Drive
3.5 Disk Drive
,QVWDOOLQJ+DHVWDG0HWKRGV3URGXFWV
For Windows 95, Windows 98 or Windows NT, follow these five easy steps:
1.
If you have not done so, turn on your computer.
2.
Put the diskette labeled Disk 1 in the floppy disk drive, commonly the a: or b:
drive.

3.
Put the CD-ROM Disc in your CD-ROM drive; commonly the d: or e: drive
(both the floppy disk and the CD-ROM are required for installation).
4.
If the Autorun feature of the operating system is enabled, setup will begin
automatically. Proceed with step five.
If Autorun is disabled, click the Start button on the task bar, select Run from
the menu, and type d: setup (use the actual drive letter of the CD-ROM drive if
it is not the d: drive), and then click OK.
5.

Follow the instructions of the Setup Wizard.
8QLQVWDOOLQJ+DHVWDG0HWKRGV3URGXFWV
FlowMaster comes with an uninstall option. After a Haestad Methods product is
installed onto a computer, it must be uninstalled before a new installation can occur.
To uninstall the program:
Click on Start\Programs\Haestad Methods\FlowMaster\Uninstall FlowMaster.
The original floppy disk labeled Disk 1 that came with the product must be in the
floppy drive when uninstalling.

7URXEOHVKRRWLQJ6HWXSRU8QLQVWDOO
Because of the multi-tasking capabilities of Windows 95, Windows 98 and Windows
NT, you may have applications running in the background that make it difficult for
the setup routines to determine your current system configuration. If you have
difficulties during the install (setup) or uninstall process, please try the following
steps before contacting our technical support staff.

1.
Shut down and restart your machine.
2.
Verify that there are no other programs running. You can see applications
currently in use by pressing Ctrl+Alt+Del in Windows 95 or Windows 98, or
Ctrl+Shift+Esc in Windows NT. Exit any applications that are running.
3.
Try running setup or uninstall again (without running any other program first).
4.
If these three steps fail to successfully install or uninstall the product, contact
our support staff immediately.
6RIWZDUH5HJLVWUDWLRQ
During installation, a dialog will appear asking you to register the software. Please
note that in the back inside cover of the manual is a label with your personal
registration information.
Although Haestad Methods software for Windows is not copy protected, registration
is required to unlock the software features that you have licensed. All registration
information must be entered into the Registration dialog exactly as it appears on the
label, including:
Company
City
State/Country
Registration Number
After you have registered the software, you can check your current registration status
by opening the Registration dialog in the software itself.
To open the Registration dialog:
1.
Select Help\About FlowMaster from the pull-down menus.
2.
Click the Registration button in the About FlowMaster dialog.
The current registration status (number of licenses, expiration date, feature level,
etc.) will be displayed. Use the Print button to print a copy of your registration
information in the Registration Form dialog.
Use the Copy button to place the registration information on the Windows Clipboard
so that you may paste it into another Windows application.

*OREH%XWWRQ
Haestad Methods makes it easy for you to stay up-to-date with the latest advances in
our software. Software maintenance releases can be downloaded from the Haestad
Methods website quickly and easily if you are a subscriber to our Client Care
Program. This subscription also gives you access to our extensive Knowledge
Database for answers to all Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ). Contact our sales
team for more information on our Client Care Program.

&RQWDFWLQJ+DHVWDG0HWKRGV
Our team of support technicians, civil engineers, software developers and sales
representatives is committed to providing you with the world-class service you have
come to expect from Haestad Methods. Our goal is to make your time as productive
as possible.
Address:
Haestad Methods
37 Brookside Road
Waterbury, CT 06708-1499 USA
Phone:
+1-203-755-1666
Fax:
+1-203-597-1488
Internet: www.haestad.com
E-mail : Info@haestad.com

6DOHV
Haestad Methods professional sales staff is ready to answer your questions Monday
through Friday during Haestad Methods normal operating hours.
Please contact your sales representative for any questions regarding Haestad
Methods latest products and prices.
Sales phone: +1-203-755-1666

Sales fax:
+1-203-597-1488
Sales e-mail: Sales@haestad.com

7HFKQLFDO6XSSRUW
We hope that everything runs smoothly, and you never have a need for our technical
support staff. However, if you do need support, our highly skilled staff offers their
services seven days a week., and may be contacted through phone, fax, and/or the
Internet. For information on the various levels of support that we offer, contact our
sales team today and request information on our Client Care Program.
When calling for support, in order to assist our technicians in troubleshooting your
problem, please be in front of your computer and have the following information
available:
Operating system your computer is running (Windows 95, Windows 98,

Windows NT, etc.)
Name and version number of the software package that you are having trouble
with
Version of AutoCAD you are running (if applicable)
Any error messages or other information that was generated
A note of exactly what you were doing when you encountered the problem
When e-mailing or faxing for support, please provide the following details to enable
us to provide a timely and accurate response:
Company name, address, and phone number
A detailed explanation of your concerns
A description of your computer system information (processor type and speed,

RAM, available hard drive space, etc.)
Hours:
Monday - Friday:
9:00 AM to 8:00 PM EST
Saturday and Sunday:
9:00 AM to 5:00 PM EST
You can contact our technical support team at:

Phone: +1-203-755-1666
Fax:
+1-203-597-1488
E-mail: Support@haestad.com

<RXU6XJJHVWLRQV&RXQW
At Haestad Methods, we strive to continually provide you with sophisticated
software and documentation. We are very interested in hearing your suggestions for
improving our products, our on-line help systems, and our printed manuals. Your
feedback will guide us in developing products that will make your work easier.
Please let us hear from you!

&KDSWHU

7KH)ORZ0DVWHU
(QYLURQPHQW
If you are already familiar with standard Windows interfaces, you will find
FlowMaster to be intuitive and comfortable. Even if you are not accustomed to
Windows standards, just a few minutes of exploring FlowMaster should be enough
to acquaint you with the flexibility and power that this program offers. After reading
this chapter, you will interact with this software quickly and efficiently.

)ORZ0DVWHU0DLQ:LQGRZ
The following figure illustrates some of the important areas that make up the main
FlowMaster window.
Figure 2.1
FlowMaster
Main Window
10
Chapter 2 The FlowMaster Environment

0HQXV7RROEDUVDQG6KRUWFXW.H\V
Anyone who has ever watched someone else use a computer should realize that not
all people use computers in the same way. Some prefer to use the mouse primarily,
some prefer to use the keyboard, and others use a mixture of both.
For this reason, Haestad Methods programs provide multiple ways to access the
most common features, including:

Pull-Down Menus
Toolbars
Shortcut Keys
3XOOGRZQ0HQXV
As with any Windows-based program, the menu system provides easy access to
many features. Click on the desired menu text to access items, or press the Alt key
to activate the menus and then press the key for the underlined letter of the menu
item you wish to access.
For example, to open an existing file you can use the mouse to select File\Open or
you can press the Alt and F keys (Alt + F), then press O on the keyboard.
Figure 2.2
Example of a
Pull-Down menu

7RROEDUV
The toolbar buttons offer one-click access to some of the most commonly used
features, giving you even quicker passage to the most frequent actions.
For example, to open an existing file (the equivalent of selecting File\Open from the
menus), you can simply click on the File Open button

6KRUWFXW.H\V
Shortcut keys are the keyboard equivalent of toolbars. Key combinations - usually a
simultaneous combination of the Ctrl (Control) key and a letter key - can provide
instant access to common features. If a shortcut is available for a menu item, it will
be indicated in the menu itself.
For example, to open an existing file (the equivalent of selecting File\Open from the
menus), you can simply press the Ctrl and O keys (Ctrl + O) at the same time.

11
)ORZ0DVWHU0HQXV
Toolbar buttons and shortcut keys provide quick and easy access to commonly used
features, but do not exist for all the features available in FlowMaster. The pull-down
menu system is a more comprehensive representation of FlowMasters properties.
Menu by menu, this section will introduce you to many of the things you can do with
FlowMaster, and show you how you can access these features (including any toolbar
buttons and shortcut keys that may be available).
The menu system groups commands under several menus.
consists of the following pull-down menus:

File
Edit
Worksheet
Report
Options
Windows
Services
Help
The menu system
)LOH0HQX
The File menu contains many of the items dealing with project management. It
provides features to create, read, write, and print project files.
)LOH?1HZ
Toolbar Button:
Shortcut Key:
Ctrl + N
Use File\New to create a new project. When you choose this item, a dialog will
appear so that you can enter a drive, directory, and filename for your new project
file.
)LOH?2SHQ
Toolbar Button:
Shortcut Key:
Ctrl + O
Use File\Open to load an existing project file from disk. When you select this item,
a dialog will appear so that you can choose the name and location of the project you
want to open.
12
)LOH?6DYH
Toolbar Button:
Shortcut Key:
Ctrl + S
Use File\Save to save the current project file to disk. While saving the project file,
the status pane will display a message briefly to let you know that your project is
being saved, and will then show you the progress of the Save command.
)LOH?6DYH$V
Use File\Save As to save the current project to disk under a different filename.
When you use this command, a dialog will appear prompting you to enter the drive,
directory, and a new filename for your project.
)LOH?3URMHFW6XPPDU\
Use File\Project Summary to access the project summary information, such as the
project title, the project engineer, and so forth.
)LOH?3ULQW
Shortcut Key:
Ctrl + P
Use File\Print to print the current view of the project drawing to a printer (note that
profiles and tabular reports are printed from their respective windows). The print
command invokes the standard Print dialog, which allows you to select the printer to
be used, the printer properties, print range, and so forth.
)LOH?3ULQW6HWXS
Use File\Print Setup to select the default printer for FlowMaster to use. You can
also use this command to change options related to the printer driver, such as
resolution, portrait or landscape orientation, and other printer details.
)LOH?([LW)ORZ0DVWHU
Shortcut Key:
Alt + F4
Use File\Exit FlowMaster to close the current project and exit FlowMaster. If you
made any changes to the current project, you will be asked if you want to save the
project before you exit FlowMaster.
)LOH?HWF
The most recently opened project files appear at the bottom of the File menu. Using
this file list, you can quickly select and open a recently used file without locating its
drive and directory.

(GLW0HQX
The Edit menu provides access to basic commands for controlling FlowMaster
elements, including element navigation, selection, and deletion (as well as undo and
redo).
13
(GLW?8QGR>/DVW$FWLRQ3HUIRUPHG@
Shortcut Key:
Ctrl + Z
Use Edit\Undo [Last Action Performed] to return a field that has just been edited to
its previous value.
(GLW?&XW
Shortcut Key:
Ctrl+X
Use Edit\Cut to remove the selected entities and place them on the Windows
clipboard. These items can be pasted elsewhere in the program or into other
Windows programs.
(GLW?&RS\
Shortcut Key:
Ctrl+C
Use Edit\Copy to place the selected entities from the current worksheet on the
Windows clipboard.
(GLW?&RS\:RUNVKHHW'DWD
Shortcut Key:
Ctrl+C
Use Edit\Copy Worksheet Data to place the selected input/output data from the
current worksheet on the Windows clipboard.
(GLW?3DVWH
Shortcut Key:
Ctrl+V
Use Edit\Paste to place the items on the Windows clipboard into other worksheets
or Windows programs.
(GLW?)LHOG3URSHUWLHV
Use Edit\Field Properties to edit or view the properties of the selected field (same
as a right Mouse click).

:RUNVKHHW0HQX
The Worksheet menu contains many of the functions dealing with worksheet
management. It provides access to features to help the user create, read, print, or
copy worksheets.Worksheet \ Create
Toolbar Button:
Use Worksheet\Create to create a new worksheet in the current project.
:RUNVKHHW?2SHQ
Use Worksheet\Open to open a worksheet from the Worksheet List box.
14
:RUNVKHHW?2XWSXW
Use Worksheet\Output to generate output for the selected worksheet.
:RUNVKHHW?5HQDPH
Shortcut:
Ctrl + R
Use Worksheet\Rename to rename the selected worksheet.
:RUNVKHHW?1RWHV
Use Worksheet\Notes to edit or view notes for the selected worksheet.
:RUNVKHHW?'XSOLFDWH
Use Worksheet\Duplicate to duplicate the selected worksheet and add it to the
current project.
:RUNVKHHW?'HOHWH
Shortcut:
Crtl + D
Use Worksheet\Delete to delete the selected worksheet from the current project.

5HSRUW0HQX
The Report menu provides access to a collection of pre-formatted textual and
graphical reports. Furthermore, the Report menu provides access to FlexTables,
which enable you to create your own custom reports.
5HSRUW?5DWLQJ7DEOH
Toolbar Button:
Use Report\Rating Table to generate a rating table for the selected worksheet.
5HSRUW?5DWLQJ&XUYHV
Toolbar Button:
Use Report\Rating Curves to generate a graph of rating curves for the selected
worksheet.
5HSRUW?&URVV6HFWLRQ
Toolbar Button:
Use Report\Cross Section to create a cross section report for the selected
worksheet.
5HSRUW?7DEXODU5HSRUWV
Toolbar Button:
Use Report\Tabular Reports to create a tabular report for any of the following
elements:
Circular, rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal or irregular channels, or gutter

sections; or use the All Channels option to create a report displaying channels
of any type
Weir or orifice
Pressure pipe
Combination, curb, grate, slot or ditch inlets, or use the All Inlets option to
create a report displaying inlets of any type.
Design your own custom report.
-OR

Use the All Reports option to create a tabular report showing all elements
defined in your worksheet on the same table
2SWLRQV0HQX
The Options menu allows you to control settings such as roughness methods,
element prototypes, engineering libraries, and so forth.
2SWLRQV?*OREDO2SWLRQV
Use Options\Global Options to access options relating to your interaction with the
program, such as Enter key behavior, auto-prompting, etc.
2SWLRQV?)OH[8QLWV
The Options\FlexUnits menu item opens the FlexUnits dialog, where you can
control the numeric formatting of units, display precision, and scientific notation for
any parameter. Note that you can also change the unit and display precision of
variables from several other areas within the program.
2SWLRQV?(QJLQHHULQJ/LEUDULHV
Use Options\Engineering Libraries to access the Engineering Library Manager,
which enables you to view or edit the library of elements used by this application.

:LQGRZV0HQX
The Windows menu holds menu choices dealing with window display options. It
allows the user to change the way windows are displayed, and perform other
windows related operations, such as switching between open windows.
:LQGRZV?&DVFDGH
Use Windows\Cascade to arrange the windows to cascade diagonally.
15
16
:LQGRZV?$UUDQJH:LQGRZV
Use Windows\Arrange Windows to arrange the windows in columns.
:LQGRZV?$UUDQJH,FRQV
Use Windows\Arrange Icons to arrange the icons along the bottom of the window.
:LQGRZV?&ORVH$OO
Use Windows\Close All to close all the windows that are not minimized.
:LQGRZV?HWF
Use Windows\1, 2, etc. to switch between available windows.

6HUYLFHV0HQX
The Services menu contains only one menu item, Services\Contents. This menu
item will open an Internet browser on a local page that provides an overview of the
services and products offered by Haestad Methods and links to Haestad Methods
Internet sites, which are updated frequently.

+HOS0HQX
The Help menu allows you to access online documentation for FlowMaster,
including the information contained in the printed documentation, as well as updated
information and built-in tutorials.
Help menu items can also be accessed from the Help button:
+HOS?&RQWHQWV
The Help\Contents item opens the table of contents for the online help.
+HOS?6HDUFKIRU+HOS2Q
The Help/Search for Help On item opens the index for the online help.
+HOS?+RZWR8VH+HOS
The Help\How to Use Help item provides access to instructions for using the help
system.
+HOS?5HOHDVH1RWHV
The Help\Release Notes item provides the latest information on the current version
of FlowMaster. This topic, which takes the place of a ReadMe file, includes
information about new features, tips, performance tuning and other general
information.
+HOS?:HOFRPH'LDORJ
The Help\Welcome Dialog item opens the Welcome dialog, normally shown at
program startup.
+HOS?7XWRULDOV
The Help\Tutorials menu item provides access to the interactive tutorials, which
guide you through many of the programs features. Tutorials are a great way to get
familiar with new features.
+HOS?8VLQJ)ORZ0DVWHU
The Help\Using FlowMaster menu item opens a help topic with an introduction to
FlowMaster and related elementary information.
+HOS?+RZ'R,
The Help\How Do I menu item provides instructions for common tasks you can
perform within the program.
+HOS?$ERXW)ORZ0DVWHU
The Help\About FlowMaster menu item opens a dialog displaying product and
registration information.

)ORZ0DVWHU7RROEDUV
The toolbars contain many buttons for project management, data management, and
results presentation.
)LOH7RROV
New Project - Create a new project file or worksheet.
Open Project - Open an existing project file.

Save - Save the current project file.
Print Preview - Print preview of the current view.
&DOFXODWLRQDQG'DWD0DQDJHPHQW7RROV
Worksheet List Window - Open/hide the worksheet list window.
Create Worksheet - Create a new worksheet.
Rating Table - Generate a rating table report for the selected worksheet.
Rating Curve - Generate a rating curve report for the selected worksheet.
17
18
Cross Section - Generate a cross section report for the selected worksheet.
Tabular Reports - Open any of the custom tabular views of the elements.
8SGDWHVDQG+HOS7RROV
Globe - If your computer is connected to the Internet, this button will take
you to Haestad Methods website for product updates and other services.
Help - Access the online help system.

7KH6WDWXV%DU
The status bar (located along the bottom of the main application window) provides
relevant information about the current state of the worksheet. The data displayed in
the status bar includes:

General Status Information
File Status
Unit System
*HQHUDO6WDWXV,QIRUPDWLRQ
General status information includes any messages that relate to the users current
activities. These messages include information such as pull-down menu command
descriptions, currently selected elements, and indications regarding the progress of
an executing command (such as the percent-complete status of saving a file).

)LOH6WDWXV
If changes have been made since the last time the project file was saved, an image of
a diskette appears at the right of the status bar. If the file is currently in a saved state,
no such image will appear in the status bar.

8QLW6\VWHP
The unit system box on the task bar indicates which unit system, System
International (metric) or US Customary (English), is currently set in the Global
Options dialog box. It does not indicate changes to the unit system of individual
worksheet elements.
19
&KDSWHU

3URMHFW6HWWLQJV

This chapter describes how to start a new project, and the files that FlowMaster
creates to save your projects data. At the beginning of a project, you also need to
set some global settings (accessed from the Options pull-down menu).
You can specify the default unit system, friction formula(s) used, and choose to use
Autocalc in the Global Options dialog. You can also access the FlexUnit dialog to
globally specify the units and number of decimals to be displayed for each type of
data.

3URMHFW0DQDJHPHQW

1HZ3URMHFW6HWXS
To create a new project:
1.
Do one of the following to open the Create Project File As dialog box:
Click the Create New Project button on the Welcome dialog,
-ORSelect File\New from the drop-down menu, select the New Project button and
click OK,
-ORClick the New Project button on the toolbar, select New Project button and
click OK.
2.
In the Create Project File As dialog, type a name for the new project and click
Save.
3.
In the Create New Worksheet dialog, select the worksheet type by clicking the
button to the left of the appropriate item and click OK. The Worksheet
Options dialog opens.
4.
Enter a label (name) for the worksheet and choose a friction method from the
drop-down menu. Click OK. The first worksheet for the new project opens.
20
Chapter 3 Project Settings

2SHQLQJDQ([LVWLQJ3URMHFW
To open an existing project:
1.
From the toolbar, click on the Open button
- OR At the Welcome dialog, click on Open Existing Project, then click OK,
- OR Choose File\Open from the pull down menus. The Open Project File window
appears.

2.
Select the appropriate drive and directory where the project is located. The
program displays all the projects stored in that directory.
3.
Click on the file name and then click on Open or OK.
6DYLQJD3URMHFW
To save an existing project:
1.
From the toolbar , click on the Save button
- OR Select File\Save from the pull-down menus.

Both of these methods open the Save Project File window. If the project has
been saved before, the program will save the file. Otherwise, the next two steps
must be completed.

2.
Select the appropriate drive and directory where you want the project to be
located. The program displays all of the projects stored in that directory.
3.
Enter the filename you wish to use for the file. A message will briefly appear,
letting you know that your project is being saved.
3URMHFW6XPPDU\
The Project Summary dialog provides a way to enter a Project Title, the name of
the Project Engineer, and comments (for example, the project revision history). The
Date field defaults to the current day. To change any portion of the date, click on the
item to change (i.e.: month field), then use the up and down arrows to set the date.
The Project Title and Project Engineer information you provided will print in the
footer of the Reports.
To access the Project Summary dialog use the File\Project Summary pull-down
menu selection.

*OREDO2SWLRQV
The Global Options dialog allows you to customize the following options for this
application:
Welcome dialog
Unit System
Enter Key Behavior
Show Tool pane
Show Status pane
Autocalc
The Reset button restores all the settings in the Global Options dialog to their
default values.

:HOFRPH'LDORJ
The Welcome dialog appears when the program is started; to turn off the Welcome
dialog, either uncheck the box next to Show this dialog at startup on the Welcome
dialog, or go to Options\Global Options and choose Expert Hide Welcome from
the drop-down box. The Welcome dialog provides easy access to the following
common tasks you may want to perform when you first start using the program:

Tutorials
Create New Project
Open Existing Project
Exit Program
8QLW6\VWHP
Although individual units can be controlled throughout the program, you may find it
useful to change your entire unit system at once, to either the System International
(metric) unit system or the US Customary (English) system.
When you switch to a different unit system, you will be asked to confirm this action.
If you choose YES, all data will be converted and displayed in the default unit for the
selected system.

(QWHU.H\%HKDYLRU
This option controls the way the Enter key behaves during editing, either as
Common User Access (CUA) or tabbing behavior.
CUA Enter Key - The Enter key acts as it does for Windows applications
conforming to Common User Access (CUA) standards. This means that when you
press the Enter key, it is as though you pressed the default button on the dialog.
CUA Enter Key is the recommended setting.
Tabbing Enter Key - The Enter key behaves the same as the Tab key for editable
fields (not buttons). This means that when you press the Enter key, the cursor will
move to the next field in the dialog.
21
22

7RRO3DQH
The tool pane at the top of the window provides shortcuts to the most commonly
used commands. Depending on your screen resolution, you may wish to turn off the
tool pane in order to allow a larger portion of the screen to be used for the drawing
pane. Simply change this option to fit your needs and preferences.

6WDWXV3DQH
The status pane at the bottom of the window is used to display information regarding
your current project. This pane can be turned on or off to meet your needs and
preferences.

$XWR&DOF
If the Autocalc option is on, FlowMaster will solve worksheets automatically as you
enter data, so you do not have to click on the Solve button.
If Autocalc is turned off, FlowMaster will not automatically solve your worksheet as
data is entered. You must click on the Solve button to solve your worksheets.

)OH[8QLWV
Unit flexibility is available from almost anywhere within Haestad Methods
software, including elemental dialogs, FlexTables, and the FlexUnits Manager.

6HW)LHOG2SWLRQV
Most dialogs permit you access to FlexUnits, which allow you to set such options as
the units, decimal precision, and scientific notation for any field in the dialog.
To set the display options for a unitized attribute:
1.
Click the right mouse button on the field and select Properties from the pop-up
context menu. The Set Field Options dialog will appear.
2.
Set the options you want for your units.
3.
Click on OK to set the options for the field (or Cancel to leave without making
changes).
4.
Depending on the type of data you are working with, you will be able to change
the following characteristics:
Units
Display Precision
Scientific Notation
You can see the results of your changes in the preview at the top of the dialog.

6HW8QLWV
The units property is the type of measurement unit displayed for the attribute. To
change units, click on the drop-down list; then click on the desired unit. You can
choose between SI and US customary units for each attribute, allowing you to mix
unit systems within the same project if desired.
Note that FlexUnits are intelligent - the units actually have meaning. When you
change units, the displayed value is converted to the new unit, so the underlying
magnitude of the attribute remains the same.
For example, a length of 100.0 feet is not converted to a length of 100.0 meters or
100.0 inches; it is correctly converted to 30.48 meters or 1200.0 inches.

'LVSOD\3UHFLVLRQ
Precision can be used to control the number of digits displayed after the decimal
point, or the rounding of numbers. Display precision is for numeric formatting only,
and will not affect calculation accuracy.
1XPEHURI'LJLWV'LVSOD\HG$IWHU'HFLPDO3RLQW
Enter 0 or a positive number to specify the number of digits after the decimal point.
For example, if the display precision is set to 3, then a value of 123.456789 would
display as 123.457. If scientific notation is active, it displays as 1.235e2.
5RXQGLQJ
Enter a negative number to specify rounding to the nearest power of 10. To round to
the nearest 10, enter a value of -1; for the nearest 100, enter -2; and so on.
For example, if the display precision is set to -3 then a value of 1,234,567.89 would
display as 1,235,000.

6FLHQWLILF1RWDWLRQ
A value in scientific notation consists of a real number with a single digit in front of
the decimal, multiplied by a power of 10. In FlowMaster, it is displayed as a real
value followed by the letter e and an integer exponent (possibly preceded by a
negative sign). Right click on the field open that field properties dialog, in order to
turn scientific notation on or off (a check box indicate whether this setting is turned
on).
Scientific Notation and rounding are for numeric formatting only and will not
affect calculation accuracy.
23
24

0LQLPXPDQG0D[LPXP$OORZHG9DOXH
Minimum and maximum values control the allowable range for an attribute, and are
used for validation of user input. For example, some coefficient values might
typically range between 0.09 and 0.20. A frequent user input error is to misplace the
decimal point when entering a value. If you enter a number that is outside of the
allowed value range, a warning message will be displayed. This feature helps reduce
the number of input errors.
You may change this number in cases where you find the default limits too
restrictive. Note that these allowable minimums and maximums are only available
for certain parameters.

)OH[8QLWV7DEOH
The FlexUnit Table, accessed by selecting Options\FlexUnits, allows you to set the
parameters for all the units used on one convenient table. The dialog consists of the
following editable columns:
Option
Description
Units
Type of measurement
displayed.
Click on the drop-down menu; then on the

unit you want. This option also allows you
to use both US customary and metric units
in the same worksheet.
Display
precision
Rounding of numbers
and number of digits
displayed after the
decimal point. This
value is for display
purposes only and will
not affect the
calculation accuracy.
Rounding: Enter a negative number for

rounding to the nearest power of 10; -1
rounds to 10, -2 rounds to 100, and so on.
For example, if the display precision is -2,
123 displays as 100.
Scientific
notation
Displays numbers in
scientific notation.
(For display purposes
only. Will not affect
the calculation
accuracy).
Click on the box to turn scientific notation

on or off. If it is turned on, an x appears in
the box.
Minimum
allowed
value
Smallest value that

can be entered in a
dialog.
Enter the minimum allowed numeric value.

The value is in the units displayed above.
Maximum
allowed
value
Largest value that can

be entered in a dialog.
Enter the maximum allowed value. The

value is in the units displayed above.
To Set Option:
Number of Digits Displayed After Decimal

Point: Enter a number from 0 to 8 to
indicate the number of digits after the
decimal point. For example, if the display
precision is 3, then 123.4567 displays as
123.457. Results are identical, whether it
is on or off

Use Defaults - Clicking on this button resets all the units to default US customary or
metric units, based on the project global unit system (specified in the Global
Options dialog box, accessed from Options\Global Options menu from the main
menu). All fields will be automatically converted.
Note that these display units can also be changed from several other areas in the
program, with any changes being project-wide. For example, if length is changed
from units of feet to meters, all pipe dialogs will now also display lengths in meters.
If you change the units in the pipe dialog from meters to yards, the FlexUnits
Manager will update to indicate that all lengths are now in yards.
FlexTables have the ability to use localized units, which are maintained
separately from the current project settings. This option allows you to create
reports using units that differ from the currently active ones.
25
Notes
27
&KDSWHU

(QJLQHHULQJ/LEUDULHV

The Haestad Methods engineering libraries and library manager are powerful and
flexible utilities for managing the specifications for common materials, objects, or
components that you share across your projects. FlowMaster contains one
engineering library, which specifies pipe materials and associated roughness
coefficients. You can modify engineering libraries and the objects they contain by
using the Options\Engineering Libraries menu, or by pressing the ellipses ()
buttons available next to fields in your project that make use of library objects.
The data for each engineering library is stored in a tabular ASCII file with the file
extension *.HLB. We strongly recommend that you only edit these files using the
built-in facilities available from the Options\Engineering Libraries menu (if
absolutely necessary these library files may be edited or repaired using any ASCII
editor).
The standard engineering libraries shipped with your Haestad Methods product
resides in the products program directory. By default, each project you create will
use the objects in these default libraries. In special circumstances, you may wish to
create custom libraries to use with one or more projects. You can do this by copying
a standard library, or by creating a new library and setting the path in the projects
engineering library manager to the path for the custom library.
When you change the properties for an object in an engineering library those changes
will affect all projects that use that library. At the time a project is loaded, all of its
engineering library objects are synchronized to the current library. Objects are
synchronized based on their label; if the label is the same, then the objects values
will be made the same. If any library referenced in a library manager path cannot be
located, then the standard library in the program directory will be used. Once a
project is created, it is not necessary to have access to the engineering library in
order for that project to be edited or analyzed.

(QJLQHHULQJ/LEUDU\0DQDJHU
The Engineering Library Manager dialog consists of a table of five columns:
Library, Path, Browse, Edit and New; and one row for each kind of engineering
library used in your project. You cannot create other kinds of libraries different from
the standard libraries shipped with the product.
Library - This column lists the name of the library and indicates the kind of
data stored in it.
28
Chapter 4 Engineering Libraries
Existing Path - This column lists the path to the library to be used for the
library objects within the current project. By default, the path will reference the
standard library shipped with your Haestad Methods product. To browse for
other libraries of the same type that you may have already created, click the
Browse column and press the button that appears. To reference a library in the
path field, the library must already exist. To create a new library you may copy
a standard library using the Windows File Manager or Explorer, or click New as
described below.
Browse - Click in this column and press the button that appears if you wish to
search your computer and locate other engineering libraries.
Edit - Click in this column and press the button that appears if you wish to add,
delete, or edit the objects within a specific kind of engineering library.
New - Click this column and press the button that appears if you wish to create a
new engineering library.
Most users do not need to create custom libraries or edit their library paths. You
need to change path values only if you wish to create and use your own custom
libraries.

(QJLQHHULQJ/LEUDU\(GLWRU
To access the Engineering Library Editor in the Engineering Library Manager,
click the Edit column, then press the button that appears. The Engineering Library
dialog consists of a table of two columns:
Label - This column lists a textual description of the object. In general, objects
are considered to be the same if their labels are the same. For example, when a
project is loaded, its engineering library objects are synchronized to the current
library based on their label.
Available in FlowMaster - This column lists a true/false checkbox indicating

whether the library object on the given row is enabled for use. If an object is
enabled, it will appear in choice lists as a candidate for use in the project. If an
object is disabled, it will remain in the library, and will remain editable, but it
will not be offered as a candidate for any operations in the program. If a
disabled object has already been used in a project, then it will remain in use;
disabling it will not affect the existing project in any way.
The following command buttons appear in the Engineering Library dialog:
Insert - Inserts a new, unlabeled object into the current library. You must press
the Edit button to edit the label and add the appropriate values before the library
will be valid. Library objects will be sorted by label in ascending alphabetical
order the next time that you open the Engineering Library dialog.
Duplicate - Creates a copy of the currently highlighted material at the bottom of

the material list.
Delete - Deletes the object represented by the selected row. Note that this
command always deletes objects from the library, but never deletes an object
from your current project, if it is in use. To change the library object that is
currently in use by a project, proceed to the dialog containing the field where the
library object is referenced and select a different library object.
Edit - Access the object properties editor.

29
Usage - Only applies to the material engineering library. Use this button to
indicate specific uses for the material.
8VDJH
Specify the uses for which the material will be available.

[ > ]
Adds the selected item(s) from the Available Items list to the Selected
Items list.
[ >> ]
Adds all of the items in the Available Items list to the Selected Columns
list.
[ < ]
Removes the selected item(s) from the Selected Items list.
[ << ]
Removes all items from the Selected Columns list.
0DWHULDO/LEUDU\
A user-editable library of materials is provided. Access the material library dialog
by clicking Edit on the Engineering Library dialog. Pipes and ditches/channels are
constructed from various materials. It is often useful to specify the material of the
pipes and channels/ditches in your hydraulic and hydrologic models. Materials
provide the pipe or channel with a default value for the roughness coefficient used in
the friction equations. A material must be defined with the following properties:
Label - The name of the material as it will appear in lists for choosing materials.
Culvert Inlet Material Type - Limits the type of culvert inlets that are
available for a material (used in CulvertMaster). The inclusion of this property
allows the sharing of libraries among Haestad Methods products.
Mannings Coefficient - The default value for Manning's n. This coefficient is

a unitless number generally between 0.009 and 0.300.
Roughness Height - The default value for absolute roughness height. This value
will be used in conjunction with the Darcy-Weisbach friction equation. The
roughness height has units of length (typically mm or ft).
Kutters n Coefficient - The default value for Kutter's n. This coefficient is a

unitless number generally between 0.009 and 0.300.
C Coefficient - The material's default value for Hazen William's C.

coefficient is a unitless number generally between 60 and 150.
This
The check boxes next to each item specify whether or not the friction method will be
available for the material. For example, some materials, such as asphalt, only have
Mannings n defined.
Notes
31
&KDSWHU

)OH[7DEOHV

The purpose of this chapter is to introduce you to Haestad Methods FlexTables.
FlexTables provide you with a powerful input and output data management tool that
can be used to both enter input data and to present model output data in a quick,
efficient and effective manner. Haestad Methods provides you with some basic
element tables; however, these tables can be modified and customized to fit your
particular needs. Furthermore, you can create your own tables combining various
model input and output data from various model elements. Additionally, tables can
be filtered, globally edited, and sorted to ease model data input and present output
data for specific elements.

7DEOHV
FlexTables may be used for performing data entry, for viewing calculated results,
and for creating results reports that can be sent to a printer, a file, or the Windows
clipboard. You can create your own custom tabular reports, which you can use to
view all elements in the network, all elements of a specific type (e.g. all pipes), or
subsets of elements.

7DEOH0DQDJHU
The Table Manager provides support for creating, opening, and managing tables. To
access the Table Manager, click the Tabular Report button on the toolbar.
Alternatively, choose Report\Tabular Report\(report type) from the pull-down
menu, click the Options button at the top of the window, and choose Table
Manager.
The Table Manager dialog provides the list of all available tables, as well as the
following options:
OK - Open the selected table.
Close - Exit the Table Manager dialog without opening a table.
Table Management - Provides access to a variety of functions for creating and

modifying tables.
Help - Provides context-sensitive help for this window.
32

7DEOH0DQDJHPHQW
Although the predefined tables provide access to most of the element information, it
is sometimes practical to present model results and input data through user-defined
tables. Table Management provides the following tools for manipulating userdefined tables:
New - Create a new table using the Create New Table dialog and the Table Setup
dialog.
Edit - Modify the layout of the selected table using the Table Setup dialog.
Rename - Rename the selected table.
Duplicate - Duplicate the selected table for additional customizing. This is a very
useful feature when you need to change a predefined table.
Delete - Delete the selected table.
Reset - Reset a tables units to the current unit system, or reset a predefined table to
factory defaults.
Help - Get help on the Table Management feature.
The table name will be used as the title in printed reports. You cannot delete
or rename any of the predefined tables. If you need to rename a predefined
table, copy it first and then rename it.

&UHDWLQJ1HZ7DEOHV
To create a new table, open the Table Manager by clicking on the Table button
on the main toolbar, or by choosing Report\Tabular Reports\Custom
Reports from the main menu. Then, in the Table Manager dialog, click the Table
Management button and select New.

1.
Specify the Table Type to indicate the type of network elements you want to
display in your table.
2.
Enter the name of your new table in the field labeled Enter the description for
this table (this name will also be used as the report title when this table is
printed).
3.
Click on OK to accept these settings and proceed to the Table Setup dialog,
where you can define your table.
(GLWLQJ7DEOHV
The Edit option allows you to specify the attributes (columns) that will appear in
your table.

'XSOLFDWLQJ7DEOHV
The Duplicate option allows you to create a new table based on an existing table.

'HOHWLQJ7DEOHV
The Delete option allows you to delete any table that you have defined (you cannot
delete any of the predefined tables that ship with this application).

5HQDPLQJ7DEOHV
The Rename option allows you to rename any table that you have defined.
From the Table Manager dialog, highlight the table that you wish to modify.
Click on the Table Management menu button and select Edit.
The Table Setup dialog will open, allowing you to customize your table. Refer
to the section on the Table Setup dialog for more information.

5HVHWLQJ7DEOHV
Reset Units to the Current Unit System - This option is only available for tables
that are in Local Units mode. Local Units mode allows the table to maintain its own
local set of column properties (units, precision, etc). You can use this option to
reset all units in the selected table to the defaults for the current unit system (the
current unit system refers to the units used in the current project). You will be
prompted to confirm before this action is performed.
Reset to Factory Defaults - You can reset any of the predefined tables to the factory
defaults (this option is not available for tables that you create).

7DEOH6HWXS'LDORJ
The Table Setup dialog is accessed by choosing New or Edit from the Table
Management drop-down menu, and allows you to customize the following on any
table:
Table Type - This field allows you to specify the type of network elements that
will appear in the table (e.g. only pipes will appear in a pipe table).
Available Columns - This list contains all the attributes that are available for
your table design. This list will change based on the Table Type field.
Selected Columns - This list contains attributes that will appear in your custom
designed table. When you open the table, the selected attributes will appear as
columns in the table in exactly the same order that they appear in the selected
list.
Allow Duplicate Columns - This is an advanced feature that allows you to

place two identical columns in the same table, which can then be set to different
unit systems.
Column manipulation buttons - These buttons allow you to select or deselect

columns to be used in the table, as well as to arrange the order the columns will
appear in the table.
33
34

7DEOH7\SH
The Table Type field allows you to specify the types of elements that will appear in
the table (e.g. only pipe elements will appear as rows in a pipe table). The table
type also provides a filter for the attributes that appear in the Available Columns
list. When you choose a table type, the available list will only contain attributes that
can be used for that table type (e.g. only pipe attributes will be available for a pipe
table).

$YDLODEOH7DEOH&ROXPQV
The Available Columns list is located on the left-hand side of the Table Setup
dialog. This list contains all of the attributes that are available for the type of table
you are creating. The attributes displayed in yellow represent non-editable columns,
while those displayed in white represent editable columns.
The attributes in the available list will change based on the current table type.
Attributes suitable for two-row representation will appear at the top of the Available
Columns list when editing a two-row table.

6HOHFWHG7DEOH&ROXPQV
The Selected Columns list is located on the right hand side of the Table Setup
dialog. The attributes in this list will appear as columns in the table when it is
opened. The columns will appear in the same order as the attributes in the selected
list.
To add columns to the Selected Columns list:

1.
Select one or more attributes in the Available Columns list.
2.
Click the Add button [>] or drag the highlighted attributes to the Selected
Columns list.
7DEOH0DQLSXODWLRQ%XWWRQV
The Add and Remove buttons are located in the center of the Table Setup dialog.
[ > ]
Adds the selected item(s) from the Available Columns list to the
Selected Columns list.
[ >> ]
Adds all of the items in the Available Columns list to the Selected
Columns list.
[ < ]
Removes the selected item(s) from the Selected Columns list.
[ << ]
Removes all items from the Selected Columns list.
To rearrange the order of the attributes in the Selected Columns list:

1.
Click on the item to be moved.
2.
Move it up or down in the list by clicking on the up button or the down button
(located below the Selected Columns list).
Arrange items in the Selected Columns list by selecting an item with the
mouse, dragging it, and dropping it into a new position in the list. You can
select multiple attributes in the Available Columns list by holding down the
Shift key or the Control key while clicking with the mouse. Holding down the
Shift key will provide group selection behavior. Holding down the Control key
will provide single element selection behavior.
The items displayed in yellow represent non-editable columns (e.g. columns

that contain calculated data), while those in white represent editable columns
(e.g. columns that contain input data).

$OORZLQJ'XSOLFDWH&ROXPQV
Select this check box to allow duplicate columns in a table. Allow Duplicate
Columns is an advanced feature that allows you to place two identical columns (for
example Pipe Length) in the same table, which can then be set to different unit
systems.

7KH7DEOH:LQGRZ
The Table window is the place you will perform much of your data input and
review. The Table window has many features to assist you with data entry, data
formatting, report customization, and output generation. To access the Table
window, select the table that you would like to use from the Table Manager and
press OK to open it
For information regarding the definitions of the columns in the Table window, see
the Glossary.

7DEOH1DYLJDWLRQ
The Table window supports two modes, Table Navigation Mode and Cell
Navigation Mode. By pressing the F2 key, you can toggle between Table
Navigation and Cell Navigation Modes (cell edit mode).
7DEOH1DYLJDWLRQ0RGH
Use the Arrow keys and Home, End, PgUp, PgDn, and Ctrl+<arrow> keys to
navigate to different cells in a table. Table Navigation Mode is the default mode
when editing a table. To edit within a single cell of a table, press the F2 key to
switch to cell navigation mode.
&HOO1DYLJDWLRQ0RGH(GLW0RGH
In Cell Navigation Mode, use the Arrow keys, Home key and End keys to navigate
within a single cell. To switch to cell navigation mode, press the F2 key. When cell
navigation mode is active, the word EDIT will appear on the status pane at the
bottom of the window. Cell Navigation Mode will automatically terminate when
you press any key except for Left, Right, Home, End, Delete, or Backspace.
35
36

(GLWDEOH7DEOH&ROXPQV
Editable table columns correspond to input data that you can change. The values in
these columns can be modified either directly or through the Global Edit option.
These columns are displayed in white.

1RQ(GLWDEOH7DEOH&ROXPQV
Non-editable table columns correspond to model results calculated by the program.
You cannot modify the values in these columns. These columns are displayed in
yellow.

7DEOH&XVWRPL]DWLRQ
There are several ways to customize tables to meet a variety of output requirements:

Changing the Report Title - When you print a table, the table name is used as
the title for the printed report. You can change the title that appears on your
printed report by renaming the table. Use the Table Manager to rename your
table.
Adding/Removing Columns - You can add, remove, and change the order of
columns by using the Table Setup dialog. Use the Table Manager to access
the Table Setup dialog.
Drag/Drop Column Placement - With the Table window open, select the
column that you would like to move by holding down the left mouse button on
its column heading. Drag the column heading to the left or right and release the
Mouse button to drop the column into its new location.
Resizing Columns - With the Table window open, place your mouse over the
vertical separator line between column headings. Notice that the cursors shape
changes to indicate that you can resize. Hold down the left mouse button and
drag the mouse to the left or right to stretch the column to its new size. When
you are satisfied, release the mouse button to set the new column width.
Changing Column Display Properties - With the Table window open, click
the right mouse button in the heading area of the column you wish to change
and choose the Properties menu item. The current column properties will be
displayed in the Set Field Options dialog. Refer to the section on Local Units
for additional information.
Changing Column Labels - With the Table window open, click the right
mouse button on the column heading that you wish to change, and choose Edit
Column Label. Refer to section on Changing Column Headings for additional
information.
6RUWLQJ7DEOHV
Tables can be sorted based on a single column, multiple columns, or network order.
Click the right Mouse button on the column you want to sort by, and choose Sort
from the context sensitive menu that appears.
You can sort elements in the table based on one or more columns, in ascending or
descending order.
For example, the following table is given:
37
Slope (ft/ft)
Depth (ft)
Discharge (cfs)
0.001
4.11
0.002
5.81
0.003
7.12
0.001
13.43
0.002
19.00
0.003
23.27
A custom sort is set up to sort first by Slope, then by Depth, in ascending order. The
resulting table would appear in the following order:

Slope (ft/ft)
Depth (ft)
Discharge (cfs)
0.001
4.11
0.001
13.43
0.002
5.81
0.002
19.00
0.003
7.12
0.003
23.27
)LOWHULQJ7DEOHV
To access the filtering operations, use the Options button at the top of the Table
window, or click the right mouse button on the column header that you wish to use
as a filter. Filters allow you to filter the table so that the table displays only rows that
match the specified criteria.
Quick Filter - Quickly set up a simple filter by clicking the right mouse button on
the column that you wish to use as a filter.
Custom Filter - Set up a custom filter based on one or more filtering criteria.
Filter Reset - Turn off the active filter, causing all available rows in the table to be
displayed.
When you perform a Quick Filter or a Custom Filter, the Filter dialog will open,
allowing you to specify your filtering criterion.
Each filter criterion is made up of three items:
Column - The attribute to use as a filter.
Operator - The operator to use when comparing the filter value against the data in
the specific column (operators include: =, >, >=, <, <=, <>).
Value - The comparison value.
38
Any number of criterion elements can be added to a filter. Multiple filter criteria are
implicitly joined with a logical AND statement. So, when multiple filter criteria
are defined, only rows that meet all of the specified criteria will be displayed. A
filter will remain active for the associated table until the filter is reset, or the Table
window is closed.
The status pane at the bottom of the Table window always shows the number of
rows displayed and the total number of rows available (e.g. 10 of 20 elements
displayed). When a filter is active, this message will appear in a highlighted color.
Table filtering allows you to perform global editing on any subset of elements. Only
the elements that appear in the filtered table will be edited.

&KDQJLQJ&ROXPQ+HDGLQJV
To change the label of any column in the Table window, click the right mouse
button on the column heading that you wish to change and choose Edit Column
Label from the context menu. The backslash character (\) can be used to insert a
line-break wherever you want the title to be split into multiple lines. If you enter an
empty label, the column heading will be restored to the factory default label.

*OREDOO\(GLWLQJ7DEOHV
You can globally change the values of any editable column in the Table window.
Click the right mouse button on the column that you wish to globally change and
choose the Global Edit menu item.
For numeric columns:
1.
Choose the operation to be performed (Add, Divide, Multiply, Set, or Subtract).
2.
Enter the value you wish to use.
3.
Press OK, and the values in the entire column will be updated to reflect this
change.
For non-numeric columns:

1.
Enter the new value.
2.
Press OK, and the values in the entire column will be updated to reflect this
change.
Global Edit is available only for editable columns. You can use Global Edit in
conjunction with Filtering to globally edit a subset of elements.

/RFDOYV6\QFKURQL]HG8QLWV
Use the Options button at the top of the Table window to access the Use Local
Units menu item. Click on the menu item to toggle between Local Units, and
Synchronized Units. A check mark will appear next to the Use Local Units menu
item to indicate that Local Units mode is active (otherwise Synchronized Units mode
is active).
Synchronized Units - Synchronized Units mode (the default mode) allows the
table to stay synchronized with the active project. If you have one project in US
Customary and one project in SI units, the Table will match the units in the
project that is currently open.
Local Units - Local Units mode allows the table to maintain its own local set
of column properties (units, precision, etc). These settings are specific to the
project and table for which they were chosen. This option is a powerful feature
that gives you the ability to build tables that are always in a fixed unit system
(no matter what unit system is currently being used by the active project). It is
also a useful feature for printing reports for the same project in different unit
systems (one report in US Customary, and one in SI units).
When the Table window is open, the current unit synchronization mode is displayed
in the status pane at the bottom of the window (Local Units or Synchronized
Units).

0L[LQJ8QLWVLQD7DEXODU5HSRUW
As an example, to show a table with two Pipe Length columns, one in feet and one
in meters, you would:
1.
Open the Table Manager dialog.
2.
Click on the Table Management button, and select New to create a new table.
3.
Select the table type from the pull-down menu list, and enter a name for your
new table. Press OK, and you will be taken to the Table Setup dialog, where
you can customize your new table.
4.
In the Table Setup dialog, turn on the Allow Duplicate Columns check box
(located at the lower left corner of the dialog).
5.
Add the Length column to the Selected Columns list.
The Length column will still appear in the Available Columns list, but will be
displayed in a lighter color (indicating that it has already been selected).
6.
Add the Length column again.
7.
Press OK to close the Table Setup dialog. From the Table Manager dialog,
highlight the table you just created and click OK to open your new table.
8.
Click on the Options button at the top of the window, and select the Use Local
Units menu item to turn Local Units on. You will be prompted to make sure
that you want to use local units. Click Yes.
9.
Click the right Mouse button on the first Pipe Length column, and select
Length Properties to set the units in the column to ft. Then, click the right
mouse button on the second Pipe Length column to set the units to m.
39
40

$EEUHYLDWHG/DEHOV
Using label abbreviations will allow columns to take up less space. This will permit
more data to fit on each page, when printing a report. To turn abbreviated labels on
or off, click the Options button at the top of the dialog, then choose Use
Abbreviated Labels from the drop-down menu.

&KDQJLQJ&ROXPQ'LVSOD\3URSHUWLHV
You can change the display properties (e.g. units or precision) of any numeric
column in the Table window. Click the right mouse button on the label of the
column that you wish to change and select the Properties menu item. This action
opens the Set Field Options dialog, where you can change the display properties of
the column.

([SRUWLQJD7DEOHWRDQ$6&,,)LOH
You may export the data shown in the Table window to an ASCII text file in either
tab or comma delimited format.

&RS\LQJD7DEOHWRWKH&OLSERDUG
The Copy button at the top of the Table window allows you to copy tab-delimited
data to the Windows clipboard. Tab-delimited data can be pasted directly into your
favorite spreadsheet program.

3ULQWLQJD7DEOH
The Print button at the top of the Table window is used to output the table directly
to the printer.

7DEOH3ULQW3UHYLHZ
Click the Print Preview button at the top of the Table window to view the report in
the format that will be printed. Use this feature to determine if your table will print
on a single sheet of paper.
Using label abbreviations will allow some columns to be narrower, permitting
more data to fit on each page. Use the Options button at the top of the Table
window to access this option.
Printing in landscape orientation will also allow more columns to fit on a single
page. From the Print Preview window, use the Options\Print Setup menu item
to access landscape orientation.
41
&KDSWHU

)ORZ0DVWHU7KHRU\

8QLIRUP)ORZ
The equations used in FlowMaster deal primarily with uniform flow. Uniform flow
refers to a hydraulic condition in which the flow depth, channel discharge, and flow
area do not change over a channel reach having constant section characteristics such
as shape and material. These conditions are met only when the channel bottom slope
and the friction slope are equal. When water is flowing under uniform flow
conditions, the depth of flow is frequently called normal depth.
Uniform flow can be described by the generalized friction equation:
V = CR x S y
Where:
(6.1)
V
C
R
S
x, y
=
=
=
=
=
Mean velocity (m/s, ft/s)

Flow resistance factor
Hydraulic radius (m, ft)
Friction slope (m/m, ft/ft)
Exponents
The material lining the flow channel usually determines the flow resistance or
roughness factor, C. However, the ultimate value of the C component may be a
function of the channel shape, depth, and velocity of flow. The hydraulic radius, R,
is a strict function of the channel shape. For every geometric shape, R can be readily
calculated by dividing the cross-sectional flow area by the wetted perimeter, once a
depth is known or assumed. The energy slope, S, is constant under the uniform flow
assumption.
Since average velocity is constant under uniform flow (constant discharge and area
conditions), combining equation 6.1with the continuity equation:
Q = VA
(6.2)
results in the equation:
Q = ACR x S y
Where:
(6.3)
3
= Discharge (m /s, ft /s)
= Cross-sectional flow area (m , ft )
This equation yields a complete solution for the rate of flow.
42
Chapter 6 FlowMaster Theory
Hydraulic radius is related to flow area, so further reduction of this equation

for specific geometries is often possible.
FlowMaster offers the four variations of the general uniform flow equation listed
below. These equations differ from each other by the computation and nature of C
and in the values assigned to x and y.
Mannings Formula
Kutters Formula
Hazen-Williams Formula
Darcy-Weisbach Formula
0DQQLQJV)RUPXOD
Mannings Formula is probably the most widely used open channel flow equation,
and is one of the easiest equations to solve. The roughness component, C, is
constant over the full range of flows and is typically represented by Mannings n.
The values of x and y are 2/3 and 1/2, respectively. Equations for U.S. units and the
metric system are shown below.
Metric Units:
V=
U.S. Units:
1 23 12
R S
n
Where:
V=
V
n
R
S
=
=
=
=
1.49 2 3 1 2
R S
n
(6.4)
Mean velocity (m/s, ft/s)

Manning's coefficient
Hydraulic radius (m, ft)
Friction slope (m/m, ft/ft)
.XWWHUV)RUPXOD
The standard form of Kutters Formula is known as the Chezy Formula. Kutters
Formula is widely used in sanitary sewer design and analysis. The roughness
component, C, is variable and is a function of R, S, and the channel material. Both x
and y are equal to 1/2.
Equations for U.S. units and the metric system are shown below:
V = C RS
The roughness coefficient, C is related to Manning's n through Kutters Formula.
(6.5)
43
Metric Units:
0.00155 1
+
S
n
C=
0.00155
(23.0 +
)n
S
1+
R
23.0 +
(6.6a)
U.S. Units:
0.00281 1.811
+
S
n
C=
0.00281
(41.65 +
)n
S
1+
R
41.65 +
Where:
R
S
n
(6.6b)
= Hydraulic Radius (m, ft)

= Friction Slope (m/m, ft/ft)
= Mannings Coefficient
The n in the equation is referred to as the Kutter's n, which is equivalent to

Manning's n.
+D]HQ:LOOLDPV)RUPXOD
The Hazen-Williams Formula is most frequently used in the design of pressure pipe
systems for water distribution. The roughness coefficient, C, is constant over the full
range of flows (assumed turbulent). The values of x and y in this empirical equation
are 0.63 and 0.54. Equations for U.S. units and the metric system are shown below.
Metric Units:
U.S. Units:
V = 0.85CR 0.63S 0.54
V = 1.32CR 0.63S 0.54
(6.7)
'DUF\:HLVEDFK)RUPXOD
The Darcy-Weisbach Formula was developed for use in the analysis of pressure pipe
systems. However, the formula is sufficiently general so that it can be applied
readily to open channel flow systems. In fact, the ASCE Task Force on Friction
Factors in Open Channels (1963) supported the use of the Darcy-Weisbach formula
for free-surface flows.
This recommendation has not been widely accepted since the solution to the equation
is difficult, and not readily computed by simple desktop methods. With the
computerization of this method, the Darcy-Weisbach Formula will likely gain greater
acceptance, since it successfully models the variability of effective channel
roughness with channel material, geometry, and velocity. Thus, many engineers
view this formula as the most accurate method for modeling uniform flow.
44

The roughness component in the Darcy-Weisbach equation is a function of both the
channel material and the Reynolds Number, which varies with V and R. Like
Kutters Equation, both x and y are equal to 1/2. The familiar form of the equation,
which is applicable to circular pipes with full flow only, is:
hf = f
L V2
D 2g
Where:
(6.8)
hf
f
D
L
V
g
=
=
=
=
=
=
Headloss (m, ft)

Darcy-Weisbach friction factor
Pipe diameter (m, ft)
Pipe length (m, ft)
Flow velocity (m/s, ft/s)
Gravitational acceleration (m/s2, ft/s2)
This equation is adapted for channel geometries other than full circular by the
relation:
D = 4R
(6.9a)
and then rearranged to the form:
V=
8g
RS
f
(6.9b)
The Darcy-Weisbach friction factor (f) can be found using the Colebrook equation
for fully developed turbulent flow. Roughness height, k, is a physical property of the
channel material. Equations for free surface and full flow closed conduits are shown
below.
Free Surface:
k
2.51
= 2log
+
12R R
f
e f
(6.10)
Full Flow Closed Conduits:
k
2.51
= 2log
+
14.8R R e f
f
Where:
Re
k
= Reynolds Number (unitless)

= Roughness height (m, ft)
(6.11)

45
&ULWLFDO)ORZ
Critical flow conditions occur when, for a given discharge, the specific energy of
flow is at a minimum. The specific energy, E, in FlowMaster is computed using the
equation:
E = y+
V2
2g
Where:
(6.12)
y
V
g
= Flow depth (m, ft)

= Velocity (m/s, ft/s)
= Gravitational acceleration (m/s2, ft/s2)
The quantity V2/2g is also known as the velocity head. The specific energy equation
used in FlowMaster is valid onlyt for small slopes (< 10%). It also neglects the
effects of the velocity variation across the flow section; that is, the velocity
coefficient, , is assumed to equal 1.0.
At critical depth, the velocity of flow is also equal to the wave celerity (i.e. the speed
at which waves will ripple outward from a pebble which is tossed into the water).
The Froude number, F, is defined as the ratio of actual velocity to wave celerity.
This number is only defined for sections that have a free surface; it is undefined for
closed conduits or closed top irregular channels when flowing full.
The ratio is:
F=
(6.13)
gD
Where:
D
A
T
= Hydraulic depth of the channel (m, ft); D is

equivalent to A/T.
= Flow area (m2, ft2)
= Top width of flow (m, ft)
When F is less than one, the flow is said to be subcritical (velocity slower than wave
celerity). When F is greater than one, the flow is said to be supercritical (velocity
faster than wave celerity). When F is equal to one, the flow is said to be critical. A
diagram showing these flow ranges appears below.
46
Figure 6.1
Specific
Energy Curve
The requirement that wave celerity equals actual velocity at critical flow conditions
means that critical depth can be computed by varying depth of flow until F equals
1.0. Specifically, FlowMaster uses the following function, and solves by iterating
over depth until f (y) = 0:
f(y) = gA 3 Q 2 T

,QOHW+\GUDXOLFV

+(&,QOHW&RPSXWDWLRQV
(6.14)
The methodology used by FlowMaster to perform pavement drainage and inlet

computations is described in Chapter 4 of the HEC-22 manual: Urban Drainage
Design Manual, 1996. This chapter is included as Chapter 7 in this manual. Related
charts can be found in Appendix A. Most of the information presented in HEC-22
Chapter 4 was originally published in FHWA, HEC-12, Drainage of Highway
Pavements, 1984, and AASHTOs Model Drainage Manual, 1991.
This section presents an overview of the HEC-22 methodology used by FlowMaster.
For more information, refer to Chapter 7 of this manual or the HEC-22 manual.
Pavement drainage requires consideration of gutter flow and inlet capacity.
The design of these elements is dependent on storm frequency and the
allowable spread of storm water on the pavement surface.
FlowMaster performs hydraulic computations for analyzing or sizing one inlet

at a time. For analyzing or designing an entire storm sewer network, Haestad
Methods offers StormCAD, which also follows the HEC-22 methodology for
inlet computations.

47
)ORZVLQ*XWWHUVRQ*UDGH
8QLIRUP*XWWHU&URVV6ORSH
In the case of a uniform cross-slope (gutter slope Sw equal to pavement slope Sx), the
relationship between the gutter flow Q and the flow spread T is obtained by applying
the Mannings equation, assuming normal flow:
Q=
K c 1.67 0.5 2.67

SX SL T
n
(6.15)
Figure 6.2
Uniform
Gutter Cross
Slope
Where: Q
Kc
n
Sx
SL
T
Flow rate (m3/s, ft3/s)

0.376 (0.56 in English units)
Mannings coefficient
Pavement cross-slope (m/m, ft/ft)
Longitudinal pavement slope (m/m, ft/ft)
Width of flow (spread) (m, ft)
=
=
=
=
=
=
The flow depth along the curb is:
d = TS x
(6.16)
Where:
Depth of flow at the curb (m, ft)
The coefficient E0, as well as the variables Qw and Qs, are introduced as:
Q w = E 0Q
(6.17)
Q s = Q Q w = (1 E 0 )Q
(6.18)
E 0 = 1 1 Wg /T 2.67
Where:
Q
Qw
=
=
(6.19)
Total pavement flow (m3/s, ft3/s)

Frontal flow (portion of flow over the grate width Wg)
(m3/s, ft3/s)
48

E0
Qs
Wg
=
=
=
Ratio of flow above the grate to total flow

Side flow (flow outside of the grate width) (m3/s, ft3/s)
Grate width (m, ft)
&RPSRVLWH*XWWHU6HFWLRQ
Figure 6.3
Composite Gutter
Section
In the case of a composite gutter section, the coefficient E0, as well as the variables
Qw and Qs are defined as:
Q w = E 0Q
(6.20)
Qs = Q Q w = (1 E 0 )Q
(6.21)
Where:
Qw
E0
Q
Qs
=
=
=
Frontal flow (portion of the flow in the depressed gutter)

(m3/s, ft3/s)
Ratio of flow in the depressed gutter to the total flow
Total pavement flow (m3/s, ft3/s)
Side flow (portion of the flow outside of the depressed
gutter (m3/s, ft3/s)
E0 can then be derived from Mannings equation as:
S
E0 = 1/1 + w
Sx
Where:
Sw
W
2.67
1 + Sw Sx
1
(T W) - 1
=
=
(6.22)
Gutter cross-slope (m/m, ft/ft)

Width of the depressed gutter (or the grate width if it is
smaller) (m, ft)
The continuously depressed gutter is also sometimes defined by a gutter depression,

a, defined as:
49
Sw = Sx +
a
1000W
Where:
(or Sw = Sx +
a
in English units)
12W
(6.23)
Gutter depression (mm, in)
Gutter depression is the depression of the gutter relative to the street crossslope projection. It is also identified as a continuously depressed gutter
because the gutter is depressed along its full length.

)ORZLQ'LWFKRU0HGLDQ6HFWLRQRQ*UDGH
Figure 6.4
Ditch
Cross-Section
The discharge Q in a ditch or median section is expressed as:
Q=
z + z2 2
K c Bd + 1
d
2
1.67
n B + d 1 + z12 + 1 + z 22
Where:
Q
=
Kc =
n
=
B
=
d
=
z1, z2 =
SL =
S 0.5
L
0.67
(6.24)
Discharge rate (m3/s, ft3/s)

Mannings coefficient
Ditch width (m, ft)
Water depth (m, ft)
Ratio H:V for the ditch side slopes (m/m, ft/ft)
Ditch longitudinal slope (m/m, ft/ft)
The ratio E0 of frontal flow (over the grate) to total flow is:
E0 =
W
z + z2
B + d 1
Where:
Grate width (m, ft)
(6.25)
50

,QOHW$QDO\VLV
Inlets are divided into 4 categories, as illustrated in the following figure:
Figure 6.5
Inlet Types
For details on each type of inlet, refer to the HEC-22 Manual Chapter 4, included in
Chapter 7.
Do not confuse gutter depression and local depression:

The gutter depression is the depression of the gutter relative to the pavement
normal cross-slope named a on the figure below, which shows a gutter and
inlet cross-section. It is also referred to as a continuously depressed gutter.
The local depression is the depression at the location of the inlet (a in the
figure below). It does not exist in the gutter upstream or downstream of the
inlet. It is measured from the gutter slope.
Figure 6.6
Continuous Gutter
Depression and
Local Depression
51
Figure 6.6 illustrates the concept of local depression versus gutter depression used by
HEC-22, with
a total = a + a
Where:
(6.26)
a
=
a
=
atotal =

Local depression (mm, in)
Total depression at the location of the inlet (mm, in)
,QOHWVRQ*UDGH
Inlets located on a grade (SL > 0) are characterized by an efficiency, E, for a given
set of conditions:
E=
Qi
Q
Where:
(6.27)
E
Q
Qi
=
=
=
Inlet efficiency (unitless)

Total gutter flow (m3/s, ft3/s)
Intercepted flow (m3/s, ft3/s)
The flow that is not intercepted is called carryover or bypass flow. It is defined as
follows:
Qb = Q - Qi
Where:

Qb
(6.28)
=
Bypass flow (m3/s, ft3/s)
*UDWH,QOHWRQ*UDGH
Figure 6.7
Grate Inlet
As previously defined, the total gutter flow, Q, is composed of a frontal flow Qw and
a side flow Qs.
The ratio R f of frontal flow intercepted to total frontal flow is expressed as:
R f = 1 K cf (V V0 )
Where:
Kcf
(6.29)
52

V
V0
=
=
Average velocity in the gutter (m/s, ft/s)

Gutter velocity at which splash-over first occurs (m/s,
ft/s)
If V < V0, then Rf = 1 (all the frontal flow is intercepted).

Note also that Rf cannot exceed 1.0. The splash-over velocity, V0 is a function of
the grate type and the grate length, L.
The frontal flow intercepted, Qwi, is:
Q wi = R f Q w
(6.30)
The ratio R s of side flow intercepted to total side flow is expressed as:
K cs V 1.8
= 1/ 1 +
S x L 2.3
Where:
Kcs
L
=
=
(6.31)

Grate length (m, ft)
The side flow intercepted, Qsi, is therefore:
Qsi = R sQs
(6.32)
The total flow intercepted is:
Qi = Q wi + Qsi
Where:
Qi
(6.33)
=
Total flow intercepted (m3/s, cfs)
The bypass flow is then:
Q b = Q Qi
Where:
Qb
(6.34)
=
Bypass flow (m3/s, cfs)
The efficiency of the grate is expressed as:
E = R f E 0 + R s (1 E 0 )
(6.35)
E = Qi Q
(6.36)
or:

53
&XUE,QOHWRQ*UDGH

Figure 6.8
Curb Inlet
The curb opening length LT that would be required to intercept 100% of a flow Q on
a pavement with a uniform cross slope is computed as:
1
L T = K C Q 0.42 S0.3
L
nS x
Where:
LT
Kc
0.6
(6.37)
Curb opening length required to intercept 100% of the

gutter flow (m, ft)
In order to account for a locally or continually depressed gutter, an equivalent cross

slope, S e, is computed:
Figure 6.9
Composite
Gutter Section
Sw is calculated as:
Sw =
a total
1000W
Where:
(or Sw =
Sw
Sw
a total
12W
in English units)
(6.38)
Gutter cross slope at the inlet location measured from

the pavement cross slope (m/m, ft/ft)
Gutter cross slope upstream of the inlet (does not
account for local depression) (m/m, ft/ft)
54

atotal =
W
Total depression at the inlet location (includes local and

continuous gutter depression) (mm, in)
Larger of the gutter width and the local depression width
(m, ft)
The curb opening length LT that would be required to intercept 100% of a flow Q on
a pavement with a composite cross slope at the location of the inlet is:
LT =
K T Q0.42S0.3
L
nSe
0.6
(6.39)
The efficiency E of a curb opening shorter than the required length for total
interception is:
L
E = 1 1
L
T
Where:

1.8
(6.40)
Curb opening length (m, ft)
6ORW,QOHWRQ*UDGH

Figure 6.10
Slot Inlet
The efficiency of a Slotted Inlet on Grade with an opening width greater than or
equal to 45 mm (1.75 in) is calculated using the same equations as for a curbopening inlet of the same length.

55
&RPELQDWLRQ,QOHWRQ*UDGH

Figure 6.11
Combination
Inlet
HEC-22 distinguishes two cases:

The grate and the curb opening are placed side by side. In this case, the flow
interception by the curb opening is negligible, and the capacity of the combination
inlet is identical to that of the grate alone.
The curb opening is extended upstream of the grate in order to intercept debris that
could otherwise clog the grate inlet. The flow intercepted by the combination inlet is
calculated as the flow intercepted by the curb opening upstream of the grate inlet,
plus the portion of the remaining flow intercepted by the grate.
,QOHWVLQ6DJ
In contrast with inlets on grade, the efficiency of an inlet located in sag is always
assumed to be 1.0 (or 100%).
Inlets in sag location operate as weirs at low water depth and as orifices at
higher depth.
Grate inlets alone are not recommended, as clogging of the grate is likely to
occur.

*UDWH,QOHWLQ6DJ
Figure 6.12
Grate Inlet
The flow Qiw intercepted by a grate inlet operating as a weir is:
56
Qiw = C w Pd1.5
Where:
(6.41)
Cw
P
=
=
Weir coefficient, Cw = 1.66 (3.0 in English units)

Perimeter of the grate, disregarding the side along the
curb (m, ft)
Flow depth at the curb (m, ft)
The flow Qio intercepted by a grate inlet operating as an orifice is:
Qiw = C w Pd1.5
Where:
Co
Ag
g
(6.42)
=
=
=
Orifice coefficient, Co = 0.67

Clear opening of the grate (m2, ft2)
The clear opening area depends on the opening ratio of the grate (HEC-22
assigns an opening ratio for each grate type), as well as the clogging factor you
specify.
The intercepted flow Qi is conservatively calculated at any flow depth by using the
lesser of ht eintercepted flows computed using the weir or orifice equation:
Qi = min(Qiw , Qio )
(6.43)
This accounts for the three stages: weir flow, orifice flow and transitional flow.

&XUE,QOHWLQ6DJ
Figure 6.13
Curb Inlet
Curb inlets are divided into 3 categories, based on their throat geometry: horizontal
(most common), vertical, and inclined, as defined in the figure below.
57
Figure 6.14
Curb Inlet
Throat Types
Where:
h
di
do
=
=
=
Height of the curb opening inlet (m, ft)

Water depth at the lip of the curb opening (m, ft)
Effective head measured from the center of the orifice
throat (m, ft)
Throat angle for inclined throat inlets
:HLU)ORZ
A curb inlet in a sag, without a locally or continuously depressed gutter, operates as a
weir for depths at curb (measured from the normal cross slope) that are less than or
equal to the curb opening height.
This condition can be expressed as:
dh
Where:
(6.44)
Depth at curb (m, ft), i.e., d = TSx
In the case of a depressed curb opening (local depression) or a continuously

depressed gutter, the previous condition becomes:
d+
a total
h
1000
Where:
atotal
D
(d +
=
=
a total
h in English units)
12
(6.45)
Total depression measured at the inlet (mm, in)

Depth at curb measured from the normal cross-slope (m,
ft), i.e., d = TSx.
The intercepted flow Qiw by a curb-opening inlet operating as a weir, with a locally
or continuously depressed gutter, is:
Qiw = Cw1 (L + 1.8W)d1.5

Where:
Cw1
L
W
=
=
=
Weir coefficient, Cw1 = 1.25 (2.3 in English units)

Curb opening length (m, ft)
Lateral width of depression (m, ft)
(6.46)
58

However, if L is greater than or equal to 3.6 m (12 ft), then the following equation is
used, which is the same as the equation for curb-opening inlets without depression:
Q iw = C w2 Ld1.5
Where:
(6.47)
Cw2 =
Cw2 =
Weir coefficient
2ULILFH)ORZ
A curb inlet in a sump operates as an orifice for depths at the lip of a curb opening
that are greater than 1.4 times the curb opening height:
d i 1 .4 h
(6.48)
The intercepted flow Qio by a curb-opening inlet (depressed or undepressed)

operating as an orifice is:
Qio = Co hL(2gdo )0.5
(6.49a)
which is also expressed as:
Qio = Co hL 2g(di - sin)

2
with:
0.5
(6.49b)
=
90
for horizontal throat inlets
=
for vertical throat inlets
7UDQVLWLRQ)ORZ
At depths between 1.0 and 1.4 times the opening height, the flow is in a transition
stage.
This intercepted flow Qi is calculated conservatively in this depth range as:
Qi = min(Qiw , Qio )

(6.50)
6ORW,QOHWLQ6DJ
:HLU)ORZ
Slotted inlets located in sag operate as weirs to water depths, d (measured at the curb
from the normal cross slope), of about 0.06 m (0.2ft).
The intercepted flow Qiw is expressed as:
Q iw = C w Ld1.5
Where:
(6.51)
Cw = Weir coefficient; varies with flow depth and slot
59
length.
Cw = 1.4 (2.48 in English units)
d = Water depth at curb measured from the normal cross
slope (m, ft)
L = Slot length (m, ft)
Typically,
2ULILFH)ORZ
At water depths (measured at the curb) greater than about 0.12 m (0.4 ft), slotted
inlets perform as orifices.
The intercepted flow Qio is expressed as:
Q io = 0.8LW(2gd) 0.5
Where:
W
d
=
=
(6.52)
Slot width (m, ft)
Water depth at the slot (m, ft)
7UDQVLWLRQDO)ORZ
At depths between 0.06 m (measured at the slot from the normal cross slope) and
0.12 m, the flow is in a transition stage.
The intercepted flow Qi is conservatively calculated in this depth range as:
Q i = min(Q iw , Q io )

(6.53)
&RPELQDWLRQ,QOHWLQ6DJ
According to HEC-22, combination inlets are considered advisable for use in sags
where hazardous ponding occurs.
(TXDO/HQJWK,QOHWV
Equal length inlets refer to a grate inlet placed along the side of a curb-opening inlet
of identical length.
At lower flow depths, the grate inlet is operating as a weir and the interception
capacity of the curb is negligible (unless the grate is clogged, in which case the curb
is intercepting some flow). The flow Qiw intercepted by the combination is then:
Qiw = C w Pd1.5
Where:
(6.54)
Cw
P
=
=
Weir coefficient, Cw = 1.66 (3.0 in English units)

Perimeter of the grate, disregarding the side along the
curb (m, ft)
Flow depth at the curb (m, ft)
At higher flow depths, both the grate inlet and the curb-opening inlet are operating as
orifices.
The flow Qio intercepted by the combination inlet operating as an orifice is:
60
Q io = C o A g (2gd) 0.5 + C o hL(2gd 0 ) 0.5

Where:
Co
Ag
g
h
do
=
=
=
=
=
(6.55)
Orifice coefficient; Co = 0.67

Clear opening of the grate (m2, ft2)
9.81 m/s2 (32.16 ft/s2)
Height of the curb opening inlet (m, ft)
Head measured from the center of the orifice throat (m,
ft)
The clear opening area of the grate depends on the opening ratio of the grate
(HEC-22 defines an opening ratio for each grate type), as well as the clogging
factor you specify.
6ZHHSHU,QOHW
A sweeper inlet refers to a grate inlet placed at the downstream end of a longer curbopening inlet. A sweeper inlet is more efficient than an equal length combination
inlet in intercepting debris.
Note that since the HEC-22 manual is not very explicit about this type of inlet in sag,
some assumptions were made in order to define the flows for this inlet.
The flow Qi intercepted by a sweeper inlet is the sum of the flow Qie as calculated
above for an equal length combination inlet of length L (where L is the length of the
grate) and the flow Qic intercepted by the additional length L (upsteam of the grate)
of the curb opening:
Q i = Q ie + Q ic

(6.56)
:HLU)ORZ
Sharp-crested and non-sharp-crested weirs are the two profiles generally associated
with weir flow. Sharp-crested weirs are usually used for measuring a discharge,
based on the water height. Non-sharp-crested weirs are usually part of a hydraulic
structure, such as an overflowing embankment or roadway.

6KDUS&UHVWHG:HLUV
A sharp-crested weir has a sharp upstream edge formed so that the water flows clear
of the crest. FlowMaster handles weir calculations for unsubmerged (free discharge)
and submerged (backwater effect) sharp-crested weirs.
61
5HFWDQJXODU6KDUS&UHVWHG:HLU
Figure 6.15
Rectangular
Sharp-Crested
Weir
The discharge over an unsubmerged rectangular sharp-crested weir is defined as:
Q = C(L - 0.1iH )H 3 2
Where:
Q
C
L
i
H
(6.57)
= Discharge over the weir (m3/s, cfs)
= Weir coefficient; C = 1.84 (3.33 in English units) is
typically used for this type of weir
= Weir opening width (m, ft)
= Number of contractions (i = 0, 1 or 2)
= Head above the bottom of the opening (m, ft)
i = 0 corresponds to the case of a suppressed rectangular weir, for which the channel
width is equal to the weir opening length, and yields the equation:
Q = CLH 3 2
(6.58)
i = 2 corresponds to the case of a contracted rectangular weir.
91RWFK6KDUS&UHVWHG:HLU

Figure 6.16
V-Notch
Sharp-Crested
Weir
62

The discharge over an unsubmerged V-Notch sharp-crested weir is defined as:
Q=C
2g tan H 5 / 2
15
2
Where:
Q
C

= Coefficient of discharge; C = 0.58 is typically used
for a 90o V-Notch weir
= Angle of notch (deg)

= Head above the bottom of the notch (m, ft)

+HDG
Table 6.1
:HLU$QJOH
IHHW

V-Notch Weir
Coefficient of
Discharge3
(6.59)
GHJUHHV

Coefficients for sharp-crested V-notched weirs vary with the angle of the notch and
with head depth. For detailed discussion on discharge coefficients for various weir
configurations, review the references noted at the bottom of this page.1,2,3
Brater, Ernest F. and Horace Williams King, Handbook of Hydraulics, McGrawHill Book Company, New York, 1976.
Shen, John, Discharge Characteristics of Triangular Notch Thin-Plate Weirs,

Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1617-B, U.S Dept. of Interior, 1981.
Derived from table in: Van Haveren, Bruce P., Water Resource Measurements,
American Water Works Assoc.,1986.
63
&LSROOHWWL6KDUS&UHVWHG:HLU

Figure 6.17
Cipolletti
Sharp-Crested
Weir
Cipolletti weirs are trapezoidal with 1:4 slopes to compensate for end contraction
losses. The equation generally accepted for computing the discharge through an
unsubmerged sharp-crested Cipolletti weir with complete contraction is:
Metric Units:
U.S. Units:
Q = 1.86LH 3 2
Q = 3.367LH 3 2
Where:
Q
L
H
(6.60)

= Bottom of the notch width (m, ft)
= Head above the bottom of the opening (m, ft)
6XEPHUJHG6KDUS&UHVWHG:HLU
If the sharp-crested weir is submerged as illustrated in the figure above (with H2 > 0),
then the flow Q1 that would be obtained without submergence, using one of the
equations above, is corrected as follows to obtain the flow Q over the weir1:
Brater, Ernest F. and Horace Williams King, Handbook of Hydraulics, McGrawHill Book Company, New York, 1976.
Figure 6.18
Submerged
Sharp-Crested
Weir
64
H
Q = Q1 1 2
H1
Where:
Q
Q1
0.385
H1
H2
n

(6.61)

= Discharge over the weir opening that would be
obtained without submergence at head H1 (m3/s, cfs)
= Head above the weir crest (m, ft)
= Downstream head above the weir (m, ft)
= Exponent in the corresponding weir equation with no
submergence (3/2 or 5/2 in the cases above)
1RQ6KDUS&UHVWHG:HLUV
For the following types of weirs, the weir coefficients are strongly dependent on the
weir shape, width (measured in the flow direction) and the upstream head. It is
recommended to use values from a reference book as a starting point, and when
possible, calibrate these coefficients.
%URDG&UHVWHG:HLU
A broad-crested weir has a crest that extends horizontally in the direction of flow far
enough to support the nappe (sheet of water flowing over the crest of the weir) so
that hydrostatic pressures are fully developed for at least some short distance.
In order to model Embankment or Roadway overtopping, the Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA) has developed a methodology that can be found in the
manual FHWA, HDS No. 5, Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts, 1985, which
uses the general broad-crested weir equation, in English units:
Q = C d LH 3r 2
Where:
Figure 6.19
Broad-Crested
Weir
(6.62)
Q
Cd
L
Hr
=
=
=
=
Discharge over the weir (m3/s, cfs)

Weir coefficient defined below in English units
Length of the roadway crest (m, ft)
Overtopping depth (m, ft)
65
The overtopping discharge coefficient Cd is a function of the submergence using the

equation:
Cd = k t Cr
(6.63)
The variables kt and Cr are defined in the following figures, reproduced from the
manual FHWA, HDS No.5, Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts, 1985. The first
two figures are used by FlowMaster to derive the base weir coefficient Cr resulting
from deep and shallow overtopping, respectively. The submergence correction kt is
determined implicitly using the third figure.
Figure 6.20
Discharge
coefficient
C, for Hr/Lr
> 0.15
Figure 6.21
Discharge
coefficient
C, for Hr/Lr
< 0.15
Figure 6.22
Submergence
factor, kt
66
7ULDQJXODUDQG7UDSH]RLGDO:HLU
The discharge over a triangular or trapezoidal weir is:
Q = CLH 3 2
(6.64)
Where:
Q
C
L
H
=
=
=
=
Discharge over the weir (m3/s, cfs)

Weir coefficient
Weir length (m, ft)
Head above the weir crest (m, ft)
Model these weirs by using the Generic Weir in FlowMaster, entering the
appropriate coefficient. The weir coefficient is a function of the upstream head and
the shape of the weir.

2ULILFH)ORZ

Figure 6.23
Orifice Flow
(schematic)
The orifice equation is defined as:
Q = CA 2gH
Where:
Q
C
A
g
H
(6.65)
=
=
=
=
=
Flow (m3/s, cfs)

Orifice coefficient
Flow area (m2, ft2)
Head (m, ft)
2ULILFH&RHIILFLHQWV
Although these coefficients vary with shape, size, and head depth, an average C
coefficient of 0.60 is often used for storm water orifice openings. A list of orifice
coefficients for various heads and sizes of circular, square, rectangular, and
triangular shapes can be found in the Handbook of Hydraulics, by Brater et Al. (see
References).
67
6OXLFH*DWH
Gates have the hydraulic properties of orifices. Therefore, the discharge through a
sluice gate is:
Q = CA 2gH
Where:
(6.66)
Q
C
A
g
H
=
=
=
=
=
Flow (m3/s, cfs)

Orifice coefficient
Flow area through the gate (m2, ft2)
Head (m, ft)
Model a sluice gate by using the Generic Orifice in FlowMaster, entering the
appropriate coefficient.

3UHVVXUH3LSH
In hydraulic applications, energy is often converted into units of energy per unit
weight, resulting in units of length. Using these length equivalents gives engineers a
better feel for the resulting behavior of the system. When using these length
equivalents, the user is expressing the state of the system in terms of head. The
energy at any point within a hydraulic system is often represented in three parts:
Pressure Head:
p/
Elevation Head:
Velocity Head:
V 2 /2g
Where:
Pressure (N/m2, lb/ft2)
z
V
g
=
=
=
=
Specific weight (N/m3, lb/ft3)

Elevation (m, ft)
Velocity (m/s, ft/s)
Balancing the energy at the two ends of a pressure pipe, the energy equation can be
reduced to:
p1
+ z1 =
Where:
p2
hL
+ z2 + hL
=
Friction headloss (m, ft)
+\GUDXOLF*UDGHDQG(QHUJ\*UDGH
The hydraulic grade is the sum of the pressure head ( p/ ) and elevation head ( z ).
The hydraulic head represents the height to which a water column would rise in a
piezometer. The plot of the hydraulic gradein a profile is often referred to as the
hydraulic grade line, or HGL.
The energy grade is the sum of the hydraulic grade and the velocity head ( V2 / 2g ).
This is the height to which a column of water would rise in a pitot tube. The plot of
the hydraulic grade in a profile is often referred to as the energy grade line, or EGL.
Notes
69
&KDSWHU

3DYHPHQW'UDLQDJH

PLEASE NOTE:
This chapter was extracted from the Urban Drainage Design Manual,
Hydraulic Engineering Circular Number 22 (HEC-22), Pavement Drainage;
published by the Federal Highway Administration in November 1996. All
charts referred to in this chapter are provided in Appendix A. The HEC-22
methodology is used by FlowMaster to perform flow computations through
inlets.
FlowMaster performs hydraulic computations for analyzing or sizing one inlet

at a time. For analyzing or designing an entire storm sewer network, Haestad
Methods offers StormCAD, which also follows the HEC-22 methodology for
inlet computations.
Effective drainage of highway pavements is essential to the maintenance of highway

service level and to traffic safety. Water on the pavement can interrupt traffic,
reduce skid resistance, increase potential for hydroplaning, limit visibility due to
splash and spray, and cause difficulty in steering a vehicle when the front wheels
encounter puddles.
Pavement drainage requires consideration of surface drainage, gutter flow, and inlet
capacity. The design of these elements is dependent on storm frequency and the
allowable spread of storm water on the pavement surface. This chapter presents
design guidance for the design of these elements. Most of the information presented
here was originally published in HEC-12, Drainage of Highway Pavements, and
AASHTOs Model Drainage Manual.

'HVLJQ)UHTXHQF\DQG6SUHDG
Two of the more significant variables considered in the design of highway pavement
drainage are the frequency of the design runoff event and the allowable spread of
water on the pavement. A related consideration is the use of an event of lesser
frequency to check the drainage design.
70
Chapter 7 Pavement Drainage

Spread and design frequency are not independent. The implications of the use of a
criterion for spread of one-half of a traffic lane are considerably different for one
design frequency than for a lesser frequency. It also has different implications for a
low-traffic, low-speed highway than for a higher classification highway. These
subjects are central to the issue of highway pavement drainage and important to
highway safety.

6HOHFWLRQRI'HVLJQ)UHTXHQF\DQG'HVLJQ6SUHDG
The objective of highway storm drainage design is to provide for safe passage of
vehicles during the design storm event. The design of a drainage system for a curbed
highway pavement section is to collect runoff in the gutter and convey it to pavement
inlets in a manner that provides reasonable safety for traffic and pedestrians at a
reasonable cost. As spread from the curb increases, the risks of traffic accidents and
delays, and the nuisance and possible hazard to pedestrian traffic increase.
The process of selecting the recurrence interval and spread for design involves
decisions regarding acceptable risks of accidents and traffic delays and acceptable
costs for the drainage system. Risks associated with water on traffic lanes are greater
with high traffic volumes, high speeds, and higher highway classifications than with
lower volumes, speeds, and highway classifications.
A summary of the major considerations that enter into the selection of design
frequency and design spread follows:
1.
The classification of the highway is a good starting point in the selection process
since it defines the publics expectations regarding water on the pavement
surface. Ponding on traffic lanes of high-speed, high-volume highways is
contrary to the publics expectations and thus the risks of accidents and the costs
of traffic delays are high.
2.
Design speed is important to the selection of design criteria. At speeds greater

than 70 km/hr (44 mi/hr), it has been shown that water on the pavement can
cause hydroplaning.
3.
Projected traffic volumes are an indicator of the economic importance of

keeping the highway open to traffic. The costs of traffic delays and accidents
increase with increasing traffic volumes.
4.
The intensity of rainfall events may significantly affect the selection of design
frequency and spread. Risks associated with the spread of water on pavements
may be less in arid areas subject to high intensity thunderstorm events than in
areas accustomed to frequent but less intense events.
5.
Capital costs are neither the least nor last consideration. Cost considerations
make it necessary to formulate a rational approach to the selection of design
criteria. "Tradeoffs" between desirable and practicable criteria are sometimes
necessary because of costs. In particular, the costs and feasibility of providing
for a given design frequency and spread may vary significantly between
projects. In some cases, it may be practicable to significantly upgrade the
drainage design and reduce risks at moderate costs. In other instances, such as
where extensive outfalls or pumping stations are required, costs may be very
sensitive to the criteria selected for use in design.

Other considerations include inconvenience, hazards, and nuisances to pedestrian
traffic. These considerations should not be minimized and, in some locations such as
in commercial areas, may assume major importance. Local design practice may also
be a major consideration since it can affect the feasibility of designing to higher
standards, and it influences the publics perception of acceptable practice.
The relative elevation of the highway and surrounding terrain is an additional
consideration where water can be drained only through a storm drainage system, as
in underpasses and depressed sections. The potential for ponding to hazardous
depths should be considered in selecting the frequency and spread criteria and in
checking the design against storm runoff events of lesser frequency than the design
event.
Spread on traffic lanes can be tolerated to greater widths where traffic volumes and
speeds are low. Spreads of one-half of a traffic lane or more are usually considered a
minimum type design for low-volume local roads.
The selection of design criteria for intermediate types of facilities may be the most
difficult. For example, some arterials with relatively high traffic volumes and speeds
may not have shoulders which will convey the design runoff without encroaching on
the traffic lanes. In these instances, an assessment of the relative risks and costs of
various design spreads may be helpful in selecting appropriate design criteria. Table
7-1 provides suggested minimum design frequencies and spread based on the type of
highway and traffic speed.
The recommended design frequency for depressed sections and underpasses where
ponded water can be removed only through the storm drainage system is a 50-year
frequency event. The use of a lesser frequency event, such as a 100-year storm, to
assess hazards at critical locations where water can pond to appreciable depths is
commonly referred to as a check storm or check event.

6HOHFWLRQRI&KHFN6WRUPDQG6SUHDG
A check storm should be used any time runoff could cause unacceptable flooding
during less frequent events. Also, inlets should always be evaluated for a check
storm when a series of inlets terminates at a sag vertical curve where ponding to
hazardous depths could occur.
The frequency selected for the check storm should be based on the same
considerations used to select the design storm, i.e., the consequences of spread
exceeding that chosen for design and the potential for ponding. Where no significant
ponding can occur, check storms are normally unnecessary.
Criteria for spread during the check event are: 1) one lane open to traffic during the
check storm event, and 2) one lane free of water during the check storm event.
These criteria differ substantively, but each sets a standard by which the design can
be evaluated.
71
72
ROAD CLASSIFICATION
Table 7-1
Suggested
minimum
design
frequency
and spread
DESIGN
SPREAD
High Volume,
<70 km/hr (45 mph)
10-year
Shoulder + 1m (3 ft)
Divided, or
>70 km/hr (45 mph)
10-year
Shoulder
Bi-Directional
Sag Point
50-year
Shoulder + 1m (3 ft)
<70 km/hr (45 mph)
10-year
Driving Lane
>70 km/hr (45 mph)
10-year
Shoulder
Sag Point
10-year
Driving Lane
Low ADT
High ADT
Sag Point
5-year
10-year
10-year
Driving Lane
Driving Lane
Driving Lane
Collector
Local Streets

DESIGN
FREQUENCY
6XUIDFH'UDLQDJH
When rain falls on a sloped pavement surface, it forms a thin film of water that
increases in thickness as it flows to the edge of the pavement. Factors which
influence the depth of water on the pavement are the length of flow path, surface
texture, surface slope, and rainfall intensity. As the depth of water on the pavement
increases, the potential for vehicular hydroplaning increases. For the purposes of
highway drainage, a discussion of hydroplaning is presented and design guidance for
the following drainage elements is presented:
longitudinal pavement slope
cross or transverse pavement slope
curb and gutter design
roadside and median ditches
bridge decks
median barriers
impact attenuators
Additional technical information on the mechanics of surface drainage can be found

in Improved Surface Drainage of Pavements, published by the Federal Highway
Administration in 1995.

+\GURSODQLQJ
As the depth of water flowing over a roadway surface increases, the potential for
hydroplaning increases. When a rolling tire encounters a film of water on the
roadway, the water is channeled through the tire tread pattern and through the
surface roughness of the pavement. Hydroplaning occurs when the drainage
capacity of the tire tread pattern and the pavement surface is exceeded and the water
begins to build up in front of the tire. As the water builds up, a water wedge is
created and this wedge produces a hydrodynamic force which can lift the tire off the
pavement surface. This is considered as full dynamic hydroplaning and, since water
offers little shear resistance, the tire loses its tractive ability and the driver has a loss
of control of the vehicle.
Hydroplaning is a function of the water depth, roadway geometrics, vehicle speed,
tread depth, tire inflation pressure, and conditions of the pavement surface. It has
been shown that hydroplaning can occur at speeds of 89 km/hr (55 mph) with a water
depth of 2 mm (0.08 in). The following can reduce the hydroplaning potential of a
roadway surface:

1.
Design the highway geometries to reduce the drainage path lengths of the water
flowing over the pavement. This will prevent flow build-up.
2.
Increase the pavement surface texture depth by such methods as grooving of

Portland cement concrete. An increase of pavement surface texture will increase
the drainage capacity at the tire pavement interface.
3.
The use of open graded asphaltic pavements has been shown to greatly reduce
the hydroplaning potential of the roadway surface. This reduction is due to the
ability of the water to be forced through the pavement under the tire. This
releases any hydrodynamic pressures that are created and reduces the potential
for the tire to hydroplane.
4.
The use of drainage structures along the roadway to capture the flow of water
over the pavement will reduce the thickness of the film of water and reduce the
hydroplaning potential of the roadway surface.
/RQJLWXGLQDO6ORSH
Experience has shown that the recommended minimum values of roadway
longitudinal slope given in the AASHTO Policy on Geometric Design will provide
safe, acceptable pavement drainage. In addition, the following general guidelines are
presented:
1.
A minimum longitudinal gradient is more important for a curbed pavement than

for an uncurbed pavement since the water is constrained by the curb. However,
flat gradients on uncurbed pavements can lead to a spread problem if vegetation
is allowed to build up along the pavement edge.
2.
Desirable gutter grades should not be less than 0.5 percent for curbed pavements
with an absolute minimum of 0.3 percent. Minimum grades can be maintained
in very flat terrain by use of a rolling profile, or by warping the cross slope to
achieve rolling gutter profiles.
3.
To provide adequate drainage in sag vertical curves, a minimum slope of 0.3

percent should be maintained within 15 meters (50 ft) of the low point of the
curve. This is accomplished where the length of the curve in meters divided by
73
74

the algebraic difference in grades in percent (K) is equal to or less than 50 (167
in English units). This is represented as:
K=
L
G 2 - G1
Where:

(7.1)
K
L
Gi
=
=
=
Vertical curve constant (m/percent, ft/percent)

Horizontal length of curve (m /ft)
Grade of roadway (percent)
&URVV7UDQVYHUVH6ORSH

Table 7-2 indicates an acceptable range of cross slopes as specified in AASHTOs
policy on geometric design of highways and streets. These cross slopes are a
compromise between the need for reasonably steep cross slopes for drainage and
relatively flat cross slopes for driver comfort and safety. These cross slopes
represent standard practice. Reference 21 should be consulted before deviating from
these values.
As reported in Pavement and Geometric Design Criteria for Minimizing
Hydroplaning, cross slopes of 2 percent have little effect on driver effort in steering
or on friction demand for vehicle stability. Use of a cross slope steeper than 2
percent on pavements with a central crown line is not desirable. In areas of intense
rainfall, a somewhat steeper cross slope (2.5 percent) may be used to facilitate
drainage.
On multi-lane highways where three (3) lanes or more are sloped in the same
direction, it is desirable to counter the resulting increase in flow depth by increasing
the cross slope of the outermost lanes. The two (2) lanes adjacent to the crown line
should be pitched at the normal slope, and successive lane pairs, or portions thereof
outward, should be increased by about 0.5 to 1 percent. The maximum pavement
cross slope should be limited to 4 percent (refer to table 7-2).
Additional guidelines related to cross slope are:
1.
Although not widely encouraged, inside lanes can be sloped toward the median
if conditions warrant.
2.
Median areas should not be drained across travel lanes.
3.
The number and length of flat pavement sections in cross slope transition areas
should be minimized. Consideration should be given to increasing cross slopes
in sag vertical curves, crest vertical curves, and in sections of flat longitudinal
grades.
4.
Shoulders should be sloped to drain away from the pavement, except with
raised, narrow medians and super-elevations.

75
&XUEDQG*XWWHU
Curbs are normally used at the outside edge of pavements for low-speed, highway
facilities, and in some instances adjacent to shoulders on moderate to high-speed
facilities. They serve the following purposes:
contain the surface runoff within the roadway and away from adjacent
properties,
prevent erosion on fill slopes,
provide pavement delineation, and
enable the orderly development of property adjacent to the roadway.
SURFACE TYPE
RANGE IN RATE OF SURFACE

SLOPE
High-Type Surface
2-Lanes
0.015 - 0.020
3 or more lanes, each direction
0.015 minimum; increase 0.005 to

0.010 per lane; 0.040 maximum
Intermediate Surface
0.015 - 0.030
Low-Type Surface
0.020 - 0.060
Shoulders
Bituminous or Concrete
0.020 - 0.060
With Curbs
> 0.040
Gutters formed in combination with curbs are available in 0.3 through 1.0 meter (12
through 39 inch) widths. Gutter cross slopes may be equal to that of the pavement or
may be designed with a steeper cross slope, usually 80 mm per meter (1 inch per
foot) steeper than the shoulder or parking lane (if used). AASHTO geometric
guidelines state that an 8% slope is a common maximum cross slope.
A curb and gutter combination forms a triangular channel that can convey runoff less
than or equal to the design flow without interruption of the traffic. When a design
flow occurs, there is a spread or widening of the conveyed water surface. The water
spreads to include not only the gutter width, but also parking lanes or shoulders, and
portions of the traveled surface. Spread is what concerns the hydraulic engineer in
curb and gutter flow. The distance of the spread, T, is measured perpendicular to the
curb face to the extent of the water on the roadway and is shown in figure 7.1.
Limiting this width becomes a very important design criterion and will be discussed
in detail in section 7.3.
Table 7-2
Normal
Pavement
Cross Slopes
76

Where practical, runoff from cut slopes and other areas draining toward the roadway
should be intercepted before it reaches the highway. By doing so, the deposition of
sediment and other debris on the roadway as well as the amount of water which must
be carried in the gutter section will be minimized. Where curbs are not needed for
traffic control, shallow ditch sections at the edge of the roadway pavement or
shoulder offer advantages over curbed sections by providing less of a hazard to
traffic than a near-vertical curb and by providing hydraulic capacity that is not
dependent on spread on the pavement. These ditch sections are particularly
appropriate where curbs have historically been used to prevent water from eroding
fill slopes.

5RDGVLGHDQG0HGLDQ&KDQQHOV
Figure 7.1
Typical
Gutter
Sections
Roadside channels are commonly used with uncurbed roadway sections to convey
runoff from the highway pavement and from areas which drain toward the highway.
Due to right-of-way limitations, roadside channels cannot be used on most urban
arterials. They can be used in cut sections, depressed sections, and other locations
where sufficient right-of-way is available and driveways or intersections are
infrequent.
To prevent drainage from the median areas from running across the travel lanes,
slope median areas and inside shoulders to a center swale. This design is particularly
important for high speed facilities and for facilities with more than two lanes of
traffic in each direction.

%ULGJH'HFNV
Bridge deck drainage is similar to that of curbed roadway sections. Effective bridge
deck drainage is important for the following reasons:
deck structural and reinforcing steel is susceptible to corrosion from deicing

salts,
moisture on bridge decks freezes before surface roadways, and
hydroplaning often occurs at shallower depths on bridges due to the reduced

surface texture of concrete bridge decks.
Bridge deck drainage is often less efficient than roadway sections because cross
slopes are flatter, parapets collect large amounts of debris, and drainage inlets or
typical bridge scuppers are less hydraulically efficient and more easily clogged by
debris. Because of the difficulties in providing for and maintaining adequate deck
drainage systems, gutter flow from roadways should be intercepted before it reaches
a bridge. For similar reasons, zero gradients and sag vertical curves should be
avoided on bridges. Additionally, runoff from bridge decks should be collected
immediately after it flows onto the subsequent roadway section where larger grates
and inlet structures can be used.
A detailed coverage of bridge deck drainage systems is included in Design of Bridge
Deck Drainage, published by the Federal Highway Administration in 1993.

0HGLDQ%DUULHUV
Slope the shoulder areas adjacent to median barriers to the center to prevent drainage
from running across the traveled pavement. Where median barriers are used, and
particularly on horizontal curves with associated superelevations, it is necessary to
provide inlets or slotted drains to collect the water accumulated against the barrier.
Additionally, some highway department agencies use a piping system to convey
water through the barrier.

,PSDFW$WWHQXDWRUV
The location of impact attenuator systems should be reviewed to determine the need
for drainage structures in these areas. With some impact attenuator systems it is
necessary to have a clear or unobstructed opening as traffic approaches the point of
impact to allow a vehicle to impact the system head on. If the impact attenuator is
placed in an area where superelevation or other grade separation occurs, grate inlets
and/or slotted drains may be needed to prevent water from running through the clear
opening and crossing the highway lanes or ramp lanes. Curb, curb-type structures or
swales cannot be used to direct water across this clear opening as vehicle vaulting
could occur.

)ORZLQ*XWWHUV
A pavement gutter is defined, for purposes of this circular, as a section of pavement
adjacent to the roadway which conveys water during a storm runoff event. It may
include a portion or all of a travel lane.
77
78

Gutter sections can be categorized as conventional or shallow swale type as
illustrated in figure 7.1. Conventional curb and gutter sections usually have a
triangular shape with the curb forming the near-vertical leg of the triangle.
Conventional gutters may have a straight cross slope (figure 7.1, a.1.), a composite
cross slope where the gutter slope varies from the pavement cross slope (figure 7.1,
a.2.), or a parabolic section (figure 7.1, a.3.). Shallow swale gutters typically have
V-shaped or circular sections as illustrated in figure 7.1, b.1, b.2., and b.3.,
respectively, and are often used in paved median areas on roadways with inverted
crowns.

&DSDFLW\5HODWLRQVKLS
Gutter flow calculations are necessary to establish the spread of water on the
shoulder, parking lane, or pavement section. A modification of the Manning
equation can be used for computing flow in triangular channels. The modification is
necessary because the hydraulic radius in the equation does not adequately describe
the gutter cross section, particularly where the top width of the water surface may be
more than 40 times the depth at the curb. To compute gutter flow, the Manning
equation is integrated for an increment of width across the section. The resulting
equation is:
Q=
K c 1.67 0.5 2.67

Sx SL T
n
Where:
Kc
n
Q
T
Sx
SL
(7.2)
=
=
=
=
=
=

Mannings coefficient (see table 7-3)
Flow rate (m3/sec, ft3/sec)
Width of flow (spread) (m /ft)
Cross slope (m/m, ft/ft)
Longitudinal slope (m/m, ft/ft)
Equation 7.2 neglects the resistance of the curb face since this resistance is
negligible.
Spread on the pavement and flow depth at the curb are often used as criteria for
spacing pavement drainage inlets. Design chart 1 in Appendix A is a nomograph for
solving equation 7.2. The chart can be used for either criterion with the relationship:
d = TS x
Where:
(7.3)
d
Depth of flow (m, ft)
Chart 1 can be used for direct solution of gutter flow where the Manning n value is
0.016. For other values of n, divide the value of Qn by n. Instructions for use and an
example problem solution are provided on the chart.
79
TYPE OF GUTTER OR PAVEMENT
MANNINGS n
Table 7-3
Concrete gutter, troweled finish
0.012
Asphalt Pavement:
Smooth texture
0.013
Rough texture
0.016
Concrete gutter-asphalt pavement:

Smooth
0.013
Rough
0.015
Concrete pavement:
Float finish
0.014
Broom finish
0.016
For gutters with small slope, where sediment may accumulate, increase
the above values of n by 0.02
Reference: USDOT, FHWA, HDS-3

&RQYHQWLRQDO&XUEDQG*XWWHU6HFWLRQV
Conventional gutters begin at the inside base of the curb and usually extend from the
curb face toward the roadway centerline a distance of 0.3 to 1 meter. As illustrated
in figure 7.1, gutters can have uniform, composite, or curved sections. Uniform
gutter sections have a cross-slope which is equal to the cross-slope of the shoulder or
travel lane adjacent to the gutter. Gutters having composite sections are depressed in
relation to the adjacent pavement slope. That is, the paved gutter has a cross-slope
which is steeper than that of the adjacent pavement. This concept is illustrated in
example 7-1. Curved gutter sections are sometimes found along older city streets or
highways with curved pavement sections. Procedures for computing the capacity of
curb and gutter sections follow.
&RQYHQWLRQDO*XWWHUVRI8QLIRUP&URVV6ORSH
The nomograph in chart 1 solves equation 7.2 for gutters having triangular cross
sections. Example 7-1 illustrates its use for the analysis of conventional gutters with
uniform cross slope.
Example 7-1
Given: Gutter section illustrated in figure 7.1 a.1.
SL =
0.010 m/m
Sx =
0.020 m/m
0.016
Mannings n
for Street
and
Pavement
Gutters
80

Find:
(1) Spread at a flow of 0.05 m /s (1.8 ft /s)

(2) Gutter flow at a spread of 2.5 m (8.2 ft)
Solution (1):
Step 1. Compute spread, T, using equation 7.2 or from chart 1.

1.67
0.5 0.375
[(Q n)/(Km Sx
SL )]
[(0.0008)/{(0.376)(0.020)
2.7 m (8.9 ft)
1.67
0.5 0.375
(0.010) }]
Solution (2):
Step 1. Using equation 7.2 or chart 1 with T = 2.5 m (8.2 ft) and the
information given above, determine Qn.
1.67
0.5
2.67
Qn =
Km Sx
Qn =
(0.376) (0.020)
Qn =
0.00064 m /s (0.023 ft /s)
SL
1.67
(0.010)
0.5
2.67
(2.5)
Step 2. Compute Q from Qn determined in Step 1.

Q
Qn / n
0.00064 / .016
0.040 m /s (1.4 ft /s)
&RPSRVLWH*XWWHU6HFWLRQV
The design of composite gutter sections requires consideration of flow in the
depressed segment of the gutter, Qw. Equation 7.4, displayed graphically as chart 2,
is provided for use with equations 7.5 and 7.6 below and chart 1 to determine the
flow in a width of gutter in a composite cross section, W, less than the total spread,
T. The procedure for analyzing composite gutter sections is demonstrated in
example 7-2.
Eo = 1 / 1 +
/
Sw Sx
2.6 7
Sw / Sx
- 1
1 +
-1
(7.4)
81
Q w = Q - Qs
Where:
Q=
(7.5)
Qw
Q
Qs
=
=
Flow rate in the depressed section of the gutter,

(m3/s, ft3/s)
Gutter flow rate (m3/s, ft3/s)
Flow capacity of the gutter section above the
depressed section (m3/s, ft3/s)
Qs
(1 - Eo )
(7.6)
Eo
Sw
Ratio of flow in a chosen width (usually the

width of a grate) to total gutter flow (Qw/Q)
Sx + a/W (see figure 7.1 a.2)
Figure 7.2 illustrates a design chart for a composite gutter with a 0.60 m (2 foot)
wide gutter section with a 50 mm depression at the curb that begins at the projection
of the uniform cross slope at the curb face. A series of charts similar to figure 7.2
for "typical" gutter configurations could be developed.
Example 7-2
Given: Gutter section illustrated in figure 7.1 a.2 with
W
0.6 m (2 ft)
SL =
0.01
Sx =
0.020
0.016
Gutter depression, a = 50 mm (2 in)
Find:
(1) Gutter flow at a spread, T, of 2.5 m (8.2 ft)

3
Solution (1):
Step 1. Compute the cross slope of the depressed gutter, Sw, and the width of
spread from the junction of the gutter and the road to the limit of the
spread, Ts.
Sw =
a / W + Sx
Sw =
[(50)/(1000)]/(0.6) + (0.020)
Ts
T - W = 2.5 m - 0.6 m
Ts
1.9 m (6.2 ft)
0.103 m/m
Step 2. From equation 7.2 or from chart 1 (using Ts)

1.67
Qsn = Km Sx
SL
0.5
2.67
1.67
Qsn = (0.376) (0.02)
0.5
(0.01)
2.67
(1.9)
82
Figure 7.2
Spread curves
for a composite
gutter section
Qsn =
0.00031 m /s (0.011 ft /s)
Qs =
Qs / n = 0.00031 / 0.016
Qs =
0.019 m /sec (0.75 ft /s)
Step 3. Determine the gutter flow, Q, using equation 7.4 or chart 2

T/W
2.5 / 0.6 = 4.17
Sw / Sx
0.103 / 0.020
Eo =
1/ {1 + [(Sw/Sx)/(1+ (Sw/Sx)/(T/W-1))
Eo =
1/ {1 + [5.15/(1 + (5.15)/(4.17-1))
2.67
Eo =
0.70
Or from chart 2, Eo
Qw / Eo
Qs / (1 - Eo)
0.019 / (1 - 0.70)
0.06 m /sec (2.3 ft /s)
Qw / Q
5.15
2.67
-1]}
-1]}
0.70
83
Solution (2):
Step 1. Try Qs
0.04 m /sec (1.4 ft /s)
Step 2. Compute Qw
Qw =
Qw =
Q - Qs
0.12 - 0.04
0.08 m /sec (2.8 ft /s)
Step 3. Using equation 7.4 or from chart 2, determine W/T ratio

Eo =
Qw / Q
Sw/Sx
W/T =
0.23
0.08 / 0.12
0.103 / 0.020
0.67
5.15
{from chart 2}
Step 4. Compute spread based on the assumed Qs

T
W / (W/T) = 0.6 / 0.23
2.6 m (8.6 ft)
Step 5. Compute Ts based on assumed Qs

Ts
T-W
2.6 - 0.6 = 2.0 m (6.6 ft)
Step 6. Use equation 7.2 or chart 1 to determine Qs for computed Ts

1.67
SL
0.5
2.67
Qsn =
K Sx
Qsn =
(0.376) (0.02)
Qsn =
0.00035 m /s (0.0123 ft /s)
1.67
0.5
(0.01)
2.67
(2.0)
Qs
Qsn / n = 0.00035 / 0.016
Qs
0.022 m /s (0.77 ft /s)
Step 7. Compare computed Qs with assumed Qs

Qs assumed
= 0.04 > 0.022 = Qs computed
Step 8. Try a new assumed Qs and repeat Steps 2 through 7.

Assume Qs =
0.058 m /s (2.0 ft /s)

3
Qw =
0.12 - 0.058 =
Eo =
Qw / Q
Sw / Sx
5.15
W/T
0.17
0.60 / 0.17
Ts
3.5 - 0.6 = 2.9 m (9.5 ft)
0.062 / 0.12
= 0.52
3.5 m (11.5 ft)
Qsn =
0.00094 m /s (.032 ft /s)
Qs =
.00094 / 0.016
Qs assumed
0.062 m /s (2.2 ft /s)
=
3
0.059 m /s (2.1 ft /s)

3
= 0.058 m /s equal to 0.059 m /s
Qs computed
84
&RQYHQWLRQDO*XWWHUVZLWK&XUYHG6HFWLRQV
Where the pavement cross section is curved, gutter capacity varies with the
configuration of the pavement. For this reason, discharge-spread or discharge-depthat-the-curb relationships developed for one pavement configuration are not
applicable to another section with a different crown height or half-width.

6KDOORZ6ZDOH6HFWLRQV
Where curbs are not needed for traffic control, a small swale section of circular or Vshape may be used to convey runoff from the pavement. As an example, the control
of pavement runoff on fills may be needed to protect the embankment from erosion.
Small swale sections may have sufficient capacity to convey the flow to a location
suitable for interception.
96HFWLRQV
Chart 1 can be used to compute the flow in a shallow V-shaped section. When using
chart 1 for V-shaped channels, the cross slope, Sx is determined by the following
equation:
Sx =
Sx 1 Sx 2
( Sx 1 + Sx 2 )
(7.7)
Example 7-3 demonstrates the use of chart 1 to analyze a V-shaped shoulder gutter.
Analysis of a V-shaped gutter resulting from a roadway with an inverted crown
section is illustrated in example 7-4.
Example 7-3
Given: V-shaped roadside gutter (figure 7.1 b.1.) with
SL =
0.01
0.016
Sx1 =
0.25
Sx2 =
0.04
Sx3 =
0.02
Distance BC =
Find:
0.6 m (2.0 ft)

3

(2) Flow at a spread of 1.8 m (5.9 ft)
Solution (1):
Step 1. Calculate Sx
Sx =
Sx1 Sx2 / (Sx1 + Sx2 )
Sx =
0.0345
(0.25) (0.04) / (0.25 + 0.04)
85
Step 2. Using equation 7.2 or chart 1

1.67
0.5 0.375
SL )]
[(Q n)/(K Sx
[(0.05)(0.016)/{(0.376)(0.0345)
1.94 m (6.4 ft)
1.67
0.5 0.375
(0.01) }]
(T is the hypothetical spread that is correct if it is contained within Sx1 and

Sx2)
Step 3. To determine if T is within Sx1 and Sx2, compute the flow depth, dB, at
point B, and use this depth to find the horizontal distance between
points A and B, AB. dB can be computed using the following
geometric relationship:
T
(dB/Sx1 ) + (dB/Sx2 ), from which
dB =
T (Sx1 )(Sx2 ) / (Sx1 + Sx2 ) =
dB =
0.067 m (0.22 ft)
AB =
dB / Sx1 = 0.067 / 0.25
AB =
0.27 m (0.9 ft)
AC =
AB + 0.6 m = 0.27 m + 0.6 m
AC =
0.87 m (2.9 ft)
(1.94)(0.25)(0.04)/(0.25 + 0.04)
0.87 m < T therefore, spread falls outside V-shaped gutter section.
Step 4. Solve for the depth at point C, dC, and compute the actual spread from
edge of gutter section, Ts.
dC =
=
dB - BC (Sx2 )
(0.067) - (0.60)(0.04)
0.043 m (0.14 ft)
Therefore,
Ts
dC / Sx3 =
(0.043)/(0.02)
2.15 m (7.1 ft)
Solution (2):
Step 1. Compute the depth at Point C, dC

dC =
(Ts) (Sx3) = (1.80 m) (0.02)
dC =
0.036 m (0.12 ft)
Step 2. Compute dB
dB =
=
dB =
[(BC) (Sx2 )] + dC
[(0.60 m) (0.04)] + 0.036 m
0.06 m (0.2 ft)
Step 3. Compute T
T
dB/Sx1 + BC + dC/Sx2
(0.06/0.25) + 0.6 + (0.036/0.04)
86

T
1.74 m (5.7 ft)
Step 4. Using equation 7.2 or chart 1, compute Q

Sx =
(0.25)(0.04) / (0.25 + 0.04)
Sx =
0.034
K Sx
Q
Q
1.67
SL
0.5
2.67
/n
1.67
(0.376) (0.034)
0.5
(0.01)
2.67
(1.74)
/ (0.016)
0.04 m /s (1.3 ft /s)
Example 7-4
Given: V-shaped gutter as illustrated in figure 7.1 b.2 with
Find:
AB =
3 m (9.8 ft)
BC =
3 m (9.8 ft)
SL =
0.01
0.016
Sx1 =
Sx2 =
Sx3 =
0.02
0.04

(2) Flow at a spread of 3 m (9.8 ft)
Solution (1):
Step 1. Compute Sx
Sx =
(Sx1 Sx2 ) / (Sx1 + Sx2 )
Sx =
0.02
(0.04) (0.04) / (0.04 + 0.04)
Step 2. From equation 7.2 or chart 1

1.67
0.5 0.375
[(Q n)/(K Sx
[(0.05)(0.016)/{(0.376) (0.02)
2.7 m (9.0 ft)
SL )]
1.67
0.5 0.375
(0.01) }]
This is within Sx1 and Sx2 , therefore, OK
Solution (2):
Step 1. Compute Sx
From Part 1, Step 1 above, Sx = 0.02
Step 2. From equation 7.2 or chart 1

Q
Q
Q
=
=
=
1.67
K Sx
SL
0.5
2.67
1.67
(0.376) (0.02)
3
/n
0.5
(0.01)
3
0.064 m /s (2.3 ft /s)
2.67
(3)
/ (0.016)
87
&LUFXODU6HFWLRQV
Flow in shallow circular gutter sections can be represented by the relationship:
Qn
d
= KC
2.67 0.5
D
SL
D
Where:
0.488
(7.8)
d
D
KC
=
=
=
Depth of flow in circular gutter (m, ft)

Diameter of circular gutter (m, ft)
which is displayed on chart 3. The chord of the arc which can be computed using
equation 7.9 represents the width of circular gutter section Tw.
2 0.5
T w = 2 (r 2 - ( r - d ) )
Where:
(7.9)
=
=
Tw
r
Width of circular gutter section (m, ft)

Radius of flow in circular gutter (m, ft)
Example 7.5 illustrates the use of chart 3.

Example 7-5
Given: A circular gutter swale as illustrated in figure 7.1 b (3) with a 1.5 meter (4.9
ft) diameter and
Find:
SL =
0.01
0.016
0.5 m /s (17.6 ft /s)
Flow depth and topwidth
Solution:
Step 1. Determine the value of

2.67
Q n / (D
0.5
2.67
SL ) =
(0.5)(0.016)/[(1.5)
0.5
(0.01) ]
0.027
Step 2. Using equation 7.8 or chart 3, determine d/D

d/D =
KD [(Q n)/ (D
d/D =
0.20
D (d/D) =
2.67
0.5 0.488
SL )]
1.5 (0.20)
0.488
(1.179) [0.027]
0.30 m (0.98 ft)
Step 3. Using equation 7.9, determine Tw

2
2 1/2
Tw =
2 [r - (r - d) ]
1.2 m (3.9 ft)
2 1/2
2 [(0.75) - (0.75 - 0.3) ]
88

)ORZLQ6DJ9HUWLFDO&XUYHV
As gutter flow approaches the low point in a sag vertical curve the flow can exceed
the allowable design spread values as a result of the continually decreasing gutter
slope. The spread in these areas should be checked to insure it remains within
allowable limits. If the computed spread exceeds design values, additional inlets
should be provided to reduce the flow as it approaches the low point. Sag vertical
curves and measures for reducing spread are discussed further in section 7.4.

5HODWLYH)ORZ&DSDFLWLHV
Examples 7-1 and 7-2 illustrate the advantage of a composite gutter section. The
capacity of the section with a depressed gutter in the examples is 70 percent greater
than that of the section with a straight cross slope with all other parameters held
constant.
Equation 7.2 can be used to examine the relative effects of changing the values of
spread, cross slope, and longitudinal slope on the capacity of a section with a straight
cross slope.
To examine the effects of cross slope on gutter capacity, equation 7.2 can be
transformed as follows into a relationship between Sx and Q as follows:
Let
K1 =
n
2.67
K m S0.5
L T
(7.10a)
then
S1.67
x = K1 Q
and
1.6 7
Sx 1
Sx 2
K1 Q1 Q1
=
K1 Q2 Q2
Similar transformations can be performed to evaluate the effects of changing

longitudinal slope and width of spread on gutter capacity resulting in equations 7.11
and 7.12 respectively.
SL 1
SL 2
T1

T2
0.5
2.6 7
Q1
Q2
Q1
Q2
(7.11)
(7.12)
89
Equations 7.10, 7.11, and 7.12 are illustrated in figure 7.3. As illustrated, the effects
of spread on gutter capacity are greater than the effects of cross slope and
longitudinal slope, as would be expected due to the larger exponent of the spread
term. The magnitude of the effect is demonstrated when gutter capacity with a 3
meter (9.8 ft) spread is 18.8 times greater than with a 1 meter (3.3 ft) spread, and 3
times greater than a spread of 2 meters (6.6 ft).
The effects of cross slope are also relatively great as illustrated by a comparison of
gutter capacities with different cross slopes. At a cross slope of 4 percent, a gutter
has 10 times the capacity of a gutter of 1 percent cross slope. A gutter at 4 percent
cross slope has 3.2 times the capacity of a gutter at 2 percent cross slope.
Figure 7.3
Relative Effects of
spread, cross
slope, and
longitudinal slope
on gutter capacity
Little latitude is generally available to vary longitudinal slope in order to increase

gutter capacity, but slope changes which change gutter capacity are frequent. Figure
7.3 shows that a change from S = 0.04 to 0.02 will reduce gutter capacity to 71
percent of the capacity at S = 0.04.
Table 7-4
T1/T2
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Ta/T2
0.66
0..68
0.70
0.74
0.77
0.82
0.86
0.90
Spread at Average
Velocity in a
Reach of
Triangular Gutter
90

*XWWHU)ORZ7LPH
The flow time in gutters is an important component of the time of concentration for
the contributing drainage area to an inlet. To find the gutter flow component of the
time of concentration, a method for estimating the average velocity in a reach of
gutter is needed. The velocity in a gutter varies with the flow rate and the flow rate
varies with the distance along the gutter, i.e., both the velocity and flow rate in a
gutter are spatially varied. The time of flow can be estimated by use of an average
velocity obtained by integration of the Manning equation for the gutter section with
respect to time.
Table 7-4 and chart 4 can be used to determine the average velocity in triangular
gutter sections. In table 7-4, T1 and T2 are the spread at the upstream and
downstream ends of the gutter section respectively. Ta is the spread at the average
velocity. Chart 4 is a nomograph to solve equation 7.13 for the velocity in a
triangular channel with known cross slope, gutter slope, and spread.
V=
K C 0.5 0.67 0.67

S Sx T
n L
Where:
KC
V
(7.13)
=
=

velocity in the triangular channel (m/s, ft/s)
Example 7-6 illustrates the use of table 7-4 and chart 4 to determine the average
gutter velocity.
Example 7-6
Given: A triangular gutter section with the following characteristics:
T1
1 m (3.3 ft)
T2
3 m (9.8 ft)
SL =
0.03
Sx =
0.02
0.016
Inlet Spacing anticipated to be 100 meters (330 ft).
Find:
Time of flow in gutter
Solution:
Step 1. Compute the upstream to downstream spread ratio.

T1 / T2
1/3
0.33
Step 2. Determine the spread at average velocity interpolating between values

in table 7-4.
(0.30 - 0.33) / (0.3 - 0.4)
X
Ta / T2
Ta
X / (0.74-0.70)
0.01
=
0.70 + 0.01 =
(0.71) (3)
0.71
2.13 m (7.0 ft)
91
Step 3. Using equation 7.13 or chart 4, determine the average velocity

0.5
0.67
Sx
0.67
Va =
0.752/n SL
Va =
(0.752)/(0.016) (0.03)
Va =
0.98 m/s (3.2 ft/s)
0.5
0.67
(0.02)
0.67
(2.13)
Step 4. Compute the travel time in the gutter.

t

(100) / (0.98) / 60
= 1.7 minutes
'UDLQDJH,QOHW'HVLJQ
The hydraulic capacity of a storm drain inlet depends upon its geometry as well as
the characteristics of the gutter flow. Inlet capacity governs both the rate of water
removal from the gutter and the amount of water that can enter the storm drainage
system. Inadequate inlet capacity or poor inlet location may cause flooding on the
roadway resulting in a hazard to the traveling public.

,QOHW7\SHV
Storm drain inlets are used to collect runoff and discharge it to an underground storm
drainage system. Inlets are typically located in gutter sections, paved medians, and
roadside and median ditches. Inlets used for the drainage of highway surfaces can be
divided into the following four classes:
1.
grate inlets,
2.
curb-opening inlets,
3.
slotted inlets, and
4.
combination inlets.
Grate inlets consist of an opening in the gutter or ditch covered by a grate. Curbopening inlets are vertical openings in the curb covered by a top slab. Slotted inlets
consist of a pipe cut along the longitudinal axis with bars perpendicular to the
opening to maintain the slotted opening. Combination inlets consist of both a curbopening inlet and a grate inlet placed in a side-by-side configuration, but the curb
opening may be located in part upstream of the grate. Figure 7.4 illustrates each
class of inlets. Slotted drains may also be used with grates and each type of inlet
may be installed with or without a depression of the gutter.

&KDUDFWHULVWLFVDQG8VHVRI,QOHWV
Grate inlets, as a class, perform satisfactorily over a wide range of gutter grades.
Grate inlets generally lose capacity with increase in grade, but to a lesser degree than
curb opening inlets. The principal advantage of grate inlets is that they are installed
along the roadway where the water is flowing. Their principal disadvantage is that
floating trash or debris may clog them. For safety reasons, preference should be
given to grate inlets where out-of-control vehicles might be involved. Additionally,
where bicycle traffic occurs, grates should be bicycle safe.
92
Figure 7.4
Classes of storm
drain inlets
Curb-opening inlets are most effective on flatter slopes, in sags, and with flows
which typically carry significant amounts of floating debris. The interception
capacity of curb-opening inlets decreases as the gutter grade steepens.
Consequently, the use of curb-opening inlets is recommended in sags and on grades
less than 3%. Of course, they are bicycle safe as well.
Combination inlets provide the advantages of both curb opening and grate inlets.
This combination results in a high capacity inlet which offers the advantages of both
grate and curb-opening inlets. When the curb opening precedes the grate in a
"Sweeper" configuration, the curb-opening inlet acts as a trash interceptor during the
initial phases of a storm. Used in a sag configuration, the sweeper inlet can have a
curb opening on both sides of the grate.
Slotted inlets can be used in areas where it is desirable to intercept sheet flow before
it crosses onto a section of roadway. Their principal advantage is their ability to
intercept flow over a wide section. However, slotted inlets are very susceptible to
clogging from sediments and debris, and are not recommended for use in
environments where significant sediment or debris loads may be present. Slotted
inlets on a longitudinal grade do have the same hydraulic capacity as curb openings
when debris is not a factor.

,QOHW&DSDFLW\
Several agencies and manufacturers of grates have investigated inlet interception
capacity. Hydraulic tests on grate inlets and slotted inlets included in this document
were conducted by the Bureau of Reclamation for the Federal Highway
Administration. Four of the grates selected for testing were rated highest in bicycle
safety tests, three have designs and bar spacing similar to those proven bicycle-safe,
93
and a parallel bar grate was used as a standard with which to compare the
performance of others.
Figures 7.5 through 7.10 show the inlet grates for which design procedures were
developed. For ease in identification, the following terms have been adopted:
P-50
Parallel bar grate with bar spacing 48 mm (1-7/8 in) on center

(figure 7.5).
P-50x100
Parallel bar grate with bar spacing 48 mm (1-7/8 in) on center

and 10 mm (3/8 in) diameter lateral rods spaced at 102 mm (4
in) on center (figure 7.5).
P-30
Parallel bar grate with 29 mm (1-1/8 in) on center bar spacing

(figure 7.6).
Curved Vane
Curved vane grate with 83 mm (3-1/4 in) longitudinal bar and

108 mm (4-1/4 in) transverse bar spacing on center (figure 7.7).
45- 60 Tilt Bar
45 tilt-bar grate with 57 mm (2-1/4 in) longitudinal bar and 102

mm (4 in) transverse bar spacing on center (figure 7.8).
45- 85 Tilt Bar

30- 85 Tilt Bar

Reticuline
"Honeycomb" pattern of lateral bars and longitudinal bearing

bars (figure 7.10).
Figure 7.5
P-50 and P-50 x
100 grates
The interception capacity of curb-opening inlets has also been investigated by

several agencies. Design procedures adopted for this Circular are largely derived
from experimental work at Colorado State University for the Federal Highway
Administration, as reported in both Hydraulics of Runoff from Developed Surfaces
and Hydraulic Design of Depressed Curb-Opening Inlets.
94
Figure 7.6
P-30 Grate
95
Figure 7.7
Curved
Vane Grate
96
Figure 7.8
45-60 and
45-85 tiltbar grates
97
Figure 7.9
30 -85 tiltbar grate
98
Figure 7.10
Reticuline
Grate

)DFWRUV$IIHFWLQJ,QOHW,QWHUFHSWLRQ&DSDFLW\DQG(IILFLHQF\RQ
&RQWLQXRXV*UDGHV
Inlet interception capacity, Qi, is the flow intercepted by an inlet under a given set of
conditions. The efficiency of an inlet, E, is the percent of total flow that the inlet
will intercept for those conditions. The efficiency of an inlet changes with changes
in cross slope, longitudinal slope, total gutter flow, and, to a lesser extent, pavement
roughness. In mathematical form, efficiency, E, is defined by the following
equation:
E=
Qi
Q
Where:
(7.14)
E
Q
Qi
=
=
=
Inlet efficiency
Intercepted flow (m3/s, ft3/s)
Flow that is not intercepted by an inlet is termed carryover or bypass and is defined
as follows:
Qb = Q - Qi
Where:
(7.15)
Qb
= Bypass flow (m3/s, ft3/s)

The interception capacity of all inlet configurations increases with increasing flow
rates, and inlet efficiency generally decreases with increasing flow rates. Factors
affecting gutter flow also affect inlet interception capacity. The depth of water next
to the curb is the major factor in the interception capacity of both grate inlets and
curb-opening inlets.
The interception capacity of a grate inlet depends on the amount of water flowing
over the grate, the size and configuration of the grate and the velocity of flow in the
gutter. The efficiency of a grate is dependent on the same factors and total flow in
the gutter.
Interception capacity of a curb-opening inlet is largely dependent on flow depth at
the curb and curb opening length. Flow depth at the curb and consequently, curbopening inlet interception capacity and efficiency, is increased by the use of a local
gutter depression at the curb-opening or a continuously depressed gutter to the
proportion of the total flow adjacent to the curb. Top slab supports placed flush with
the curb line can substantially reduce the interception capacity of curb openings.
Tests have shown that such supports reduce the effectiveness of openings
downstream of the support by as much as 50 percent and, if debris is caught at the
support, interception by the downstream portion of the opening may be reduced to
near zero. If intermediate top slab supports are used, they should be recessed several
inches from the curb line and rounded in shape.
Slotted inlets function in essentially the same manner as curb opening inlets, i.e., as
weirs with flow entering from the side. Interception capacity is dependent on flow
depth and inlet length. Efficiency is dependent on flow depth, inlet length and total
gutter flow.
The interception capacity of an equal length combination inlet consisting of a grate
placed alongside a curb opening on a grade does not differ materially from that of a
grate only. Interception capacity and efficiency are dependent on the same factors
which affect grate capacity and efficiency. A combination inlet consisting of a curbopening inlet placed upstream of a grate inlet has a capacity equal to that of the curbopening length upstream of the grate plus that of the grate, taking into account the
reduced spread and depth of flow over the grate because of the interception by the
curb opening. This inlet configuration has the added advantage of intercepting
debris that might otherwise clog the grate and deflect water away from the inlet.
)DFWRUV$IIHFWLQJ,QOHW,QWHUFHSWLRQ&DSDFLW\LQ6DJ/RFDWLRQV
Grate inlets in sag vertical curves operate as weirs for shallow ponding depths and as
orifices at greater depths. Between weir and orifice flow depths, a transition from
weir to orifice flow occurs. The perimeter and clear opening area of the grate and
the depth of water at the curb affect inlet capacity. The capacity at a given depth can
be severely affected if debris collects on the grate and reduces the effective perimeter
or clear opening area.
Curb-opening inlets operate as weirs in sag vertical curve locations up to a ponding
depth equal to the opening height. At depths above 1.4 times the opening height, the
inlet operates as an orifice and between these depths, transition between weir and
orifice flow occurs. The curb-opening height and length, and water depth at the curb
affect inlet capacity. At a given flow rate, the effective water depth at the curb can
be increased by the use of a continuously depressed gutter, by use of a locally
depressed curb opening, or by use of an increased cross slope, thus decreasing the
width of spread at the inlet.
99
100

Slotted inlets operate as weirs for depths below approximately 50 mm (2 in) and
orifices in locations where the depth at the upstream edge of the slot is greater than
about 120 mm (5 in). Transition flow exists between these depths. For orifice flow,
an empirical equation derived from experimental data can be used to compute
interception capacity. Interception capacity varies with flow depth, slope, width, and
length at a given spread. Slotted drains are not recommended in sag locations
because they are susceptible to clogging from debris.
&RPSDULVRQRI,QWHUFHSWLRQ&DSDFLW\RI,QOHWVRQ*UDGH
In order to compare the interception capacity and efficiency of various inlets on
grade, it is necessary to fix two variables that affect capacity and efficiency and
investigate the effects of varying the other factor. Figure 7.11 shows a comparison
of curb-opening inlets, grates, and slotted drain inlets with gutter flow fixed at 0.09
m3/s (3.2 ft3/s), cross slope fixed at 3 percent, and longitudinal slope varied up to 10
percent. Conclusions drawn from an analysis of this figure are not necessarily
transferable to other flow rates or cross slopes, but some inferences can be drawn
that are applicable to other sets of conditions. Grate configurations used for
interception capacity comparisons in this figure are described in section 7.4.3.
Figure 7.11 illustrates the effects of flow depth at the curb and curb-opening length
on curb-opening inlet interception capacity and efficiency. All of the slotted inlets
and curb-opening inlets shown in the figure lose interception capacity and efficiency
as the longitudinal slope is increased because spread on the pavement and depth at
the curb become smaller as velocity increases. It is accurate to conclude that curbopening inlet interception capacity and efficiency would increase with steeper cross
slopes. It is also accurate to conclude that interception capacity would increase and
inlet efficiency would decrease with increased flow rates. Long curb-opening and
slotted inlets compare favorably with grates in interception capacity and efficiency
for conditions illustrated in figure 7.11.
The effect of depth at the curb is also illustrated by a comparison of the interception
capacity and efficiency of depressed and undepressed curb-opening inlets. A 1.5 m
(5 ft) depressed curb-opening inlet has about 67 percent more interception capacity
than an undepressed inlet at 2 percent slope, 3 percent cross slope, and 0.085 m3/s (3
ft3/s) gutter flow, and about 79 percent more interception capacity at an 8 percent
slope.
At low velocities, all of the water flowing in the section of gutter occupied by the
grate, called frontal flow, is intercepted by grate inlets. Only a small portion of the
flow outside of the grate, termed side flow, is intercepted. When the longitudinal
slope is increased, water begins to skip or splash over the grate at velocities
dependent on the grate configuration. Figure 7.11 shows that interception capacity
and efficiency are reduced at slopes steeper than the slope at which splash-over
begins. Splash-over for the less efficient grates begins at the slope at which the
interception capacity curve begins to deviate from the curve of the more efficient
grates. All of the 0.6 m by 0.6 m (2 ft by 2 ft) grates have equal interception
capacity and efficiency at a flow rate of 0.085 m3/s (3 ft3/s), cross slope of 3 percent,
and longitudinal slope of 2 percent. At slopes steeper than 2 percent, splash-over
occurs on the reticuline grate and the interception capacity is reduced. At a slope of
6 percent, velocities are such that splash-over occurs on all except the curved vane
and parallel bar grates. From these performance characteristics curves, it can be
concluded that parallel-bar grates and the curved vane grate are relatively efficient at
higher velocities and the reticuline grate is least efficient. At low velocities, the
grates perform equally. However, some of the grates such as the reticuline grate are
more susceptible to clogging by debris than the parallel bar grate.
101
Figure 7.11
Comparison of
inlet
interception
capacity, slope
variable
The capacity and efficiency of grates increase with increased slope and velocity if
splash-over does not occur. This is because frontal flow increases with increased
velocity, and all frontal flow will be intercepted if splash-over does not occur.
Figure 7.11 also illustrates that interception by longer grates would not be
substantially greater than interception by 0.6 m by 0.6 m (2 ft by 2 ft) grates. In
order to capture more of the flow, wider grates would be needed.
Figure 7.12 can be used for further study and comparisons of inlet interception
capacity and efficiency. It shows, for example, that at a 6 percent slope, splash-over
begins at about 0.02 m3/s (0.7 ft3/s) on a reticuline grate. It also illustrates that the
interception capacity of all inlets increases and inlet efficiency decreases with
increased discharge.
This comparison of inlet interception capacity and efficiency neglects the effects of
debris and clogging on the various inlets. All types of inlets, including curb-opening
inlets, are subject to clogging, some being more susceptible than others. Attempts to
simulate clogging tendencies in the laboratory have not been notably successful,
except to demonstrate the importance of parallel bar spacing in debris handling
efficiency. Grates with wider spacings of longitudinal bars pass debris more
efficiently. Except for reticuline grates, grates with lateral bar spacing of less than
0.1 m (4 in) were not tested so conclusions cannot be drawn from tests concerning
debris handling capabilities of many grates currently in use.
Problems with clogging are largely local since the amount of debris varies
significantly from one locality to another. Some localities must contend with only a
small amount of debris while others experience extensive clogging of drainage inlets.
Since partial clogging of inlets on grade rarely causes major problems, allowances
should not be made for reduction in inlet interception capacity except where local
experience indicates an allowance is advisable.
102
Figure 7.12
Comparison of
inlet interception
capacity, flow
rate variable

,QWHUFHSWLRQ&DSDFLW\RI,QOHWVRQ*UDGH
The interception capacity of inlets on grade is dependent on factors discussed in
section 7.4.3.1. In this section, design charts for inlets on grade and procedures for
using the charts are presented for the various inlet configurations. Remember that
for locally depressed inlets, the quantity of flow reaching the inlet would be
dependent on the upstream gutter section geometry and not the depressed section
geometry.
Charts for grate inlet interception have been made and are applicable to all grate
inlets tested for the Federal Highway Administration. The chart for frontal flow
interception is based on test results, which show that grates intercept all of the frontal
flow until a velocity is reached at which water begins to splash over the grate. At
velocities greater than "Splash-over" velocity, grate efficiency in intercepting frontal
flow is diminished. Grates also intercept a portion of the flow along the length of the
grate, or the side flow. A chart is provided to determine side-flow interception.
One set of charts is provided for slotted inlets and curb-opening inlets, because these
inlets are both side-flow weirs. The equation developed for determining the length
of inlet required for total interception fits the test data for both types of inlets.
A procedure for determining the interception capacity of combination inlets is also
presented.
*UDWH,QOHWV
Grates are effective highway pavement drainage inlets where clogging with debris is
not a problem. Where clogging may be a problem, see table 7-5 where grates are
ranked for susceptibility to clogging based on laboratory tests using simulated
"leaves." This table should be used for relative comparisons only.
103
When the velocity approaching the grate is less than the "splash-over" velocity, the
grate will intercept essentially all of the frontal flow. Conversely, when the gutter
flow velocity exceeds the "splash-over" velocity for the grate, only part of the flow
will be intercepted. A part of the flow along the side of the grate will be intercepted,
dependent on the cross slope of the pavement, the length of the grate, and flow
velocity.
Q
W
Eo = w = 1 - 1 -
T
Q
2.6 7
(7.16)
The ratio of frontal flow to total gutter flow, Eo, for a uniform cross slope is
expressed by equation 7.16:
Where:
Q
Qw
W
T
=
=
=
=

Flow in width W, (m3/s, ft3/s)
Width of depressed gutter or grate (m, ft)
Total spread of water (m, ft)
Example 7-2 and chart 2 provide solutions of Eo for either uniform cross slopes or
composite gutter sections.
The ratio of side flow, Qs, to total gutter flow is:
Qs
Q
= 1 - w = 1 - Eo
Q
Q
(7.17)
The ratio of frontal flow intercepted to total frontal flow, Rf, is expressed by equation
7.18:
R f = 1 - Kc ( V - Vo )
Where:
Kc
V
Vo
(Note: Rf can not exceed 1.0)
(7.18)
=
=
=

Velocity of flow in the gutter (m/s, ft/s)
Gutter velocity where splash-over first occurs
(m/s, ft/s)
104
RANK
GRATE
Curved Vane
45
61
30 - 85 Tilt Bar
44
55
45 - 85 Tilt Bar
43
48
4
5
P - 50
P - 50 x 100
32
18
32
28
45 - 60 Tilt Bar
16
23
7
8
Reticuline
P - 30
12
9
16
20
Table 7-5
Average
Debris
Handling
Efficiencies
of Grates
Tested
LONGITUDINAL SLOPE
0.005
0.040
This ratio is equivalent to frontal flow interception efficiency. Chart 5 provides a

solution for equation 7.18 which takes into account grate length, bar configuration,
and gutter velocity at which splash-over occurs. The average gutter velocity (total
gutter flow divided by the area of flow) is needed to use chart 5. This velocity can
also be obtained from chart 4.
The ratio of side flow intercepted to total side flow, Rs, or side flow interception
efficiency, is expressed by equation 7.19:
K c V1.8
R s = 1 / 1 +
Sx L2.3
Where:
Kc
(7.19)
Chart 6 provides a solution to equation 7.19.

A deficiency in developing empirical equations and charts from experimental data is
evident in chart 6. The fact that a grate will intercept all or almost all of the side
flow where the velocity is low and the spread only slightly exceeds the grate width is
not reflected in the chart. Error due to this deficiency is very small. In fact, where
velocities are high, side flow interception may be neglected without significant error.
The efficiency, E, of a grate is expressed as provided in equation 7.20:
E = R f Eo + R s ( 1 Eo )
(7.20)
The first term on the right side of equation 7.20 is the ratio of intercepted frontal
flow to total gutter flow, and the second term is the ratio of intercepted side flow to
total side flow. The second term is insignificant with high velocities and short
grates.
The interception capacity of a grate inlet on grade is equal to the efficiency of the
grate multiplied by the total gutter flow:
Qi = E Q = Q [ R f E o + R s ( 1 E o )]
(7.21)
105
The use of charts 5 and 6 are illustrated in the following examples.

Example 7-7
Given: Given the gutter section from example 7-2 (illustrated in figure 7.1 a.2) with
T
2.5 m (8.2 ft)
0.6 m (2.0 ft)
SL =
0.010
Sx =
0.02
0.016
Continuous Gutter depression, a = 50 mm (2 in)
Find:
The interception capacity of a curved vane grate 0.6 m by 0.6 m (2 ft x 2 ft)
Solution:
From example 7-2,
Sw =
0.103
Eo =
0.70
0.06 m /sec (2.3 ft /sec)
Step 1. Compute the average gutter velocity

2
0.5 T Sx + 0.5 D W
0.08 m (0.86 ft )
Q/A
0.75 m/s (2.5 ft/s)
0.5 (2.5) (0.02) + 0.5(0.050)(0.6)
0.06 / 0.08
Step 2. Determine the frontal flow efficiency using chart 5.

Rf
1.0
Step 3. Determine the side flow efficiency using equation 7.19 or chart 6.
1.8
2.3
Rs =
1/[1+ (0.0828 V ) / (Sx L )]
Rs =
1/[1+ (0.0828) (0.75)
Rs =
0.11
1.8
2.3
/ [(0.02) (0.6) ]
Step 4. Compute the interception capacity using equation 7.21.

Qi
Q[Rf Eo + Rs (1 - Eo)]
Qi
(0.06)[(1.0)(0.70) + (0.11)(1 - 0.70)]
Qi
0.044 m /s (1.6 ft /s)
106

Example 7-8
Given: Given the gutter section illustrated in figure 7.1 a.1 with
T
3 m (9.8 ft)
SL =
0.04
Sx =
0.025
0.016
Bicycle traffic not permitted
Find:
The interception capacity of the following grates:

a. P-50; 0.6 m x 0.6 m (2.0 ft x 2.0 ft)
b. Reticuline;
0.6 m x 0.6 m (2.0 ft x 2.0 ft)
c. Grates in a. and b. with a length of 1.2 m (4.0 ft)
Solution:
Step 1. Using equation 7.2 or chart 1, determine Q.

1.67
0.5
2.67
K/n Sx
(0.376)/(0.016) (0.025)
0.19 m /sec (6.6 ft /sec)
SL
1.67
0.5
(0.04)
2.67
(3)
Step 2. Determine Eo from equation 7.4 or chart 2.

W/T =
0.6/3
Eo =
Qw/Q
Eo =
1-(1-W/T)
Eo =
0.46
0.2
2.67
Step 3. Using equation 7.13 or chart 4 compute the gutter flow velocity.
0.5
0.67
0.67
0.752/n SL
0.752/(0.016) (0.04)
1.66 m/sec (5.4 ft/sec)
Sx
0.5
(0.025)
0.67
(3)
0.67
Step 4. Using equation 7.18 or chart 5, determine the frontal flow efficiency for
each grate. Using equation 7.19 or chart 6, determine the side flow
efficiency for each grate. Using equation 7.21, compute the
interception capacity of each grate.
107
The following table summarizes the results:
Grate
Size (width by
length)
Frontal Flow
Efficiency, Rf
Side Flow
Efficiency, Rs
Interception
Capacity, Qi
P - 50
0.6 m by 0.6 m
(2.0 ft by 2.0 ft)
1.0
0.036
0.091 m3/s
(3.21 ft3/s)
Reticuline
0.6 m by 0.6 m
(2.0 ft by 2.0 ft)
0.9
0.036
0.082 m3/s
(2.89 ft3/s)
P - 50
0.6 m by 1.2 m
(2.0 ft by 4.0 ft)
1.0
0.155
0.103 m3/s
(3.63 ft3/s)
Reticuline
0.6 m by 1.2 m
(2.0 ft by 4.0 ft)
1.0
0.155
0.103 m3/s
(3.63 ft3/s)
The P-50 parallel bar grate will intercept about 14 percent more flow than the
reticuline grate or 48 percent of the total flow as opposed to 42 percent for the
reticuline grate. Increasing the length of the grates would not be cost-effective
because the increase in side flow interception is small.
&XUE2SHQLQJ,QOHWV
Curb-opening inlets are effective in the drainage of highway pavements were flow
depth at the curb is sufficient for the inlet to perform efficiently, as discussed in
section 7.4.3.1. Curb openings are less susceptible to clogging and offer little
interference to traffic operation. They are a viable alternative to grates on flatter
grades where grates would be in traffic lanes or would be hazardous for pedestrians
or bicyclists.
Curb opening heights vary in dimension; however, a typical maximum height is
approximately 100 to 150 mm (4 to 6 in). The length of the curb-opening inlet
required for total interception of gutter flow on a pavement section with a uniform
cross slope is expressed by equation 7.22:
LT = K C Q
Where:
0.42 0.3
SL
n Sx
0.6
KC
LT
=
=
SL
Q
=
=
(7.22)

Curb opening length required to intercept 100
percent of the gutter flow (m, ft)
Longitudinal slope
Gutter flow (m3/s, ft3/s)
108

The efficiency of curb-opening inlets shorter than the length required for total
interception is expressed by equation 7.23:
1.8
E = 1 - 1 LT
Where:
(7.23)
Curb-opening length (m, ft)
Figure 7.13
Depressed
curb opening
inlet
Chart 7 is a nomograph for the solution of equation 7.22, and chart 8 provides a
solution of equation 7.23.
The length of inlet required for total interception by depressed curb-opening inlets or
curb-openings in depressed gutter sections can be found by the use of an equivalent
cross slope, Se, in equation 7.22 in place of Sx. Se can be computed using equation
7.24.
Se = Sx + Sw Eo
Where:
(7.24)
Sw
Sw
a
Eo
=
=
=
Cross slope of the gutter measured from the

cross slope of the pavement, Sx (m/m, ft/ft)
a / [1000 W], (a/[12 w])
Ratio of flow in the depressed section to total
Gutter flow determined by the gutter
configuration upstream of the inlet
Figure 7.13 shows the depressed curb inlet for equation 7.24. Eo is the same ratio as
used to compute the frontal flow interception of a grate inlet.
As seen from chart 7, the length of curb opening required for total interception can
be significantly reduced by increasing the cross slope or the equivalent cross slope.
The equivalent cross slope can be increased by use of a continuously depressed
gutter section or a locally depressed gutter section.
109
Using the equivalent cross slope, Se, equation 7.22 becomes:
LT = K T Q
0.42 0.3
SL
n Se
Where:
0.6
(7.25)
KT
0.817 (0.6)
Equation 7.23 is applicable with either straight cross slopes or composite cross
slopes. Charts 7 and 8 are applicable to depressed curb-opening inlets using Se rather
than Sx.
Equation 7.24 uses the ratio, Eo, in the computation of the equivalent cross slope, Se.
Example 7-9 demonstrates the procedure to determine spread and then the example
uses chart 2 to determine Eo.
Example 7-9
Given: A curb-opening inlet with the following characteristics:
Find:
SL =
0.01
Sx =
0.02
0.05 m /s (1.8 ft /s)
0.016
(1) Qi for a 3 m (9.8 ft) curb-opening.

(2) Qi for a depressed 3 m (9.8 ft) curb opening inlet with a continuously
depressed curb section.
a
25 mm (1 in)
0.6 m (2 ft)
Solution (1):
Step 1. Determine the length of curb opening required for total interception of
gutter flow using equation 7.22 or chart 7.
0.42
0.3
LT
0.817 Q
LT
0.817 (0.05)
LT
7.29 m (23.6 ft)
SL
0.42
(1/(n Sx))
0.3
(0.01)
0.6
0.6
(1/[(0.016)(0.02)])
Step 2. Compute the curb-opening efficiency using equation 7.23 or

chart 8
L / LT
3 / 7.29
= 0.41
1 - (1 - L / LT)
1 - (1 - 0.41)
0.61
1.8
1.8
Step 3. Compute the interception capacity.

Qi
EQ=
(0.61)(0.05)
110

Qi
0.031 m /s (1.1 ft /s)
Solution (2):
Step 1. Use equation 7.4 (chart 2) and equation 7.2 (chart 1) to determine the
W/T ratio.
Determine spread, T, (Procedure from example 7-2, solution 2)
Assume:
3
Qs =
0.018 m /s (0.64 ft /s)
Qw =
Q - Qs = 0.05 - 0.018 =
Eo =
Qw / Q
Sw =
Sx + a/W = 0.02 + (25/1000)/0.6
Sw/Sx
0.032 m /s (1.1 ft /s)
0.032 / 0.05 =
0.64
=
0.062
0.062/0.02 = 3.1
Use equation 7.4 or chart 2 to determine W/T

W/T =
0.24
W / (W/T)
Ts
T-W
2.5 - 0.6
1.9 m (6.2 ft)
0.6 / 0.24
2.5 m (8.2 ft)
Use equation 7.2 or chart 1 to obtain Qs

1.67
0.5
2.67
Qs =
K/n Sx
Qs =
(0.376)/(0.016) (0.02)
Qs =
0.019 m /s (equals Qs assumed)
SL
Ts
1.67
0.5
(0.01)
2.67
(1.9)
Step 2. Determine efficiency of curb opening.

Se =
Sx + Sw Eo = Sx + (a/W)
Eo =
0.02 + [(25/1000)/(0.6)](0.64)
Se =
0.047
Using equation 7.25 or chart 7

0.42
0.3
LT
KT Q
LT
(0.817)(0.05)
LT
4.37 m (14.3 ft)
SL
[1/(n Se)]
0.42
0.6
0.3
(0.01)
0.6
[1/((0.016)(0.047))]
Using equation 7.23 or chart 8 to obtain curb inlet efficiency

L/LT =
3/4.37
0.70
1.8
1 - (1 - L/LT)
1 - (1 - 0.69)
0.88
1.8
111
Step 3. Compute curb opening inflow using equation 7.14

Qi
Qi
=
=
QE=
(0.05) (0.88)
3
0.044 m /s (1.55 ft /s)
The depressed curb-opening inlet will intercept 1.5 times the flow intercepted by the
undepressed curb opening.

6ORWWHG,QOHWV
Wide experience with the debris handling capabilities of slotted inlets is not
available. Deposition in the pipe is the problem most commonly encountered. The
configuration of slotted inlets makes them accessible for cleaning with a highpressure water jet.
Figure 7.14
Slotted drain
inlet at an
intersection
Slotted inlets are effective pavement drainage inlets, which have a variety of
applications. They can be used on curbed or uncurbed sections and offer little
interference to traffic operations. An installation is illustrated in figure 7.14.
Flow interception by slotted inlets and curb-opening inlets is similar in that each is a
side weir and the flow is subjected to lateral acceleration due to the cross slope of the
pavement. Analysis of data from the Federal Highway Administration tests of
slotted inlets with slot widths 45 mm (1.75 in) indicates that the length of slotted
inlet required for total interception can be computed by equation 7.22. Chart 7, is
therefore applicable for both curb-opening inlets and slotted inlets. Similarly,
equation 7.23 is also applicable to slotted inlets and chart 8 can be used to obtain the
inlet efficiency for the selected length of inlet.
Use of charts 7 and 8 for slotted inlets is identical to their use for curb-opening inlets.
Additional examples to demonstrate the use of the charts are not provided here for
that reason. It should be noted, however, that it is much less expensive to add length
112

to an existing slotted inlet to increase interception capacity than it is to add length to
an existing curb-opening inlet.
&RPELQDWLRQ,QOHWV
Figure 7.15
Combination
curb-opening,
45 tilt-bar grate
inlet
The interception capacity of a combination inlet consisting of a curb opening and

grate placed side-by-side, as shown in figure 7.15, is no greater than that of the grate
alone. Capacity is computed by neglecting the curb opening. A combination inlet is
sometimes used with a part of the curb opening placed upstream of the grate as
illustrated in figure 7.16. The curb opening in such an installation intercepts debris,
which might otherwise clog the grate and is called a "sweeper" inlet. A sweeper
combination inlet has an interception capacity equal to the sum of the curb opening
upstream of the grate plus the grate capacity, except that the frontal flow and thus the
interception capacity of the grate is reduced by interception by the curb opening.
Figure 7.16
Sweeper
Combination
inlet
113
The following example illustrates computation of the interception capacity of a

combination curb-opening grate inlet with a portion of the curb opening upstream of
the grate.
Example 7-10
Given: A combination curb-opening grate inlet with a 3 m (9.8 ft) curb opening, 0.6
m by 0.6 m (2 ft by 2 ft) curved vane grate placed adjacent to the
downstream 0.6 m (2 ft) of the curb opening. This inlet is located in a
gutter section having the following characteristics:
W
0.6 m (2 ft)
0.05 m /s (1.8 ft /s)
SL =
0.01
Sx =
0.02
0.016
Gutter Depression, D = 25 mm (1.0 in)
Find:
Interception capacity, Qi
Solution:
Step 1. Compute the interception capacity of the curb opening upstream of the
grate, Qic.
L
3m - 0.6 m
2.4 m (7.9 ft)
From example 7-9, Solution 2, Step 2

LT
4.37 m (14.0 ft)
L / LT
1 - (1 - L/LT)
2.4 / 4.37 = 0.55

1.8
1 - (1 - 0.55)
0.76
Qic =
{equation 7.23 or chart 8}
1.8
E Q = (0.76)(0.05)
0.038 m /s (1.3 ft /s)
Step 2. Compute the interception capacity of the grate.

Flow at grate
Qg =
Qg
3
Q - Qic = 0.05 - 0.038
0.012 m /s (0.4 ft /s)
Determine Spread, T (Procedure from example 7-2, Solution 2)

3
Assume Qs =
0.0003 m /s (0.01 ft /s)
Qw =
Q - Qs
0.0120 - 0.0003 = 0.0117 m /s (0.41 ft /s)
Eo =
Qw / Q
0.0117 / 0.0120
Sw / Sx
0.062 / 0.02 =
3.1
0.97
114

0.375
W/T = 1/{(1/[(1/(1/Eo - 1))(Sw/Sx)+1]
- 1)(Sw/Sx)+1}
0.375
- 1)(3.1)+1}
W/T =
1 / {(1/[(1/(1/0.97 - 1))(3.1)+1]
W/T =
0.62
W / (W/T) = 0.6 / 0.62
= 0.97 m (3.2 ft)
Ts
T-W
Qs =
= 0.97 - 0.60
3
0.37 m (1.2 ft)
0.0003 m /s (0.01 ft /s)
{chart 1 or equation 7.2}
Qs Assumed = Qs calculated
Determine velocity, V
=
Q/A
0.0115/[(0.5)(0.97) (0.02) + (0.5)(25/1000)(0.6)]
0.68 m/s (2.23 ft/s)
Rf
1.0
Rs =
Q / [0.5T Sx + 0.5DW]
2
{chart 5}
1.8
2.3
1 / (1 + (0.0828 V )/(Sx L ))
1.8

2.3
Rs =
1 / (1 + [(0.0828) (0.68) ]/[(0.02) (0.6) ]
Rs =
0.13
Qig =
Qg [Rf Eo + Rs (1-Eo)] {equation 7.21}
Qig =
0.0115 [ (1.0)(0.97) + (0.13)(1 - 0.97)]
Qig =
0.0112 m /s (0.40 ft /s)
Step 3. Compute the total interception capacity. (Note: Interception capacity

of curb opening adjacent to grate was neglected.)
Qi
Qic + Qig = 0.0385 + 0.0112
Qi
0.0497 m /s (1.76 ft /s) (approximately 100% of the total initial

flow)
The use of depressed inlets and combination inlets enhances the interception capacity
of the inlet. Example 7-7 determined the interception capacity of a depressed curved
vane grate, 0.6 m by 0.6 m (2 ft by 2 ft), example 7-9 for an undepressed curb
opening inlet, length = 3.0 m (9.8 ft) and a depressed curb opening inlet, length = 3.0
m (9.8 ft), and example 7-10 for a combination of 0.6 m by 0.6 m (2 ft by 2 ft)
depressed curve vane grate located at the downstream end of 3.0 m (9.8 ft) long
depressed curb opening inlet. The geometries of the inlets and the gutter slopes were
consistent in the examples and table 7-6 summarizes a comparison of the intercepted
flow of the various configurations.
115
INLET TYPE
INTERCEPTED FLOW, Qi
Curved Vane - Depressed
0.033 m3/s (1.2 ft3/s)

(example 7-7)
Curb Opening - Undepressed
0.031 m3/s (1.1 ft3/s)

(example 7-9 (1))
Curb Opening - Depressed
0.045 m3/s (1.59 ft3/s)

(example 7-9 (2))
Combination Inlet (Curved

Vane and Curb Opening) Depressed
0.050 m3/s (1.76 ft3/s)

(example 7-10)
Table 7-6
Comparison
of Inlet
Interception
Capacities
From table 7-6, it can be seen that the combination inlet intercepted approximately
100% of the total flow whereas the curved vane grate alone only intercepted 66% of
the total flow. The depressed curb opening intercepted 90% of the total flow.
However, if the curb opening was undepressed, it would have only intercepted 62%
of the total flow.

,QWHUFHSWLRQ&DSDFLW\RI,QOHWVLQ6DJ/RFDWLRQV
Inlets in sag locations operate as weirs under low head conditions and as orifices at
greater depths. Orifice flow begins at depths dependent on the grate size, the curb
opening height, or the slot width of the inlet. At depths between those at which weir
flow definitely prevails and those at which orifice flow prevails, flow is in a
transition stage. At these depths, control is ill-defined and flow may fluctuate
between weir and orifice control. Design procedures presented here are based on a
conservative approach to estimating the capacity of inlets in sump locations.
The efficiency of inlets in passing debris is critical in sag locations because all runoff
which enters the sag must be passed through the inlet. Total or partial clogging of
inlets in these locations can result in hazardous ponded conditions. Grate inlets
alone are not recommended for use in sag locations because of the tendencies of
grates to become clogged.
Combination inlets or curb-opening inlets are
recommended for use in these locations.
*UDWH,QOHWV
A grate inlet in a sag location operates as a weir to depths dependent on the bar
configuration and size of the grate and as an orifice at greater depths. Grates of
larger dimension will operate as weirs to greater depths than smaller grates or grates
with less opening area.
The capacity of grate inlets operating as weirs is:
Qi = Cw P d1.5
(7.26)
116

Where:
Cw
d
=
=
Perimeter of the grate in m (ft) disregarding the

side against the curb
1.66 (3.0 English units)
Flow depth (m, ft)
The capacity of a grate inlet operating as an orifice is:
Qi = Co Ag ( 2 g d )0.5
Where:
Co
Ag
g
(7.27)
=
=
=
Orifice coefficient
= 0.67
Clear opening area of the grate (m2, ft2)
9.80 m/s2 (32.16 ft/s2)
Use of equation 7.27 requires the clear area of opening of the grate. Tests of three
grates for the Federal Highway Administration showed that for flat bar grates, such
as the P-50x100 and P-30 grates, the clear opening is equal to the total area of the
grate less the area occupied by longitudinal and lateral bars. The curved vane grate
performed about 10 percent better than a grate with a net opening equal to the total
area less the area of the bars projected on a horizontal plane. That is, the projected
area of the bars in a curved vane grate is 68 percent of the total area of the grate
leaving a net opening of 32 percent, however the grate performed as a grate with a
net opening of 35 percent. Tilt-bar grates were not tested, but exploration of the
above results would indicate a net opening area of 34 percent for the 30-degree tiltbar and zero for the 45-degree tilt-bar grate. Obviously, the 45-degree tilt-bar grate
would have greater than zero capacity. Tilt-bar and curved vane grates are not
recommended for sump locations where there is a chance that operation would be as
an orifice. Opening ratios for the grates are given on chart 9.
Chart 9 is a plot of equations 7.26 and 7.27 for various grate sizes. The effects of
grate size on the depth at which a grate operates as an orifice is apparent from the
chart. Transition from weir to orifice flow results in interception capacity less than
that computed by either the weir or the orifice equation; this capacity can be
approximated by drawing in a curve between the lines representing the perimeter and
net area of the grate to be used.
Example 7-11 illustrates use of equations 7.26 and 7.27 and chart 9.
Example 7-11
3
Given: Under design storm conditions a flow of 0.10 m /s (3.5 ft /s) bypasses
each of the flanking inlets resulting in a total flow to the sag inlet of 0.23
3
3
m /s (8.1 ft /s). Also,
Sx =
0.05
0.016
Tallowable =
Find:
3 m (9.8 ft
Find the grate size required and depth at curb for the sag inlet assuming
50% clogging.
Solution:
Step 1. Determine the required grate perimeter.

d
T Sx =
(3.0) (0.05)
117
0.15 m (0.49 ft)
Qi / [Cw d ] {equation 7.26 or chart 9}
(0.23)/[(1.66)(0.15) ]
2.4 m (8 ft)
1.5
1.5
Some assumptions must be made regarding the nature of the clogging in

order to compute the capacity of a partially clogged grate. If the area of a
grate is 50 percent covered by debris so that the debris-covered portion
does not contribute to interception, the effective perimeter will be reduced
by a lesser amount than 50 percent. For example, if a 0.6 m by 1.2 m (2 ft
by 4 ft) grate is clogged so that the effective width is 0.3 m (1 ft), then the
perimeter, P = 0.3 + 1.2 + 0.3 = 1.8 m (6 ft), rather than 2.4 m (8 ft), the
total perimeter, or 1.2 m (4 ft), half of the total perimeter. The area of the
opening would be reduced by 50 percent and the perimeter by 25 percent.
Therefore, assuming 50 percent clogging along the length of the grate, a
1.2 m by 1.2 m (4 ft by 4 ft), 0.6 m by 1.8 m (2 ft by 6 ft), or a .9 m by 1.5 m
(3 ft by 5 ft) grate would meet requirements of a 2.4 m (8 ft) perimeter 50
percent clogged.
Assuming 50 percent clogging along the grate length,

Peffective =
2.4 m
(0.5) (2) W + L
if
0.6 m
then L 1.8 m (6 ft)
if
0.9 m
then L 1.5 m (5 ft)
Select a double 0.6 m by 0.9 m (2 ft by 3 ft) grate.

Peffective =
(0.5) (2) (0.6) + (1.8)
Peffective =
2.4 m (8 ft)
Step 2. Check depth of flow at curb using equation 7.26 or chart 9.

0.67
[Q/(Cw P)]
[0.23/((1.66) (2.4))]
0.15 m (0.5 ft)
2.67
Therefore, OK.
Conclusion:
A double 0.6 m by 0.9 m (2 ft by 3 ft) grate 50 percent clogged is adequate to
intercept the design storm flow at a spread, which does not exceed design
spread. However, the tendency of grate inlets to clog completely warrants
consideration of a combination inlet or curb-opening inlet in a sag where
ponding can occur, and flanking inlets on the low gradient approaches.
118
&XUE2SHQLQJ,QOHWV
The capacity of a curb-opening inlet in a sag depends on water depth at the curb, the
curb opening length, and the height of the curb opening. The inlet operates as a weir
to depths equal to the curb opening height and as an orifice at depths greater than 1.4
times the opening height. At depths between 1.0 and 1.4 times the opening height,
flow is in a transition stage.
Spread on the pavement is the usual criterion for judging the adequacy of a pavement
drainage inlet design. It is also convenient and practical in the laboratory to measure
depth at the curb upstream of the inlet at the point of maximum spread on the
pavement. Therefore, depths at the curb measurements from experiments coincide
with the depth at curb of interest to designers. The weir coefficient for a curbopening inlet is less than the usual weir coefficient for several reasons, the most
obvious of which is that depth measurements from experimental tests were not taken
at the weir, and drawdown occurs between the point where measurement were made
and the weir.
The weir location for a depressed curb-opening inlet is at the edge of the gutter, and
the effective weir length is dependent on the width of the depressed gutter and the
length of the curb opening. The weir location for a curb-opening inlet that is not
depressed is at the lip of the curb opening, and its length is equal to that of the inlet,
as shown in chart 10.
The equation for the interception capacity of a depressed curb-opening inlet
operating as a weir is:
Qi = Cw ( L + 1.8 W ) d1.5
Where:
Cw
L
W
d
(7.28)
=
=
=
=
1.25 (2.3 In English)

Length of curb opening (m, ft)
Lateral width of depression (m, ft)
Depth at curb measured from the normal cross
slope (m, ft), i.e., d = T Sx
The weir equation is applicable to depths at the curb approximately equal to the
height of the opening plus the depth of the depression. Thus, the limitation on the
use of equation 7.28 for a depressed curb-opening inlet is:
d h + a (1 0 0 0)
Where:
h
a
(d h + a / 12 , E n g l i s h u n i t s)
=
=
(7.29)
Height of curb-opening inlet (m, ft)

Depth of depression (mm, in)
Experiments have not been conducted for curb-opening inlets with a continuously
depressed gutter, but it is reasonable to expect that the effective weir length would be
as great as that for an inlet in a local depression. Use of equation 7.28 will yield
conservative estimates of the interception capacity.
119
The weir equation for curb-opening inlets without depression becomes:
Qi = C w L d1.5
(7.30)
Without depression of the gutter section, the weir coefficient, Cw, becomes 1.60 (3.0,
English system). The depth limitation for operation as a weir becomes d h.
At curb-opening lengths greater than 3.6m (12 ft), equation 7.30 for non-depressed
inlet produces intercepted flows which exceed the values for depressed inlets
computed using equation 7.28. Since depressed inlets will perform at least as well as
non-depressed inlets of the same length, equation 7.30 should be used for all curb
opening inlets having lengths greater than 3.6 m (12 ft).
Curb-opening inlets operate as orifices at depths greater than approximately 1.4
times the opening height. The interception capacity can be computed by equation
7.31a and equation 7.31b. These equations are applicable to depressed and
undepressed curb-opening inlets. The depth at the inlet includes any gutter
depression.
0.5
Qi = Co h L ( 2 g do )
(7.31a)
or
Qi = Co Ag 2 g di -
2
Where:
0.5
Co
do
=
=
L
Ag
di
=
=
=
h
h
=
=
(7.31b)
Orifice coefficient (0.67)

Effective head on the center of the orifice
throat (m, ft)
Length of orifice opening (m, ft)
Clear area of opening (m2, ft2)
Depth at lip of curb
opening (m, ft)
Height of curb-opening orifice (m, ft)
T Sx + a (a/12 in English system)
The height of the orifice in equations 7.31a and 7.31b assumes a vertical orifice
opening. As illustrated in figure 7.17, other orifice throat locations can change the
effective depth on the orifice and the dimension (di - h/2). A limited throat width
could reduce the capacity of the curb-opening inlet by causing the inlet to go into
orifice flow at depths less than the height of the opening.
For curb-opening inlets with other than vertical faces (see figure 7.17), equation
7.31a can be used with:
h
do
=
=
Orifice throat width (m, ft)

Effective head on the center of the orifice
throat (m, ft)
120
Figure 7.17
Curb-opening
inlets
Chart 10 provides solutions for equations 7.28 and 7.31 for depressed curb-opening
inlets, and chart 11 provides solutions for equations 7.30 and 7.31 for curb-opening
inlets without depression. Chart 12 is provided for use for curb openings with other
than vertical orifice openings.
Example 7-12 illustrates the use of charts 11 and 12.
Example 7-12
Given: Curb opening inlet in a sump location with
L
2.5 m (8.2 ft)
0.13 m (0.43 ft)
(1) Undepressed curb opening

Sx =
0.02
2.5 m (8.2 ft)
(2) Depressed curb opening
Find:
Qi
Sx =
0.02
25 mm (1 in)
0.6 m (2 ft)
2.5 m (8.2 ft)
121
Solution (1):
Step 1. Determine depth at curb.

d
T Sx =
(2.5) (0.02)
0.05 m (0.16 ft)
0.05 m < h = 0.13 m, therefore weir flow controls
Step 2. Use equation 7.30 or chart 11 to find Qi.

1.5
Qi
Cw L d
Qi
(1.60) (2.5) (0.05)
1.5
0.045 m /s (1.6 ft /s)
Solution (2):
Step 1. Determine depth at curb, di

di
d+a
di
Sx T + a = (0.02)(2.5) + 25/1000
di
0.075 m (0.25 ft)
di
0.075 m < h =0.13 m, therefore weir flow controls
Step 2. Use equation 7.28 or chart 10 to find Qi.

P
L + 1.8 W = 2.5 m + (1.8)(0.6)
3.58 m (11.7 ft)
Qi
Cw (L + 1.8 W) d
Qi
(1.25) (3.58) (0.05)
1.5
1.5
0.048 m /s (1.7 ft /s)
The depressed curb-opening inlet has 10 percent more capacity than an inlet
without depression.
6ORWWHG,QOHWV
Slotted inlets in sag locations perform as weirs to depths of about 0.06 m (0.2 ft),
dependent on slot width. At depths greater than about 0.12 m, (0.4 ft), they perform
as orifices. Between these depths, flow is in a transition stage. The interception
capacity of a slotted inlet operating as a weir can be computed by an equation of the
form:
Qi = Cw L ( d1.5 )
Where:
(7.32)
Cw
L
d
=
=
Weir coefficient; various with flow depth and

slot length; typical value is approximately 1.4
(2.48 for English units)
Length of slot (m, ft)
Depth at curb measured from the normal cross
slope (m, ft)
122

The interception capacity of a slotted inlet operating as an orifice can be computed
by equation 7.33:
Qi = 0.8 L W ( 2 g d )0.5
Where:
(7.33)
W
L
=
=
Width of slot (m, ft)

Length of slot (m, ft)
Depth of water at slot for d 0.12 m (0.4ft), m

(ft)
9.81 m/s2 (32.16 ft/s2)
For a slot width of 45 mm (1.75 in), equation 7.33 becomes:
Qi = 0.16 L d0.5
(7.34)
Chart 13 provides solutions for weir and orifice flow conditions as represented by
equations 7.32 and 7.33. As indicated in chart 13, the transition between weir and
orifice flow occurs at different depths. To conservatively compute the interception
capacity of slotted inlets in sump conditions in the transition area, original conditions
should be assumed. Due to clogging characteristics, slotted drains are not
recommended in sag locations.
Example 7-13
Given: A slotted inlet located along a curb having a slot width of 45 mm (1.75 in).
3
3
The gutter flow at the upstream end of the inlet is 0.14 m /s (4.9 ft /s).
Find:
The length of slotted inlet required to limit maximum depth at the curb to
0.09 m (3.6 in) assuming no clogging.
Solution:
Using equation 7.34 or chart 13
0.5
Qi / [(0.16)(d )]
(0.14) / [(0.16)(0.09) ]
2.91 m (9.5 ft).
0.5

&RPELQDWLRQ,QOHWV
Combination inlets consisting of a grate and a curb opening are considered advisable
for use in sags where hazardous ponding can occur. Equal length inlets refer to a
grate inlet placed along side a curb-opening inlet, both of which have the same
length. A sweeper inlet refers to a grate inlet placed at the downstream end of a
curb-opening inlet. The curb-opening inlet is longer than the grate inlet and
intercepts the flow before the flow reaches the grate. The sweeper inlet is more
efficient than the equal length combination inlet and the curb opening has the ability
to intercept any debris, which may clog the grate inlet. The interception capacity of
the equal length combination inlet is essentially equal to that of a grate alone in weir
flow. In orifice flow, the capacity of the equal length combination inlet is equal to
the capacity of the grate plus the capacity of the curb opening.
123
Equation 7.26 and chart 9 can be used for weir flow in combination inlets in sag
locations. Assuming complete clogging of the grate, equations 7.28, 7.30, and 7.31
and charts 10, 11 and 12 for curb-opening inlets are applicable.
Where depth at the curb is such that orifice flow occurs, the interception capacity of
the inlet is computed by adding equations 7.27 and 7.31a as follows:
Qi = 0.6 7 Ag ( 2 g d )0.5 + 0.6 7 h L ( 2 g do )0.5

Where:
Ag
g
d
h
L
do
(7.35)
Clear area of the grate (m2, ft2)

9.81 m/s/s (32.16 ft/s/s)
Depth at the curb (m, ft)
Height of curb opening orifice (m, ft)
Length of curb opening (m, ft)
Effective depth at the center of the curb
opening orifice (m, ft)
=
=
=
=
=
=
Trial and error solutions are necessary for determining the depth at the curb for a
given flow rate using charts 9, 10 and 11 for orifice flow. Different assumptions for
clogging of the grate can also be examined using these charts as illustrated by the
following example.
Example 7-14
Given: A combination inlet in a sag location with the following characteristics:
Grate - 0.6 m by 1.2 m (2 ft by 4 ft) P-50
Curb opening -
1.2 m (4 ft)
0.1 m (3.9 in)
0.15 m /s (5.3 ft /s)
Sx =
Find:
L
3
0.03
Depth at curb and spread for:

(1) Grate clear of clogging
(2) Grate 100 percent clogged
Solution (1):
Step 1. Compute depth at curb.

Assuming grate controls interception:
P
2W + L =
2(0.6) + 1.2
2.4 m (7.9 ft)
From equation 7.26 or chart 9

0.67
[Qi / (Cw P)]
[(0.15) / {(1.66)(2.4)}]
0.67
0.11 m (0.36 ft)
124

Step 2. Compute associated spread.
=
(0.11) / (0.03)
d / Sx
3.67 m (12 ft)
Solution (2):
Step 1. Compute depth at curb.

Assuming grate clogged. Using chart 11 or equation 7.31b with
3
0.15 m /s (5.3 ft /s):
{Qi/(Co h L)} / (2g) + h/2
{(0.15)/[(0.67)(0.10)(1.2)]} / [(2)(9.81)] + (0.1/2) = 0.24 m (0.8 ft)
Step 2. Compute associated spread.

=
(0.24) / (0.03)
d / Sx
8.0 m (26.2 ft)
Interception by the curb-opening only will be in a transition stage between weir

and orifice flow with a depth at the curb of about 0.24 m (0.8 ft). Depth at the
curb and spread on the pavement would be almost twice as great if the grate
should become completely clogged.

,QOHW/RFDWLRQV
The location of inlets is determined by geometric controls which require inlets at
specific locations, the use and location of flanking inlets in sag vertical curves, and
the criterion of spread on the pavement. In order to adequately design the location of
the inlets for a given project, the following information is needed:
a layout or plan sheet suitable for outlining drainage areas,
road profiles,
typical cross sections,
grading cross sections,
superelevation diagrams, and
contour maps
*HRPHWULF&RQWUROV
There are a number of locations where inlets may be necessary with little regard to
contributing drainage area. These locations should be marked on the plans prior to
any computations regarding discharge, water spread, inlet capacity, or flow bypass.
Examples of such locations follow.
At all low points in the gutter grade
Immediately upstream of median breaks, entrance/exit ramp gores, cross

walks, and street intersections., i.e. at any location where water could flow
onto the travelway
Immediately upgrade of bridges (to prevent pavement drainage from

flowing onto bridge deck)
Immediately downstream of bridges (to intercept bridge deck drainage)
Immediately up grade of cross slope reversals
Immediately up grade from pedestrian cross walks
At the end of channels in cut sections
On side streets immediately up grade from intersections
Behind curbs, shoulders or sidewalks to drain low areas
In addition to the areas identified above, runoff from areas draining towards the
highway pavement should be intercepted by roadside channels or inlets before it
reaches the roadway. This applies to drainage from cut slopes, side streets, and other
areas alongside the pavement. Curbed pavement sections and pavement drainage
inlets are inefficient means for handling extraneous drainage.
,QOHW6SDFLQJRQ&RQWLQXRXV*UDGHV
Design spread is the criterion used for locating storm drain inlets between those
required by geometric or other controls. The interception capacity of the upstream
inlet will define the initial spread. As flow is contributed to the gutter section in the
downstream direction, spread increases. The next downstream inlet is located at the
point where the spread in the gutter reaches the design spread. Therefore, the spacing
of inlets on a continuous grade is a function of the amount of upstream bypass flow,
the tributary drainage area, and the gutter geometry.
For a continuous slope, the designer may establish the uniform design spacing
between inlets of a given design if the drainage area consists of pavement only or has
reasonably uniform runoff characteristics and is rectangular in shape. In this case,
the time of concentration is assumed to be the same for all inlets. The following
procedure and example illustrates the effects of inlet efficiency on inlet spacing.
In order to design the location of inlets on a continuous grade, the computation sheet
shown in figure 7.18 may be used to document the analysis. A step-by-step
procedure for the use of figure 7.18 follows.
Step 1.
Complete the blanks at the top of the sheet to identify the job by state
project number, route, date, and your initials.
Step 2.
Mark on a plan the location of inlets which are necessary even without
considering any specific drainage area, such as the locations described in
section 7.4.6.1.
Step 3.
Start at a high point, at one end of the job if possible, and work towards
the low point. Then begin at the next high point and work backwards
toward the same low point.
Step 4.
To begin the process, select a trial drainage area approximately 90 m to

150 m (300 to 500 ft) long below the high point and outline the area on
the plan. Include any area that may drain over the curb, onto the
roadway. However, where practical, drainage from large areas behind the
curb should be intercepted before it reaches the roadway or gutter.
125
126
Step 5.
Col. 1 Describe the location of the proposed inlet by number and

Col. 2 station and record this information in columns 1 and 2.
Col. 19 Identify the curb and gutter type in column 19, Remarks. A
sketch of the cross section should be prepared.
Step 6.
Col. 3
Compute the drainage area (hectares) outlined in step 4 and

record in column 3.
Step 7.
Col. 4
Determine the runoff coefficient, C, for the drainage area.

Select a C value provided in table 3-1 or determine a weighted
C value using equation 3-2 and record the value in column 4.
Step 8.
Col. 5
Compute the time of concentration, tc, in minutes, for the first

inlet and record in column 5. The time of concentration is the
time for the water to flow from the most hydraulically remote
point of the drainage area to the inlet, as discussed in section
3.2.2.3. The minimum time of concentration is 5 minutes.
Step 9.
Col. 6
Using the time of concentration, determine the rainfall intensity

from the Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curve for the design
frequency. Enter the value in column 6.
Step 10.
Col. 7
Calculate the flow in the gutter using equation 3-1, Q=CIA/Kc.

The flow is calculated by multiplying column 3 times column 4
times column 6 divided by Kc. Using the SI system of units, Kc =
360 (= 1 for English units). Enter the flow value in column 7.
Step 11.
Col. 8
From the roadway profile, enter in column 8 the gutter

longitudinal slope, SL, at the inlet, taking into account any
superelevation.
Step 12.
Col. 9
Col. 13
From the cross section, enter the cross slope, Sx, in column 9 and
the grate or gutter width, W, in column 13.
Step 13.
Col. 11
Col. 10
For the first inlet in a series, enter the value from column 7 into
column 11, since there was no previous bypass flow.
Additionally, if the inlet is the first in a series, enter 0 into column
10.
Step 14.
Col. 14
Col. 12
Determine the spread, T, by using equations 7.2 and 7.4 or charts

1 and 2 and enter the value in column 14. Also, determine the
depth at the curb, d, by multiplying the spread by the appropriate
cross slope, and enter the value in column 12. Compare the
calculated spread with the allowable spread as determined by the
design criteria outlined in section 7.1. Additionally, compare the
depth at the curb with the actual curb height in column 19. If the
calculated spread, column 14, is near the allowable spread and the
depth at the curb is less than the actual curb height, continue on to
step 15. Else, expand or decrease the drainage area up to the first
inlet to increase or decrease the spread, respectively. The
drainage area can be expanded by increasing the length to the
inlet and it can be decreased by decreasing the distance to the
inlet. Then, repeat steps 6 through 14 until appropriate values are
obtained.
Step 15.
Col. 15
Calculate W/T and enter the value in column 15.
127
Step 16.
Col. 16
Select the inlet type and dimensions and enter the values in
column 16.
Step 17.
Col. 17
Calculate the flow intercepted the grate, Qi, and enter the value in
column 17. Use equations 7.16 and 7.13 or charts 2 and 4 to
define the gutter flow. Use chart 5 and equation 7.19 or chart 6 to
define the flow intercepted by the grate. Use equations 7.22 and
7.23 or charts 7 and 8 for curb opening inlets. Finally, use
equation 7.21 to determine the intercepted flow.
Step 18.
Col. 18 Determine the bypass flow, Qb, and enter into column 18. The
bypass flow is column 11 minus column 17.
Step 19.
Col. 1-4 Proceed to the next inlet down the grade. To begin the procedure,
select a drainage area approximately 90 m to 120 m (300 to 400
ft) below the previous inlet for a first trial. Repeat steps 5
through 7 considering only the area between the inlets.
Step 20.
Col. 5
Compute the time of concentration for the next inlet based upon
the area between the consecutive inlets and record this value in
column 5.
Step 21.
Col. 6
Determine the rainfall intensity from the IDF curve based upon
the time of concentration determined in step 19 and record the
value in column 6.
Step 22.
Col. 7
Determine the flow in the gutter by using equation 3-1 and record
the value in column 7.
Step 23.
Col. 11 Record the value from column 18 of the previous line into
column 10 of the current line. Determine the total gutter flow by
adding column 7 and column 10 and record in column 11.
Step 24.
Col. 12 Determine the spread and the depth at the curb as outlined in step
Col. 14 14. Repeat steps 18 through 24 until the spread and the depth at
the curb are within the design criteria.
Step 25.
Col. 16 Select the inlet type and record in column 16.
Step 26.
Col. 17 Determine the intercepted flow in accordance with step 17.
Step 27.
Col. 18 Calculate the bypass flow by subtracting column 17 from column

11. This completes the spacing design for the inlet.
Step 28.
Repeat steps 19 through 27 for each subsequent inlet down to the low point.
128
Figure 7.18
Inlet spacing
computation
sheet
129
The following example illustrates the use of this procedure and figure 7.18.
Figure 7.19
Storm
drainage
system for
example 7-15
130

Example 7-15
Given: The storm drainage system illustrated in figure 7.19 with the following
roadway characteristics:
n
0.016
Sx =
0.02
SL =
0.03
Allowable spread = 2.0 m (6.6 ft)

Gutter and shoulder cross slope = 0.04
For maintenance reasons, inlet spacing is limited to 110 m (360 ft)
Find:
The maximum design inlet spacing for a 0.6 m wide by 0.9 m long (2 ft by 3
ft) P 50 x 100 grate, during a 10 - year storm event.
Solution:
Use the inlet computation sheet shown in figure 7.20. The entries are
shown in figure 7.20.
Steps 1-4
The computations can begin at either of the inlets located at
station 20+00. The initial drainage area consists of a 13 m wide
roadway section with a length of 200 m. The top of the drainage basin
is located at station 22+00.
Step 5
Col. 1
Inlet # 40
Col. 2
Station 20+00
Col. 19 Composite gutter with a curb height = 0.15 m (0.50 ft).
Step 6
Col. 3
Distance from top of drainage area to first inlet

20+00 = 200 m.
Width
= 22+00 -
= 13 m.
2
Drainage area = (200)(13) = 2600 m = 0.26 ha (0.64 ac)
Step 7
Col. 4
Runoff coefficient, C = 0.73
Step 8
Col. 5
First calculate velocity of gutter flow using equation 3-4 and

table 3-3.
V = K Sp
0.5
0.5
= (0.619)(3.0)
{table 3-1}
= 1.1 m/s (3.5 ft/s)
Calculate the time of concentration, tc, using equation 3-6.

tc
Step 9
Col. 6
L / [60 V]
= (200) / [(60)(1.1)]
3.0 min (use 5 min minimum)
Determine rainfall intensity, I, from IDF curve.

I
180 mm/hr
{figure 3-1}
131
Step 10 Col. 7 Determine gutter flow rate, Q, using equation 3-1.

3
Q = CIA/Kc = (0.73)(180)(0.26)/(360) = 0.095 m /s (3.4 ft /s)
Step 11 Col. 8
SL
0.03 m/m
Step 12 Col. 9
Sw =
0.04 m/m
Step 13 Col. 13 W
0.6 m (2 ft)
Step 14 Col. 14 Determine spread, T, using equation 7.2 or chart 1.

1.67
0.5 0.375
[{Qn} / {K Sx
[{(0.095)(0.016)} / {(0.376) (0.04)
1.83 m (6.0 ft)
SL }]
1.67
0.5 0.375
(0.03) }]
(less than allowable so therefore proceed to next step)

Col. 12 Determine depth at curb, d, using equation 7.3.
d
T Sx = (1.83)(0.04) =
0.073 m (0.24 ft)
(less than actual curb height so proceed to next step)
Step 15 Col. 15 W/T = 0.6 / 1.83 =
0.33
Step 16 Col. 16 Select a P 50 x 100 grate measuring 0.6 m wide by 0.9 m

long (2 ft by 3ft)
Step 17 Col. 17 Calculate intercepted flow, Qi.

Eo =
1 - (1 - W/T)
2.67
Eo =
1 - (1 - 0.33)
0.752/n SL
2.67
0.5
=
0.67
Sx
0.66
0.67
0.5
0.752/(0.016) (0.03)
1.41 m/s (4.6 ft/s)
Rf
1.0
Rs =

0.67
(0.04)
0.67
(1.83)
(chart 5)
1.8
2.3
1 / [1 + (0.0828 V )/(Sx L )]
1.8
2.3
Rs =
1 / [1 + {(0.0828)(1.41) }/{(0.04)(0.9) }]
Rs =
0.17
132
Figure 7.20
Inlet spacing
computation
sheet for
example 7-15
133
Qi
Q [Rf Eo + Rs (1 - Eo)]
Qi
(0.095) [(1.0)(0.66) + (0.17)(1 - 0.66)]
Qi
0.068 m /s (2.4 ft /s)
Step 18 Col. 18 Qb =
=
Step 19 Col. 1
{equation 7.21}
- Qi = 0.095 - 0.068
3
0.027 m /s (1.0 ft /s)
Inlet # 41
Col. 2
Station 18+90
Col. 3
Drainage area
= (110 m)(13 m)
= 1430 m
= 0.14 ha (0.35 ac)

Col. 4
Step 20 Col. 5
Runoff coefficient, C = 0.73
1.1m/s(3.5ft/s)
(step 8)
tc
L/[60 V] = 110/[(60)(1.1)] = 2 min
(use 5 min minimum)
Step 21 Col. 6
180 mm/hr
Step 22 Col. 7
CIA/Kc
(0.73)(180)(0.14)/(360)
Step 23 Col. 11 Col. 11 =

=
0.051 m /s (1.8 ft /s)
Col. 10 + Col. 7 = 0.027 + 0.051

3
0.078 m /s (2.8 ft /s)
Step 24 Col. 14 T
1.50 m (4.9 ft)
<
T allowable
Col. 12 d
0.06 m (0.20 ft)
<
curb height
Since the actual spread is less than the allowable spread, a

larger invert spacing could be used here. However, in this
case, maintenance considerations limit the spacing to 110 m
(360 ft).
Step 25 Col. 16 Select P 50 x 100 grate 0.6 m wide by 0.9m long (2 ft by 3 ft).
Step 26 Col. 17 Qi
0.040 m /s (1.4 ft /s)
(step 17)
134
Step 27 Col. 18 Qb =
Q - Qi
Col. 18 =
Col. 11 - Col. 17
Col. 18 =
0.078 - 0.040
0.038 m /s (1.3 ft /s)
Step 28 Repeat steps 19 through 27 for each additional inlet. (2 ft by 3 ft).
For inlet spacing in areas with changing grades, the spacing will vary as the grade
changes. If the grade becomes flatter, inlets may be spaced at closer intervals
because the spread will exceed the allowable. Conversely, for an increase in slope,
the inlet spacing will become longer because of increased capacity in the gutter
sections. Additionally, individual transportation agencies may have limitations for
spacing due to maintenance constraints.

)ODQNLQJ,QOHWV
Figure 7.21
Example of
flanking inlet
As discussed in the previous section, inlets should always be located at the low or
sag points in the gutter profile. In addition, it is good engineering practice to place
flanking inlets on each side of the low point inlet when in a depressed area that has
no outlet except through the system. This is illustrated in figure 7.21. The purpose
of the flanking inlets is to act in relief of the inlet at the low point if it should become
clogged or if the design spread is exceeded. Flanking inlets can be located so they
will function before water spread exceeds the allowable spread at the sump location.
The flanking inlets should be located so that they will receive all of the flow when
the primary inlet at the bottom of the sag is clogged. They should do this without
exceeding the allowable spread at the bottom of the sag. If the flanking inlets are the
same dimension as the primary inlet, they will each intercept one-half the design
flow when they are located so that the depth of ponding at the flanking inlets is 63
percent of the depth of ponding at the low point. If the flanker inlets are not the
same size as the primary inlet, it will be necessary to either develop a new factor or
do a trial and error solution using assumed depths with the weir equation to
determine the capacity of the flanker inlet at the given depths.
Table 7-7 shows the spacing required for various depth at curb criteria and vertical
curve lengths defined by K = L / (G2 - G1), where L is the length of the vertical curve
in meters and G1 and G2 are the approach grades. The AASHTO policy on
geometrics specifies maximum K values for various design speeds and a maximum
K of 50 considering drainage. The use of table 7-7 is illustrated in example 7-16.
d(m)
K(m)
135
11
15
20
25
30
37
43
50
0.01
2.8
4.0
4.7
5.5
6.3
7.1
7.7
8.6
9.3
10.0
0.02
4.0
5.7
6.6
7.7
8.9
10.0 11.0 12.2 13.1 14.1
0.03
4.9
7.0
8.2
9.6
11.0 12.3 13.5 15.0 16.2 17.5
0.06
7.0
9.9
11.6 13.5 15.6 17.5 19.1 12.2 22.9 24.7
0.09
8.6
12.1 14.2 16.6 19.1 21.4 23.4 26.0 28.0 30.2
0.12
9.9
14.0 16.4 19.1 22.1 24.7 27.1 30.0 32.4 34.9
0.15
11.0 15.6 18.3 21.4 24.7 27.6 30.2 33.6 36.2 39.0
0.18
12.1 17.1 20.1 23.4 27.1 30.2 33.1 36.8 39.7 42.8
0.21
13.1 18.5 21.7 25.3 29.2 32.7 35.8 39.7 42.8 46.2
0.24
14.0 19.8 23.2 27.1 31.2 34.9 38.3 42.5 45.8 49.4
NOTES: 1. x=(200 dK)0.5, where x=distance from sag point

2. d=depth at curb in meters (does not include sump depth)
3. Drainage maximum K=50
Example 7-16
Given: A 150 m (L) sag vertical curve at an underpass on a 4-lane divided
highway with begin and end slopes of -2.5% and +2.5% respectively. The
spread at design Q is not to exceed the shoulder width of 3.0 m (9.8 ft).
Sx =
Find:
0.02
The location of the flanking inlets if located to function in relief of the inlet at
the low point when the inlet at the low point is clogged.
Solution:
Step 1. Find the rate of vertical culvature, K.

K
L/(Sbegin - Send)
150 m/(-2.59-2.59)
30 m
Step 2. Determine depth at design spread.

d
Sx T
(0.02) (3.0)
0.06 m (0.2 ft)
Table 7-7
Distance to
Flanking
Inlets in Sag
Vertical Curve
using Depth at
Curb Criteria
136

Step 3. Determine the depth for flanker locations.
d
0.06 (0.63)
0.04 m (0.12 ft)
Step 4. For use with table 7-7; d = 0.06 - 0.04 = 0.02 m (0.06 ft)
Inlet spacing = 11.0 m (36 ft) from the sag point.
Example problem solutions in section 7.4.5 illustrate the total interception capacity
of inlets in sag locations. Except where inlets become clogged, spread on low
gradient approaches to the low point is a more stringent criterion for design than the
interception capacity of the sag inlet. AASHTO recommends that a gradient of 0.3
percent be maintained within 15 m (50 ft) of the level point in order to provide for
adequate drainage. It is considered advisable to use spread on the pavement at a
gradient comparable to that recommended by the AASHTO Committee on Design to
evaluate the location and design of inlets upgrade of sag vertical curves. Standard
inlet locations may need to be adjusted to avoid excessive spread in the sag curve.
Inlets may be needed between the flankers and the ends of the curves also. For
major sag points, the flanking inlets are added as a safety factor, and are not
considered as intercepting flow to reduce the bypass flow to the sag point. They are
installed to assist the sag point inlet in the event of clogging.

0HGLDQ(PEDQNPHQWDQG%ULGJH,QOHWV
Flow in median and roadside ditches is discussed briefly in chapter 5 and in
Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 15 and Hydraulic Design Series No. 4. It is
sometimes necessary to place inlets in medians at intervals to remove water that
could cause erosion. Inlets are sometimes used in roadside ditches at the intersection
of cut and fill slopes to prevent erosion downstream of cut sections.
Where adequate vegetative cover can be established on embankment slopes to
prevent erosion, it is preferable to allow storm water to discharge down the slope
with as little concentration of flow as practicable. Where storm water must be
collected with curbs or swales, inlets are used to receive the water and discharge it
through chutes, sod or riprap swales, or pipe downdrains.
Bridge deck drainage is similar to roadway drainage and deck drainage inlets are
similar in purpose to roadway inlets. Bridge deck drainage is discussed in greater
detail in Design of Bridge Deck Drainage, published in 1993 by the Federal
Highway Administration.
0HGLDQDQG5RDGVLGH'LWFK,QOHWV
Median and roadside ditches may be drained by drop inlets similar to those used for
pavement drainage, by pipe culverts under one roadway, or by cross drainage
culverts which are not continuous across the median. Figure 7.22 illustrates a trafficsafe median inlet. Inlets, pipes, and discontinuous cross drainage culverts should be
designed so as not to detract from a safe roadside. Drop inlets should be flush with
the ditch bottom and traffic-safe bar grates should be placed on the ends of pipes
used to drain medians that would be a hazard to errant vehicles, although this may
cause a plugging potential. Cross drainage structures should be continuous across
the median unless the median width makes this impractical. Ditches tend to erode at
drop inlets; paving around the inlets helps to prevent erosion and may increase the
interception capacity of the inlet marginally by acceleration of the flow.
137
Pipe drains for medians operate as culverts and generally require more water depth to
intercept median flow than drop inlets. No test results are available on which to base
design procedures for estimating the effects of placing grates on culvert inlets.
However, little effect is expected.
The interception capacity of drop inlets in median ditches on continuous grades can
be estimated by use of charts 14 and 15 to estimate flow depth and the ratio of frontal
flow to total flow in the ditch.
Figure 7.22
Median drop
inlet
Chart 14 is the solution to the Manning equation for channels of various side slopes.
The Manning equation for open channels is:
Q=
KM
A R 0.67 S0.5
L
n
Where:
Q
KM
n
A
R
SL
(7.36)
=
=
=
=
=
=
Discharge rate (m3/s, ft3/s)

1.0 (1.486)
Hydraulic resistance variable
Cross sectional area of flow (m2, ft2)
Hydraulic radius = area/wetted perimeter (m, ft)
Bed slope (m/m, ft/ft)
For the trapezoidal channel cross section shown on chart 14, the Manning equation
becomes:
0.67
B + z d2
K
Q = M (B + z d 2 )
n
2
B + 2 d z +1
Where:
B
z
S0.5
L
(7.37)
= Bottom width (m, ft)

= Horizontal distance of side slope to a rise of 1 m (ft)
vertical (m, ft)
Equation 7.37 is a trial and error solution to chart 14.
138

Chart 15 is the ratio of frontal flow to total flow in a trapezoidal channel. This is
expressed as:
Eo = W / ( B + d z)
(7.38)
Charts 5 and 6 are used to estimate the ratios of frontal and side flow intercepted by
the grate to total flow.
Small dikes downstream of drop inlets (figure 7.22) can be provided to impede
bypass flow in an attempt to cause complete interception of the approach flow. The
dikes usually need not be more than a few inches high and should have traffic safe
slopes. The height of dike required for complete interception on continuous grades
or the depth of ponding in sag vertical curves can be computed by use of chart 9.
The effective perimeter of a grate in an open channel with a dike should be taken as
2(L + W) since one side of the grate is not adjacent to a curb. Use of chart 9 is
illustrated in section 7.4.4.1.
The following examples illustrate the use of charts 14 and 15 for drop inlets in
ditches on continuous grade.
Example 7-17
Given: A median ditch with the following characteristics:
B
1.2 m (3.9 ft)
0.03
0.02
The flow in the median ditch is to be intercepted by a drop inlet with a 0.6
m by 0.6 m (2 ft by 2 ft) P-50 parallel bar grate; there is no dike
downstream of the inlet.
Q
Find:
0.28 m /s (9.9 ft /s)
The intercepted and bypassed flows (Qi and Qb)
Solution:
Step 1. Compute the ratio of frontal to total flow in trapezoidal channel.

Qn =
(0.28)(0.03)
Qn =
0.0084 m /s (0.30 ft /s)
d/B =
0.12
{chart 14}
(B)(d/B) =
(0.12)(1.20)
Eo =
W/(B + dz)
0.14 m (0.46 ft)

(0.6)/[1.2 + (0.14)(6)] =
Step 2. Compute frontal flow efficiency

V
Q/A
(0.14)[(6)(.14)+1.2)
0.29 m (3.1 ft )
0.30
139
(0.28)/(0.29) =
Rf
1.0
0.97 m/s (3.2 ft/s)

{chart 5}
Step 3. Compute side flow efficiency

Since the ditch bottom is wider than the grate and has no cross slope, use
the least cross slope available on chart 6 or use equation 7.19 to solve for
Rs.
Rs =
Rs =
1.8
2.3
1/[1 + (0.0828 V )/(Sx L )]

1.8
1/[1 + (0.0828)(0.97)

2.3
/ {(0.01) (0.6) }] = 0.04
Step 4. Compute total efficiency.

E
Eo Rf + Rs (1 - Eo)
(0.30)(1.0) + (0.04)(1 - 0.30) = 0.33
Step 5. Compute interception and bypass flow.

Qi
E Q = (0.33)(0.28)
Qi
0.1 m /s (3.5 ft /s)
Qb =
Q - Qi = (0.28) - (0.1)
Qb =
0.18 m /s (6.4 ft /s)
In the above example, a P-50 inlet would intercept about 30 percent of the flow in a
1.2 m (4 ft) bottom ditch on continuous grade.
For grate widths equal to the bottom width of the ditch, use chart 6 by substituting
ditch side slopes for values of Sx, as illustrated in example 7-18.
Example 7-18
Given: A median ditch with the following characteristics:
3
0.28 m /s (9.9 ft /s)
0.6 m (2 ft)
0.6 m (2 ft)
0.03
Sx =
1/6 =
0.03
0.17
The flow in the median ditch is to be intercepted by a drop inlet with a 0.6
m by 0.6 m (2 ft by 2 ft) P-50 parallel bar grate; there is no dike
downstream of the inlet.
Find:
The intercepted and bypassed flows (Qi and Qb).
Solution:
Step 1. Compute ratio of frontal to total flow in trapezoidal channel.

Qn =
(0.28)(0.03)
Qn =
0.0084 m /s (0.30 ft /s)
140

d/B =
0.25
(0.25)(0.6)
Eo =
=
{chart 14}
=
0.15 m (0.49 ft)
W / (B + dz)
(0.6) / [ 0.6 + (0.15)(6)]
0.40
Step 2. Compute frontal flow efficiency

V
Q/A
(0.15)[(6)(.15)+0.6)]
0.23 m (2.42 ft )
(0.28)/(O.23) =
Rf
1.0
1.22 m/s (4.0 ft/s)

{chart 5}
Step 3. Compute side flow efficiency

Rs =
Rs =
=
1.8
2.3
1/[1 + (0.0828 V )/(Sx L )]

1.8
1/[1 + (0.0828)(1.22)

2.3
/ {(0.17) (0.6) }]
0.30
Step 4. Compute total efficiency.

E
Eo Rf + Rs (1 - Eo)
(0.40)(1.0) + (0.30)(1-0.40) = 0.58
Step 5. Compute interception and bypass flow.

Qi
EQ=
(0.58)(0.28)
3
0.16 m /s (5.7 ft /s)
Qb =
Q - Qi = 0.28 - 0.16
Qb =
0.12 m /s (4.2 ft /s)
Qi
The height of dike downstream of a drop inlet required for total interception is
illustrated by example 7-19.
Example 7-19
Given: Data from example 7-18.
Find:
The required height of a berm to be located downstream of the grate inlet

to cause total interception of the ditch flow.
Solution:
P
2(L+W)
2(0.6 + 0.6) =
2.4 m (7.9 ft)

D
d
=
=
141
0.67
[Qi / (Cw P)]

0.67
[(0.28) / {(1.66)(2.4)}]
0.17 m (.55 ft)
A dike will need to have a minimum height of 0.16 m (0.5 ft) for total
interception. Due to the initial velocity of the water which may provide
adequate momentum to carry the flow over the dike, an additional 0.15 m (0.5
ft) may be added to the height of the dike to insure complete interception of the
flow.

(PEDQNPHQW,QOHWV
Drainage inlets are often needed to collect runoff from pavements in order to prevent
erosion of fill slopes or to intercept water upgrade or downgrade of bridges. Inlets
used at these locations differ from other pavement drainage inlets in three respects.
First, the economies which can be achieved by system design are often not possible
because a series of inlets is not used; second, total or near total interception is
sometimes necessary in order to limit the bypass flow from running onto a bridge
deck; and third, a closed storm drainage system is often not available to dispose of
the intercepted flow, and the means for disposal must be provided at each inlet.
Intercepted flow is usually discharged into open chutes or pipe downdrains, which
terminate at the toe of the fill slope.
Figure 7.23
Embankment
inlet and
downdrain
Example problem solutions in other sections of this circular illustrate by inference

the difficulty in providing for near total interception on grade. Grate inlets intercept
little more than the flow conveyed by the gutter width occupied by the grate.
Combination curb-opening and grate inlets can be designed to intercept total flow if
the length of curb opening upstream of the grate is sufficient to reduce spread in the
gutter to the width of the grate used. Depressing the curb opening would
142

significantly reduce the length of inlet required. Perhaps the most practical inlets or
procedure for use where near total interception is necessary are sweeper inlets,
increase in grate width, and slotted inlets of sufficient length to intercept 85-100
percent of the gutter flow. Design charts and procedures in section 7.4.4 are
applicable to the design of inlets on embankments. Figure 7.23 illustrates a
combination inlet and downdrain.
Downdrains or chutes used to convey intercepted flow from inlets to the toe of the
fill slope may be open or closed chutes. Pipe downdrains are preferable because the
flow is confined and cannot cause erosion along the sides. Pipes can be covered to
reduce or eliminate interference with maintenance operations on the fill slopes.
Open chutes are often damaged by erosion from water splashing over the sides of the
chute due to oscillation in the flow and from spill over the sides at bends in the
chute. Erosion at the ends of downdrains or chutes can be a problem if not
anticipated. The end of the device may be placed low enough to prevent damage by
undercutting due to erosion. Well-graded gravel or rock can be used to control the
potential for erosion at the outlet of the structure. However, some transportation
agencies install an elbow or a "tee" at the end of the downdrains to re-direct the flow
and prevent erosion. See HEC-14) for additional information on energy dissipator
designs.

*UDWH7\SH6HOHFWLRQ&RQVLGHUDWLRQV
Grate type selection should consider such factors as hydraulic efficiency, debris
handling characteristics, pedestrian and bicycle safety, and loading conditions.
Relative costs will also influence grate type selection.
Charts 5, 6, and 9 illustrate the relative hydraulic efficiencies of the various grate
types discussed here. The parallel bar grate (P-50) is hydraulically superior to all
others but is not considered bicycle safe. The curved vane and the P-30 grates have
good hydraulic characteristics with high velocity flows. The other grates tested are
hydraulically effective at lower velocities.
Debris-handling capabilities of various grates are reflected in table 7-5. The table
shows a clear difference in efficiency between the grates with the 83 mm (3-1/4
inch) longitudinal bar spacing and those with smaller spacings. The efficiencies
shown in the table are suitable for comparisons between the grate designs tested, but
should not be taken as an indication of field performance since the testing procedure
used did not simulate actual field conditions. Some local transportation agencies
have developed factors for use of debris handling characteristics with specific inlet
configurations.
Table 7-8 ranks the grates according to relative bicycle and pedestrian safety. The
bicycle safety ratings were based on a subjective test program as described in
Hydraulic and Safety Characteristics of selected Grate Inlets on Continuous Grades
volumes 1 and 2, published by the FHWA in June 1977 and April 1978, respectively.
However, all the grates are considered bicycle and pedestrian safe except the P-50.
Grate loading conditions must also be considered when determining an appropriate
grate type. Grates in traffic areas must be able to withstand traffic loads; conversely,
grates draining yard areas do not generally need to be as rigid.
143
Rank
Grate Style
Table 7-8
P-50x100
Reticuline
P-30
45 - 85 Tilt Bar
Ranking with
Respect to
Bicycle and
Pedestrian
Safety
45 - 60 Tilt Bar
Curved Vane
30 - 85 Tilt Bar
Notes
145
$33(1',;$

+(&&+$576

Chart 1
Flow in triangular gutter sections
146
Chart 2
Ration of frontal flow to total gutter flow
147
Chart 3
Conveyance in circular channels
148
Chart 4
Velocity in triangular gutter sections
149
Chart 5
Grate inlet frontal flow interception efficiency
150
Chart 6
Grate inlet side flow interception efficiency
151
Chart 7
Curb-opening and slotted drain inlet

interception efficiency
152
Curb-opening and slotted drain inlet

interception efficiency
153
Grate inlet capacity in sump conditions
154
Chart 8
Chart 9
Chart 10 Depressed Curb opening inlet in sump

locations
Chart 11 Curb-opening inlet in sump locations
155
156
Chart 12 Curb-opening inlet orifice capacity for

inclined and vertical orifice throats
Chart 13 Slotted drain inlet capacity in sump locations
157
158
Chart 14 Solution of Mannings equation for channels

of various side slopes
159
Chart 15 Ratio of frontal flow to total flow in a

trapezoidal channel
160
146
Appendix A HEC-22 Charts
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161

$SSHQGL[%

(QJLQHHUV5HIHUHQFH

%
(QJLQHHUV5HIHUHQFH
%
(QHUJ\(TXDWLRQ
The energy relationship between the downstream and upstream end of a pipe is:
V12 P1
V2 P
+ + z1 + h G = 2 + 2 + z 2 + h L
2g
2g
Where:
V
g
P
z
hG
hL
=
=
=
Fluid velocity (m/s2, ft/s2)

Pressure (N/m2, lb/ft2)
=
=
=
=
Specific weight of the fluid (N/m3, lb/ft3)

Elevation at the centroid (m, ft)
Head gain, such as from a pump (m, ft)
Combined head loss (m, ft)
(B.1)
162
Appendix B Engineers Reference
%
5RXJKQHVV9DOXHV0DQQLQJ
V(TXDWLRQ
Commonly used roughness values for different materials are:
Table B.1
Mannings
Coefficients n
for Closed
Metal
Conduits
Channel Type and Description

a. Brass, smooth
b. Steel
1. Lockbar and welded
2. Riveted and spiral
c. Cast iron
1. Coated
2. Uncoated
d. Wrought iron
1. Black
2. Galvanized
e. Corrugated metal
1. Subdrain
2. Storm drain
Minimum
Normal
Maximum
0.009
0.010
0.013
0.010
0.013
0.012
0.016
0.014
0.017
0.010
0.011
0.013
0.014
0.014
0.016
0.012
0.013
0.014
0.016
0.015
0.017
0.017
0.021
0.019
0.024
0.021
0.030

a. Lucite
b. Glass
c. Cement
1. Neat, surface
2. Mortar
d. Concrete
1. Culvert, straight and free of debris
2. Culvert with bends, connections, and
some debris
3. Finished
4. Sewer with manholes, inlet, etc.,
straight
5. Unfinished, steel form
6. Unfinished, smooth wood form
7. Unfinished, rough wood form
e. Wood
1. Stave
2. Laminated, treated
f. Clay
1. Common drainage tile
2. Vitrified sewer
3. Vitrified sewer with manholes, inlet,
etc.
4. Vitrified subdrain with open joint
g. Brickwork
1. Glazed
2. Lined with cement mortar
h. Sanitary sewers coated with sewage
slimes, with bends and connections
i. Paved invert, sewer, smooth bottom
j. Rubble masonry, cemented
163
Minimum Normal
Maximum
0.008
0.009
0.009
0.010
0.010
0.013
0.010
0.011
0.011
0.013
0.013
0.015
0.010
0.011
0.011
0.013
0.013
0.014
0.011
0.013
0.012
0.015
0.014
0.017
0.012
0.012
0.015
0.013
0.014
0.017
0.014
0.016
0.020
0.010
0.015
0.012
0.017
0.014
0.020
0.011
0.011
0.013
0.013
0.014
0.015
0.017
0.017
0.017
0.014
0.016
0.018
0.011
0.012
0.012
0.013
0.015
0.013
0.015
0.017
0.016
0.016
0.018
0.019
0.025
0.020
0.030
Table B.2
Mannings
Coefficients
n for Closed
Non-Metal
Conduits
164
%
5RXJKQHVV9DOXHV.XWWHUV(TXDWLRQ
Commonly used roughness values for different materials are:
Table B.3
Kutters
Coefficients
n for Closed
Metal
Condiuts
a. Brass, smooth
b. Steel
1. Lockbar and welded
2. Riveted and spiral
c. Cast iron
1. Coated
2. Uncoated
d. Wrought iron
1. Black
2. Galvanized
e. Corrugated metal
1. Subdrain
2. Storm drain
Minimum
Normal
Maximum
0.009
0.010
0.013
0.010
0.013
0.012
0.016
0.014
0.017
0.010
0.011
0.013
0.014
0.014
0.016
0.012
0.013
0.014
0.016
0.015
0.017
0.017
0.021
0.019
0.024
0.021
0.030

a. Lucite
b. Glass
c. Cement
1. Neat, surface
2. Mortar
d. Concrete
1. Culvert, straight and free of debris
2. Culvert with bends, connections, and
some debris
3. Finished
4. Sewer with manholes, inlet, etc.,
straight
5. Unfinished, steel form
6. Unfinished, smooth wood form
7. Unfinished, rough wood form
e. Wood
1. Stave
2. Laminated, treated
f. Clay
1. Common drainage tile
2. Vitrified sewer
3. Vitrified sewer with manholes, inlet, etc.
4. Vitrified subdrain with open joint
g. Brickwork
1. Glazed
2. Lined with cement mortar
h. Sanitary sewers coated with sewage
slimes, with bends and connections
i. Paved invert, sewer, smooth bottom
j. Rubble masonry, cemented
165
Minimum
Normal
Maximum
0.008
0.009
0.009
0.010
0.010
0.013
0.010
0.011
0.011
0.013
0.013
0.015
0.010
0.011
0.011
0.013
0.013
0.014
0.011
0.013
0.012
0.015
0.014
0.017
0.012
0.012
0.015
0.013
0.014
0.017
0.014
0.016
0.020
0.010
0.015
0.012
0.017
0.014
0.020
0.011
0.011
0.013
0.014
0.013
0.014
0.015
0.016
0.017
0.017
0.017
0.018
0.011
0.012
0.012
0.013
0.015
0.013
0.015
0.017
0.016
0.016
0.018
0.019
0.025
0.020
0.030
Table B.4
Kutters
Coefficients
n for Closed
Non Metal
Conduits
166
%
5RXJKQHVV9DOXHV'DUF\:HLVEDFK
&ROHEURRN:KLWH(TXDWLRQ
Commonly used roughness heights for different materials are presented in the table
below:
Table B.5
DarcyWeisbach
Roughness
Heights k
for Closed
Conduits
Pipe Material
Glass, drawn brass, copper (new)
Seamless commercial steel (new)
Commercial steel (enamel coated)
Commercial steel (new)
Wrought iron (new)
Asphalted cast iron (new)
Galvanized iron
Cast iron (new)
Wood Stave (new)
Concrete (steel forms, smooth)
Concrete (good joints, average)
Concrete (rough, visible, form marks)
Riveted steel (new)
Corrugated metal
k (mm)
k (ft)
0.0015
0.004
0.0048
0.045
0.045
0.12
0.15
0.26
0.18 ~ 0.9
0.18
0.36
0.60
0.9 ~ 9.0
45
0.000005
0.000013
0.000016
0.00015
0.00015
0.0004
0.0005
0.00085
0.0006 ~0.003
0.0006
0.0012
0.002
0.003 - 0.03
0.15
%
167
5RXJKQHVV9DOXHV+D]HQ:LOOLDPV)RUPXOD
Commonly used roughness values for different materials are presented in the table
below:
Pipe Material
Asbestos Cement
Brass
Brick sewer
Cast-iron
New, unlined
10 yr. Old
20 yr. Old
30 yr. Old
40 yr. Old
Concrete or concrete lined
Steel forms
Wooden forms
Centrifugally spun
Copper
Galvanized iron
Glass
Lead
Plastic
Steel
Coal-tar enamel, lined
New unlined
Riveted
Tin
Vitrified clay (good condition)
Wood stave (average condition)
C
140
130-140
100
130
107-113
89-100
75-90
64-83
140
120
135
130-140
120
140
130-140
140-150
145-150
140-150
110
130
110-140
120
Table B.6
HazenWilliams
Coefficients
Notes

$SSHQGL[&

2WKHU+DHVWDG0HWKRGV
6RIWZDUH
Haestad Methods has been offering software solutions to Civil, and Hydraulics and
Hydrology engineers throughout the world for analyzing, modeling and designing
water distribution networks, storm and sanitary sewer networks, watershed, culverts,
hydraulic structures, open channel and more. All software is Windows based, with
point-and-click data entry, flexible units, and report quality outputs.
In addition to the ability to run in Stand-Alone mode (with a CAD-like interface),
three of our products - WaterCAD, StormCAD and SewerCAD - can be totally
integrated within AutoCAD. These three programs also share numerous powerful
features, such as scenario management, unlimited undo/redo, customizable tables for
editing and reporting, customizable GIS, database and spreadsheet connection, and
annotation.
Be sure to visit our website at www.haestad.com to find out about our latest
software, books, training, open houses, etc.
&
:DWHU&$'DND&\EHUQHW
WaterCAD is a powerful, easy to use program that helps engineers design and
analyze complex pressurized distribution pipe network systems. You can use
WaterCAD to perform a variety of functions, including steady state analyses of water
distribution systems with pumps, tanks and control valves.
WaterCAD is also capable of completing extended period simulations to analyze a
piping systems response to varying supply and demand schedules (including
automated fire flow analyses). Water quality elements, such as water source, age,
and chemical constituent growth and decay can be tested utilizing WaterCADs
water quality simulation and analysis functions.
Complex networks of pipes, tanks, pumps and more can be laid out quickly and
easily, whether you are using the Stand-Alone Windows graphical interface or
runnin WaterCAD within AutoCAD. The Scenario Manager allows you to create
multiple sets of alternatives and run any number of scenarios, then view and compare
the results.
169
170
Appendix C - Other Haestad Methods Products
&
6HZHU&$'
SewerCAD is a powerful design and analysis tool that allows you to lay out a
collection system, develop and compute sanitary loads, and simulate the hydraulic
response of the entire system - including gravity collection piping and pressure force
mains. The program can be run within AutoCAD, giving you all the power of
AutoCADs capabilities, or in Stand-Alone mode utilizing Haestad Methods own
Windows graphical interface.
SewerCAD allows you to construct a graphical representation of a pipe network,
containing all your information, such as pipe data, pump data, loading and
infiltration. Conveyance element choices include circular pipes, pipe arches, boxes
and more.
SewerCADs flexible load model allows you to analyze dry and wet weather loads
separately. Unit dry loads and peaking factor methods are entirely customizable.
The gravity network is solved using the built-in numerical model, which utilizes both
the direct step and standard step gradually varied flow methods. Flow calculations
are valid for both pressure and varied flow situations, and will solve for hydraulic
jumps, backwater, and drawdown curves. SewerCADs flexible reporting feature
allows you to customize and print the model results in any type of report, including
plan/profile views for analysis, construction documents or agency review.
&
6WRUP&$'
StormCAD lets you efficiently design and analyze storm sewer systems. Layout
tools allow you to construct a graphical representation of a pipe network containing
all your information, including pipe data, inlet characteristics, watershed areas, and
rainfall data.
StormCAD provides a choice of conveyance elements including circular pipes, pipe
arches, boxes and more. Inlets are designed and computed using the new FHWA
HEC-22 methodology. Junction hydraulic losses may be calculated automatically
using the AASHTO or HEC-22 methodology based on the geometry of the junction.
Rainfall information is defined using Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) in the form
of rainfall tables or rainfall equations. Flows are then calculated using the rational
method.
The gravity network is solved using the built-in numerical model, which utilizes both
the direct step and standard step gradually varied flow profile computation methods.
Flow calculations are valid for both pressure and varied flow situations, and will
solve for hydraulic jumps, backwater, and drawdown curves. StormCADs flexible
reporting feature allows you to customize and print the model results in any type of
report, including plan/profile views for analysis, construction documents or agency
review.
&
3RQG3DFN
PondPack is a powerful, comprehensive, Windows-driven hydrologic modeling
program that analyzes a tremendous range of situations, from simple sites to complex
networked watersheds. The program analyzes pre- and post-developed watershed
conditions and estimates required storage ponds. PondPack performs interconnected
pond routing, and also computes outlet rating curves, with tailwater effects, multiple
outfalls, pond infiltration, and pond detention times.

This program can utilize any rainfall duration or distribution. In a single run, it
computes hydrographs for multiple storm events, adds them at junctions, and routes
them through reaches and ponds.
PondPack graphically displays many items,
including watershed diagrams, hydrographs, rainfall curves, and I-D-F curves. All
graphics are fully AutoCAD compatible via .DXF export.
PondPack builds customized reports organized by categories, and automatically
creates section and page numbers, tables of contents, and indexes. You can quickly
create an executive summary for an entire watershed, or build an elaborate drainage
report showing any or all report items.
&
&XOYHUW0DVWHU
CulvertMaster helps civil engineers design new culverts and analyze existing culvert
hydraulics, from single barrel to complex multi-barrel culverts with roadway
overtopping. CulvertMaster computations use FHWA HDS-5 methodology. It
allows you to solve for most hydraulic variables, including culvert size, flow, and
headwater, as well as generate output for rating curves and tables showing computed
flow characteristics.
CulvertMaster provides a choice of culvert barrel shapes, including circular pipes,
pipe arches, boxes and more. Flow calculations handle pressure and varied flow
situations such as backwater and drawdown curves. Design discharge can be
calculated using either the Rational or SCS Graphical Peak Discharge method.
Rainfall information is calculated using rainfall tables, equations, or the National
Weather Services Hydro-35 data. CulvertMasters flexible reporting feature allows
you to print the design and analysis results in report format, or as a graphical plot.
171
Notes
173
*ORVVDU\
Absolute Roughness - Average height of roughness particles on the channel walls.
Active Grate Length - Grate length La reduced by the clogging factor, f.
Active Grate Open Area - Clear opening of the grate used when the grate acts as an orifice
(at high water depth). This is a function of the grate length, the grate width, the opening
ratio, which accounts for the bars of the grate reducing the opening area (specific to each
grate type), and the clogging factor.
Active Grate Weir Length - Weir length of the grate used when the grate acts as a weir (at
low water depth). This is a function of the grate length, the grate width, and the clogging
factor.
Active Slot Open Area - Area of the slot opening used in the case of orifice flow.
Active Slot Weir Length - Length of the slot opening used in the case of weir flow.
Adjusted Discharge Coefficient - Discharge coefficient Cd used by FHWA HDS-5
methodology to account for submergence effects and reduce the discharge coefficient that
would be obtained without submergence.
Bernoulli Equation - Sum of datum (base elevation), velocity head, and pressure head at a
section.
Bottom Width - For a regular or trapezoidal channel, width of the bottom of a channel
cross-section.
Bypass Flow - Portion of the flow that is not captured by the inlet. The target downstream
inlet captures the bypass flow.
Calculator Command - Perform calculations in both simple and scientific mode.
Cancel Button - When you click on this button, it cancels the command you chose and
closes the dialog.
C Coefficient - Roughness coefficient used in the Hazen-Williams Equation.
Centroid Elevation - Elevation of the center gravity of the water in the orifice opening.
Channel Invert - Lowest point on the surface of a channel cross-section.
174
Glossary
Channel Slope - Longitudinal slope in the channel. Also the vertical drop divided by the
channel length. In irregular channels, the vertical drop is measured from low point to low
point.
Circular Channel - A conveyance element with a circular shape.
Clogging factor - The clogging factor accounts for the reduction in efficiency of the inlet
due to partial clogging by debris, leaves, etc. The valid range is from 0 to 100 percent. 100
percent corresponds to a completely clogged grate.
Closed Channel - A channel with a perimeter that forms a continuous closed boundary.
Composite Roughness - A roughness value computed to represent the entire channel
section, when in fact the channel is composed of more than one subsection with distinct
roughness values.
Crest Breadth - Width Lr of the weir measured in the flow direction.
Crest Elevation - Elevation of the bottom of the weir opening.
Crest Length - Length L of the weir opening measured at the crest, perpendicular to the
flow direction.
Crest Surface Type - Surface of a broad crested weir, defined as Paved or Gravel. Used by
FHWA HDS-5 methodology for calculating the discharge coefficient and submergence
factor.
Critical Depth - Depth of water in the channel for which the specific energy is at its
minimum.
Critical Flow - Flow through a channel for which the specific energy is at its minimum.
Critical Slope - Channel or pipe slope for which the uniform flow is critical.
Critical Water Elevation - Water surface elevation for critical depth.
Curb Opening Length - Length of the opening of the curb inlet.
Curb Throat Type - Three types of curb inlets are defined:
horizontal throat (most common curb inlet)
vertical throat
inclined throat
Diameter - The inside diameter of a circular channel, unless stated otherwise.

Discharge - Volumetric rate of flow given in units of length3/time.
Discharge Coefficient Orifice - Coefficient Co used in the general orifice equation.
Discharge Coefficient Weir - Coefficient Cw used in the general weir equation.
Display Precision - In worksheets, rating tables, curves, and cross sections, the rounding of
numbers and the number of digits displayed after the decimal point.
Double-click - To click one of the mouse buttons twice in rapid succession.
Drag - To hold down one of the mouse buttons while you move the mouse.
Edit Menu - Allows user to cut, copy and paste.
Efficiency - Ratio of Intercepted Flow by the inlet over the total gutter flow. The range is
[0 - 1].
Elevation at 1 - Measured or computed elevation at section 1 in Bernoullis equation.
Elevation at 2 - Measured or computed elevation at section 2 in Bernoullis equation.
Energy - Total energy of flow with reference to a datum. Computed for closed channels as
the sum of channel centerline height above the datum, piezometric height, and the velocity
head. Computed for open channels as the sum of channel invert height above datum, the
flow depth, and velocity head.
Energy Grade at 1 - Energy of flow at section 1 in Bernoulli's Equation.
Energy at Grade 2 - Energy of flow at section 2 in Bernoulli's Equation.
Energy Grade Line (EGL) - Sum of datum (base elevation), elevation, velocity head, and
pressure head at a section.
Equal Side Slopes - Slope of trapezoidal channel, assumed to be identical on both sides.
Equivalent Cross Slope - An imaginary straight cross-slope having a conveyance capacity
equal to that of the given compound cross-slope.
Extension - The period and up to three characters at the end of the filename. An extension
usually identifies the kind of information the file contains. For example, files you create in
the Windows program called Word have the extension .doc.
File Menu - Allows the user to open, save and print projects, or exit FlowMaster.
Flow Area - Cross sectional area of flow.
175
176
Glossary
Flow Depth - Distance from water level to low point of channel bottom.
Flow Type - The flow is defined as:
Supercritical if Fr > 1
Subcritical if Fr < 1
Critical if Fr = 1
Where:
Fr = Froude Number
Friction Factor - Friction Coefficient used in the Darcy-Weisbach Formula.

Friction Slope - Given a depth, roughness, section shape, friction method, and discharge;
the friction slope is the computed slope that would be required to convey the specified
discharge under uniform flow conditions. Under uniform flow conditions, depth and flow
area are constant, and the friction slope, the actual or constructed slope, and the energy slope
are all equal.
Frontal Flow - Portion of flow Ow that is in the gutter within the width of the grate (as
opposed to the side flow).
Frontal Flow Factor - Ratio of frontal flow intercepted by the grate inlet to total frontal
flow.
Froude Number - Ratio of internal forces to gravity forces. At critical depth, the Froude
number is equal to 1.0.
Full Flow - Closed channel is flowing full, or entire channel perimeter is touched by
flowing water (wetted).
Full Flow Capacity - The computed discharge when a closed channel is flowing full.
Full Flow Slope - The computed channel slope that would produce full flow.
Gradually Varied Flow - Type of open channel flow for which flow depth varies at a slow
rate with respect to distance along the channel.
Grate Flow Ratio - Ratio of frontal flow to total flow.
Grate Length - Total length (L) of the grate.
Grate Type - The HEC-22 methodology contains 8 different types of inlet grates to classify
their geometry (spacing, shape of the bars, etc.) The grate type affects the inlet efficiency.
Please refer to Figures 7.5 to 7.10 in Chapter 7 of this manual for a detailed description
(Figures 4-5 to 4-10 in the HEC-22 manual).

Grate Width - Total width of the grate inlet (measured along the cross-sectional plane of
the roadway).
Gravitational Constant - The following values are used in all equations that contain the
gravitational constant g:
US:
32.174 ft/s2
Metric: 9.81 m/s2

Global Options - Allows user access to menus to change overall settings such as welcome
dialog properties, unit systems, etc.
Gutter Cross Slope - Slope Sw of the gutter, measured in the cross-sectional plane of the
roadway.
Gutter Depression - Used for composite gutter sections. It is associated with a depth a of
the gutter measured at the curb face, from the projection of the pavement cross-slope at the
curb face. The gutter depression applies to gutters that are continuously depressed (as
opposed to local depression, which applies to a depression of the gutter at the location of the
inlet only).
Gutter Width - Width of the gutter W measured from the curb face to the break in slope of
the roadway pavement.
Hazen Williams Formula - Relates velocity to a C coefficient, hydraulic radius and friction
slope. This formula has been used extensively for flow in water distribution piping
(Zipparro, 1993).
V = 1.318CR0.63S0.54
Headloss - Loss of energy grade over a longitudinal channel distance.
Headwater Elevation - Water elevation upstream of the structure.
Headwater Height Above Centroid - Height of the water upstream of the orifice,
measured from the orifice centroid.
Headwater Height Above Crest - Water depth upstream of the weir, measured from the
crest of the weir.
Help Button - When you click on this button, it accesses online Help for FlowMaster.
Help Command - Brings up the Help Menu. Using the Help command is the same as
choosing Help from the top pull-down menu.
Help Menu - Allows the user to get online help while using FlowMaster.
177
178
Glossary
Hydraulic Grade Elevation of the hydraulic grade line at a channel cross-section; see
Hydraulic Grade Line.
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) - Sum of the datum (base elevation), elevation and pressure
head along the profile of a channel. In open channels, the hydraulic grade is equal to the
water surface elevation.
Hydraulic Grade at 1 - Hydraulic grade of flow at section 1 in Bernoulli's Equation.
Hydraulic Grade at 2 - Hydraulic grade of flow at section 2 in Bernoulli's Equation.
Hydraulic Perimeter - See Wetted Perimeter.
Intercepted Flow - Portion of the flow in the gutter that is captured by the inlet (the
remaining portion of the flow that is not intercepted is called bypass flow). Note the amount
of flow intercepted by an inlet in sag is assumed to be 100%.
Irregular Channel An open channel conveyance element lacking cross-sectional
symmetry. When calculating composite roughness, FlowMaster uses one of the Channel
Weighting Methods.
Keys, Shortcut - Combination of keyboard keys allowing you to carry out menu commands
without using the mouse.
Kinematic Viscosity - Viscosity divided by the mass density, given in units of
length 2
.
time
Kutters n Coefficient - Roughness coefficient used in Kutters Formula.

Kutters Formula - Is derived from the Chezy formula, which computes velocity based on
a C coefficient, hydraulic radius and friction slope. Kutters formula relates this C
coefficient to a roughness coefficient, hydraulic radius and friction slope.
Left Side Slope - Slope of the left side of the channel.
Length - Horizontal distance measured along a pipe, accounting for the presence of bends,
from the centers of the node structures located at the two ends of a pipe (when it is not userdefined).
Length Factor - Ratio of curb opening length over total interception length.
Local Depression - Depth of a gutter depression a existing only at the location of the inlet.
Local Depression Width - Horizontal width of the locally depressed gutter. In the case of a
continuously depressed gutter, the larger of the local depression width and gutter width is
used to calculate the inlet efficiency.

Log Axis Scaling - Compresses the values on the X and/or Y-axis to the nearest power of
10.
Mannings coefficient - Roughness coefficient used in Mannings formula.
Mannings Formula - Is derived from the Chezy formula, which computes velocity based
on a C coefficient, hydraulic radius and friction slope. Mannings formula relates this C
coefficient to a roughness coefficient, and hydraulic radius.
Material - The material field is for selecting the pipe's construction material. The choice of
material will be used to determine a default value for the pipe's roughness.
Maximum Discharge - The maximum theoretical discharge that could occur for a closed
channel using a given hydraulic computation method. For closed circular channels, this
discharge occurs at 0.938 x Diameter. Any increase in depth will decrease the discharge,
which is why the full flow discharge is less than the maximum discharge for a circular
channel. For a detailed explanation of this effect, see Ven Te Chows Open-Channel
Hydraulics.
Menu Commands - Represent pull-down menus and provide help for using various
features.
Mode, Beginner - Haestad Methods products have two modes: Beginner and Expert. The
Beginner mode makes it easy for you to learn to use Windows by opening only one window
at a time. You can switch to Beginner mode by selecting Options\Global Options.
Mode, Expert - Haestad Methods products have two modes: Beginner and Expert. The
Expert mode allows you to have more than one window open at a time. You can switch to
Expert mode by using the Options\Global Options.
Notch Angle - Angle of the V-Notch weir opening measured from one side to the other side.
Number of Contractions - Used when the upstream channel is larger than the rectangular
weir crest length to account for the contraction of the flow on one or both sides of the weir
opening.
Open Channel - A channel with a free water surface.
Open Command - Open an existing project. When you use the open command, you are
asked to choose the location and name of a project already created. After you select the
project, the worksheet list for that project appears.
Opening Area - Area of the orifice opening.
Opening Height - Vertical measurement of the orifice opening.
Opening Height Breadth - Width h of the opening in the curb inlet (measured vertically
from the common curb inlet with a horizontal throat type).
179
180
Glossary
Opening Width - Horizontal measurement of the orifice opening.
Options menu - Select units and calculation mode for new worksheets; choose actions of
Enter key, turn tool panes, status pane or hints on or off, and set Beginner or Expert mode.
Orifice Discharge Coefficient - Discharge coefficient Co used in the general orifice
equation.
Percent Full - Used in closed channels as a measure of flow depth divided by maximum
depth.
Piezometric Height - Height that liquid rises to in a piezometric tube.
Pressure Head - Energy due to the pressure of a liquid, expressed as a height of water
column. For open channel flow, this value is zero.
Pressure Pipe - A circular conveyance element under pressure flow that has basic attributes
of pressure, elevation, length, diameter, discharge and roughness. FlowMaster uses the
Bernoulli Equation for pressure pipe calculations.
Print Command - Print a report based on the contents of the active window.
Project - A single file containing all of your designs, or worksheets. It can also be thought
of as a folder for your plans. When you save a project to disk, you are saving all the
worksheets in the project.
Rectangular Channel - A conveyance element with a rectangular shape.
Reynolds Number - Ratio of viscous forces relative to inertial forces. A high Reynolds
number indicates turbulent flow, while a low one indicates laminar flow.
Right Side Slope - Slope of the right side of the channel.
Road Cross-Slope - Slope Sx of the road pavement, measured in the cross-sectional plane of
the roadway.
Save Command - Save an existing project. When you use the save command, a message
appears briefly to let you know your project is being saved.
Scientific Notation - Numbers expressed as products consisting of a number between 1 and
10, multiplied by an appropriate power of 10.
Section - A cross-section perpendicular to flow across a channel.
Shear Force - Force component acting tangent to a surface. Also, the tangential channel
surface applied to the flowing liquid.

Side Flow - Portion of flow Qs on the pavement that is not within the width of the grate (as
opposed to the frontal flow).
Side Flow Factor - Ratio of side flow intercepted by the grate inlet to total side flow.
Slot Length - Length of the slot inlet opening.
Slot Width - Width, W, of the slot length opening.
Specific Energy - Total energy of flow expressed as the sum of the elevation head and
velocity head.
Specific Weight - The weight of a unit volume of a substance.
Splash-Over Velocity - Gutter velocity at which splash-over (not all the flow passing over
the grate being intercepted) first occurs. The splash-over velocity is a function of the grate
type and the grate length, as defined on Chart 5 in the HEC-22 manual, page A-6.
Spread - A measure of the transverse lateral distance T from the curb face to the limit of the
water flowing on the roadway.
Status Line - The pane at the bottom of the window that shows information such as the
coordinates for the current location of the cursor and the toolbar command being used.
Submergence Factor - Ratio used by FHWA HDS-5 for calculating the submergence effect
and reducing the discharge coefficient.
Table Command - Open the rating table window for the active worksheet.
Tailwater Elevation - Water elevation downstream of the structure.
Tailwater Height Above Centroid - Height of the water downstream from the orifice
measured from the orifice centroid (a negative value indicates that the tailwater is below the
centroid elevation).
Tailwater Height Above Crest - Height of the water downstream from the weir measured
from the weir crest (a negative value indicates that the tailwater is below the crest
elevation).
Task List - A list of all the applications you are currently running in Windows. The task list
lets you switch among applications, rearrange their windows, or quit them.
Throat Incline Angle - Angle of the curb opening throat (measured from the vertical).
Tick Interval - Distance between ticks on a graph.
181
182
Glossary
Toolbar Commands - Provide easy access to tasks you perform frequently.
Top Width - Cross-sectional width of the free water surface. For a circular cross-section
flowing full, this value is zero.
Total Depression - Sum of the local depression, a, and the gutter depression, a at an inlet.
Total Interception Length - Length of the curb opening that would be required to intercept
100% of the flow.
Trapezoidal Channel - A conveyance element with a horizontal bottom and trapezoidal
shape.
Triangular Channel - A conveyance element with a triangular shape.
Uniform Flow - Equilibrium flow for which the slope of total energy grade line equals the
channel slope.
Units - Type of measurement displayed in worksheets, rating tables, curves, and cross
sections.
Velocity - Linear measure of flow rate given in units of
length
.
time
For Weir and Orifices, the velocity field is for the velocity of the water through the
hydraulic structure.
Velocity Head - Energy due to the velocity of a liquid, expressed as the height of the water
column.
Viscosity - Property measuring the fluid resistance to shear.
Viscous Forces - Force component in liquid that resists channel shear forces.
Water Surface Elevation - Elevation of the channel's flowing surface.
Weight - The mass of a substance times the gravitational acceleration.
Weighted Absolute Roughness - See Composite Roughness.
Weighted C Coefficient - See Composite Roughness.
Weighted Kutters n Coefficient - See Composite Roughness.
Weighted Mannings Coefficient - See Composite Roughness.

Weir Discharge Coefficient - Coefficient Cw used in the general weir equation.
Welcome Dialog - This dialog appears each time you start FlowMaster in Beginner mode
and allows you to pick the task you want to perform next.
Wetted Perimeter - Perimeter of flow that travels against a solid boundary. For a partially
full pipe, the wetted perimeter includes the entire flow perimeter except for the top segment,
which has a "free" surface.
Worksheet - A single design in your project. Each worksheet contains a "Solve for" field
that is automatically solved by FlowMaster. Based on the data in worksheets, you can
generate rating tables, and plot curves and cross sections. You can also print worksheets. A
project can contain several different worksheets. As you create worksheets, they are added
to the Worksheet List for the project you are currently working on.
Worksheet List - Allows you to create or open a worksheet, and lists the descriptions of all
the worksheets in your project file.
Worksheet Menu - Allows the user to perform various operations, such as creating,
printing or copying worksheets
Worksheets Command - Allows the user to access the worksheet list.
X-Section Command - Open the cross-section dialog for the active worksheet.
183
Notes
185
5HIHUHQFHV
AASHTO Model Drainage Manual, American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, 1991
Anderson, D.A., Reed, J.R., Huebner, R.S., Henry, J.J., Kilareski, W.P., and Warner, J.C. Improved
Surface Drainage of Pavements. NCHRP Project I-29, The Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The
Pennsylvania State University, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., 1995
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, A Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets, AASHTO, Washington, D.C., 1990
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Model Drainage Manual.
Chapter 13: Storm Drainage Systems, AASHTO, Washington, D.C., 1991
American Society of Civil Engineer, Gravity Sanitary Sewer Design and Construction, American
Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1982
Benedict, R. P., Fundamentals of Pipe Flow, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1976
Brater, Ernest F. and Horace W. King, Handbook of Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York, 1996
Brown, S.A., S.M. Stein, and J.C. Warner, Urban Drainage Design Manual, Hydraulic Engineering
Circular No. 22, U.S, Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Washington,
D.C., 1996
Burgi, P.H. Bicycle-Safe Grate Inlets Study, Volume 2 - Hydraulic Characteristics of Three Selected
Grate Inlets on Continuous Grades, Report No. FHWA-RD-78-4, Federal Highway Administration,
May 1978
Burgi, P.H. Bicycle-Safe Grate Inlets Study, Volume 3 - Hydraulic Characteristics of Three Selected
Grate Inlets in a Sump Condition, Report No. FHWA-RD-78-70, federal Highway Administration,
September 1978
Chang, Dr. Y.H., and Cotton, G.K., Design of Roadside Channels with Flexible Linings, Hydraulic
Engineering Series No. 15, Publication No. FHWA-IP-87-7, Prepared for the U.S. Department of
Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., 1988
Chow, Ven Te, Open-Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1959
Computer Applications in Hydraulic Engineerin, Third Edition, Haestad Press; 1999
CulvertMaster Users Guide, Connecticut: Haestad Methods; 1999
Essential Hydraulics and Hydrology, Connecticut: Haestad Press; 1998
Federal Highway Administration. Hydraulic Design of Energy Dissipators, Hydraulic Engineering
Circular No. 14, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., 1983
Federal Highway Administration. Design Charts for Open-Channel Flow, Hydraulic Design Series No.
3, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., 1977 reprint
186
References
Federal Highway Administration, Introduction to Highway Hydraulics, Hydraulic Design Series No. 4,
Washington, D.C., 1996
Featherstone, R. E. and Nalluri, C., Civil Engineering Hydraulics, Grananda, New York
French, Richard H., Open-Channel Hydraulics, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, 1985
Gallaway, B. C., et al. Pavement and Geometric Design Criteria for Minimizing Hydroplaning, Texas
Transportation Institute, Texas A & M University, Federal Highway Administration, Report No.
FHWA-RD-79-30, A Technical Summary, December 1979
Hydraulic Research Station, Velocity Equations for Hydraulic Design of Pipes, Metric Edition, HMSO,
London, 1951 (10/81)
Hwang, Ned H. C. and Hita, Carlos E., Hydraulic Engineering Systems, Prentice-Hall Inc., New Jersey,
1987
Izzard, C.F., Hydraulics of Runoff from Developed Surfaces, Proc. Highway Research Board, Volume
26, p. 129-150, Highway Research Board, Washington, D.C., 1946
Johnson, Frank L. and Fred F. M. Chang, Drainage of Highway Pavements, Hydraulic Engineering
Circular No. 12, U.S. Department of transportation, Federal Highway Administration, McLean Virginia,
1984
Normann, Jerome M., Robert J. Houghtalen, and William J. Johnson, Hydraulic Design of Highway
Culverts, Hydraulic Design Series No. 5, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration, McLean Virginia, 1985
Pilgrim, D. H., Australian Rainfall and Runoff, The Institute of Engineers, Barton, Australia, 1987
Practical Guide to Hydraulics and Hydrology, Connecticut: Haestad Press; 1997
Roberson, John A., John J. Cassidy, and Hanif M. Chaudhry, Hydraulic Engineering, Houghton Mifflin
Company, Massachusetts, 1988
Roberson, John A. and Clayton T. Crowe, Engineering Fluid Mechanics (4th Edition), Houghton Mifflin
Company, Massachusetts, 1990
SewerCAD v4 Users Guide, Second Edition, Connecticut: Haestad Methods; 1999
Simon, Andrew L., Practical Hydraulics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1976
Streeter, Victor L. and Wylie, E. Benjamin, Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
1985
StormCAD v4 Users Guide, First Edition, Connecticut: Haestad Methods; 1999
Young, G.K., Walker, S. E., and Change, F. Design of Bridge Deck Drainage, Publication number
FHWA-SA-92-010, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., 1993
Zipparro, Vincent J. and Hasen Hans, Davis Handbook of Applied Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1993
187
Haestad Methods
Year 2000 Compliance Testing (Y2K)
We have tested FlowMaster v6 for operating compatibility with Year 2000 or greater
date. Please remember that the single most important Year 2000 compliance factor is
the system BIOS on the computer, not just the compatibility of the software. Contact
the manufacturer or vendor of your PC for details on the systems BIOS to determine
if it is Year 2000 compliant.
Federal Y2K Definition

Year 2000 compliant means, with respect to information technology, that the
information technology accurately processes date/time data. This includes, but is not
limited to, calculating, comparing and sequencing data from, into, and between the
twentieth and twenty-first centuries, and the years 1999 and 2000, as well as leap
year calculations. Year 2000 compliance assumes that other information technology,
used in the combination with the information technology being acquired, properly
exchanges data/time.
Y2K Compliance Test Description

FlowMaster v6 was tested using a variety of dates greater than January 1, 2000,
which included a leap year test date of February 29, 2000.
Tested aspects included but were not limited to:
Installation and execution of the program
Loading existing files
Saving files and resaving existing files
Execution of simulations and calculations
Navigation throughout the interface and menus
Viewing the results
THIS INFORMATION IS PROVIDED AS IS WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND. HAESTAD

METHODS DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING
THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. IN
NO EVENT SHALL HAESTAD METHODS OR ITS SUPPLIERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DAMAGES
WHATSOEVER INCLUDING DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL, LOSS OF
BUSINESS PROFITS OR SPECIAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF HAESTAD METHODS OR ITS
SUPPLIERS HAVE BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. SOME STATES
DO NOT ALLOW THE EXCLUSION OR LIMITATION OF LIABILITY FOR CONSEQUENTIAL OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES SO THE FOREGOING LIMITATION MAY NOT APPLY.
Notes
189
,1'(;

Duplicate, 35
Selected, 34
Combination Inlet, 92, 112, 122
Abbreviate Labels, 40
Combination Inlet in Sag, 59
Add Columns, 34
Composite Gutter Section, 48, 80
Allow Duplicate Columns, 35
Configuration, 20
Available Table Columns, 34
Contacting Haestad Methods, 6
On Grade, 55
Continuous Grade
Efficiency, 98
Inlet Interception, 98
Create
Barriers
New Table, 32
Median, 77
Project, 11
Bernoulli Equation, 161
Worksheet, 13
Bridge Deck Drainage, 77
Critical flow, 45
Bridge Inlet, 136
Cross-slope, 74
Broad-Crested Weir, 64
Uniform, 79
CulvertMaster, 171
Curb, 75
Conventional, 79
Curb Inlet
Capacity
In Sag, 56
Inlet, 92
Interception, 98, 100, 102, 115
Relationship, 78
Celerity, wave, 45
On Grade, 53
Curb-Opening, 92, 99, 107, 118
Curved Vane, 93
Curves
Change
Column Label, 38
Number of Digits After Decimal
Point, 22, 23
Vertical, 88
Custom Sort, 37
Customize
Labels, 40
Rounding, 22, 23
Scientific Notation, 22, 23
Units, 22, 23, 40
Tables, 36
Cybernet, 169
Channels
Median, 76
Reports, 15
Roadside, 76
Check Storm, 71
Cipolletti Weir, 63
Circular Sections, 87
Clipboard
Copy Table, 40
Columns
Available, 34
Change Labels, 38
Darcy Weisbach
Formula, 43
Roughness Values, 166
Delete
Table, 33
Depth, normal, 41
Design
Drainage Inlet, 91
190
Index
Design Frequency, 69, 70
in Sag, 88
Design Spread, 69, 70
Orifice, 58, 59
Display Precision, 23
Relative Flow, 88
Documentation, 2
Subcritical, 45
Drainage, 91
Supercritical, 45
Bridge Decks, 77
Transitional, 58, 59
Surface, 72
Duplicate Columns Allow, 35
Uniform, 41
Flow Time
Gutter, 90
Format, 23
Formula
Darcy-Weisbach, 43
Edit
Hazen-Williams, 43
Column Label, 38
Kutters, 42
Globally, 38
Menu, 12
Mannings, 42
Froude Number, 45
Table Columns, 34
Tables, 33
Editable Table Columns, 36, 38
Efficiency
Inlet Interception, 98
General Status Information, 18
on Continuous Grade, 98
Geometric Controls, 124
Embankment Inlet, 136, 141
Global Edit, 38
Energy Grade, 67
Global Options, 21, 22
Energy, specific, 45
Global Settings, 19
Engineering Library, 15, 27
Glossary, 3
Manager, 27
Material, 29
Grade
Combination Inlet on, 55
Enter Key, 21
Curb Inlet on, 53
Equation
Inlet Capacity on, 100, 102
Bernoulli, 161
Exit, 12
Export
Table to ASCII, 40
to DXF, 11
Inlet Interception on, 100, 102

Slot Inlet on, 54
Spacing on Continuous, 125
Grate Inlet, 91, 102, 115
In Sag, 55
On Grade, 51
Grate Type, 142
Gutter
Composite, 80
Field Options
Set, 22
Conventional, 79, 84
Cross Slope, 79
Field Options, Set, 22
Curb, 75
File
Curved-sections, 84
Management, 19
Flow in, 77
Menu, 11
Gutter depression, 49
Status, 18
Gutter Flow Time, 90
Filter Tables, 37
Flanking Inlets, 134
FlexTables, 31
FlexUnits, 22, 23, 25

Flow
Haestad Products
Capacities, 88
CulvertMaster, 171
Critical, 45
Cybernet, 169
in Ditch or Median On Grade, 49
PondPack, 170
in Gutters, 77
SewerCAD, 170

StormCAD, 170
WaterCAD, 169
191
Hazen Williams Formula

Kutters Equation
Hazen-Williams Formula, 43
HEC-12, 69
Kutters Formula, 42
HEC-22, 69
Help, 2, 3
Menu, 16
Hydraulic Grade, 67
Hydroplaning, 73, 74
Label
Abbreviate, 40
Customize, 40
Library System
Editor, 28
Manager, 28
Inlet
Material, 29
Bridge, 136
Capacity, 92
Local
Units, 38, 39
Characteristics, 91
Combination, 112, 122
Longitudinal Slope, 73
Combination inlets, 92
Continuous Grade, 125
Curb-Opening, 92, 99, 107, 118

Design, 91
Embankment, 136, 141
Flanking, 134
Grate, 102
Grate inlet, 91, 115
In Sag, 115
Inlet Types, 91
Interception, 115
Locations, 124
Manage
Tables, 32
Manage Tables, 32
Mannings Equation
Mannings Formula, 42
Material Properties, 29
Median
Barriers, 77
Median, 136
Roadside Ditch, 136
Slotted, 92, 100, 111, 121
Spacing, 125
Inlet, 136
Median Channels, 76
Menu, 11
Edit, 12, 13
Uses, 91
File, 11, 12
Inlet Analysis
Help, 16, 17
in Sag, 55
Options, 15
on Grade, 51
Report, 14
Inlet Computations, 46
Services, 16
Inlet Interception
Windows, 15, 16
Capacity, 98, 99, 100, 102

in Sag, 99, 115
on Continuous Grade, 98
on Grade, 100, 102
Installation, 4
Installing FlowMaster, 4
Worksheet, 13, 14
Metric, 20, 23
Minimum Allowed Value, 24
Mix Units in a Tabular Report, 39
Multiple
Units, 39
Multiple Units, 39
J
N
Junctions
Headloss Coefficients, 161
New, 11
192
Index
Project, 11
Table, 32
Mannings Formula, 162

Rounding, 23
Worksheet, 13
Change, 22
Non-Editable Table Columns, 36

Normal depth, 41
S
Sag
Combination Inlet, 59
Open, 11
Project, 20
Options
Global, 20, 21
Set Field, 22
Orifice Coefficients, 66
Orifice Flow, 66
Curb Inlet, 57, 58

Flow in, 88
Inlet Interception Capacity, 99
Interception Capacity in, 115
Sales, 6
Save, 12, 20
As, 12
Scientific Notation, 23
Sections
Circular, 87
Composite Gutter, 80
P-30, 93
Curb, 79
P-50, 93
Gutter, 79
P-50x100, 93
Gutter with Curved, 84
Pavement Drainage, 69
Shallow Swale, 84
PondPack, 170
V-Sections, 84
Precision Display, 23, 24
Services Menu, 16
Preferences, 20
Settings, 19, 21
Pressure Pipe, 67
Setup, 20
Print, 11, 12
SewerCAD, 170
Setup, 12
Shallow Swale, 84
Table, 40
Sharp-Crested Weirs, 60
Project
Open, 20
Shortcut Keys, 10
Slope
Settings, 19
Cross, 47, 74, 79
Summary, 12, 20
Longitudinal, 73
Pull-down Menu, 10
Transverse, 74
Slot Inlet, 92, 100, 111, 121
on Grade, 54
Sluice Gate, 67
Sort
Recent Files, 11
Rectangular Sharp-Crested Weir, 61
Custom, 37
Tables, 36
Register Software, 5
Specific energy, 45
Relative Flow Capacity, 88
Spread, 69, 70, 71
Remove Columns, 35
Status, 18
Reports Menu, 14
Reset Table, 33
Bar, 18, 22
Pane, 20, 22
Reticuline, 93
StormCAD, 170
Roadside Channels, 76
Subcritical flow, 45
Roadside Ditch Inlet, 136
Submerged Weir, 63
Roughness Coefficient, 29, 162
Supercritical flow, 45
Roughness Values
Surface Drainage, 72
Darcy-Weisbach, 166
Synchronization Error, 19
Hazen-Williams Formula, 167
Synchronized Units, 38
Kutter, 164
System

International, 20, 23
System Requirements, 4
193
U
Uniform Cross-slope, 79
Uniform Flow, 41
Uniform Gutter Cross Slope, 47
Table, 35
Change Title, 38
Uninstalling FlowMaster, 5
Unit System
System International, 20, 21, 23, 25
Change Units, 40
US Customary, 20, 21, 23, 25
Copy to Clipboard, 40
Create, 32
Units
Customization, 36
Change, 22
Delete, 33
Local, 38, 39
Synchronized, 38, 39
Editing, 33
Export to ASCII File, 40
Update, 4
Filtering, 37, 38
US Customary, 20, 21, 23
FlexUnit, 24
Usage, 29
Management, 32
Manager, 31
Mixing Units, 39
Navigation, 35
Print Preview, 40
Properties, 34
Rename, 33
Reset, 33
Vertical Curves, 88
View, Tabular, 31
V-Notch Weir, 61
V-Sections, 84
Type, 34
Window, 35
Table Columns
Available, 34
Editable, 36
Non-Editable, 36
White, 36
WaterCAD, 169
Wave celerity, 45
Weir
Broad-Crested, 64
Yellow, 36
Cipolletti, 63
Tabular
Flow, 57, 58
Report, 31
Not Sharp-Crested, 64
Technical Support, 7
Sharp-Crested, 60
Tilt Bar, 93
Submerged, 63
Tool Pane, 20, 22
Trapezoidal, 66
Toolbars, 10
Triangular, 66
and Shortcut Keys, 10

Commands, 20
Transverse Slope, 74
Trapezoidal Weir, 66
Triangular Weir, 66
V-Notch, 61
Weir Flow, 60
Welcome Dialog, 20
White Table Columns, 35
Tutorials, 4
Y
Yellow Table Columns, 35

Flow Master Users Guide

Transféré par

Informations du document

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Flow Master Users Guide

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

USERS GUIDE

19861999 Haestad Methods, Inc. All rights reserved.

The following are registered trademarks of Haestad Methods, Inc.: CulvertMaster,

HAESTAD METHODS, INC.

FlowMaster Users Guide

Chapter 2 - The FlowMaster Environment

Chapter 3 - Project Settings

Chapter 4 - Engineering Libraries

Engineering Library Manager

FlowMaster Users Guide

Local vs. Synchronized Units

Chapter 6 - FlowMaster Theory

Chapter 7 - Pavement Drainage

Appendix A - HEC-22 Charts

Appendix B - Engineers Reference

Appendix C - Other Haestad Methods Software

FlowMaster Users Guide

FlowMaster Users Guide

Analyze various hydraulic designs

Evaluate different kinds of flow elements

Prepare data for other HMI programs

Generate professional-looking reports for clients

Weir flow computations

Orifice flow computations

Calculation of pavement/gutter flow using the HEC-22/HEC-12 methodology

New options for calculating composite Mannings coefficients

Customizable material library for roughness coefficients

Improved printing options

Long filename support

To navigate within Help:

FlowMaster Users Guide

Select Search for Help on

Click on Help\How Do I from the pull-down menu

To return to the listing of How Do I questions, click on the Back button.

Click on Help\Search for Help On

Click on the Contents tab and double-click on the Glossary Book.

Double-click on the Glossary topic to make it appear.

Hard disk with at least 12 megabytes free disk space

Microsoft Windows 95 or later, or Windows NT 4.0

VGA graphics adapter and monitor

3.5 Disk Drive

Hard disk with at least 12 megabytes free disk space

Microsoft Windows 95 or later, or Windows NT 4.0

VGA graphics adapter and monitor

3.5 Disk Drive

If you have not done so, turn on your computer.

FlowMaster Users Guide

Follow the instructions of the Setup Wizard.

Shut down and restart your machine.

Select Help\About FlowMaster from the pull-down menus.

Click the Registration button in the About FlowMaster dialog.

FlowMaster Users Guide

Sales phone: +1-203-755-1666

Sales e-mail: Sales@haestad.com

Operating system your computer is running (Windows 95, Windows 98,

Version of AutoCAD you are running (if applicable)

Any error messages or other information that was generated

Company name, address, and phone number

A detailed explanation of your concerns

A description of your computer system information (processor type and speed,

9:00 AM to 8:00 PM EST

Saturday and Sunday:

9:00 AM to 5:00 PM EST

You can contact our technical support team at: