Journal of the Transportation Research Board

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD

NO.

1699

Pavement
Management and
Monitoring
Pavement Design, Management, and Performance

Click on article title to reach abstract; abstracts link to full textclick on Full Text icon.

CONTENTS
Foreword

Incorporating Road Safety into Pavement Management

Susan Tighe, Ningyuan Li, Lynne Cowe Falls, and Ralph Haas

Developing a Quantitative Rating System for Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement

Shie-Shin Wu

Artificial Neural Network for Enhancing Selection of Pavement Maintenance Strategy

Ashraf M. Abdelrahim and K. P. George

Development of Pavement Type Evaluation Procedure for Texas Department of Transportation

Muhammad Arif Beg, Zhanmin Zhang, and W. Ronald Hudson

Using Pavement Management System Concepts to Determine the Cost and Impact of
Utility Trenching on an Urban Road Network
Stephen Q. S. Lee and Katherine A. Lauter

Planning and Implementation of a Management System for Utility Cuts

Rajagopal Arudi, Brian Pickering, and Joseph Flading

Road User Cost Models for Network-Level Pavement Management

Govindarajan Vadakpat, Shelley Stoffels, and Karen Dixon

Applying Economic Concepts from Life-Cycle Cost Analysis to Pavement Management Analysis
Kathryn A. Zimmerman, Kurt D. Smith, and Max G. Grogg

Public Perceptions of Wisconsin Pavements and Trade-Offs in Pavement Improvement

Richard K. Robinson, David A. Kuemmel, Ronald C. Sonntag, Stephen F. Shober, and Robert J. Griffin

Structured Approach to Managing Quality of Pavement Distress Data: Virginia Department of

Transportation Experience
Charles D. Larson, Naveed Sami, and David R. Luhr

Proposed Pavement Performance Models for Local Government Agencies in Michigan

Fernando de Melo e Silva, Thomas J. Van Dam, William M. Bulleit, and Ross Ylitalo

Using Duration Models to Analyze Experimental Pavement Failure Data

Jorge A. Prozzi and Samer M. Madanat

Forecasting of Pavement Crack Performance with Adaptive Filter Model

Zhenyu Lou, Jian John Lu, Manjriker Gunaratne, and Bruce Dietrich

Solution of Pavement Deterioration Equations by Genetic Algorithms

A. Raja Shekharan

Investigation of Relationship Between Roughness and Pavement Surface Distress Based on

WesTrack Project
Joseph A. Mactutis, Sirous H. Alavi, and Weston C. Ott

Mechanistic Roughness Model Based on Vehicle-Pavement Interaction

Mofreh F. Saleh, Michael S. Mamlouk, and Emmanuel B. Owusu-Antwi

Evaluation of Relationship Between Profilograph and Profile-Based Roughness Indexes

Emmanuel G. Fernando

Evaluation of Accuracy of Surface Profilers

Emmanuel G. Fernando

Simulation Model for Calculating Pavement Temperatures Including Maximum Temperature

ke Hermansson

Laboratory Calibration and In Situ Measurements of Moisture by Using Time-Domain

Reflectometry Probes
Brian K. Diefenderfer, Imad L. Al-Qadi, and Amara Loulizi

Accuracy of Weather Data in Long-Term Pavement Performance Program Database

Chung-Lung Wu, Gonzalo R. Rada, Aramis Lopez, and Yingwu Fang

Early Evaluation of Long-Term Pavement Performance Specific Pavement Studies-2, Colorado

Nadarajah Suthahar, Ahmad Ardani, and Dennis A. Morian

Transportation Research Record 1699

ISSN 0361-1981
ISBN 0-309-06677-8
Subscriber Category
IIB pavement design, management, and performance
Printed in the United States of America
Sponsorship of Transportation Research Record 1699
GROUP 2DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES
Raymond K. Moore, University of Nebraska at Lincoln (Chairman)
Pavement Management Section
Newton C. Jackson, N. C. Jackson Consulting, Inc. (Chairman)
Committee on Pavement Management Systems
Kathryn A. Zimmerman, Applied Pavement Technology, Inc. (Chairman), Chia-Pei J. Chou, Richard B. Clark, Billy G.
Connor, Kenneth W. Fults, Chuck A. Gemayel, Ralph Haas, James P. Hall, Victoria A. Heeger, Sonya H. Hill, Stuart W.
Hudson, Thomas J. Kazmierowski, Kurt A. Keifer, Charles D. Larson, Francesca LaTorre, Steven R. McNeely, Brian R.
McWaters, Raymond K. Moore, Luis M. Rodriguez, Paul E. Sachs, Elzbieta Sadzik, Omar Smadi, Roger E. Smith,
Thomas John Van Dam, Kelvin C. P. Wang, Margot Yapp
Committee on Pavement Monitoring, Evaluation, and Data Storage
Jerome F. Daleiden, Fugro-Brent Rauhut Engineering, Inc. (Chairman), David A. Ooten, (Secretary), Janice L. Arellano,
Robert C. Briggs, Chi Amy Chow, Alfred B. Crawley, Gary E. Elkins, Thomas E. Freeman, Wade L. Gramling, Jerry J.
Hajek, Andris A. Jumikis, Francesca LaTorre, Kenneth J. Law, Hosin David Lee, David R. Luhr, Louay N. Mohammad,
David E. Newcomb, Gonzalo R. Rada, Richard B. Rogers, Shahed Rowshan, Naveed Sami, Ivan F. Scazziga, Roger E.
Smith, Peter Von Feilitzen, Kelvin C. P. Wang, Benjamin Worel
Transportation Research Board Staff
D. W. (Bill) Dearasaugh, Jr., Engineer of Design
Lizy Mani, Administrative Assistant
Sponsorship is indicated by a footnote at the end of each paper. The organizational units, officers, and members are as of
December 31, 1999.

FOREWORD
The papers contained in this volume were among those presented at the 79th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research
Board in January 2000. Nearly 1,600 papers were submitted by authors; more than 1,000 were presented at the meeting; and
approximately 600 were accepted for publication in the 2000 Transportation Research Record series. The published papers will
also be issued on CD-ROM, which will be available for purchase in late 2000. It should be noted that the preprint CD-ROM distributed at the 2000 meeting contains unedited, draft versions of presented papers, whereas the papers published in the 2000
Records include author revisions made in response to review comments.
Starting with the 1999 volumes, the title of the Record series has included Journal of the Transportation Research Board to
reflect more accurately the nature of this publication series and the peer-review process conducted in the acceptance of papers for
publication. Each paper published in this volume was peer reviewed by the sponsoring committee acknowledged at the end of the
text; members of the sponsoring committees for the papers in this volume are identified on page ii. Additional information about
the Transportation Research Record series and the peer-review process can be found on the inside front cover. The Transportation
Research Board appreciates the interest shown by authors in offering their papers and looks forward to future submissions.

Incorporating Road Safety into

Pavement Management
Susan Tighe, Ningyuan Li, Lynne Cowe Falls, and Ralph Haas
S. L. Tighe and R. Haas, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada.
N. Li, Ministry of Transportation of Ontario, Central Building, Room 232, 1201 Wilson Avenue, Downsview, Ontario M3M 1J8,
Canada. L. C. Falls, Stantec Consulting Ltd., 1122 4th Street, SW, Suite 300, Calgary AB T2R 1M1, Canada.

FULL
TEXT

Improving road safety through proper pavement engineering and maintenance should be one of the
major objectives of pavement management systems. When pavements are evaluated in terms of safety,
a number of factors related to pavement engineering properties are raised, such as pavement geometric
design, paving materials and mix design, pavement surface properties, shoulder type, and pavement color
and visibility. Each year there are voluminous annual reports on traffic accident statistics and discussions
of such road safety issues as road safety modeling and pavement safety measurements and criteria.
Although road safety may be considered a separate area, it should be incorporated into pavement
management systems. The main pavement engineering relationships associated with road safety are
identified, and the various aspects of road safety related to pavement management, such as pavement
types, pavement surface macrotexture and microtexture, and pavement safety measurements, criteria,
and evaluation methods, are discussed. A systematic approach is proposed for the coordination of
pavement maintenance programs with road safety improvement and the incorporation or integration of
safety management with pavement and other management systems. Finally, a list of possible remedial
measures for road safety improvements associated with pavement maintenance activities is recommended.

Developing a Quantitative Rating

System for Continuously Reinforced
Concrete Pavement
Shie-Shin Wu
Pavement Management Unit, North Carolina Department of Transportation, P.O. Box 25201, Raleigh, NC 27611.

FULL
TEXT

A jointed concrete pavement rating system based on sampling and quantitative surface distress data
was developed several years ago for North Carolina. This rating system has been adopted by the
pavement management system for the priority ranking of projects. The first attempt to develop a
similar rating system for continuously reinforced concrete (CRC) pavement was made with no fruitful
results. There remains an urgent need for a comparable CRC rating system for project ranking.
Another attempt that used a different approach was made. A linear regression equation was developed,
and the correlation with experts rating was reasonably good.

Artificial Neural Network for

Enhancing Selection of Pavement
Maintenance Strategy
Ashraf M. Abdelrahim and K. P. George
Civil Engineering Department, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677.

FULL
TEXT

In the selection of an economical treatment for rehabilitation of a deteriorated pavement section,

decision makers usually encounter various situations. Factors affecting selection of a flexible pavement
maintenance strategy may include distress conditions, traffic volume, and road class, among others.
Traditionally engineers make their selection on the basis of their experience and judgment and past
maintenance data. Experts judgments are usually compromised in a group discussion to construct
decision trees or decision matrices or even to develop knowledge-based expert systems. An artificial
neural network is known to be an efficient technique for selection of an appropriate maintenance
strategy. A genetic adaptive neural network training algorithm with a single hidden layer and sigmoid
squashing function constitutes the network. The input vector represents the factors affecting
maintenance strategy selection, and the output vector represents the appropriate maintenance strategy.
A set of examples is derived from experts judgments with a total of 144 cases randomly divided into
in-sample and out-of-sample data for training and testing purposes, respectively. The trained
network successfully predicted 83 percent of the test cases. The remaining 17 percent of cases were one
or two levels away from the expert judgments used in network testing. Neural networks provide an
efficient and optimum solution for such complex problems with the added advantage of faster
implementation and easier updating than with other traditional techniques.

Development of Pavement Type Evaluation

Procedure for Texas Department of
Transportation
Muhammad Arif Beg, Zhanmin Zhang, and W. Ronald Hudson
M. A. Beg, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712. Current affiliation: Maxim Technologies, Inc., 3809 South 2nd St.,
Suite D-100, Austin, TX 78704. Z. Zhang and W. R. Hudson, ECJ 6.10, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712.

FULL
TEXT

A rational procedure is presented for evaluating alternative pavement types for roadway projects.
Agency costs, user delay costs, and performance levels are important factors for comparing alternative
pavement strategies. These factors are included in the evaluation procedure. Economic evaluations are
based on life-cycle cost analysis. Cost-effectiveness analysis is also included in the procedure and uses
area under the performance curve as a measure of the effectiveness of a pavement design strategy.
Limitations in economic evaluations and the role of other miscellaneous factors in pavement type
selection are also discussed. A computer program, TxPTS, was developed to automate the evaluation
procedure. Case studies are presented demonstrating the use of the program.

Using Pavement Management System

Concepts to Determine the Cost and
Impact of Utility Trenching on an
Urban Road Network
Stephen Q. S. Lee and Katherine A. Lauter
S. Q. S. Lee, Trow Consulting Engineers Limited, 1595 Clark Boulevard, Brampton, Ontario L6T 4V1, Canada.
K. A. Lauter, Region of Ottawa-Carleton, 735 Industrial Ave., Ottawa, Ontario K1G 5J1, Canada.

FULL
TEXT

The results are presented from a 2-year study on the impact of utility trenching on urban flexible road
network pavement roughness, pavement surface distress, structural carrying capacity, pavement life
cycle, rehabilitation and maintenance requirements, and the costs associated with these impacts in
Ottawa-Carleton, Canada. Included are the pavement performance and life-cycle relationships
developed using modified methodologies to address concerns raised by reviews carried out by
Construction Technology Laboratories Inc. and the National Research Council of Canada on utility
trenching studies to date. In this study, normalized individual pavement section life cycle, a composite
pavement quality indicator, and performance prediction models calibrated with numerous years of field
data were used in the life-cycle and pavement performance determination. These modifications made to
the conventional pavement management system when used to determine the impact of utility trenching
are shown to provide performance and life-cycle relationships with better correlation than algorithms
used in the previous studies. In this study, very high coefficients of determination (R2 ) of 0.79 to 0.85
were obtained for the pavement performance and life-cycle relationships regressed from field data for
quantification of urban road network pavement with and without the impact of utility trenching. The
factors and costs associated with the impact of utility trenching, such as reduction in pavement life
cycle, additional cost for subgrade base repair, pavement strengthening requirements from loss of
fatigue structural carrying capacity, and the additional area affected beyond the trenched area,
are also quantified in this study.

Planning and Implementation of a

Management System for Utility Cuts
Rajagopal Arudi, Brian Pickering, and Joseph Flading
R. Arudi, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati OH 45221. B. Pickering and
J. Flading, Division of Engineering, Department of Public Works, City of Cincinnati, Room 430, City Hall, 801 Plum Street,
Cincinnati, OH 45202.

FULL
TEXT

Utility cuts are made in city street pavements either to install new facilities or to maintain existing ones.
Controlling the quality of pavement restoration is a challenge because of the large number of cuts made
annually. Although utility companies restore the pavement sections after the cuts according to available
guidelines, it is often observed that the pavement within and adjacent to the cuts fails prematurely. The
resulting condition has a direct influence on pavement integrity and life, maintenance cost, aesthetic
value, and safety of motorists. Because existing pavement management systems do not consider the effect
of utility cuts on pavement performance, municipalities such as the city of Cincinnati are currently
seeking specific guidelines in the form of a utility cut management system (UCMS). The results of a
study on the development of a UCMS are reported in this paper. The UCMS is a synthesis of field
evaluation procedures and cost management and policy issues related to street pavement sections
affected by utility cuts. The goals of the UCMS are to (a) identify the factors most useful for evaluating
performance of utility cuts; (b) differentiate between the quality of restoration by different utilities or
subcontractors; (c) address issues related to planning, investments, and maintenance activities; and
(d ) be compatible with existing pavement management systems.

Road User Cost Models for Network-Level

Pavement Management
Govindarajan Vadakpat, Shelley Stoffels, and Karen Dixon
G. Vadakpat, A/ E Group Inc., 181 E. Main Street, Westminster, MD 21157. Current affiliation: 1133 15th Street NW,
Washington, D.C. 20005. S. Stoffels, Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Pennsylvania State University,
212 Sackett Engineering Building, University Park, PA 16802. K. Dixon, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0355.

FULL
TEXT

Life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) of pavements is a process for evaluating total economic worth of a
usable project segment by analyzing initial costs and discounted future costs, such as those for
maintenance, reconstruction, rehabilitation, and resurfacing. One of the most important ingredients in
the LCCA process, at either a network level or a project level, is the determination of road user cost
(RUC) during maintenance and rehabilitation operations. RUC models are also important in
contracting strategies, which take into account time for a project to be completed for award and
payment. Methods used to date to determine RUC are exclusively analytical in nature. Microscopic
estimates of traffic are used to determine RUC. CORSIM, a microscopic traffic simulation program
developed by FHWA, was used for this research. Models for additional travel time, added fuel
consumption, and RUC for standard two-to-one lane closure scenarios are presented.

Applying Economic Concepts from

Life-Cycle Cost Analysis to
Pavement Management Analysis
Kathryn A. Zimmerman, Kurt D. Smith, and Max G. Grogg
K. A. Zimmerman and K. D. Smith, Applied Pavement Technology, Inc., 1606 Willow View Road, Suite 2F, Urbana, IL 61802.
M. G. Grogg, FHWA, U.S. Department of Transportation, 105 Sixth Street, Ames, IA 50010.

FULL
TEXT

In recent years, FHWA has made a concerted effort to develop guidelines for the use of life-cycle cost
analysis by transportation agencies and to promote the use of multiyear prioritization in pavement
management. These efforts resulted in the development of a Technical Bulletin and Demonstration
Project course materials that have been presented to state highway agencies throughout the country.
A key part of multiyear prioritization is emphasis on the use of life-cycle cost information in costeffectiveness calculations. An agency implementing multiyear prioritization as part of its pavement
management system would naturally attempt to utilize the FHWAs guidelines in developing the cost
component of its economic analysis. However, because of the types of analyses required in pavement
management and the ways in which cost information is reported and used, the recommendations provided
in FHWAs Technical Bulletin cannot be applied directly. The types of economic analyses that are used in
an incremental benefit-cost analysis and the types of economic considerations that must be taken into
account are discussed. Several of these economic considerations differ from the recommendations made in
FHWAs Technical Bulletin, so the reasons for these variations are also described.

Public Perceptions of Wisconsin

Pavements and Trade-Offs in
Pavement Improvement
Richard K. Robinson, David A. Kuemmel, Ronald C. Sonntag,
Stephen F. Shober, and Robert J. Griffin
R. K. Robinson, D. A. Kuemmel, R. C. Sonntag, and R. J. Griffin, Marquette University, P.O. Box 1881, Milwaukee,
WI 532011881. S. F. Shober, Wisconsin Department of Transportation, 3502 Kinsman Boulevard, Madison, WI 53704.

FULL
TEXT

Findings are reported from Phase II of a three-phase pooled-fund project in Wisconsin, Iowa, and
Minnesota to determine perceptions of drivers regarding pavement of rural two-lane highways. Among
the survey topics were drivers trust in the state department of transportation (DOT), pavement
improvement trade-offs, and pavement evaluation. Results of the Wisconsin portion of the survey data
are the focus of this study. The survey questionnaire was based in part on Phase I focus groups
conducted to gauge beliefs about pavements as well as the language describing ruts, tining, and other
pavement characteristics. Phase II entailed a statewide telephone survey of at least 400 randomly
selected drivers in each of the three states. Although the focus here is on Wisconsin results, survey
responses across the three states were very consistent. Included in the findings discussed are perceptions
of pavement and the state DOT and pavement improvement options relating to construction, travel
time, and delays. Results disclose key public perceptions of priorities with regard to spending limited
funds. Also discussed are statistically significant relationships providing additional insights into public
perceptions and pavement improvement on rural two-lane highways.

Structured Approach to Managing

Quality of Pavement Distress Data
Virginia Department of Transportation Experience
Charles D. Larson, Naveed Sami, and David R. Luhr
C. D. Larson and N. Sami, Virginia Department of Transportation, 1401 East Broad Street, Richmond, VA, 23219.
D. R. Luhr, Portland Cement Association, P.O. Box 5895, Cary, NC 27511.

FULL
TEXT

The Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Pavement Management Program has examined
and improved the quality of condition data to carry out pavement performance analysis and multiyear
work planning. In 1995 the agency changed the way it gathered pavement condition data, moving from
subjective windshield surveys to using automated condition survey equipment. In 1997 the agency
acquired the staff and resources to examine these data and respond to concerns of district personnel
that the data were inconsistent and not representative of actual conditions. At that time, VDOT
acknowledged the need for a formal and large-scale quality assurance program for its pavement
condition data. It was shown in 1998 that standardization of test methods and calibration of equipment
for roughness measurement yielded data of much higher quality than that in previous years. Quality
data are crucial to the sound functioning of a pavement management system. It has been found that
(a) distress data quality is a serious problem and the data can potentially be bad enough to be
completely useless and (b) improving or reengineering distress data quality requires a significant effort.
A structured approach to develop and implement a pavement distress data quality program at VDOT is
described, including the processes, statistical details, and a clear vision of needs. Most important, this
reengineering effort involves attending to the data collection process by building controls at critical
junctures during the project in order to deliver a quality data product in time and on budget.

Proposed Pavement Performance

Models for Local Government
Agencies in Michigan
Fernando de Melo e Silva, Thomas J. Van Dam,
William M. Bulleit, and Ross Ylitalo
F. de Melo e Silva, CTE Engineers, Inc., 303 East Wacker Drive, Suite 600, Chicago, IL 60601-5212. T. J. Van Dam and
W. M. Bulleit, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, and R. Ylitalo, Technology Development Group,
Michigan Technological University, 1400 Townsend Dr., Houghton, MI 49931.

FULL
TEXT

The state of Michigan has 191 432 km (118,950 mi) of roadway (paved and unpaved), including highways,
roads, and streets. Local government agencies, which are responsible for 176 270 km (109,529 mi) of these
roads and streets, commonly use a pavement management system (PMS) called RoadSoft to assist in
managing their pavement network. A key element of any PMS is its ability to predict future pavement
performance. A study is described in which various deterministic and probabilistic models were
evaluated using data from two Michigan counties. It was found that the logistic growth model and the
Markov model provided the best combination of predictive ability and potential for applicability in
Michigan counties. A comparison between these models found that their predictive ability for four
pavement segments with different deterioration rates was good, with the Markov model offering the
added advantage of representing future performance as a probability distribution, not as a single
condition state. Current plans are to implement the logistic growth model in RoadSoft by the end of 1999
and to add the Markov model as local organizations gather sufficient pavement condition data over the
next 5 years. It is hoped that these two pavement deterioration models can be implemented in the
RoadSoft PMS to improve pavement performance prediction.

Using Duration Models to Analyze

Experimental Pavement Failure Data
Jorge A. Prozzi and Samer M. Madanat
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720.

FULL
TEXT

Predicting pavement performance under the combined action of traffic and the environment provides
valuable information to a highway agency. The estimation of the time at which the pavement conditions
will fall below an acceptable level (failure) is essential to program maintenance and rehabilitation works
and for budgetary purposes. However, the failure time of a pavement is a variable event; terminal
conditions will be reached at different times at various locations along a homogeneous pavement section.
A common problem in modeling event duration is caused by unobserved failure events in a typical data
set. Data collection surveys are usually of limited length. Thus, some pavement sections will have already
failed by the day the survey starts; others will reach terminal conditions during the survey period,
whereas others will only fail after the survey has been concluded. If only the failure events observed
during the survey are included in the statistical analysis (disregarding the information on the events
after and before the survey), the model developed will suffer from truncation bias. If the censoring of the
failure events is not accounted for properly, the model may suffer from censoring bias. An analysis of
the data collected during the Road Test sponsored by the American Association of State Highway
Officials (AASHO) is presented. The analysis is based on the use of probabilistic duration modeling
techniques. Duration models enable the stochastic nature of pavement failure time to be evaluated as
well as censored data to be incorporated in the statistical estimation of the model parameters. The
results, based on sound statistical principles, show that the failure times predicted with the model match
the observed pavement failure data better than those from the original AASHO equation.

Forecasting of Pavement Crack

Performance with Adaptive Filter Model
Zhenyu Lou, Jian John Lu, Manjriker Gunaratne, and Bruce Dietrich
Z. Lou, TransCore, 3500 Parkway Lane, Suite 600, Norcross, GA 30092. J. J. Lu and M. Gunaratne, Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620. B. Dietrich, Florida Department of Transportation,
Tallahassee, FL 32399.

FULL
TEXT

The capability to forecast pavement crack performance has been identified as a critical pavement
management system (PMS) need. In particular, crack performance forecasting can support proactive
pavement management strategies. However, previous attempts at developing crack forecasting models
have met with limited success. Because of the complexity of the pavement crack progression mechanism
over time, a dynamic forecasting model could be more appropriate as opposed to static forecasting
models. The results of a research effort to develop an adaptive filter model to forecast a pavement crack
index for Floridas highway network are summarized. The concept of the adaptive filter model is
introduced along with its mathematical algorithm and modeling procedure. The adaptive filter model,
which was developed with field data collected from Floridas highway network, is able to dynamically
forecast crack performance on the basis of historical crack performance data. For the purpose of model
evaluation, the adaptive filter model was compared with the traditional autoregressive (AR) model.
According to the comparison results, the adaptive filter model had significantly lower errors as
compared with the AR model, demonstrating better forecasting capability. The adaptive filter model
was more responsive to unexpected changes in pavement performance than the AR model. Given these
advantages, it appears that such an adaptive filter model may have considerable potential for use in
PMS applications.

Solution of Pavement Deterioration

Equations by Genetic Algorithms
A. Raja Shekharan
LAW PCS, 12104 Indian Creek Court, Suite A, Beltsville, MD 20705.

FULL
TEXT

Pavement deterioration models are indispensable for many purposes; as a result, a number of models
are in use. Models with simple equation forms are easier to use, but frequently such models may not
suffice for many purposes. Consequently, complex nonlinear forms of models are to be considered.
However, determination of the solution to a complex model form is not an easy task. There are various
methods of obtaining solutions to such models, with each method having its own advantages and
disadvantages. The use of genetic algorithms for model development is examined in this study. A very
brief description of genetic algorithms is included, and their application for the development of a model
is illustrated. Five models of varied complexities, extracted from the literature, are employed to create
databases in which the relationship between the response and the predictor variables is known. The
solutions to the models are developed employing genetic algorithms. The results indicate a high degree
of accuracy, which suggests that genetic algorithms are useful as a tool for development of solutions to
pavement deterioration models.

Investigation of Relationship Between

Roughness and Pavement Surface
Distress Based on WesTrack Project
Joseph A. Mactutis, Sirous H. Alavi, and Weston C. Ott
Nichols Consulting Engineers, 1885 South Arlington Avenue, Suite 111, Reno, NV 89509.

FULL
TEXT

Modern pavement rehabilitation and design methodologies require an adequate evaluation of the
functional capacity of pavements. A key component of this functional capacity is the roughness of the
pavement. The current standard for characterization of a pavements roughness is the international
roughness index (IRI). Pavement roughness measurements were conducted at regular intervals during
the application of approximately 5 million equivalent single-axle loads at the WesTrack Project, a fullscale flexible pavement accelerated loading facility located near Reno, Nevada. The results are presented
of an investigation into the relationship between pavement roughness and pavement surface distress
using WesTrack data. With a sample population of 317 observations, a relationship was found among
the roughness (IRI) and the initial IRI, percentage of fatigue cracking, and average rut depth. A test of
the relationship with data collected as a part of the Long-Term Pavement Performance Program
indicates favorable results.

Mechanistic Roughness Model Based on

Vehicle-Pavement Interaction
Mofreh F. Saleh, Michael S. Mamlouk, and Emmanuel B. Owusu-Antwi
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-5306. Current affiliation for
M. F. Saleh: California Department of Transportation, District 3, 703 B Street, P.O. Box 911, Marysville, CA 95901.

FULL
TEXT

A mechanistic roughness performance model that takes into account vehicle dynamics was developed
for use in flexible pavement design and evaluation. The model was developed in the form of a relation
between roughness and number of load repetitions, axle load, and asphalt layer thickness. The model is
completely mechanistic and uses vehicle dynamics analysis to estimate the dynamic force profile and
finite element structural analysis to estimate the change of pavement surface roughness for each load
repetition. The model makes use of the fact that pavement roughness changes the magnitude of the
vehicle dynamic forces applied on the pavement and that the dynamic forces change the road roughness.
The developed mechanistic roughness performance model can be used to estimate the 80-kN (18-kip)
equivalent single-axle load for mixed traffic. The model can also be used to design pavement so that it
will last for a certain number of load repetitions before reaching a predetermined roughness level.
Performance-based specifications can be developed using the methodology presented in this study.
The model has been calibrated and verified with field data elsewhere.

Evaluation of Relationship Between

Profilograph and Profile-Based
Roughness Indexes
Emmanuel G. Fernando
Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A&M University, 3135 - TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-3135.

FULL
TEXT

The relationship between the profilograph profile index (PI) and the international roughness index (IRI)
is evaluated. To accomplish this evaluation, profile data taken on 48 overlaid test sections were used in
profilograph simulations to predict the profilograph response to the measured profiles. The PIs
determined were then correlated with IRIs computed from the profile data to evaluate relationships
between these roughness statistics. The results show that the PI based on the null blanking band is more
strongly related to the IRI than the corresponding index determined using the 5-mm blanking band. In
view of the general acceptance of the IRI as a statistic for establishing surface smoothness based on
profiles, the results suggest that a profilograph specification based on the null blanking band is
preferable to a similar specification based on the 5-mm blanking band, which may mask certain
components of roughness that are otherwise picked up if no blanking band is used.

Evaluation of Accuracy of Surface Profilers

Emmanuel G. Fernando
Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A&M University, 3135 - TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-3135.

FULL
TEXT

The Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) is implementing smoothness specifications based on

profilograph testing as part of its construction quality control/quality assurance (QC/QA) program.
Automated California-type profilographs are now used in most tests, in which the equipment is pushed
over a prescribed wheelpath. It appears that smoothness specifications will continue to be based on the
profilograph, at least for the short term. However, in view of advances in profiling technology, it
becomes prudent to investigate other methods of measuring surface profiles and to develop smoothness
specifications based on profilers that offer greater accuracy and higher production rates. In pursuit of
its goal of providing smooth pavements, TxDOT initiated a research project with the Texas
Transportation Institute to develop a smoothness specification for asphalt concrete overlays based on
the new generation of pavement profilers, which offer greater accuracy in profile measurement relative
to the profilographs now used in construction projects. Among other things, this research project
evaluated a number of profile-measuring devices to establish the availability of equipment for
implementing a new profile-based smoothness specification in Texas. This evaluation showed that
lightweight profilers provide a basis for developing and implementing smoothness specifications that are
based on surface profile. Since surface smoothness is commonly monitored using inertial profilers in
pavement condition surveys conducted for pavement management, having the initial profile allows
highway agencies to tie the as-built smoothness to the rest of the performance history and thus maintain
a consistent historical record of surface smoothness throughout the pavement life cycle.

Simulation Model for Calculating

Pavement Temperatures Including
Maximum Temperature
ke Hermansson
Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI), SE-581 95 Linkping, Sweden.

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A simulation model has been developed to calculate the temperatures of asphalt concrete during summer.
Input data to the simulation model are hourly values for solar radiation, air temperature, and wind
velocity. Longwave radiation incident to and outgoing from the pavement surface is calculated from the air
and pavement surface temperatures, respectively. The portion of the incident shortwave radiation absorbed
by the pavement surface is calculated from the albedo of the surface. By means of a finite difference
approximation of the heat transfer equation, the temperatures are calculated under the surface. Apart from
radiation and heat transfer, convection losses from the pavement surface are also calculated depending on
wind velocity, air temperature, and surface temperature. The formulas used for the calculation of
radiation and the simulation model as a whole are validated by comparison with measurements, showing
good agreement. A method for the calculation of direct solar radiation from a clear sky, at an arbitrary
location and time, is used to create input data to the simulation model in order to calculate maximum
pavement temperatures. The formulas used with Superpave to calculate maximum pavement
temperatures are based on the assumption that there is an equilibrium when a maximum temperature is
reached. Such an equilibrium assumption can be strongly questioned, and its consequences are discussed.

Laboratory Calibration and In Situ

Measurements of Moisture by Using
Time-Domain Reflectometry Probes
Brian K. Diefenderfer, Imad L. Al-Qadi, and Amara Loulizi
B. K. Diefenderfer and A. Loulizi, Transportation Institute, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 3500 Transportation
Research Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24061. I. L. Al-Qadi, Charles Edward Via, Jr., Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, 200 Patton Hall, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0105.

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Excessive moisture in pavement systems can cause considerable damage and can lead to early
deterioration. One method for continually monitoring the moisture content of pavement systems
nondestructively is the use of time-domain reflectometry (TDR) probes. Although originally developed
to measure faults in electrical cables, TDR probes employ an electromagnetic wave that is transmitted
along a set of metallic conducting rods (or waveguides). The velocity of the electromagnetic wave is
influenced by the dielectric constant () of the material surrounding the waveguides. The large contrast
between the dielectric constants of free water and of dry soil makes this an effective nondestructive
evaluation method. Soil samples with different moisture contents were prepared and the TDR output,
which is a function of the dielectric properties, was compared with the measured gravimetric moisture
content. Calibration equations were developed in a laboratory setting for two types of TDR probes
(CS610 and CS615) embedded in the Virginia Smart Road test facility at Blacksburg, Virginia.
Preliminary field data were collected for the two different probe types embedded in different pavement
structures. It is shown that the two types of TDR probes yield similar data in some situations and
different data in other circumstances. It appears that the composition of the pavement structure has an
effect on the moisture measured in the subbase layer. Although preliminary results indicate that the use
of CS615 TDR probes in pavement applications is promising, further continuous monitoring of both
types of TDR probes is necessary to determine if the CS615, which can be readily connected to a data
acquisition system, can be used in lieu of the CS610, which requires a time-consuming collection
procedure or possible additional data collection equipment.

Accuracy of Weather Data in

Long-Term Pavement Performance
Program Database
Chung-Lung Wu, Gonzalo R. Rada, Aramis Lopez, and Yingwu Fang
C.-L. Wu, G. R. Rada, and Y. Fang, LAW PCS, 12104 Indian Creek Court, Suite A, Beltsville, MD 20705.
A. Lopez, Federal Highway Administration, 6300 Georgetown Pike, McLean, VA 22101-2296.

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To provide accurate climatic data for pavements under the Long-Term Pavement Performance (LTPP)
Program, a climatic database was developed in 1992 and subsequently revised and expanded in 1998.
In the development of this database, up to five nearby weather stations were selected for each test site.
Pertinent weather data for the selected weather stations were obtained from the U.S. National Climatic
Data Center and the Canadian Climatic Center. With a 1/R2 weighting scheme, site-specific climatic
data were derived from the nearby weather station data. The derived data were referred to as virtual
weather data. To evaluate the effect of environmental factors on pavement performance and design,
automated weather stations (AWS) were installed at LTPP Specific Pavement Study Projects 1, 2, and 8
to collect on-site weather data. Since the virtual weather data were developed for all LTPP test sites and
will be used for future pavement performance studies, it is essential that the derived virtual data be
accurate and representative of the actual on-site climatic conditions. The availability of the AWS
weather data has provided an opportunity to evaluate whether virtual weather data can be used
to represent on-site weather conditions. Daily temperature data and monthly temperature and
precipitation data were used in this experiment. On the basis of the comparisons made between the
virtual and on-site measured (AWS) data, it appears that climatic data derived from nearby weather
stations using the 1/R2 weighting scheme estimate the actual weather data reasonably well and thus can
be used to represent on-site weather conditions in pavement research and design.

Early Evaluation of Long-Term Pavement

Performance Specific Pavement
Studies-2, Colorado
Nadarajah Suthahar, Ahmad Ardani, and Dennis A. Morian
N. Suthahar, Nichols Consulting Engineers, Chtd., 1885 S. Arlington Ave., Suite 111, Reno, NV 89509. A. Ardani, Colorado
Department of Transportation, 4201 E. Arkansas Avenue, Denver, CO 80222. D. A. Morian, Quality Engineering Solutions,
7759 Andrews Lane, Conneaut Lake, PA 16316.

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The Long-Term Pavement Performance (LTPP) Program included the construction of rigid pavement
sections for evaluation. These test sections, designated Specific Pavement Studies (SPS)-2, were
constructed on the basis of an experiment matrix that includes pavement slab thickness [202 mm (8 in.)
and 280 mm (11 in.)], base type (permeable asphalt-treated base, lean concrete base, and dense-graded
aggregate base), widened lane of 4.27 m (14 ft) and state standard lane of 3.66 m (12 ft), and drainage
(with and without pavement edge drains). In addition, a standard Colorado Department of Transportation
design section was constructed to provide a performance comparison. The performance of these test
sections after 4 years of service is discussed. The results are based on deflection, profile, and distress data
collected by the LTPP Program. Virtually no distress and no change in ride quality are evident in these
pavement test sections at this time. However, the evaluation of deflection data provides an early indication
of anticipated variation in test section performance. Currently, no difference can be identified between
the deflection magnitude of the widened-lane section and the state standard section with tied concrete
shoulders. However, both these sections exhibit lower deflections at this time than those sections with
untied shoulders. High deflections of 202-mm sections indicate that perhaps these sections do not provide
adequate structural strength for this roadway.