WEARMOUTH AND JARROW MONASTIC SITES (1 of 2)

WEARMOUTH AND JARROW
MONASTIC SITES
Volume 2
Rosemary Cramp
ENGLlSIl HER I TAGI!

MONASTIC SITES
Volume 2
The author and English Heritage would like to

acknowledge with grateful thanks the Marc Fitch Fund
for their generous grant towards the publication costs of
this monograph

MONASTIC SITES
Rosemary Cramp
with contributions by
S Anderson, M M Archibald, I K Bailiff, H Baker, C E Batey, J Bayley, A Becêvic,
G and F Bettess, P Bidwell, D Birkett, R Brickstock, R H Brill, B Burke, E Cambridge,
J Cherry, P Clogg, B J Cook, A Croom, J Cronyn, L Daines, S Daniels, B Dickinson,
A Donaldson, V I Evison, M Firby, I C Freestone, I H Goodall, C P Graves, J Henderson,
M J Hughes, J P Huntley, A R Hutchinson, A Jenner, A K G Jones, J Jones, P C Lowther,
A Mac Mahon, S A Mills, B Noddle, T P OConnor, G Papageorgakis, E Pirie, A J Price,
M Redknap, I Riddler, S Ross, D Schofield, S M Stallibrass, M S Tite, M Trueman,
A Vince, C Wells, I Wessels, J West, H B Willmott and R Young.
edited by Pamela Lowther
E N G L I S H H E R I TA G E
2006
Contents
Summary conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Wearmouth and Jarrow in comparison with
other sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Appendix 27.1.1 Catalogue of window glass
by M Firby et al . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
27.2 Chemical analyses of some glasses from Jarrow
and Wearmouth by Robert H Brill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Methods of analysis and treatment of data . . . 126
Results of the analyses and compositional
categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Colour chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Basic formulation of the glasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
The origin of the glasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Blue glass from medieval and early
post-medieval contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Appendices 27.2.13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
27.3 The origins of the Jarrow glass by
Ian C Freestone and Michael J Hughes . . . . . . . . . 147
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Compositional analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
The recycling question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Regional production versus traded glass . . . . . . . 152
The way north . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
27.4 Medieval window glass by Ardle Mac Mahon
and C Pamela Graves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
Content and structure of Volume 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Volume 2
Part VI. The Material Remains
The built environment
26 Structural materials
26.1 The possible origin of the reused Roman
building stone at Jarrow by Paul Bidwell . . . . . . . . . . 1
26.2 Mortar and plaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Characterisation of the mortar and plaster
and samples by Rosemary Cramp and
Samantha Daniels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Polychrome plasters by Rosemary Cramp
and Janey Cronyn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
The decoration of the polychrome plasters
by Rosemary Cramp and Ardle Mac Mahon . . . . . 8
Red painted, matt red and thick red plaster
from Jarrow by Rosemary Cramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Opus signinum byRosemary Cramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
26.3 Daub by Rosemary Cramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Botanical evaluation of the daub from Jarrow
by Jacqui Huntley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
26.4 Stone roof flags by Gladys Bettess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Limestone flags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Sandstone flags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
26.5 Ceramic building materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Roman style roof tile by Alex Croom . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Medieval floor and wall tiles
by Anne Jenner and Belinda Burke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Medieval bricks from Jarrow
by Rosemary Cramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
26.6 Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Structural lead by Michael Trueman and
Rosemary Cramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Window lead by Rosemary Cramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
26.7 Summary: the appearance of the buildings
by Rosemary Cramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Anglo-Saxon Wearmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Anglo-Saxon Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Medieval Wearmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Medieval Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
27 Window glass
27.1 The Anglo-Saxon window glass by
Rosemary Cramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The historical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Research questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Characteristics of the glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The distribution of glass at Wearmouth . . . . . . . .
The Jarrow buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The reconstructed figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The setting of the glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sculptured stone
28 The Anglo-Saxon sculpture by Rosemary Cramp
28.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Stone source and finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Architectural sculpture from Wearmouth . . . . . 162
Architectural sculpture from Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Funerary and monumental sculpture . . . . . . . . . . 166
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
28.2 Architectural sculpture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Wearmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
28.3 Balusters and plain strip work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Balusters by Rosemary Cramp and
Ardle Mac Mahon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Plain strip work from Wearmouth
by Ardle Mac Mahon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
28.4 Funerary and monumental sculpture . . . . . . . . 193
Wearmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
56
56
57
60
65
65
67
71
29 The medieval carved stone

29.1 Medieval architectural fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jarrow by Eric Cambridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wearmouth by Rosemary Cramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.2 Medieval funerary sculpture by Rosemary
Cramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wearmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
v
204
204
212
215
215
Waste material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dress accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Combs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other personal objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Craft implements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Objects used in textile manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . .
Household items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Styli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31.6 The iron objects by Ian Goodall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hooks and staples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hinges and strap fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Clench bolts and roves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Timber nails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Binding strip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Padlocks and keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hasp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Implements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Knives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arrowhead and spearhead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ferrule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Buckles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Horse equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31.7 Iron coffin fittings from Wearmouth by
Phil Clogg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examination techniques and recorded data . .
Plates and plate fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nails and nail holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31.8 Lead objects by Rosemary Cramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31.9 Wooden objects by Rosemary Cramp . . . . . . . . . .
31.10 Textiles from Wearmouth pit 142 by
Azra Becêvic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Type 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Type 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Type 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Type 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Type 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31.11 Clay spindlewhorl from Jarrow
by Rosemary Cramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Stylistic analysis and dating by Jeffrey West . . 215
The context of the Jarrow slab by
Eric Cambridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Portable objects: the personal and domestic domain
30 The numismatic evidence
30.1 Roman coins by Richard Brickstock . . . . . . . . . . . 218
30.2 Northumbrian coins by Elizabeth Pirie . . . . . . . 219
30.3 Southern and later coins by
Marion M Archibald . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
30.4 Coin weight by Barrie J Cook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
31 Personal possessions and domestic items
31.1 Gold thread from Wearmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Examination and analysis of the gold foil
by Jennifer Jones and Phil Clogg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
31.2 Copper alloy and silver by Rosemary Cramp,
John Cherry and Pamela Lowther . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Dress accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Brooches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Buckles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Strap end and hooked tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Lace tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Stick pins by Seamus Ross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Rivet-headed pins by Seamus Ross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Miscellaneous pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Wire pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Decorative studs and mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Buttons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Finger rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Other personal possessions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Thimbles and needle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Objects associated with literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Styli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Book clasps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Domestic or household items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Tools and other implements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Keys and locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Bells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Vessels and domestic utensils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Rings of miscellaneous/domestic use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Other objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Nails, tacks and rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Miscellaneous items of copper alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Sheet fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Amorphous fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
31.3 Seals by John Cherry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
31.4 Bangles, beads and glass objects by
Rosemary Cramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
The glass bangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Beads in glass and other materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Polychrome mounts and studs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Millefiori and its manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
31.5 Objects and waste of bone and antler
by Ian Riddler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
32 Vessel glass
32.1 Roman vessel glass by Jennifer Price . . . . . . . . . . .
32.2 Anglo-Saxon vessel glass by Vera I Evison . . . .
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Anglo-Saxon vessel glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32.3 Vessel glass from the 13th to 16th centuries
by Hugh Willmott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33 Pottery
33.1 Roman pottery by Paul Bidwell
vi
.................
268
269
270
273
275
276
277
278
278
281
281
281
283
283
284
286
286
287
287
287
287
287
289
289
289
289
289
291
291
291
291
293
293
297
301
303
307
310
311
311
311
312
312
312
312
313
314
316
319
321
325
Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Number of individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Demographic analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Metrical and morphological analysis . . . . . . . . . . .
Dental analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pathology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix 36.1 Catalogue of human skeletal
remains from Wearmouth and Jarrow . . . . . . . . .
Samian ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

Pottery of later 2nd- and 3rd-century date . . . 325
Pottery of late 3rd- and 4th-century date . . . . . 325
The samian potters stamp by B Dickinson . . . . . 325
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Native Roman pottery from Jarrow by
Belinda Burke and Susan Mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
33.2 The Anglo-Saxon and medieval pottery by
Anne Jenner, Susan Mills and Belinda Burke . . 327
Recording and methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
The fabric catalogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Anglo-Saxon pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Medieval pottery local . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Medieval pottery regional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Medieval pottery imported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Synthesis, Jarrow and Jarrow Slake . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
A chronology of form types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Glazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
The Wearmouth pottery by Gladys Bettess . . . . 424
Comparisons between the pottery assemblages
from Wearmouth and Jarrow by Anne Jenner 424
Appendix 33.2.1 Petrological analysis of
selected sherds by Alan Vince . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
34 Stone objects
34.1 Stone vessels and containers by Ian Wessels
and Rosemary Cramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Anglo-Saxon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Medieval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34.2 Other stone objects by Rosemary Cramp . . . . .
34.3 The flint from Wearmouth by Robert Young .
Technology and methods of working . . . . . . . . . . .
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34.4 The flint from Jarrow by Robert Young . . . . . . . .
482
482
482
485
487
491
501
503
37 Faunal remains
37.1 The animal bones from Wearmouth by Barbara
Noddle, revised by Sue Stallibrass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
The nature of the material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
Methods of recording and analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
The Anglo-Saxon period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
The medieval period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
The livestock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
Overview of the medieval collection . . . . . . . . . . . 551
Summary and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
37.2 The animal bones and marine shells from
Jarrow by Barbara Noddle and Sue Stallibrass
with a contribution from Terry OConnor . . . . 552
A note on the post-excavation analysis . . . . . . . . 552
The site and the aims of this report . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
The species identified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
The Anglo-Saxon period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
The Later Saxon period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
The Later Saxon/early medieval period . . . . . . . 564
The Norman period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
The Medieval 1 period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
The Medieval 2 period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
The Medieval 1 and/or 2 period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
The Medieval 2/early post-medieval period . . 568
Pathology and abnormalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
Measurements and morphological traits . . . . . . 570
The unassigned bird bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
Summary and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
37.3 The fish remains from Jarrow by
A K G Jones and A R Hutchinson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
37.4 Comparison of the documentary and
archaeological evidence for the medieval
period by Sue Stallibrass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Appendix 37.1 bone measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
432
432
434
437
447
447
454
461
35
Industrial/craft processes: the evidence

from the Jarrow workshops
35.1 Crucibles and associated evidence for metal
and glass working by Susan Mills and Rosemary
Cramp with a contribution from J Bayley . . . . 470
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Metalworking crucibles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Glass-melting crucible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Dish crucibles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
35.2 Scientific examination of ceramic crucibles
from Jarrow by M S Tite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Experimental procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
35.3 Workshop technology, residues and raw
materials by Rosemary Cramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Appendix C. Context catalogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597

Appendix D. The burial catalogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
Appendix E. Units of measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
Appendix F. Analysis of botanical remains . . . 629
Appendix G. Absolute dating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
Appendix H. The excavation archives . . . . . . . . . . 635
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
Abbreviations and Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
People and environment

36 The human skeletal remains by Sue Anderson,
Calvin Wells and David Birkett
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Comparative material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Phasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
vii
Figures
Fig
Fig
Fig
Fig
Complete glazed floor tiles from Jarrow 35

Lead slivers (Pb13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Lead strips (Pb412) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Lead plates (Pb1314) and sheet
fragments (Pb1921) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Fig 26.6.4 Example of a complete lead plate
from a medieval context at Wearmouth
(Pb15) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Fig 26.6.5 Large piece of melted lead (Pb22) . . . . 40
Fig 26.6.6 Distribution of lead at Wearmouth from
pre-Conquest and medieval contexts . 41
Fig 26.6.7 Distribution of melted lead at Jarrow
from pre-medieval and medieval
contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Fig 26.6.8 Roof fitting types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Fig 26.6.9 Number of fittings at Wearmouth
and Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Fig 26.6.10 Distribution of fittings from preConquest and medieval contexts at
Wearmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Fig 26.6.11 Distribution of fittings from Anglo-Saxon
and medieval contexts at Jarrow . . . . . . . 45
Fig 26.6.12 Type I roof fittings (Pb2335) . . . . . . . . . 46
Fig 26.6.13 Type II roof fittings (Pb3651) . . . . . . . . 46
Fig 26.6.14 Type III roof fittings (Pb5257) . . . . . . . 47
Fig 26.6.15 Type IV roof fittings (Pb5867) and
fragments (Pb6869) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Fig 26.6.16 Lead washers (Pb7082) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Fig 26.6.17 Lead window grill from Wearmouth
(Pb83) and reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Fig 26.6.18 Anglo-Saxon lead cames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Fig 26.6.19 Profiles of medieval window cames . . . 51
Fig 26.6.20 Medieval lead cames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Fig 27.1.1 Pale, light and deep blue Anglo-Saxon
window glass from Wearmouth . . . . . . . . 57
Fig 27.1.2 Pale and light turquoise Anglo-Saxon
Fig 27.1.3 Pale, light and dark green Anglo-Saxon
Fig 27.1.4 Amber, red and red-streaked AngloSaxon window glass from Wearmouth 60
Fig 27.1.5 Pale, light and deep turquoise AngloSaxon window glass from Jarrow . . . . . . 61
Fig 27.1.6 Pale, light and deep blue and light and
deep turquoise-blue Anglo-Saxon
window glass from Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Fig 27.1.7 Pale and light green and turquoisegreen Anglo-Saxon window glass
from Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Fig 27.1.8 Deep turquoise-green and yellowgreen Anglo-Saxon window glass
from Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Fig 27.1.9 Amber and greenish amber Anglo-Saxon
Fig 27.1.10 Red and red-streaked Anglo-Saxon
Note: Photographs are by RC, unless otherwise credited in the

full captions.
Credits for Volume 2 illustrations are as follows:
YB=Yvonne Beadnell, FB=Fred Bettess, LB=Linda Bosveld,
BB=Belinda Burke, DC=Derek Craig, RC=Rosemary Cramp,
PF=Pauline Fenwick, MF=Margaret Firby, KJ=Kenneth Jukes,
PL=Pamela Lowther, KM=Keith McBarron, TM=Tom
Middlemass, A MacM=Ardle Mac Mahon, TW=Trevor Woods,
CU=Christina Unwin
IS = Imperial Scale, MS = Metric Scale
Fig 26.2.1 Anglo-Saxon plaster from Wearmouth . . 3

Fig 26.2.2 Aggregate analysis of Anglo-Saxon wall
plaster from Wearmouth and Jarrow . . . . 4
Fig 26.2.3 White painted pink plaster (Type 3)
from Wearmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Fig 26.2.4 Distribution of Anglo-Saxon painted
wall plaster at Wearmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Fig 26.2.5 Distribution of Anglo-Saxon painted
wall plaster at Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Fig 26.2.6 Fragments of Anglo-Saxon wall plaster
from Wearmouth painted with red
stripes (PPl 121) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Fig 26.2.7 Fragments of Anglo-Saxon painted
wall plaster from Jarrow, Building B
(PPl 2239) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
wall plaster from Jarrow, Building D
(PPl 4062) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
wall plaster from Jarrow, Building D
(PPl 6375) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Fig 26.2.10 Hypothetical reconstruction of the
painted design in Jarrow Building B . . 16
Fig 26.2.11 Hypothetical reconstruction of the
painted design in Jarrow Building D . . 17
Fig 26.3.1 Fragments of daub from Jarrow
Building D (Db16) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Fig 26.3.2 Jarrow daub: details showing impressions
of stems, and of lath (Db1) and wattle
(Db3) on back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Fig 26.4.1 Distribution of limestone roof flags
over all building periods at Jarrow . . . . . 22
Fig 26.4.2 Distribution of sandstone roof flags
over all building periods at Jarrow . . . . . 23
Fig 26.4.3 Wearmouth stone roof flags (ST19) . 24
Fig 26.4.4 Wearmouth stone roof flags
(ST1015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Fig 26.4.5 Jarrow stone roof flags (ST1621) . . . . 26
Fig 26.5.1 Tegula profiles and undercut and cut
away flanges (CT15) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Fig 26.5.2 Signatures on tegulae (CT610) and
imbrices (CT1112) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Fig 26.5.3 Decorated imbrices (CT1315) . . . . . . . 31
Fig 26.5.4 Distribution of Roman tiles at Jarrow
from Anglo-Saxon and LS/EM and
medieval contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
viii
26.5.5
26.6.1
26.6.2
26.6.3
Fig 27.1.11 Colour range of Anglo-Saxon

window glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Fig 27.1.12 Fragments from Buildings A and B
used to create circular window now in
south wall of St Pauls church . . . . . . . . . . 70
Fig 27.1.13 Quarries from Building D used to
create windows now in Bedes World
Museum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Fig 27.1.14 Quarries and fragments from Building
D used to reconstruct figural window
now in Bedes World Museum . . . . . . . . . . 71
Fig 27.1.15 Leaded windows at Jarrow as
reconstructed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Fig 27.1.16 Shapes of window glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Fig 27.1.17 Colour range of window glass . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Fig 27.1.18 Glass and fragments from Jarrow and
Wearmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Fig 27.1.19 Red and red streaked glass from
Wearmouth and Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Fig 27.1.20 Cox EDXRF analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Fig 27.2.1 CaO* v. Na2O* plots for Jarrow,
Wearmouth, and low-lime glasses . . . . 127
Fig27.2.2 MgO* vs K2O* plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Fig 27.2.3 Fe2O3* vs Al2O3* plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Fig 27.2.4 MnO vs Sb2O5 plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Fig 27.2.5 Transmission and reflectance spectra for
dichroic glass no. 3050 from Jarrow . . 137
Fig 27.2.6 Transmission and reflectance spectra for
dichroic glass no. 2482 from Jarrow . . 137
Fig 27.2.7 Examples of seaweed types found at
South Shields, Whitburn and Jarrow . 142
Fig 27.2.8 Lead isotope data for six glasses and five
metals from Jarrow and Wearmouth. . 146
Fig 27.3.1 Concentrations of transition metals
associated with colourants in selected
glasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Fig 27.3.2 Lime and alumina contents of glass
from Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Fig 27.3.3 Lime and alumina contents of major
compositional groups of natron glass
from the midlate first millennium AD,
with analysed Jarrow glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Fig 27.3.4 Comparison of iron oxide and alumina
contents of Jarrow glasses with those of
the HIMT group and the two main
Levantine groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Fig 27.3.5 Trace elements in selected glasses
from Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Fig 27.4.1 Painted medieval window glass from
Wearmouth (GlVM115) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Fig 27.4.2 Painted medieval window glass from
Wearmouth (GlVM1624) and Jarrow
(GlVM2530) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Fig 27.4.3 Wearmouth: distribution of medieval
window glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Fig 27.4.4 Jarrow: distribution of medieval
window glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Fig 28.1.1 Fragments from Wearmouth, showing
tool marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Fig 28.2.1 Anglo-Saxon architectural sculpture

from Wearmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
from Wearmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
from Wearmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Fig 28.2.4 Anglo-Saxon furniture and wall panel 174
Fig 28.2.5 Anglo-Saxon sculpture from faade
of St Peters church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Fig 28.2.6 Reconstructed column AS27
from Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Fig 28.2.7 Fragments of AS27 before
reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Fig 28.2.8 Panel fragments from Jarrow and
possible reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Fig 28.2.9 Friezes with inhabited scrolls from
Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Fig 28.2.10 Architectural fragments from Jarrow 182
Fig 28.2.11 Window heads from Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Fig 28.3.1 Balusters from Wearmouth, in porch
and from the church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Fig 28.3.2 Specimens of baluster shafts from
Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Fig 28.3.3 Types of baluster shaft from
Wearmouth (ixii) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Fig 28.3.4 Types of baluster shaft from
Wearmouth and Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Fig 28.3.5 Limestone strips from Wearmouth . . 190
Fig 28.3.6 Lathe turned columns of 5th-century
date from France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Fig 28.4.1 Funerary and monumental sculpture
from Wearmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Fig 28.4.2 Inscribed grave marker and monumental
fragments from Wearmouth; inscribed
stones from Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Fig 28.4.3 Inscribed and cross-marked grave
markers from Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Fig 28.4.4 Reconstruction of MS20 and 18.
Possible reconstruction of MS21 . . . . . 200
Fig 28.4.5 Cross-shafts MS22 and MS24 from
Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Fig 28.4.6 Part of shaft MS23 from Jarrow,
cross-shaft MS25 from Jarrow, top
of cross-shaft MS26, fragment MS27
202
Fig 29.1.1 Horse head corbel from Jarrow . . . . . . . 205
Fig 29.1.2 Examples of 11th-century capitals
from Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Fig 29.1.3 Examples of 11th-century bases
from Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Fig 29.1.4 Examples of column shafts from
Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Fig 29.1.5 Medieval window fragments from
Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Fig 29.1.6 Part of octagonal chimney from
Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Fig 29.1.7 Eleventh century bases, 13th-century
capital and dragon panel from
Wearmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
ix
Fig 29.2.1 Effigies of a monk and a knight

from Wearmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Fig 29.2.2 Coped coffin cover from Jarrow . . . . . . 216
Fig 30.1.1 Roman coins from Wearmouth and
Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Fig 30.2.1 Northumbrian coins from Wearmouth
and Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Fig 30.3.1 Southern and later coins from
Wearmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Fig 30.3.2 Southern and later coins from
Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Fig 30.4.1 Coin weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Fig 31.1.1 Gold foil thread from Wearmouth . . . . 229
Fig 31.2.1 Brooches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Fig 31.2.2 Buckles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Fig 31.2.3 Buckles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Fig 31.2.4 Strap ends and hooked tags . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Fig 31.2.5 Lace tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Fig 31.2.6 Large or stick pins, rivet-headed
pins and other pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Fig 31.2.7 Wire pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Fig 31.2.8 Decorative studs and mounts . . . . . . . . . . 243
Fig 31.2.9 Buttons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Fig 31.2.10 Finger rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Fig 31.2.11 Miscellaneous personal possessions;
thimbles; needle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Fig 31.2.12 Objects associated with literacy . . . . . . . 248
Fig 31.2.13 Tools and implements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Fig 31.2.14 Keys and locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Fig 31.2.15 Chains and bells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Fig 31.2.16 Vessels and domestic utensils . . . . . . . . . . 251
Fig 31.2.17 Rings of miscellaneous/domestic use 252
Fig 31.2.18 Other objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Fig 31.2.19 Nails, tacks and rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Fig 31.2.20 Miscellaneous items of copper alloy . 254
Fig 31.3.1 Seals from Wearmouth and Jarrow . . 257
Fig 31.4.1 Glass bangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Fig 31.4.2 Beads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Fig 31.4.3 Polychrome mounts or studs . . . . . . . . . . 262
Fig 31.4.4 Millefiori from Wearmouth and
Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Fig 31.4.5 The Witham hanging bowl . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Fig 31.4.6 Distribution of glass vessels, beads,
bangles and millefiori at Wearmouth . 265
Fig 31.4.7 Beads and millefiori . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Fig 31.4.8 Polychrome mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Fig 31.5.1 Bone and antler: waste material,
hammer, spindlewhorl and utilised
bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Fig 31.5.2 Bone and antler: belt fitting and comb
fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Fig 31.5.3 Bone and antler: personal objects, craft
implements, objects used in textile
manufacture, household items . . . . . . . 274
Fig 31.5.4 Bone and antler: styli, recreational
items and miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Fig 31.6.1 Iron objects: hooks, staples, hinge
pivots and strap fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Fig 31.6.2 Iron clench bolts and rove . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Fig 31.6.3 Iron nails of types AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

Fig 31.6.4 Iron objects: handles, binding strip,
chains and rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Fig 31.6.5 Iron objects: padlocks and keys, hasp,
implements and knives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Fig 31.6.6 Iron objects: arrowhead, spearhead,
buckles, horse equipment and
miscellaneous objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Fig 31.7.1 Distribution of coffin fittings and
coffin nails from Wearmouth . . . . . . . . . . 292
Fig 31.7.2 Iron coffin fittings from Wearmouth . 294
Fig 31.7.3 Plot of width of plate against
thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Fig 31.7.4 Distribution of nail holes along length
of Group 1a plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Fig 31.7.5 Distribution of nail holes along
length of Group 1b plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Fig 31.7.6 Suggested method of attachment and
position of hinge assembly CF2 and 3 297
Fig 31.7.7 Suggested positioning of Group
1b plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Fig 31.7.8 Examples of Group 1b fittings . . . . . . . 299
Fig 31.8.1 Lead objects from Wearmouth
and Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Fig 31.8.2 Lead objects from Wearmouth
and Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Fig 31.9.1 Wooden strainer and bowl fragment
from Wearmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Fig 31.9.2 Wooden objects from the well shaft
at Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Fig 31.9.3 Wooden objects from Wearmouth
and Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Fig 31.10.1 Diagrams of A. tabby weave. B. twill
2/2 diagonal fabric. C. S- and Z-spun
yarns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Fig 31.10.2 Type 1 textile fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Fig 31.11.1 Clay spindlewhorl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Fig 32.1.1 Roman vessel glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Fig 32.2.1 Anglo-Saxon vessel glass from
Wearmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Fig 32.2.2 Anglo-Saxon vessel glass from Jarrow 318
Fig 32.2.3 Anglo-Saxon vessel glass from Jarrow 319
Fig 32.2.4 Anglo-Saxon vessel glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Fig 32.3.1 Medieval vessel glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Fig 33.1.1 Roman pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Fig 33.2.1. Whitby ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Fig 33.2.2 Rhenish ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Fig 33.2.3 Fine Red ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Fig 33.2.4 Tating ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Fig 33.2.5 Permian Yellow Sand-tempered ware 337
Fig 33.2.6 Durham White ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Fig 33.2.7 Hard Sandy Grey ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Fig 33.2.8 Quite Gritty Oxidised ware . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Fig 33.2.9 Handmade Reduced ware with
oxidised surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
x
Fig 33.2.10 Hard Gritty ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fig 33.2.11 North-east Grey ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.12 Newcastle Dog Bank-type ware;
diagrams showing sooting patterns . . .
Fig 33.2.13 Shell Tempered Gritty ware . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.14 Newcastle Dog Bank-type ware,
finer version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.15 Newcastle Dog Bank-type ware,
glazed version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.16 Coarse Oxidised Gritty ware . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.17 Coarse Oxidised ware variant . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.18 Northern Gritty White ware . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.19 Moderately Gritted ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.20 Hard, Finely Gritted Splashed ware .
Fig 33.2.21 Hard, Finely Gritted Splashed ware,
variant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.22 Oxidised Gritty ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.23 Very Coarse Oxidised ware . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.24 Tyneside Buff White ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.25 Tyneside Buff White ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.26 Hard Fired Tyneside Buff White ware
Fig 33.2.27 Overfired Tyneside Buff White ware .
Fig 33.2.28 Oxidised Tyneside Buff White ware . .
Fig 33.2.29 Early Gritty Green Glazed ware . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.30 Later Green Glazed ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.31 Oxidised Green Glazed ware . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.32 Oxidised Green Glazed ware,
finer variant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.33 Sandy Green Glazed ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.34 Late Reduced Green Glazed ware . . . .
Fig 33.2.35 Local Red ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.36 Green Glazed ware, roof furniture . . .
Fig 33.2.37 Miscellaneous industrial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.38 Very Fine Sandy Grey ware . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.39 Worcester-type ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.40 Shelly Sandy ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.41 Kelso-type ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.42 Kelso-type ware, variant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.43 Tweed Valley Fine Grey ware . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.44 Fine White ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.45 White Gritty ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.46 Scarborough/North Yorkshire-type
ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.47 Northern Glazed White ware . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.48 North Yorkshire Silty Buff ware . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.49 Tudor Green ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.50 Cistercian ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.51 Fine Sandy Grey ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.52 Low Countries Highly Decorated
ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.53 Low Countries Red wares . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.54 Italian Archaic Maiolica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.55 Saintonge Mottled Green Glazed
ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.56 French import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.57 Langerwehe stoneware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.58 Langerwehe/Raeren stoneware . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.59 Raeren stoneware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 33.2.60 Early Fine Red ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
342
344
Fig 33.2.61 Examples of Newcastle Dog Bank-type

ware; Permian Yellow Sand-tempered
ware; North-east Grey ware; Hard Sandy
Grey ware; Handmade Reduced ware
with oxidised surfaces); and Tyneside
Buff White ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Fig 33.2.62 Ceramic phasing of Anglo-Saxon
and medieval pottery types . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Fig 33.2.63 Key to Figs 33.2.64, 33.2.65ab,
33.2.72, 33.2.73ac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Fig 33.2.64 Jarrow feature 3689 in trench 7505 . . 409
Fig 33.2.65 a Jarrow Slake Area V episodes
2, 3, 5, 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Fig 33.2.65 b Jarrow Slake Area V episodes
7, 8, 9, 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Fig 33.2.66 Site distribution of types D8, D11,
D12 and D15, excluding late
post-medieval contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Fig 33.2.67 Site distribution of types C1, C2
and C3, excluding late post-medieval
contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Fig 33.2.68 Site distribution of types D4, D7,
E1 and E10, excluding late
Fig 33.2.69 Site distribution of types D2, D3
and D5, excluding late
Fig 33.2.70 Site distribution of type E12a, excluding
late post-medieval contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Fig 33.2.71 Site distribution of types E11a & b
and E11d, excluding late
Fig 33.2.72 Cloister walk wall trenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Fig 33.2.73 a Pits and ground surface below
dump in trench 7502 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Fig 33.2.73 b Dump in trench 7502 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Fig 33.2.73 c Rubble overlying dump in trench
7502 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Fig 33.2.74 Site distribution of type E12b, excluding
late post-medieval contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Fig 33.2.75 Wearmouth pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Fig 33.2.76 Jarrow and Jarrow Slake pottery . . . . . . 427
Fig 34.1.1 Stone vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Fig 34.2.1 Slingstones, hammerstone, rubbers and
smoothers, hones and whetstones . . . . 438
Fig 34.2.2 Stone objects: whetstones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Fig 34.2.3 Stone object WS32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Fig 34.2.4 Millstones WS33 and 34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Fig 34.2.5 WS36 and WS37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Fig 34.2.6 Stone tools and miscellaneous
stone objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Fig 34.2.7 Miscellaneous stone objects . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Fig 34.2.8 Possible marvering block WS59 . . . . . . 446
Fig 34.2.9 Porphyry panels WS65 and WS66;
mica sheet WS67 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Fig 34.3.1 Wearmouth: flint cores and core
rejuvenation flakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
346
348
348
349
350
350
351
352
353
354
355
358
359
360
362
364
368
369
371
375
377
378
378
379
380
381
382
382
383
383
384
384
384
384
388
388
391
392
392
393
394
396
398
399
400
402
402
403
403
xi
Fig
Fig
Fig
Fig
Fig
34.3.2
34.2.3
34.3.4
34.3.5
34.3.6
Fig 34.3.7
Fig 34.3.8
Fig 34.3.9
Fig 34.4.1
Fig
Fig
Fig
Fig
34.4.2
34.4.3
34.4.4
35.1.1
Fig 35.1.2
Fig 35.1.3
Fig 35.2.1
Fig 35.2.2
Fig 35.2.3
Fig 35.2.4
Fig 35.3.1
Fig 36.1
Fig 36.2
Fig 36.3
Wearmouth: scrapers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450

Wearmouth: microliths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Wearmouth: blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Wearmouth: utilised flakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Scattergram of length/breadth data
for waste flakes, blades, utilised flakes
and utilised blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Length/breadth data for complete
waste flakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Wearmouth: distribution of lithic
material by trench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Model of Mesolithic resource
exploitation in the lower Wear Valley 455
Distribution of flints by year of
excavation at Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Distribution of flints by phase . . . . . . . . . 461
Flints from Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Flints from Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Jarrow: distribution of crucible
fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Crucibles from Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Photograph of crucibles CR10, 29
and 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
SEM photomicrograph of section
through jar-shaped crucible . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
through dish-shaped crucible . . . . . . . . . . 477
through Fine Red ware sherd . . . . . . . . . 477
through Stamford ware sherd . . . . . . . . . 477
Residues of glass working from the
workshops at Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Age distributions at Wearmouth
and Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Cervical rib right side in situ with
first thoracic rib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Left second metatarsal with splitting
anomaly of head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Fig 36.4
Fig 36.5
Fig 36.6
Fig 36.7
Fig 36.8
Fig 36.9
Fig 36.10
Fig 36.11
Fig 36.12
Fig 36.13
Fig 36.14
Fig 36.15
Fig 37.2.1
Fig 37.2.2
Fig 37.2.3
Fig 37.3.1
Fig 37.3.2
Fig 37.3.3
Fig 37.3.4
Fig E1
Fig E2
Fig G1
Fig G2
xii
Arthritic changes to right

humerus head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Osteomyelitis of right tibia . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Right hallucial first and second
phalanges (big toe). Ankylosed as a
result of leprosy or reactive arthritis . 495
Oblique fracture of proximal left tibia 496
Right femur with narrow shaft and
resorbed neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
Fractures of the pelvis and left femur 497
Healed fracture of left hand with
fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Myositis ossificans of right femur . . . . . 499
Exostoses of two mid right ribs . . . . . . . 499
Leg bones of child showing evidence
of rickets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Cross-section of tibia, Pagets disease 501
Pathological fracture of left femur and
enlargement of both, Pagets disease . 501
Histograms of age at death of the
main domestic species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Left bovine mandibular condyle,
15th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Bovine first phalanx, 16th century . . . 569
Distribution of fish bones
Anglo-Saxon and Late Saxon . . . . . . . . . 578
Medieval 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Medieval 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
Cod, Gadus morhua, quadrate showing
eburnation on articular surface . . . . . . . 581
Chancel at Jarrow indicating points
of measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
Graph of variance of measurements . 628
Graph of luminescence dates plotted
against fabric dates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
Histogram of central values of
luminescence dates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
Tables
36.9 Dental survival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488

36.10 Frequency of ante-mortem tooth loss
in males and females . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
36.11 Rates of caries at Wearmouth and Jarrow
compared to selected regional groups . . . . . 488
36.12 Frequency of abscesses at Wearmouth
and Jarrow compared to selected
regional groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
36.13 Distribution of osteochondritic lesions
at Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
36.14 Wearmouth cranial measurements . . . . . . . . . 540
36.15. Jarrow cranial measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
36.16 Wearmouth post-cranial measurements . . 542
36.17 Jarrow post-cranial
measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . after page 672
37.1.1 Numbers of identified specimens . . . . . . . . . . 547
37.1.2 Minimum Numbers of Individuals . . . . . . . . 547
37.1.3 The age ranges of the major species . . . . . . . 548
37.1.4 Distribution of identified fragments of
shells of marine mollusca and crustacea
by period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
shells of marine molluscs and crustacea
by period using unique anatomical zones
for the commoner species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
37.2.1 Period groups used for analysis of the
faunal remains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
37.2.2 Noddles age stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
37.2.3 Distribution of identified fragments of bones
of mammals, birds and fish, and shells of
marine molluscs and crustacea by period 556
mammal bone by period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
bird and amphibian bone by period . . . . . . . 557
by period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
by period using unique anatomical zones
for the commoner species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
37.3.8 Relative proportions of identified specimens
of the major food species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
37.2.9 Minimum Numbers of Individuals
(MNIs) for the commoner species . . . . . . . . . 559
37.2.10Relative proportions of Minimum Numbers
of Individuals of the major food species . . 560
37.2.11Relative proportions of meatweights of the
major food species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
37.2.12Fragments of bird bone identified by
Bramwell and OConnor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
37.3.1 Identified fish remains from Jarrow . . . . . . . . 576
37.3.2 Fish remains from dated contexts
at Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
E1
Values of variance for the trial values of
the measurement unit for Jarrow chancel 628
G1
Radiocarbon dates from Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
G2
Luminescence dates from Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . 632
26.5.1 Dimensions of imbrices from Jarrow . . . . . . . . 30

26.6.1 Compositional analysis of specimens of
Jarrow lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
26.6.2 Compositional analysis of melted lead
from Wearmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
27.2.1 Jarrow glass group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
27.2.2 Wearmouth glass group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
27.2.3 Jarrow Low-lime group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
27.2.4 Miscellaneous group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
27.2.5 Mean composition of the glass groups . . . 134
27.2.6 Plant ash compositions of seaweed . . . . . . . . 143
27.2.7 Isotope ratios of Jarrow and
Wearmouth leads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
27.3.1 Analysis of glass by SEM-EDXA and
ICP-AES (wt %) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
27.3.2 Analysis of glass by ICP-MS (ppm) . . . . . . 149
31.7.1 Plate dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
31.7.2 Nail dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
31.7.3 Estimate of wood depth from nail shanks 297
33.2.1 Pottery types in alphabetical/numerical
order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
33.2.2 Order of catalogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
33.2.3 Pottery types grouped by phase and
provenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
33.2.4 Codes for pottery groupings used in
graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
33.2.5 Layers associated with feature 3689
in trench 7505 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
33.2.6 Jarrow Slake Area V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
33.2.7 Robber trenches in cloister area . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
33.2.8 Layers associated with the dump in
trench 7502 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
33.2.9 Sherds analysed by ICPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
33.2.10ICPS data: major elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
33.2.11ICPS data: minor and trace elements . . . . . 430
34.3.1 Flints recovered by excavation season . . . . . 448
34.3.2 Raw materials present in the Wearmouth
assemblage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
34.3.3 Classification of cortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
34.3.4 Core types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
34.3.5 Waste flint from Wearmouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
34.3.6 Size of waste flakes from sites in
County Durham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
35.2.1 Analytical data for ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
36.1 Numbers and percentages of children
at Wearmouth and Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
36.2 Age distribution of juvenile burials . . . . . . . . 484
36.3 Age and sex of the adults at Wearmouth . 485
36.4 Distribution of sex by period at Jarrow . . . 485
36.5 Adult age at death for Anglo-Saxon and
medieval Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
36.6 Stature data for Wearmouth, Jarrow and
selected other sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
36.7 Cranial index data for Wearmouth,
Jarrow and selected other sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
36.8 Non-metric traits at Wearmouth and
Jarrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
xiii
Contributors
Sue Anderson
CFA Archaeology, Old Engine House, Esk Mill Park, Musselburgh, East Lothian, EH21 7PQ
Marion Archibald 4 York Road, New Barnet, Herts EN5 1LJ
Ian Bailiff
Department of Archaeology, University of Durham, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE
H Barker
Colleen Batey
2 Benreoch House, Arrochar, Argyll and Bute G83 7AG
Justine Bayley
Centre for Archaeology, English Heritage, Fort Cumberland, Portsmouth PO4 9LD
Azra Becêvic
Sefika Dorica 2, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia Herzegovina
Fred Bettess
Waleric House, Northumberland Street, Alnmouth, Northumberland
Gladys Bettess
Paul Bidwell
Arbeia Roman Fort and Museum, Baring Street, South Shields, Tyne and Wear NE33 2BB
David Birkett
Richard Brickstock University College, University of Durham, North Bailey, Durham DH1 3EU
Robert Brill
The Corning Museum of Glass, One Museum Way, Corning, New York, NY 14830
Belinda Burke
Broom Cottage, 29 Foundry Fields, Crook DL15 9JY
Eric Cambridge 10 Tindale Avenue, Framwellgate Moor, Co Durham DH1 5EW
John Cherry
58 Lancaster Road, London N4 4PT
Phil Clogg
Department of Archaeology,University of Durham, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE
Barrie Cook
Department of Coins and Medals, The British Museum, Great Russell Street, London WC1B 3DG
Derek Craig
Alex Croom
Arbeia Roman Fort and Museum, Baring Street, South Shields, Tyne and Wear NE33 2BB
Janey Cronyn
4 Chiswick Staithe, London W4 3TP
Samantha Daniels
Lucy Daines
Alison Donaldson
Vera I Evison
5 Somerset Road, Harrow, Middlesex HA1 4NF
Margaret Firby
Ian Freestone
School of History and Archaeology, Cardiff University, PO Box 999, Cardiff
Ian H Goodall
Pam Graves
M J Hughes
Department of History, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX
John Hunter
Department of Ancient History and Archaeology, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT
Jacqui Huntley
EH Regional Adviser for North-East England, Department of Archaeology, University of Durham,
South Road, Durham DH1 3LE
A R Hutchinson
Anne Jenner
24 Victoria Terrace, Lanchester, Co Durham DH7 0JB
Andrew Jones
Department of Archaeological Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP
Jennifer Jones
Kenneth Jukes
Pamela Lowther School of Archaeology and Ancient History, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester LE1 7RH
A Mac Mahon
179a Clarence Road, Hackney, London E5 8EE
Susan McNeil
11 Roundhead Road, Theale, Reading RG7 5DL
Susan Mills
The Speirs Centre, 29 Primrose Street, Alloa FK10 1JJ
Chris Morris
Department of Archaeology, University of Glasgow, Gregory Building, Lilybank Gardens, Glasgow G12 8QQ
Barbara Noddle
Terry OConnor Department of Archaeology, University of York
Alan Piper
University Library, University of Durham DH1 3LE
Elizabeth Pirie
Jennifer Price
Garths End, Wellgarth, Main Street, Heslington, York YO10 5JT
Ian Riddler
Tatra, Diddies Road, Stratton, nr Bude, North Cornwall EX23 9DW
Seamus Ross
Humanities Advanced Technology and Information Institute, George Service House, 11 University Gardens,
University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ
David Schofield 8 Wearside Drive, Durham
Sue Stallibrass
English Heritage Archaeological Science Advisor for North-West England, SACOS, University of Liverpool
Michael Tite
7 Kings Cross Road, Oxford OX2 7EU
Michael Trueman High Farm, Upton, Newark, Nottinghamshire NG23 5ST
Judith Turner
6 Crossgate, Durham City DH1 4PS
Alan Vince
25 West Parade, Lincoln LN1 1NW
Calvin Wells
Ian Wessels
Jeffrey West
Redundant Churches Board, Fielden House, 13 Little College Street, London SW1P 3SH
Hugh Willmott
Dept of Archaeology and Prehistory , University of Sheffield, Northgate House, West Street, Sheffield S1 4ET
Robert Young
Alexandra House, 5 Dale Terrace, Stanhope DL13 2KH
xiv
Content and structure of Volume 2
finds code; trench)

Museum Accession Number (if known)
Other published references to the object.
The original site finds codes are included in addition to post-excavation context numbers: each excavation season, individual letter codes were allocated to
all trays of artefacts reaching the finds hut, several of
which may have subsequently been amalgamated to
form a context assemblage (see also Vol 1, Chapter 2).
This volume, which forms Part VI of the monograph,

is concerned with the description and analysis of the
material remains associated with the Anglo-Saxon and
medieval occupations. The post-medieval artefacts are
not reported on here, but all material from the excavations was retained and all artefacts have been listed
and some have been fully catalogued and drawn. Only
a very small amount of very modern material from
superficial deposits was discarded on site, but this too
was listed in the site finds catalogues. Catalogues and
reports on all the finds exist in the two site archives.
Reports dealing with post-medieval finds (as well as
other archive reports) are listed in Appendix H.
In this volume, the finds are grouped as far as possible thematically, under four major sections: the built
environment, architectural and monument sculpture,
portable objects, people and environment. The finds are
then subdivided into chapters reflecting their different
materials or categories, with subordinate sections
reflecting either differences of character or period, or
technical commentaries. As noted above, certain classes,
such as the monumental and architectural remains, were
sufficiently large and important to warrant their own
section, and within that there are some very substantial
chapters such as the window glass. The portable objects
or small finds have been largely left in their constituent
materials, subdivided into different classes according to
use, according to authorship. Where possible, however,
similar functional categories have been used in the different reports. Inevitably there is overlapping of evidence between materials, but every attempt has been
made to use cross-referencing to guide the reader.
In presentation, an attempt has been made to integrate the two sites as much as possible justifiable
since they are so closely related, particularly in the
Anglo-Saxon period. It should be noted that Jarrow
Slake (JS) artefacts have been included with those from
the main Jarrow (JA) excavations. In the catalogues, in
general the earlier foundation of Wearmouth appears
first, then Jarrow, and objects of Anglo-Saxon date
from each site are (where it is possible to distinguish
them) presented before those of medieval date.
There are some exceptions: for example the coin
lists are conventionally presented by site; the worked
flints have also been discussed separately, as the lithic
material from Wearmouth in particular is not related to
the later history of the sites and the two site assemblages are not directly comparable; separate reports are
also presented for the faunal remains.
Information in the catalogues is presented in as far
as possible a standardised format, as follows:
Object number (=material code + number).
Description of the artefact. Figure no.
Further discussion and parallels, as appropriate.
Dimensions
Date of object where possible to assign
Context details (context number; date of context; site
Authorship
The genesis of a substantial report such as this, dealing
with two separate excavations, has extended over a
quarter of a century and has involved a very large number of people. Much of the specialist work was begun
many years ago, often before phasing was available.
Reports have been subsequently revised, the last in
2000 prior to publication. Some contributors are sadly
now deceased (Gladys Bettess, David Birkett, Margaret
Firby, Barbara Noddle and Calvin Wells). Their work
has been brought to publication by other colleagues, to
whom we are grateful. Authors of other contributions,
which often formed parts of university theses, have not
been available to update their work and where revisions
and additions have taken place their name is included
with that of the person responsible for the revision.
Where no specific authorship has been indicated,
the text and catalogues were written by Rosemary
Cramp and Pamela Lowther, with assistance from
Ardle Mac Mahon, Derek Craig and Ren Holland.
Editing and standardising the large array of reports for
publication was undertaken by Pamela Lowther. The
enormous task of compiling and checking bibliographic references was undertaken with customary thoroughness by Derek Craig.
The location of the finds

The artefacts from Jarrow and Wearmouth are now
housed, together with the site archives, at The Bedes
World and Sunderland Museums, and the Tyne and
Wear Museums Service respectively, whom we thank
for access to objects already in their care. We would
like to thank the curators for their help in resolving
queries and, in particular, Susan Mills, Laura Sole,
Clive Hart, Esther Drake and Helen Sinclair.
General abbreviations used in the

finds catalogues
L = Length
W = Width
T = Thickness
H = Height
Diam = Diameter
HDiam = diameter of hole
Dates attributed to objects are abbreviated in the following manner: C14th; C1415th; Late C14th, etc.
xv
Part VI. The Material Remains

The built environment
26 Structural materials
26.1 Possible origin of the reused
Roman building stone at Jarrow
where it descends towards the river bank is built of

small mortared stones in the normal style of Hadrians
Wall. Brands account establishes that the Branch Wall
continued in this form as far as the river:
by Paul Bidwell
Large Roman stones of distinctive form such as altars
(see Ch 28, AS12) or with distinctive tooling were
found on both sites and are present in the walling of
both St Peters church at Wearmouth and the chancel
of St Pauls at Jarrow. The foundations of the north
wall of Building D at Jarrow present a specific problem
that is addressed below. (RC)
Roman stonework was reused in the foundations of
Building D (Vol 1, Fig 16.56). It consists of blocks
which came from what is loosely termed opus quadratum, a form of construction employing large blocks
laid in regular courses and joined together with dowels
and clamps of wood, lead or iron encased in lead
(Bidwell and Holbrook 1989, 11733). Mortar was
not used; the jointing between the blocks was very tight
and was usually achieved by the technique known as
band anathyrosis: the sides of a block forming a joint
with other blocks had shallow recesses cut into their
surfaces leaving raised bands around the edges which
were carefully worked to form the closest jointing possible with the adjacent blocks. The Jarrow blocks display sockets for dovetail clamps and a bar clamp, a
lewis hole and a possible example of band anathyrosis.
In Britain this form of construction is usually found
in large road bridges in the northern military zone.
Remains are visible on Dere Street at Piercebridge, Co
Durham, Corbridge and Risingham, Northumberland,
and on Hadrians Wall at Chesters and Willowford
(blocks from the bridge at Carlisle are displayed in Bitts
Park). The Wrekendyke, a spur road running to South
Shields from the northsouth road between Newcastle
and Chester-le-Street, crossed the River Don at
Primrose Hill. The river is now a small burn, which
could probably have been accommodated by a culvert
under the road. In Roman times it might have been
more substantial, but scarcely large enough to have
required a stone bridge on the scale of those on Dere
Street and Hadrians Wall. Smaller water-courses on
Dere Street were crossed by timber bridges with earth
approach ramps (Dymond 1961) and this would probably have been the method adopted to cross the Don if
it was too large to be taken under the road in a culvert.
A more plausible origin for the Jarrow stonework is
the eastern terminus of Hadrians Wall at Wallsend
where the final length of the Wall (the so-called Branch
Wall) extended from the south-east corner of the fort
to a point beyond the low-water mark of the river.
Recent excavations have shown that the Branch Wall
I traced the eastern rampart of this station [the

Branch Wall] to the very edge of the Tyne, April
3rd, 1783, in company with the ingenious Mr
Chapman [the original lessee of the Wallsend
Colliery], when we caused many square stones,
bedded in lime, to be dug out in several parts of
it, and close to the brink of that river (Brand
1789, 605).
The Branch Wall continued beyond the low-water
mark into the river. Several accounts confirm this, of
which Bruces is the clearest:
Some traces of [the Branch Wall] may be noticed,
particularly at the point where it joins what was
the margin of the river. Mr Buddle [manager of
the Wallsend Colliery] used to say, that when
bathing in the river, as a boy, he had often noticed
the foundations of this wall extending far into the
river. Mr Leslie [a later occupant of Buddles
house which was built over the south-west corner
of the fort] has seen it as far as the lowest tides
enabled him to observe (Bruce 1863, 40).
Skinners observations in 1801 make it clear that
beyond the low-water mark the Branch Wall was built
of large blocks:
A wall or pier running from the south-east side
of the square [the fort] was quite visible a year
ago, and very large stones belonging to its foundations were taken out of the river on account of
their being obstructive to the vessels coming to
the colliery. This cross wall was possibly
designed to prevent the enemy passing the
fortress at low water which they otherwise might
have done (Coombs and Coombs 1978, 26).
Wallis might also have seen these blocks some thirty
years earlier:
I have frequently after high tides observed large,
well-wrought, ashler stones lying on the shore of
the river at the foot of this field [The WellLaws, in which the fort and Branch Wall were
situated], the scattered ruins probably of a key
(Wallis 1769, 253).
1
WEARMOUTH AND JARROW MONASTIC SITES
For more than a century the southern part of the

Branch Wall and its extension into the river have lain
beneath the Swan Hunter shipyard and have not been
available for examination. Walliss and Skinners
accounts suggest that the Branch Wall ran into the
river in the form of a mole built of massive masonry,
and it is likely that the large blocks which they noted
belonged to construction in opus quadratum. Its enormous strength and durability would have made it the
best construction method for a structure that had to
withstand the huge forces of a river in spate.
The Branch Wall therefore supplies a possible
source for the reused Roman blocks at Jarrow. It might
also have been the source of the inscribed fragments,
for the purpose of the mole might have been to support
a monument proclaiming the completion of the Wall
by Hadrian or its restoration by Septimius Severus.
The presence of Roman material at both
Wearmouth and Jarrow is discussed further in Volume
1, Chapter 3; the reused Roman carved and inscribed
stones are presented in Chapter 28.
26.2 Mortar and plaster

A considerable number of mortar samples were collected from both sites in an attempt to characterise the
Anglo-Saxon and post-Conquest mortars and plasters
and to try to distinguish any changes through time. At
Wearmouth there were a plethora of wall foundations
without much stratigraphic distinction, including several walls which had evidently existed for a long period, incorporating successive rebuildings; these were
defined not only by changes in fabric but by the bedding mortar and facing plasters of the walls. The facing plasters, like the slabs of opus signinum, were
usually found in deposits of building collapse, or clearance, although an area of original pink mortar was
identified on the internal face of the porch of St Peters
Church (Fig 26.2.1a; Type 3, below). At Jarrow the
periods of walls were easier to define stratigraphically,
and here it was not only possible to retrieve mortar
samples attached to buried walls and their in situ collapse, as with Building D, but facing mortar survived
in situ on parts of the interior walls of Buildings A and
B (see Vol 1, Fig 16.31). It was therefore considered of
interest to be able to provide some objective criteria for
comparison not only between the two sites but also
between Wearmouth and any relevant Merovingian
sites from which comparable material might illuminate
the traditions of the Gaulish masons imported by
Benedict Biscop (see Vol 1, Ch 4).
Characterisation of the mortar and

plaster samples
by Rosemary Cramp and Samantha Daniels
Some characteristics such as colour and inclusions were
quite distinctive, so the mortars, facing plasters and
opus signinum were initially sorted visually by the first
author using a hand lens (10), and types identified

(see below). The Wearmouth samples were sorted initially without reference to the date of the walls or contexts from which they were excavated, in an attempt to
distinguish the sequence of walls and their rebuilding.
They were then associated with dated contexts and
regrouped in a loose chronological sequence. The
medieval and post-medieval mortars from Jarrow were
not subjected to the same sorting into types since the
medieval and post-medieval buildings were standing
and had been regrouted in the course of conservation.
An attempt was then made to refine these groupings by laboratory analysis. To this end the types
defined simply by visual inspection were checked in
part by thin sections/polished sections. These categories were further examined in two small laboratory
programmes, the first a thin sectioning programme
and aggregate analysis, presented as an undergraduate
dissertation by Samantha Daniels (Daniels 1987).
(Samantha Daniels was tragically killed in a car crash
in 1988 and so was unable to take this work further.)
In the second study, co-ordinated by Janey Cronyn,
examples of painted plaster were analysed by simple
wet chemistry, together with atomic absorption spectrometry, although more complex analyses were
applied to the pigments (Cramp and Cronyn 1990,
1730; archive report).
The authors are aware that many attempts to characterise and analyse mortars have already been undertaken
for other sites, with only limited success (Evans 1981;
1982; Wetter 1979), and that the difficulties of characterising such a simple mixture process have been frequently reiterated (Davey 1961; Jedrzejewska 1960;
Stewart and Moore 1982; Tite 1972). Nevertheless, the
visual inspection indicated distinctive features and, even
at this level of analysis, certain results were interesting
and might point the way to future research on other sites.
For Wearmouth, Daniels analyses, using low-powered microscopy and selective thin sectioning, included samples from the church porch and most of the wall
lines, and the descriptions produced have been collated with the independent division into types undertaken by the author (see below).
Daniels also undertook an aggregate analysis for
samples from Wearmouth Building B (Fig 26.2.2A),
which showed that the filler was well sorted and basically unimodal. Daniels analysis is included in the site
archive: Wearmouth Building B = her sample MK 5;
Jarrow Building A = her samples JA 1, 2, 4 and 8;
Jarrow Building D = her sample JA 9 (Daniels 1987).
For Jarrow, samples from the three major buildings were
reviewed and thin sections made of plaster from the wall
foundations of Building A and an area to the north.
Aggregate analyses were produced for samples from
Buildings A and B. Here the samples tested showed a
wide distribution of grain size showing that the filler was
poorly sorted and polymodal (Fig 26.2.2B). From the
Jarrow mortars tested, it was concluded that the wide
range of grain sizes suggested a riverine or glacio-fluvial
26: STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
a
c
d
Fig 26.2.1 Anglo-Saxon plaster from Wearmouth. a. Type 3 in situ on the south wall of the porch, behind the vault, St
Peters Church. b. Stone with polychrome painted plaster, with marking-out lines for the design (MK 67 DG, context 2052).
c. Stone covered with painted plaster. d. Examples of white plaster with painted red stripes. TM, RC, TW
Fig 26.2.2 Aggregate analysis of Anglo-Saxon wall plaster from A. Wearmouth and B. Jarrow
origin for the sand, which was confirmed by an analysis
of sand from the Tyne upstream at Wylam (Daniels
1987, 176). For the Wearmouth mortars, however, the
evidence did not suggest the quarrying of very local
sands, since muscovite mica was present and this does
not occur in the local permian deposits. Nevertheless
Daniels considered some form of river sand was a likely
source (Daniels 1987, 1458).
Plaster Type 3 from Wearmouth, which was considered important to analyse because of its distinctive
pink appearance, and the fact that it was discovered in
situ on the interior south wall of the Anglo-Saxon
porch, where it had been preserved behind the later
vaulted roof (Fig 26.2.1a above). Some of these plasters are pink throughout, some with pink fading into
creamy white, and all have a finely prepared polished
surface for receiving paint or whitewash (Fig 26.2.3).

Preliminary analysis of the Wearmouth sample showed
that it was made from lime with a pure quartz sand and
an acid-insoluble pink cement (c 60% by weight
residue), while at Jarrow a plaster of similar appearance
was made from unsorted river sand, an acid-insoluble
pink cement and some crushed tile/brick (Cramp and
Cronyn 1990, 25).
Plaster types
Type 1. A hard creamy matrix, with well-distributed
rounded quartz, large aggregates of limestone and
chalk and fine brick chips and granules. This is a finishing mortar, often with surviving polished surfaces
overlaid by white paint and organic filler.
Fig 26.2.3 White painted pink plaster (Type 3) from

Wearmouth. TM
Anglo-Saxon. Associated with St Peters Church
Monkwearmouth, porch.
Type 2. A soft creamy yellow lime mortar with sparse
sand in the mix and large chalk lumps as additives (up
to 7mm). This is a core mortar and may be complementary to 1.
Anglo-Saxon. Associated with Wearmouth Building B
and Walls H and VI.
Type 3. A hard sandy lime matrix with ?quartz, sand
and large lime lumps as additives. Some have a pink
surface, some pink fading into cream. The surface is
finished with a smooth polish to receive paint. This is
a finishing plaster.
Anglo-Saxon. Associated with internal wall of St
Peters Church, Monkwearmouth, porch behind the
later vault (see Fig 26.2.1a); 1295 sand, area of mortar
mixer; also occurs with type 2, opus 1 and 2 and Wall
3.
Type 4. Soft lime-based plaster with abundant fine
quartz grains and a massive organic inclusion lying
matted with the grain. Often painted over a smoothly
finished surface as with types 1, 2 and 3, but noticeable
for the number of paint layers: three or four. Finishing
plaster.
Anglo-Saxon. Associated with Wearmouth Building B
throughout its length, and opus 2B.
Type 5. Very white close-textured mortar with fine wellsorted sand and fine lime and brick or tile inclusions.
Some with red painted surface. Surface not polished as
in 1/2/3 but a similar limey type.
Anglo-Saxon. Associated with Wearmouth, contexts
1251, sand 1224 and Wall F, 1088; with 2/3 and opus
2 near Wearmouth church; and Jarrow destruction of
Building D, 2008, and burial 4835.
Type 6a. Very white and smooth, almost pure lime, rare
limestone inclusions and large quartz, some with wattle indents, and some with organic inclusions. Painted
surfaces. Finishing plaster.
Anglo-Saxon. Associated with Type 2. Found at
Wearmouth around the mortar mixer, near the church
in 1967 and with Wall VIII.
Type 6b. Very hard white smooth matrix, with large

pebbles, fine limestone, coal, brick fragments and wellrounded quartz grain inclusions. Some evidence of layering.
Anglo-Saxon. Associated with Wearmouth, mortar
mixer 1508 and 757.
Type 7. Creamy sandy matrix with soft friable surface
for paint. Notably large inclusions of brick/tile, and
chopped organic matter, possibly straw.
Anglo-Saxon. Associated with Wearmouth opus 2 in
625, and Jarrow Building B south wall.
Type 8. Very powdery creamy orange to pale yellow
mortar with a few small white and light brown inclusions. Bedding mortar.
Anglo-Saxon. Associated with walls of B, H, F and porticus as infilling at Wearmouth, and Jarrow Building A.
Type 9. Coarse crumbly buff facing plaster, with an
outer surface creamish-buff and an inner layer brownish-buff, small white and dark brown inclusions.
Anglo-Saxon. Associated with Jarrow robbed walls of
Building A.
Type 10. Very friable greyish-brown mortar with much
coarse brown-black sand, coal, brick and limestone
fragments. Sand grains on the surface of the mortar.
Late Saxon or intermediate. Associated with
Wearmouth Wall 3.
Type 11a. Creamy, soft sandy mortar, greyish sand and
large limestone inclusions.
Type 11b. Rather harder version, some black and some
brick inclusions, grit and soft lime matrix, some large
chunks of lime.
Late Saxon or intermediate. Associated with
Wearmouth Walls 4 and F and graves.
Type 12. Creamy-grey friable mortar, inclusions of
large quartz and charcoal.
Medieval. Associated with Wearmouth, 1271 and Wall 3.
Type 13. Very light creamy mortar, with open air pockets and not much sand. No large inclusions.
Post-medieval? At Wearmouth, found with early types
such as 1, but in modern contexts, eg 882.
Type 14. Coarse greyish-white plaster with dense wellsorted pebbly quartz grains, sparse brick fragments but
many charcoal fragments. Powdery surface.
Medieval? Associated with Type 12 in Wearmouth
333/343, but occurs in later contexts.
Type 15. Greyish-cream matrix, well limed with coarse
aggregates of limestone, and organic matter, possibly
chopped straw. Painted surface.
Medieval or early post-medieval. Associated with
Monkwearmouth Hall debris and 871.
Type 16. Grey matrix. Hard sandy texture, with black
coal and chalk inclusions and purplish-red brick dusting on the surface.
Modern? Associated with Monkwearmouth Hallgarth
Square outhouses.
Type 17. Fine soft sandy matrix, abundant medium
grain sand greyish with small limestone and coal inclusions. Hard surface stiffened with stone chippings.
Used as flooring.
Medieval? and post-medieval. Associated with

Monkwearmouth Hall, 304.
Type 18. White-grey, hard surfaced plaster. Not very
sandy, but with various sizes and types of pebble and
brick dust inclusions. White painted surfaces.
LPMmodern. Associated with Monkwearmouth
Hallgarth Square buildings, 576.
Type 19a. Very limey and friable sandy-orange matrix
with sandstone inclusions. Mortar with a similar type
of plaster facing.
Early post-medieval. Associated with demolition rubble of pre-19th-century buildings at Wearmouth.
Contexts 602, 360, and 647.
Type 19b. Fine greyish-white plaster, well limed with
organic inclusions and coal.
Post-medieval (C16th17th). Associated with

Monkwearmouth Jacobean Hall and context 116.
Type 20. Very smooth white limey plaster. Soft matrix,
liberally flecked with coal.
Modern? Associated with Monkwearmouth Hallgarth
Square.
Polychrome plasters
by Rosemary Cramp and Janey Cronyn
Distribution and composition
Both Wearmouth and Jarrow have produced a quantity of polychrome plaster, much of it coming from disturbed contexts. At Wearmouth (Fig 26.2.4) most of
Fig 26.2.4 Distribution of Anglo-Saxon painted wall plaster at Wearmouth. AMacM
the painted plaster was recovered among the debris of

collapsed walls, which in places had been cut through
by graves which had preserved the plaster and architectural details such as strip work (see Ch 28, architectural stone) in their fills. Similar deposits were
included in the infilling of the well shaft 1377, firmly
sealed by medieval layers (Vol 1, Ch 10, Fig 10.7). The
decoration on the Wearmouth plaster consisted of narrow red bands or stripes, most straight, a few curved
(see Fig 26.2.1d). The distribution indicates that this
plaster most probably decorated the gallery, Building B
(see Vol 1, Ch 9 and also Ch 28, plain strip work).
Specimens of this material were published first in
Cramp 1969, 36, pl IV, and it is further discussed in
Cramp and Cronyn 1990, 212.
At Jarrow (Fig 26.2.5) some plaster adhered to the

east wall of Building A (interpreted as a refectory) and
to the south wall of Building B (interpreted as a multipurpose hall), but in both areas the in situ plasters were
painted a monochrome white. Some polychrome plaster with geometric decoration was, however, distributed over the east end of Building B and it is possible
that the east wall of either rooms Bi or Bii (the chapel)
were especially distinguished. In Building D tentatively identified as a guesthouse in its first phase of use
a considerable amount of polychrome plaster was
distributed alongside and around the north wall.
Further research on the composition of the plaster
with polychrome decoration, co-ordinated by the
Durham University conservation laboratory, included
Fig 26.2.5 Distribution of Anglo-Saxon painted wall plaster at Jarrow. AMacM
some rough percentage estimates of the composition of

the mixes from (a) Wearmouth: 70% lime, 30% additives, and (b) Jarrow: 45% lime, 50% additives. There
were other compositional differences: at Wearmouth the
fine white matrix of the painted plaster was filled with
520% (area of section) of moderately sorted, fine, subangular to rounded quartz and magnetite grains, as well
as a variety of rock fragments with occasional chalk and
limestone fragments (5mm diam) and also fragments of
red-pink burnt clay (Cramp and Cronyn 1990, 212).
The Jarrow plaster had a fine creamy white matrix containing c 2035% of inclusions which are mainly moderately sorted, medium to very fine quartz, sub-angular
to rounded grains. Also present are well-rounded
haematite and magnetite grains with a variety of rock
fragments, occasional fragments of lime or limestone
(5mm diam) and organic temper which might possibly
be straw (Cramp and Cronyn 1990, 22).
The red ochre pigment used in the decoration was
identified as haematite with calcium carbonate and
quartz but no manganese. An analysis by Dr Evans of
the East London Polytechnic could detect no organic
residues in the plaster surfaces which could have
bound the paint, but there were traces of an oil system
which suggests the presence of a polymerized base in
the original paint, but unfortunately it was not possible in such small samples to identify the type of oil.
The Jarrow red pigment was a very similar composition
to that at Wearmouth (haematite with calcium carbonate and a trace of titanium, but no manganese). The
black pigment which was found on a few fragments
seems to have been carbon or lamp black. Again, no
organic binding agent could be detected on the surface
of the plasters but beeswax was positively identified by
Dr Evans on the surface layer (Cramp and Cronyn
1990, 23). These investigations have clearly shown that
further work on the composition of this material could
be rewardingly undertaken.
same contexts could well have provided such panels

(see Ch 28, stone report). Some fragments (PPl 9 and
20) had two rounded edges and the area carrying the
red line was concave as though the plaster had been
squeezed on both sides. A few fragments had curving
or multiple red lines (PPl 14, 15 and 18); these pieces,
as well as the painted stone which has survived sometimes covered with a thick plaster coating (see Fig
26.2.1bc) indicate that there could have been more
complex polychrome decoration from the monastic
buildings on this site.
The decoration of the polychrome plasters
PPl 5
Fig 26.2.6
PPl 1
PPl 2
PPl 3
PPl 4
by Rosemary Cramp and Ardle Mac Mahon

Wearmouth
About 70 pieces of fine white plaster decorated with a
thickly painted red ochre stripe were recovered at
Wearmouth. The 21 fragments presented here may be
considered as a coherent group (Fig 26.2.6, 121).
None of the fragments joined, but one sub-set was
roughly rectangular along the long axis of the stripe,
and seemed to derive from strips about 4050mm
wide. The back of these strips showed that the plaster
had adhered to a smooth wall face and in several
instances had abutted a smooth element which projected at right angles from the wall, also abutting, or
being extruded under a second parallel element (PPl
12 and 7). This effect could have been caused by the
plaster being used to infill panels; the many finely
dressed fragments of stone strip work found in the
PPl 6
PPl 7
PPl 8
PPl 9
Fragment of white painted plaster with a concave

surface and a red stripe about 10mm wide. The plaster was bedded against three surfaces: the rear
against a flat surface; on the left against a projection
22mm deep; on the right side the edge is much
rougher and has been pressed between two vertical
features about 50mm apart.
L 52 W 49 T 1723mm
Context: 1672 Saxon MK 62 JF 1 6201
Sunderland H 3001
Fragment of white painted plaster with a rightangled edge and a broad red stripe on the edge. The
rear of the fragment shows a deep recess.
L 54 W 25 T 26mm
Context: 1696 L Sax MK 62 IW 1 6201
Fragment of white painted plaster with one rolled
edge and a narrow red line 6mm wide at the edge.
There is a narrow groove alongside the rounded
edge.
L 35 W 25 T 25mm
Context: 1696 L Sax MK62 IW 2 6201
Fragment of white painted plaster with a red stripe
about 8mm wide. The decorated surface is concave,
curving away from the stripe. The flattened surface
of the piece is at an angle to the stripe. The back is
rough.
L 49 W 37 T 19mm
Context: 1395 L Sax MK 64 RO 6403
Sunderland G17243 43-1973/87
Fragment of white painted plaster with a dark red
stripe 12mm wide. The painted face rises up to the
left face as if blocked and curves away slightly with a
rougher surface to the right. Some paint has splashed
into the cavity on this surface.
L 55 W 30 T 25mm
Context: 1566 L Sax MK 66 UZ 6601
Sunderland G17213 43-73/84
Fragment of white painted plaster with a stripe of
dark red paint about 10mm wide.
L 39 W 37 T 22mm
Context: 2087 L Sax MK 67 GE 6701
Fragment of white painted plaster with flattened
back and one rounded edge. A broad red stripe
about 11mm wide.
L 63 W 50 T 1525mm
Context: 1670b L Sax/Norman MK 62 DR 1 6201
Fragment of white painted plaster with traces of a
red painted line.
L 53 W 37 T 26mm
Context: 1658 LS/EM MK 62 KJ 6201
Fragment of white painted plaster with an indented
Fig 26.2.6 Fragments of Anglo-Saxon wall plaster from Wearmouth painted with red stripes (PPl 1-21). Scale 1:2
dark red stripe about 10mm wide. The piece curves
up to a rounded edge. Fig 26.2.6.
L 40 W 38 T 14mm
Context: 1400 LS/EM MK 64 SA 6403
PPl 10 Fragment of white painted plaster with a broad red
stripe at the angled edge.
L 55 W 23 T 26mm
Context: 1437 LS/EM MK 64 XT 1 6603
Sunderland 43-1973/86
PPl 11 Fragment of white painted plaster with a broad red
stripe. On the back of the fragment is a recess that

could indicate a lath or wattle backing.
L 24 W 18 T 28mm
Context: 1437 LS/EM MK 64 XT 3 6403
PPl 12 Fragment of white painted plaster with a wide red
stripe with a faint curve. The stripe is indented into
the surface and the back of the fragment is very irregular but recessed.
L 37 W 36 T 22mm
Context: 1345 Med MK 64 ET 6403
10
PPl 13 Fragment of white painted plaster with one broken

and one rolled edge. Narrow red stripe 7mm wide at
edge.
L 70 W 27 T 17mm
Context: 1656 Med 1 MK 62 HL 6201
PPl 14 Fragment of white painted plaster with a curving red
stripe 911mm wide. Fig 26.2.6.
L 48 W 40 T 19mm
Context: 1558 Med 1 MK 66 TK 6601
PPl 15 Fragment of white painted plaster with traces of red,
slightly curving lines about 4mm wide, that are not
concentric. The surface of the fragment was possibly
over-painted twice with plain white paint or whitewash. As this came from a medieval context, and the
wall was used for a lengthy period of time, this may
be Anglo-Saxon plaster repainted.
L 70 W 67 T 21mm
Context: 835 Med 2 MK 66 RX 6604
Sunderland 172/6 43-1973/89
PPl 16 Fragment of white painted plaster with a degraded
dark red stripe.
L 38 W 30 T 20mm
Context: 1645 Med/EPM MK 62 DM 1 6201
PPl 17 Fragment of white painted plaster with concentric
red lines about 6mm wide.
L 55 W 38mm
Context: 1665 EPM MK 62 CV 6201
Reference: Cramp 1969, pl IVd.
PPl 18 Fragment of white painted plaster decorated with
curving pale red lines.
L 27 W 24 T 15mm
Context: 1664 EPM MK 62 CQ 6201
PPl 19 Fragment of white painted plaster with one rolled
edge, demarcated along the edge with a narrow dark
red stripe 6mm wide.
L 67 W 35 T 2025mm
Context: 1412 LPM MK 64 VE 1 6403
Reference: Cramp 1969, pl IVe
PPl 20 Fragment of white painted plaster with evidence that
both edges were pressed up against a surface, one
edge being rounded. The red stripe is about 13mm
wide and indented. There appears to be a line marking out its boundary against the rounded edge.
Although the context is late, it contains much residual Anglo-Saxon material.
L 42 W 33 T 20mm
Context: 1549 LPM MK 66 RY 1 6601
PPl 21 Fragment of white painted plaster with a red stripe
7mm wide.
L 32 W 15 T 25mm
Context: 1549 LPM MK 66 RY 2 6601
Jarrow
A much larger quantity of painted plaster (about 150
pieces) was discovered at Jarrow, in both Anglo-Saxon
and Late Saxon/Early Medieval contexts, distributed,
as mentioned above, largely in relation to Building
B and Building D (Fig 26.2.5). The plaster was
decorated with geometric designs based on lines or
stripes and circles painted in red (or very occasionally
black) on a cream ground. The best-preserved
pieces with definite design elements are presented
here. In addition, a certain amount of plain matt red
plaster was also discovered in disturbed contexts to

the north of Building A near the church (discussed
below).
The painted plaster includes complex geometric
design elements composed of arcs of circles, lines of
varying widths and some freehand scrolls. The process
of laying out this ornament appears to be that, after the
plaster had been coated with whitewash, the surface was
scored with a pointed tool that acted as a rough guide to
the design layer. There were both fine scored lines and
rougher grooves about 23mm wide (see Figs
26.2.726.2.9). The fine lines were often used as guides
for the edges of paint lines (for example PPl 24, 37, 52
and 57), but not all of the paint lines were outlined. The
deeply scored lines sometimes seemed to be decorative,
emphasising areas of colour (PPl 49), or double concentric lines (as PPl 44), and in other cases to provide
constructional guides for intersections of lines. The evidence for a firm geometric control of the pattern was
clear since the diameter of the arcs was usually 50mm
or, in a few cases, 60mm, while the width of lines, where
this could be determined, was generally 2730mm.
With such fragmentary evidence it is difficult to
reconstruct definitive patterns and in the 1990 publication it was decided that since no pieces appeared to join,
no reconstruction was possible (Cramp and Cronyn
1990, fig 3). A further attempt however has indicated
that while there could be no definitive reconstruction,
certain layouts of patterns could be proposed. The
same type of tools and the same unit measures were
employed in both Building B and Building D, and the
colours used are similar dark and light red and
cream, although in Building D black was also used.
There may have been other colours, now lost, but the
large quantity of creamy white plaster that survived
suggests that this was the basic background colour.
The evidence from the east end of Building B suggests somewhat simpler patterns than the fragments from
Building D and these are indicated in the arcaded and
panelled decoration proposed in Figures 26.2.10 and
26.2.11. For Building B, the framing lines are composed
of stripes c 30mm wide and a half width (1517mm),
which could suggest inner and outer frames. The half circles cut by broad red stripes which leave the arched head
as white, are motifs clearly visible on PPl 29 and PPl
38 but it is not possible to be certain of the relationship
of these motifs one to another. The design is purely
speculative and other fragments could indicate that the
pattern was much more extensive. All pieces except
PPl 25 and 28 were used to create Figure 26.2.10.
The fragments from Building D suggest that there
were intersecting arcs with a radius of 50mm and
60mm, and probably also circles, as well as freehand
scrolls. As well as light and dark lines of red paint,
black paint seems to have been used to separate the
arcs or circles (PPl 63). The ornament could have been
laid out as Figure 26.2.11, with the circular designs
enclosed in panels. All but eleven of the pieces from
Building D were incorporated in Figure 26.2.11.
11
Fig 26.2.7 Fragments of Anglo-Saxon painted wall plaster from Jarrow, Building B (PPl 2239). Scale 1:2
Area of Building B (Fig 26.2.7)
PPl 22 Over-painted red surface. Three possible superimposed layers of paint.
L 35 W 26 T 13mm
Context: 5293 LS/EM JA 67 OJ 6704.
PPl 23 Fragment with score line and part of one broad red
stripe.
L 37 W 30 T 12mm
Context: 3083 Med 1 JA 69 HW a 6901

PPl 24 Part of a red stripe.
L 35 W 25 T 11mm
Context: 3083 Med 1 JA 69 HW b 6901
PPl 25 Fragment with a cream background and incised line.
L 39 W 30 T 16mm
Context: 3083 Med 1 JA 69 HW c 6901
PPl 26 Stripe marked out by two parallel incised lines 17mm
12
PPl 27
PPl 28
PPl 29
PPl 30
PPl 31
PPl 32
PPl 34
PPl 35
PPl 36
PPl 37
PPl 38
PPl 39
apart on a cream background.

L 39 W 24 T 12mm
Context: 3083 Med 1 JA 69 HW e 6901
Thick red stripes at right angles.
L 42 W 35 T 30mm
Context: 3083 Med 1 A 69 HW j 6901
Very worn surface. Extensive traces of red paint and
crossing lines marked in red.
L 56 W 44 T 30mm
Context: 3083 Med 1 JA 69 KE 6901
Very worn cream fragment with traces of red paint.
Two parallel score lines 16mm apart crossed by
another score line at a right angle. Incised arc 50mm
in radius.
L 72 W 61 T 22mm
Context: 3083 Med 1 JA 69 LD a 6901
Small fragment with an incised line bordering a red
band.
L 25 W 20 T 11mm
Context: 3083 Med 1 JA 69 LD c 6901
Two crossing red stripes at right angles and a possible incised diagonal arc. Stripe c 24mm wide.
L 40 W 45 T 52mm
Context: 4389 Med 1 JA 70 UP 7002
Red stripe over-painted in cream. Evidence of an
incised circle 50mm in radius and a possible second
arc.
L 27 W 27 T 12mm
Context: 3151 Med 12 JA 69 JW 6901
PPl 33 Fragment with red stripe and cream over-paint.
L 40 W 35 T 11mm
Context: 3151 Med 12 JA 69 KX a 6901
Fragment with one vertical incised line and broad
red strip. Fig 26.2.7.
L 42 W 35 T 11mm
Context: 3151 Med 12 JA 69 KX b 6901
Fragment with wide red line and diagonal score line.
L 41 W 40 T 18mm
Context: 3063 Med 2 JA 69 HS 2 6901
Fragment with part of a red stripe marked by a fine
line.
L 22 W 31 T 11mm
Context: 3063 Med 2 JA 69 HS 3 6901
Very worn fragment. Traces of two red lines at right
angles.
L 45 W 45 T 22mm
Context: 3061 Med 2 JA 69 IO 6905
Large fragment with traces of red paint. Incised arc
50mm in radius and incised line. Fig 26.2.7.
L 70 W 45 T 21mm
Context: 3066 EPM JA 69 GP a 6901
Fragment with traces of red and dark red paint. Fig
26.2.7.
L 52 W 48 T 17mm
Context: 3066 EPM JA 69 GP b 6901
Area of Building D (Figs 26.2.826.2.9)

Note: During the course of cleaning and preparation of
specimens for analysis (Cramp and Cronyn 1990, fig
3), the finds codes were removed and the pieces given
letter identifiers. It is no longer possible to relate some
of these to the original site codes. All the specimens
thus numbered came from Anglo-Saxon contexts in or
around Building D and are indicated in the catalogue
with an asterisk.
PPl 40 Fragment with highly polished surface. A vertical

painted line and a vertical incised line that cuts
through a curving red line of paint.
L 45 W 40 T 25mm
Context: 2007 L Sax JA 73 TE a 7305
PPl 41 Very worn fragment with a patch of red over-paint
and part of an incised arc 50mm in radius.
L 38 W 35 T 20mm
Context: 2007 L Sax JA 73 TE c 7305
PPl 42 Finely polished surface with a red stripe. Brush
strokes running in two directions.
L 31 W 26 T 12mm
Context: 2007 L Sax JA 73 TE e 7305
PPl 43 Fragment with traces of red paint. Very worn.
L 28 W 23 T 14mm
Context: 2007 L Sax JA 73 TE g 7305
PPl 44 Fragment with two incised crossing lines. Two
incised intersecting arcs with a radius of 50mm.
Another incised arc 60mm in radius above one of the
arcs. A further arc 60mm in radius below the incised
line. Faint traces of red.
L 53 W 26 T 16mm
Context: 2007 L Sax JA 73 TE i 7305
PPl 45 Fragment with broad red line with an enclosing
incised line. Part of an incised arc 50mm in radius
can be seen.
L 52 W 36 T 15mm
Context: 2007 L Sax JA 73 TE j 7305
PPl 46 Fragment with part of a red line.
L 38 W 35 T 13mm
Context: 2007 L Sax JA 73 TE n 7305
PPl 47 Large fragment with very worn surface. Traces of a
vertical red line.
L 84 W 65 T 30mm
Context: 2011 L Sax JA 73 UR a 7305
PPl 48 Fragment with double incised lines running at right
angles enclosing a red strip, faint traces of another
red line. North wall of Building D.
L 40 W 46 T 20mm
Context: 2011 L Sax JA 73 UR b 7305
PPl 49 Fragment with two intersecting incised arcs with a
cream centre and traces of red paint within each arc.
L 55 W 35 T 20mm
Context: 919 LS/EM JA 76 CF 7603
PPl 50 Worn fragment with part of a red band enclosed by
an incised line.
L 60 W 47 T 19mm
Context: 1999 LS/EM JA 73 SM 3 7305
PPl 51 Fragment with red paint.
L 24 W 12 T 27mm
Context: 2008 LS/EM JA 73 TK 7305
PPl 52 Fragment with part of a red band and incised arc, the
area of which is coloured red.
L 25 W 21 T 14mm
Context: 2010 LS/EM JA 73 TW a 7305
PPl 53 Large fragment with a red border.
L 80 W 85 T 25mm
Context: 1135 Norman JA 75 LR 7504
PPl 54 Fragment with curving incised line enclosing a red
stripe with a vertical incised line in one edge and possible red streak.
L 32 W 29 T 12mm
Context: 1848 Norman JA 73 SJ a 7305
PPl 55 Fragment with broad red line 30mm wide enclosed
in incised lines.
13
Fig 26.2.8 Fragments of Anglo-Saxon painted wall plaster from Jarrow, Building D (PPl 4062). Key as Fig 26.2.7. Scale 1:2
L 50 W 50 T 23mm
Context: 1848 Norman JA 73 SJ b 7305
PPl 56 Triangular fragment. Part of a vertical red line terminating an arc 50mm in radius and two lines at
right angles.
L 53 W 51 T 20mm
Context: 1848 Norman JA 73 SJ c 7305
PPl 57 Very worn surface. A vertical incised line with part of

a red band.
L 46 W 38 T 16mm
Context: 1994 Med 1 JA 73 RW a 7305
PPl 58 Fragment painted red all over with a thicker dark red
line over.
L 26 W 18 T 15mm
14
Fig 26.2.9 Fragments of Anglo-Saxon painted wall plaster from Jarrow, Building D (PPl 6375). Key as Fig 26.2.7. Scale 1:2
Context: 1994 Med 1 JA 73 RW c 7305
PPl 59 Very worn fragment with a broad red line 26mm
wide.
L 42 W 31 T 18mm
Context: 2858 Med 1b JA 76 CE 3 7602
PPl 60 Cream fragment with a curving incised line 50mm in
radius. Fig 26.2.8.
L 41 W 37 T 15mm
Context: 1919 Med 12 A 73 PV a 7305
PPl 61 Fragment with two parallel incised lines and a red
band.
L 32 W 27 T 10mm
Context: 2829 EPM JA 78 KH 7803
PPl 62 [B*] Fragment with part of a red band below an
incised arc 50mm in diameter.
L 46 W 24 T 16mm
Reference for PPl 6275: Cramp and Cronyn 1990,
fig 3.
PPl 63 [C*] Fragment with fine polished surface with black
between two intersecting arcs. Faint traces of red
paint. Traces of straw matrix at the back.
L 55 W 33 T 25mm
PPl 64 [E*] Fragment with red band.
26 W 31 T 12mm
PPl 65 F*] Cream paint incised with a curving line 60mm in
radius and red band.
L 44 W 48 T 15mm.
PPl 66 [G*] Small fragments with finely polished surface.
Traces of two red patches and a curving incised line.
L 25 W 26 T 16mm
PPl 67 K*] Fragment with traces of red lines.
L 35 W 25 T 11mm
PPl 68 [M*] Cream fragment with a curving incised line
50mm in radius.
L 35 W 32 T 12mm
PPl 69 [O*] Fragment with finely polished surface and two

branching lines 57mm wide.
L 60 W 58 T 25mm
PPl 70 [Q*] Fragment with a broad band of red paint,
28mm wide, with an incised arc 50mm in radius cutting the band.
L 44 W 40 T 15mm
PPl 71 [R*] Small fragment with red line marked with an
incised line.
L 20 W 22 T 15mm
PPl 72 [S*] Fragment with incised line and arc 50mm in
L 63 W 32 T 15mm
PPl 73 T*] Fine cream surface with an incised and one fine
red line 2mm wide.
L 48 W 40 T 11mm.
PPl 74 [W*] Triangular fragment with part of a broad red
line.
L 27 W 26 T 18mm
PPl 75 [X*] Fragment with incised line and arc 50mm in
L 25 W 29 T 13mm
Parallels for the ornament

Decorated plaster that can be associated with buildings
of the 7th to 8th century in Britain is rare, and it
should be remembered that, although there is a strong
case that the polychrome fragments were part of the
initial scheme of decoration of the buildings at
Wearmouth/Jarrow, none was found in situ, so this
plaster could have been applied at a later date, perhaps in the later 8th or early 9th centuries. The only
contemporary parallels are fragments from Heysham,
which also included a few pieces with incised lines and

some with red and possibly blue paint (Higgitt 1990,
32; Potter and Andrews 1994). It seems reasonable to
assume, however, in the light of the casual references
to painted walls from an early date in Anglo-Saxon
England, that it was not as uncommon as the archaeological record suggests (Cather et al 1990, ix).
Nevertheless, compared with the quantity that one
would expect to find on any high status Roman site
even in Roman Britain wall painting in the early
ecclesiastical buildings of Anglo-Saxon England could
not have been a normal feature.
The straight and curved red lines on a white background from Wearmouth are reminiscent of the simplest Roman schemes of wall painting (see Blockley et
al 1995, fig 578) and if this is considered to relate to the
stone strip work, which can be compared with the decorated facade of the Roman house from Meonstoke
(see Ch 28, sculpture), such a scheme would have contributed to the Roman tradition which Benedict wished
to imitate. On the other hand, the patterns of ornament
on the Jarrow plaster reflect the Insular traditions,
which would also have been absorbed by the
Wearmouth/Jarrow craftsmen and which find expression in some of the architectural sculpture (see Ch 28).
But the best evidence that such compass-drawn ornament is a characteristic feature of Insular art can be
found in the manuscript parallels, as early as the 7th
century (see the Bobbio Orosius Chronicon (Alexander
1978, cat 3, fig 6). Intersecting arcades used as a border are found on a diagram with English Uncial bound
in with the Utrecht Psalter, and this has been identified
as by the same hand as that of the dedicatory poem in
the Wearmouth/Jarrow manuscript the Codex
Amiatinus, and has been further compared with the
columnar surround on the same page of the Codex
Amiatinus by Bruce-Mitford (Bruce-Mitford 1967b, 16
and pl VIII). Intersecting arcades are also used as
frames in the Codex Amiatinus depiction of the tabernacle in the Temple at Jerusalem, fols IVIII (BruceMitford 1967b, fig 23), while a series of arcades
decorated with interlace form a page border in Durham
Cathedral MS Aii 10 (Alexander 1978, cat 5, fig 10).
The suggested reconstruction of part of the plaster
from Building B (Fig 26.2.10) would therefore seem to
be consonant with other Northumbrian ornament.
The compass-drawn intersecting circles and full circles which have been suggested as motifs in the wall
painting from Building D (Fig 26.2.11) are also a common motif in Insular art, and are used as frames even
in figural scenes as closely modelled on Early Christian
prototypes as the Majestas scene in the Codex
Amiatinus, fol 796v (Bruce-Mitford 1967a, pl 24). In
the Lindisfarne Gospels carpet pages, as for example
fol 26v, there are double and single compass-drawn
circles with a radius of 60, 55, 50 and 25mm which
compare closely with the radii on the plaster. Moreover
some of the rectangular incisions on the plaster can be
compared with the laying out lines reconstructed by
15
Bruce-Mitford for some of the Lindsfarne Gospels

pages (Bruce-Mitford 1960, fig 59). These small fragments of plaster do, therefore, provide a coherent link
with contemporary Northumbrian art.
Red painted, matt red, and thick red

plaster from Jarrow
by Rosemary Cramp
Three different types of plain red plaster were distinguished. All are quite distinct from the painted plaster
from the Anglo-Saxon buildings discussed above. Full
details can be found in archive; only material from
medieval and earlier contexts are listed here.
The first type is a matt red plaster with crushed
brick inclusions in the mortar base, in this respect
somewhat resembling the technique employed for opus
signinum (below). From both its distribution and stratification, this type may have been associated with the
Anglo-Saxon church and buildings. Some was found in
a pre-Conquest grave near the church (burial 63/6,
context 4835) and in other early contexts as well as disturbed deposits near the church (eg in trenches 7001
and 7003).
Another type of red plaster with a thinly painted surface was found in the area of the medieval cloister.
Finally, there was a very distinctive type with a very
thickly painted red surface, up to 3mm thick, fragments
of which were found widely distributed across the site.
Both of these types could be associated with the
Norman or early medieval phases of building activity.
Matt red plaster (not illus)
PPl 76 Many red brick inclusions in the base. L 39 W 35 T
20mm.
Context: 5362 Saxon or earlier JA 66 AAF 6511
PPl 77 5 fragments from grave 63/6. L 12 W 8 T 2mm; L 8
W 8 T 2mm; L 8 W 7 T 2mm; L 4 W 4 T 2mm; L
2 W 2 T 2mm.
Context: 4835 Saxon JA 63 EY 6301
PPl 78 Red brick inclusions. L 34 W 22 T 19mm.
Context: 4282 Saxon JA 70 UU 7005
PPl 79 6 fragments. L 38 W 19 T 18mm; L 33 W 32 T
14mm; L 21 W 15 T 18mm; L 17 W 20 T 11mm; L
22 W 16 T 12mm; L 19 W 13 T 12mm.
Context: 18 Saxon? JA 66 XA 6601
PPl 80 L 54 W 25 T 24mm.
Context: 4949 SaxonMed JA 70 AGV 7001
PPl 81 Four fragments. L 16 W 8 T 8mm; L 10 W 8 T
7mm; L 11 W 7 T 5mm.
Context: 2318 SaxonMed JA 75 7501
PPl 82 L 13 W 7 T 6mm.
Context: 2326 LS/EMMed A 75 LW 7501
PPl 83 Right-angled red stripe on a white background. L 32
W 28 T 12mm.
Context: 1211 Med 1 JA 75 LV 7502
PPl 84 L 52 W 60 T 25mm.
Context: 4898 Med JA 70 SE 7001
PPl 85 Three fragments with red brick inclusions. L 24 W 20
16
Fig 26.2.10 Hypothetical reconstruction of the painted design in Jarrow Building B. AMacM, KJ
Fig 26.2.11 Hypothetical reconstruction of the painted design in Jarrow Building D. RC, KJ
17
18
PPl 86
PPl 87
PPl 89
PPl 90
PPl 91
PPl 92
PPl 93
PPl 94
PPl 95
PPl 96
PPl 97
PPl 98
T 14mm; L 23 W 20 T 8mm; L 15 W 13 T 21mm.

Context: 4976 Med JA 70 YA 7001
L 20 W 20 T 11mm.
Context: 5020 Med JA 70 AGD 7001
Six fragments with red brick inclusions. L 42 W 32
T 17mm; L 40 W 10 T 25mm; L 25 W 16 T 8mm;
L 23 W 20 T 7mm; L 20 W 10 T 15mm; L 15 W 7
T 17mm. Context: 14 Med? JA 66 RY 6601
PPl 88 L 34 W 17 T 18mm.
Context: 975 Med 1 JA 76 DN 1 7604
L 30 W 15 T 6mm.
Context: 1199 Med 1 JA 75 KJ 7502
L 30 W 18 T 10mm.
Context: 4340 Med 1 JA 70 WZ 7002
Brick inclusions; found on Saxon ground surface. L
36 W 23 T 15mm.
Context: 4342 Med 1b JA 70 WE 7002
L 29 W 12 T 12mm.
Context: 3587 Med 12 JA 70 EO 7004
Fifteen fragments found in the cloister walk robber
trench fill. L 28 W 25 T 15mm; L 30 W 15 T 28mm;
L 28 W 25 T 15mm; L 25 W 16 T 12mm; L 24 W
22 T 12mm; L 25 W 12 T 11mm; L 21 W 17 T
12mm; L 12 W 8 T 14mm; L 12 W 9 T 11mm; L
15 W 12 T 8mm; L 23 W 8 T 10mm; L 13 W 11 T
10mm; L 13 W 9 T 10mm; L 9 W 6 T 9mm; L 12
W 5 T 8mm.
Four fragments. L 28 W 21 T 10mm; L 21 W 16 T
7mm; L 16 W 16 T 9mm; L 25 W 15 T 4mm.
Context: 393 Med 12 JA 67 JL 6704
L 15 W 10 T 10mm.
Context: 3847 Med 12 JA 70 NI 7003
L 38 W 21 T 8mm.
Context: 1190 Med 2 JA 75 FV 7502
Two large fragments with red brick inclusions. L 65
W 44 T 20mm; L 35 W 37 T 22mm.
Context: 431 Med 2 JA 66 HB, HS 6601
Fragment with matt red paint over white plaster. From
the robbed wall of Building B. L 28 W 25 T 20mm.
Context: 4346 Med 2? JA 70 YD 7002
Red painted plaster

PPl 99 Two fragments: L 41 W 29 T 8mm; L 37 W 15 T
6mm.
Context: 4863 LS/EM JA 63 CJ 6301. Not illus.
PPl 100Three fragments: L 70 W 40 T 30mm; L 25 W 42 T
20mm; L 20 W 12 T 9mm.
Context: 4829 Med? JA 63 DC 6301
PPl 101Eight fragments: L 31 W 30 T 7mm; L 38 W 26 T
9mm; L 24 W 22 T 6mm; L 34 W 13 T 10mm; L
15 W 12 T 9mm; L 38 W 34 T 7mm; L 21 W 18 T
3mm; L 30 W 24 T 3mm
Context: 4826 Med 12 JA 63 CE, BK, DE DT 6301
PPl 102L 36 W 34 T 7mm.
Context: 1082 EPM JA 75 CT 7504
Thickly painted red plaster (not illus)

PPl 103L 11 W 7 T 6mm.
Context: 2702 L Sax? JA73 UJ 7302
PPl 104Found in a pit fill with opus signinum. L 26 W 14 T
17mm.
Context: 2149 LS/EM JA 73 RT 7304
PPl 105L 27 W 11 T 21mm.

Context: 2143 LS/EM JA 73 RU 7304
PPl 106L 27 W 13 T 28mm.
Context: 2008 LS/EM JA73 TK 7305
PPl 107L 30 W 25 T 15mm.
Context: 977 Norman JA76 ES6 7604
PPl 108L 16 W 9 T 6mm.
Context: 1851 Norman JA73 SL 7305
PPl 109L 60 W 34 T 34mm.
Context: 2002 Norman? JA73 SW 7305
PPl 110L 26 W 32 T 17mm.
Context: 4898 Med JA 70 RW 7001
PPl 111White gritty base. L 40 W 30 T 18mm.
Context: 4899 Med JA 70 UB 7001
PPl 112L 45 W 50 T 30mm.
Context: 4981 Med JA 70 ACI 7001
PPl 113L 30 W 15 T 22mm.
Context: 4941 Med JA 70 AHG 7001
PPl 114L 21 W 16 T 15mm.
Context: 2643 Med 1 JA 73 RK 7302
PPl 115L 35 W 32 T 20mm.
Context: 2642 Med 1 JA 73 RJ 7302
PPl 116L 25 W 30 T 11mm.
Context: 4337 Med 1 JA 70 SD 7002
PPl 117L 14 W 14 T 15.
Context: 3323 Med 1b JA 69 VE 6902
PPl 118L 24 W 15 T 5mm.
Context: 1919 Med 12 JA 73 PV 7305
PPl 119Three fragments. L 34 W 24 T 26mm; L 16 W 8 T
9mm; L 24 W 22 T 14mm.
Context: 3116 Med 12a JA 69 MG, PA 6901
Opus signinum
by Rosemary Cramp
This material, which in modern terminology consists
of mortar admixed with crushed terracotta (tile or
brick), was used in the Roman period both for flooring
and for sealing walls, particularly bath houses, where
the brick inclusions helped to absorb moisture.
Vitruvius, in his commentary on building materials
uses this term to describe a hydraulic cement which
does not include terracotta (De Architectura VIII.VI.14;
Granger 19314, vol 2, 1903), but also describes how
river or sea sand can be improved by the addition of
crushed and sifted potsherds in the proportion of one
to three (De Architectura II.V.1, VII.I.5; Granger
19314, vol 1, 9699, vol 2, 845). He also mentions,
in the making of a sub-pavement, how the rubble base
is laid and pounded with a lime mixture and then finished with a covering of crushed terracotta mixed three
to one with lime and at least six digits thick (De
Architectura VII.I.3; Granger 19314, vol 2, 823). He
does, however, envisage that this surface would be covered by tesserae or marble slabs. In the post-Roman
period the red brick surfacing alone is used, and since
terracotta whether from tiles or potsherds was less
common (being usually recycled Roman material),
some opus signinum types such as Type 3 (below)
reserve most of the crushed terracotta for the surface
finish. All of the opus types from Wearmouth and
Jarrow were laid on a bedding of small stones except
type 2B, which either adhered to a wall or was laid

directly on a hardened earthen surface. Flooring with
crushed terracotta has been found also in 6th to 7thcentury Anglo-Saxon churches, for example at
Reculver, Kent, St Augustines Canterbury, and
Glastonbury (Taylor 1978, 1061).
At Wearmouth, fragments of opus signinum were
found widely distributed across the site, although there
is some indication that they may be associated with
Building B.
At Jarrow, Building A was floored throughout the
main room with opus signinum on a base of cobbles (see
Vol 1, Fig 16.16). In addition, Room Bii, the most private room in Building B, also had an opus signinum
floor. The distribution of fragments of this material
across the site reveals concentrations also in the central
part of Building B, and in trench 7001 close to the
south-west corner of the church, perhaps indicating
that other structures were floored in a similar manner.
Types of opus signinum
Type 1. Matrix creamy white mortar with large pieces
of crushed tile or brick throughout, with a coarse surfacing of terracotta dust and fragments.
Anglo-Saxon. Association: Jarrow, Building A.
Type 2. Matrix pink-red with large quantities of
crushed tile and brick throughout the mix.
Anglo-Saxon. Association: Wearmouth, N of Wall F.
Type 3A. Matrix hard, fine well sorted, sand in cement,
some lime lumps, and a surface layer of crushed
tile/brick.
Anglo-Saxon. Association: Wearmouth, Building B.
Type 3B. Very similar matrix to 3A but a bit greyer,
occurs in slabs about 20mm thick. A surface layer of
crushed tile/brick.
Anglo-Saxon. Association: Wearmouth, Building B.
like laths. The slabs of daub were usually found face

downwards, sometimes with burning on the back and
sometimes with other pieces superimposed. There
were some deposits of daub mixed in with the debris of
the north wall of Building D (context 2011), but most
of the daub came from other late Saxon deposits containing quantities of burnt material, such as contexts
2021, 2022 and 2023 which lay directly over the
flagged floor of the building. The pieces were widely
dispersed and the evidence from the deposits of painted wall plaster around the north wall (see Fig 26.2.5)
suggested that the walls of Building D had been constructed of plastered stone. At the time of excavation it
was therefore considered that the daub might represent
a collapsed ceiling, but it is equally possible that this
material comes from an internal division or from one
of the other walls of the building. A few pieces have
been catalogued and illustrated (Fig 26.3.1) to give an
indication of the character of the material and a botanical evaluation was also undertaken (see below).
A single piece of daub (70 65mm) was found at
Wearmouth in the grave of skeleton 66/57. There was
a wattle imprint 12mm diameter on the back.
Db1
Db2
Db3
Db4
26.3 Daub
by Rosemary Cramp
A large quantity of pieces of daub was discovered at
Jarrow in the debris overlying the floor of Building D
and a little to the east of that building. The fragments
were sometimes quite large, measuring up to 130
100mm, and had been burnt to a pinkish colour
throughout. The pieces were slab-like and very uniform in section; most were c 20mm but others c 25mm
in thickness. One face was very smooth and had plentiful traces of white paint, while the back of each slab
was rough but had been pressed against a firm dense
background. It was very difficult to determine from the
impressions on the back of the fragments what this surface could have been. Most of the fragments had no
impressions at all visible on the back. In a few cases,
however, there were impressions of a single round wattle
c 10mm in diameter, but this usually did not cross the
whole surface, and there were other sharply angled
impressions of more rectangular form that were more
19
Db5
Db6
Fragment in which the smooth outer surface has the

imprint of plant impressions from the surface on
which it had been flattened out, with traces of white
paint above; on the back surface, a sharp extruded
line. Fig 26.3.1 and detail, Fig 26.3.2.
L 115 W 100 T 20mm
Smoothed surface, as Db1; on the back there is a
slightly curved linear impression. Fig 26.3.1.
L 130 W 70 T 1020mm
The smooth outer surface bears traces of white paint
and the back is rough with the impression of a
rod/wattle. Fig 26.3.1 and detail Fig 26.3.2.
L 75 W 55 T 15mm.
Fragment in which the smooth surface has traces of
white paint, the back with two indentations about
40mm apart with a rod impression crossing a flatter
indentation. Fig 26.3.1.
L 85 W 70 T 20mm
Fragment with the smoothed face as in Db1 but with
a deeply scored line, and on the back two indentations about 40mm apart, one circular and rod-like
and one flatter. Fig 26.3.1.
L 105 W 80 T 20mm
Fragment, the smooth surface with traces of white
paint, and on the back a ridge separating two indentations almost 40mm apart, one of which appears to
be rod-like and the other sharply angled. Fig 26.3.1.
L 75 W 50 T 1520mm
Botanical evaluation of the daub from

Jarrow
by Jacqui Huntley
Some samples of the daub were examined for analysis
of their botanical content. Both faces and some edges
of about half a dozen pieces were examined under a
Wild Stereomicroscope at magnifications of up to 50
and using epiluminescence on a Leitz DM/LM microscope at magnifications of up to 200.
20
Fig 26.3.1 Fragments of daub from Jarrow Building D, front and back (Db16). Scale 1:3. TM
In all cases one face was smooth and showed clear
impressions of vegetative material (Fig 26.3.2). There
were probable indications of plaster or whitewash on
most pieces. The reverse face was irregular and often
deeply grooved. At least two of these grooves may have
been formed from daub being pressed against wood, as
in a wattle structure although there were no obvious
weaving type marks of wattling. The grooves were
semi-circular (Fig 26.3.2) indicating probable whole
roundwood and not cut or sawn sections of wood. The
texture within the grooves was not clear enough to
determine bark patterns and it may be that some of the
wood had been stripped although this is not considered
very likely.
The vegetative material consisted of a mixture
of highly ridged and little ridged stems with some
leaf impressions. While some of the latter were clearly
from grasses, a few were from broad-leaved plants and

showed characteristic reticulate venation with possible
stomata visible too. While it would be possible to take
latex impressions of these it is doubtful that sufficient
detail survives to identify the plants. The highly ridged
stems could be of rushes (Juncus sp) or cereals. The less
ridged material may have been from grasses. No nodes
were seen and all stem pieces seem to be short
(1020mm at most), suggesting that plant material was
well chopped up before being incorporated with the
clay. One impression of a large grass spikelet, probably
from Avena (oats) indicates use of some cereal straw. In
several instances the stem impressions retained thin
sheaves of organic tissue and occasionally these had
been mineralised, leaving an opalescent layer within the
grooves. Almost certainly these are the siliceous
remains of plants following burning. In other pieces the
21
Fig 26.3.2 Jarrow daub: details showing impressions of stems, and of lath (Db1) and wattle (Db3) on back. TM
grooves were filled with a fine greyish silt which was
very different from the red-brown matrix clay and silt.
Presumably this is material sifting in when the organic
material rotted away. Very occasionally there were tiny
fragments of charcoal adhering to the surface.
Most of the pieces were a uniform reddish-brown
colour, indicative of having been burnt the uniform
nature of the firing might indicate a deliberate action
rather than just the catastrophic event that destroyed
the building. Whichever, even upon soaking in hot
water, the material does not break up. This indicates
that the temperature it reached was probably above
500C (J Bayley, pers comm).
Visual examination does not allow us to say whether
the fragments formed part of a wall or a ceiling. Given
that the date of the material is known there is a slim
possibility that magnetic work might establish this.
Other than the possibility of magnetic work there

seems no opportunity for further analysis of this material. In summary, it consists of finely chopped plant
remains, including rushes, grass and cereal debris and
some dicotyledonous plants mixed with clay to form a
daub which has subsequently been burnt at a high
temperature.
26.4 Stone roof flags

by Gladys Bettess
A large number stone roof flags was found during the
excavation of both sites, the majority limestone with a
much smaller number in sandstone. Due to storage difficulties, only a small sample of flags could be retained
for study. A selection of the more complete examples of
the flag types are illustrated and catalogued below.
22
While Jarrow has a much larger sample of complete or

reasonably reconstructable flags, the forms and the
techniques used are comparable on both sites.
Documentary records of building activity (see Vol
1, Appendix A) in the later medieval period record a
number of purchases of roofing material, but unfortunately the type of stone is not specified. The use of the
stone flags is related to the other building materials in
the summary of building materials (below).
Just over 100 fragments from Wearmouth were
examined. Only four were complete or nearly so; a further 17 are estimated as half or more surviving. All but
four of the sample were limestone. Only one piece of
sandstone flag was stratified in an early medieval
deposit, the remainder were from post-medieval to
modern contexts, and so it seems unlikely that sandstone flags were significantly used before the postmedieval period. Almost all of the Wearmouth flags
came from deposits of medieval date. Only two pieces
were from Anglo-Saxon contexts, associated with the
cemetery. Over half of the group were from two
deposits in trench 6602, representing bedding for Wall
3b (context 870) and building debris from Wall 3a
(871); a related flag spread close to the wall (1138; see
Vol 1, Figs 10.3 and 10.4) could not be retained for
analysis. Another group appeared to be associated with
Wall 2, the narrow wall lying east of the West Range;
and others were associated with the possible entrance
into Building B. In addition to this north-western area,
roofing flags were also recovered from the centre of the
Fig 26.4.1 Distribution of limestone roof flags over all building periods at Jarrow (Anglo-Saxon to Med 2 contexts). AMacM
site and at the extreme south. As many of these flags

came from clearance deposits where they were associated with Anglo-Saxon building debris such as balusters and plaster, or had been reused in the Norman or
early medieval period as paving or levelling it is reasonable to presume that limestone roof flags were used
on both the Anglo-Saxon and the medieval buildings
(see Ch 26.7, Appearance of the buildings).
At Jarrow, 79 roof flags were sufficiently complete
(ie over one-third surviving, and retaining at least one
complete length or width dimension) to examine in
detail. Of these 41 were limestone and 37 sandstone;
27 flags were actually complete. A further 315 fragmentary flags (identified by the presence of a hole; 249
limestone and 64 sandstone) were also recorded; nearly
23
a thousand undiagnostic fragments without holes were

not considered further. While even fragmentary limestone flags are easy to recognise, sandstone flags
being more substantial were perhaps more readily
reusable as general building material. Limestone flags,
however, probably did dominate the overall site assemblage. It seems likely that complete flags from a preceding phase would have been recycled in later
building activity.
Limestone roof flags were widely distributed across
the site at Jarrow (Fig 26.4.1), while the incidence of
sandstone flags is sparser (Fig 26.4.2). One complete
rectangular and four fragmentary limestone flags were
found in Anglo-Saxon or Late Saxon contexts. Four
limestone flags and one of sandstone came from
Fig 26.4.2 Distribution of sandstone roof flags over all building periods at Jarrow (Anglo-Saxon to Med 2 contexts). AMacM
24
Fig 26.4.3 Wearmouth stone roof flags (ST19). Scale 1:4. YB
LS/EM contexts. Interestingly, all the fragments from

the robber trench of the medieval cloister walk wall
were of limestone (one complete flag and 47 fragments, each with a hole, so probably representing 48
separate flags).
The vast majority of the Jarrow flags, however, were
found in medieval or later contexts. Almost half of the
substantially complete roof flags came from deposits
on the slope outside the East Range where both rubbish and building debris were dumped (eg ST1618).
Here, on the basis of the more complete flags, limestone dominates Medieval 1 deposits, whereas limestone and sandstone appear in even numbers in
Medieval 1b deposits, and Medieval 2 deposits are
dominated by sandstone. Although these figures are
inevitably biased by particular contexts containing particular types of flag, and need not reflect the general
pattern for the site, it may still be suggested that the
proportion of sandstone flags increased though the
medieval period.
25
Limestone flags
The permian limestone which outcrops at Fulwell near
to Sunderland (see Vol 1, Fig 1.11) seems to have been
the source for the roofing material: the stone splits easily along the bedding planes and gives a reasonably flat
surface and in many cases a completely smooth one;
rarely was further dressing necessary. The edges of the
flags are sharp and fairly square in section owing to the
type of fracture that this dense concrete-like limestone
produces.
Shape and size

Approximately three-quarters of the Wearmouth flags
were cut in a sub-diamond shape with rounded corners, with a hole for hanging at the apex (Type 1:
ST14, Fig 26.4.3). Only seven of the better preserved
and 29 of the fragmentary flags from Jarrow have the
hole in one corner so that when hung they would present a diamond shape. The remainder of the
Fig 26.4.4 Wearmouth stone roof flags (ST1015). Scale 1:4. YB
26
Fig 26.4.5 Jarrow stone roof flags (ST1621). Scale 1:4. YB
Wearmouth flags, like the vast majority of the nearly

complete flags from Jarrow, were oblong in shape with
one hole towards the top of one of the shorter sides
(Type 2: eg ST58, 1519; Figs 26.4.326.4.5). Two
of the Jarrow flags have slightly rounded tops (eg ST
20, Fig 26.4.5). One or two from each site appeared to
have been rehung and have two surviving holes (ST9,
Fig 26.4.4). One flag from Jarrow was almost triangular in shape as if it had been specially cut, perhaps for
the end of a row at a valley.
The sizes of the flags varied considerably, as did
their shape, the length to breadth ratio being quite
variable. They were presumably hung in a graduated
order, with the smallest at the top. The largest surviving roof flag from Wearmouth (ST10, Fig 26.4.4) was
330mm long and 240mm across its widest side. The
largest flag from Jarrow (ST20, Fig 26.4.5) found in
an early medieval context was 375mm, which is also
the widest at 255mm, but the thickness was only
10mm giving a weight of 2.5kg, compared with an
average weight of 0.91.8kg. Others are of a medium
size between these extremes (ST16, 18, Fig 26.4.5).
There were two very narrow complete flags, one 185
80mm, the other 175 85mm, which could have been
used to fill a small gap at the end of a row. The shortest flag from Jarrow (context 5463, JA 65 FB) was
190mm long with a width of 140mm, others are squarer (one from context 1193, JA 75 KH, was 235mm
long and 235mm wide), while the narrowest flag (context 3020, JA 69 EI) was 106mm wide with a length of
220mm.
The thickness of flags varied considerably (see
ST10, 1314, Fig 26.4.4): the thickest example from
Wearmouth being 35mm and the thinnest 7mm,
although the majority were between 10mm and 17mm
thick. At Jarrow the thickness of the flags ranges
between 10 and 20mm with a few less than that,
notably 5mm (ST21, Fig 26.4.5) and 6mm (context
293, JA 65 AGA), the thickest being 25mm (context
1220, JA 75 NC). The thickness seems to bear no relationship to the size.
Most of the holes were very neatly drilled from one
side and the holes finished flush with the edge of the
flag. The diameter of the holes varied: at Wearmouth a
diameter of 1013mm was the commonest, but the size
ranged from 717mm. A small number of the holes
were countersunk on two sides, mostly on the thicker
flags, but two were countersunk on only one side (see
ST13, 14, Fig 26.4.4). A pick suitable for making holes
in roofing slates or flags has been identified by Ian
Goodall (see Ch 31.6, iron report, Fe129).
At Jarrow, the holes were mostly in the range of
1115mm in diameter, the largest being 16mm in
diameter and the smallest 10mm in diameter. Most of
the holes were neatly cut at right angles to the surface
but a few showed signs of the tool slipping, giving a
hole at a slight angle. A few of the limestone flags
found south of Building D had an unusual subtriangular shaped hole of c 12mm (ST21, Fig 26.4.5).
27
The majority of the holes finished flush with the surface of the flag, the only exceptions being nine that
were countersunk on one side and eight that were
countersunk on two sides. This characteristic bears no
relationship to the thickness of the flag. A large proportion of the fragmentary flags was broken across the
hole as the drilling would no doubt have weakened the
flag at that point.
There was no conclusive indication of the method
used for hanging flags: at Wearmouth there was no discolouration round the holes, but this does not necessarily rule out the use of nails especially if they had
been protected by lead fittings (see Ch 26.6). At
Jarrow two flags had a nail in situ and two more had
metal staining around the hole. The holes are, on the
whole, too small to have taken sheep bones, commonly used for fixing flags at a later period (see below), but
wooden pegs could have been used and would have left
no trace. As the flags come from medieval or later levels, and since it is clear from both sites that stone flags
were reused, this does not provide evidence of how the
flags were hung in the Anglo-Saxon period.
Around half of the flags (nearly two-thirds at
Wearmouth, one-third at Jarrow) had mortar adhering
to one side, and a few had mortar on both sides (eg
ST9). The mortar was no doubt used to prevent runback of water from the edge of the flag, but may also
have been used to level up the unevenness of the flags,
as it is noticeable that the thinnest flag had a very heavy
deposit of mortar. As far as can be estimated from the
position of the mortar on the flags, the overlap of one
row onto another was approximately one half as
opposed to the modern method of two-thirds overlap.
In addition, one flag from Jarrow (context 2463, JA 73
FK) had mortar along the top edge and a further two
flags (contexts 1745, JA 71 QI; 1760, JA 71 RF) had
heavy deposits of mortar on one side. The holes of one
flag at Wearmouth (ST6) and four flags from Jarrow
(contexts 3028, JA 69 GR; 4026, JA 70 JH; 4355, JA
70 ZZ; 2067, JA 73 KK) were blocked with mortar,
perhaps denoting reuse as floor slabs.
Sandstone flags
At Wearmouth, so few sandstone flags were found that
their use before the post-medieval period may be discounted. At Jarrow, the sandstone flags found comprise only one-fifth of the total number of flags, but
there was a significant group from the medieval period
(see Building Materials Summary below).
The sandstone roof flags were manufactured like
the limestone by splitting along the bedding plane of
the original stone, but as the cleavage planes were not
as well defined it was frequently necessary to dress
either one or both sides of the flag further. A quarter of
the flags examined had been dressed in this fashion.
Also, because of the composition of the material, the
shaping was done by a chisel from either one or two
sides, giving the edges a rather tapered effect.
28
Like the limestone flags, the sizes vary considerably,

the largest being 600mm with a width of 360mm,
35mm thick and weighing 15.9kg. The widest is
400mm wide and 520mm long with a thickness of
55mm. Very few flags are complete but as far as can be
ascertained the narrowest is 126mm, this also being
the shortest at 190mm.
The thickness of the sandstone flags is usually
between 20 to 35mm, although the thinnest was 15mm
and the thickest 55mm. This is considerably greater
than the limestone flags and this difference is also
reflected in the weights. Some of the large flags were
extremely heavy and must have needed massive roof
timbers to support the weight of the roof. The more
substantial nature of the sandstone flag fragments may
also have meant that they were more likely to be reused
as building rubble.
The sandstone flags are oblong in shape; some have
slightly rounded corners, most likely owing to the
working quality of the material rather than a deliberate
intention. A single sandstone flag from Jarrow that
appeared to be diamond-shaped had evidently been
reused. Even though the flags are frequently very large,
they are still hung from a single hole positioned at the
centre of one of the short sides. The size of the holes
ranges mainly between 10 and 15mm, but one is as
small as 9mm and another as large as 18mm. Over
three-quarters of the holes are countersunk on two
sides, the remainder are either countersunk on one
side or straight drilled. One sandstone flag from a late
post-medieval context at Jarrow (388, JA 67 HZ) had
a fragment of sheep bone in the hole.
ST1
ST2
ST3
ST4
ST5
ST6
Limestone. Type 1. Sub-diamond shape with rounded corners. Fig 26.4.3.

L 190 W 155 T 20 HDiam 12mm
Context: 140 Med 2 MK 74 GK 7403
L 184 W 170 T 16 HDiam 12mm
Context: 871 Med 1 MK 66 YM 6602
L 104 W 87 T 14 HDiam 16mm
Context: 86 LPM MK 66 DJ 6602
SLDM 43-1973/140 (G17566)
L 272 W 165 T 10 HDiam 10mm
Context: 870 Med 2 MK 66 YL 6602
Reference: Cramp 1969, fig 24.4
Limestone. Type 2. Rectangular in shape. Fig
26.4.3.
L 283 W 139 T 18 HDiam 10mm
Context: 871 Med 1 MK 66 YM 6602
Limestone. Type 2. Rectangular in shape. Hanging
hole filled with mortar. Fig 26.4.3.
L 240 W 100 T 17 HDiam 12mm
ST7
ST9
ST10
ST12
ST14
ST15
ST16
ST17
ST18
ST19
ST20
ST21
Context: 634 Med 2/EPM MK 71 KP 7101

Limestone. Type 2. Rectangular in shape. Mortar on
one face. Fig 26.4.3.
L 93 W 130 T 6 HDiam 7mm
Context: 870 Med 2 MK 66 YK 6602
ST8 Limestone. Type 2. Rectangular in shape. Fig
26.4.3.
L 120 W 155 T 18 HDiam 10mm
Context: 553 Med MK 71 LW 7102
Fragment, limestone. Mortar on one face and two
holes, one countersunk. Possible evidence for reuse.
Fig 26.4.3.
L 65 W 52 T 12 HDiam 9 and 12mm
Context: 2069 Med 2/EPM MK 67 ET 6701
Part of a large limestone flag. Fig 26.4.4.
L 330 W 240 T 12 HDiam 14mm
Context: 142 Med 2 MK 74 GT 7403
ST11 Upper portion of a very thick limestone flag.
Fig 26.4.4.
L 215 W 190 T 31 HDiam 14mm
Context: 835 Med 2 MK 66 US 6604
Limestone fragment. Mortar on one face and part of
nail hole. Fig 26.4.4.
L 260 W 155 T 18 HDiam 10mm
Context: 870 Med 2 MK 66 YK 6602
ST13 Limestone upper fragment. Nail hole countersunk on one side. Fig 26.4.4.
L 132 W 100 T 16 HDiam 14mm
Context: 179 Med MK 74 GQ 7402
Limestone upper fragment. Hole countersunk on
one side and tapering. Fig 26.4.4.
L 84 W 158 T 18 HDiam 12mm
Context: 1809 Med 1 MK 60 CK 6002
SLDM 43-1973/113 (G17572)
Limestone upper fragment? Type 2. Mortar on both
faces. Fig 26.4.4.
L 160 W 160 T 21 HDiam 10mm
Context: 874 Med MK 66 ZH 6602
Limestone. Type 2. Nearly complete. Fig 26.4.5.
L 235 W 202 T 20 HDiam 10mm
Context: 1193 Med 1 JA 75 KH 7502
Limestone. Type 2. Complete flag, rectangular in
shape. Fig 26.4.5.
L 190 W 130 T 15 HDiam 10mm
Context: 1198 Med 1 JA 75 KG 7502
Sandstone, nearly complete. Type 2. Rectangular in
shape. Fig 26.4.5.
L 190 W 130 T 15 HDiam 10mm
Sandstone. Type 2. Complete flag, rectangular in
shape. Fig 26.4.5.
L 380 W 200 T 25 HDiam 15mm
Context: 1979 Med 1 JA 73 OS 7305
Limestone. Almost complete sub-rectangular flag
with rounded top. Fig 26.4.5.
L 375 W 255 T10 HDiam 10mm
Limestone. Fragment of a very thin flag. Sub-triangular hanging hole. Fig 26.4.5.
L 144 W 106 T 5 HDiam 12mm
Context: 2129 Med 2 JA 73 MP 7304
26.5 Ceramic building materials

Roman style roof tile
by Alex Croom
Some 400 fragments of ceramic tile of Roman type
were recovered from the excavations at Jarrow.
Approximately two-thirds of these were studied in
detail by the current author. The great majority are
roofing tiles, with almost twice as many tegula as imbrex
fragments. In addition, there are at least two examples
of bricks. A selection of the different diagnostic tegula
elements and the decorated pieces are catalogued
below and illustrated (Figs 26.5.126.5.3). A full catalogue of the material examined in detail exists in the
archive. The material not reported on here was largely
fragmentary, but included a small group of finds from
the 19701971 seasons and a single deposit of 49 fragments from a small pit excavated in trench 7301. No
Roman tile was found at Wearmouth.
Fabric
The colour of the tiles is very mixed, ranging from the
usual orange/red to purple, brown and buff due to
overfiring. Only 25% of the tiles studied are in the
orange fabric, while just over 10% are overfired or discoloured: the majority were a highly fired, hard, dark
red colour, and there is often a very thin surface colour
that is darker than the fabric below, visible particularly
when the tile is chipped. When the tile is overfired the
fabric is purple/brown in colour, often with dark grey
or blue margins. There are scattered inclusions (often
of opaque white), linear white inclusions and voids
within the fabric, plus occasional but very obvious
white pebble or sandstone inclusions up to 20mm
across; one of the more complete imbrices had at least
three inclusions over 10mm long and a number of others 5mm long.
29
Tegulae
There are no complete examples. From the study of the
32 flange fragments that could provide measurements,
it would appear that there are two clear sizes of tile (Fig
26.5.1, CT12). The larger examples have an overall
height at the flange of over 54mm, with at least two tiles
reaching 65mm, and a flange height above the body of
the tile usually over 30mm. The flange width range is
variable, from 2028mm. The smaller type has an overall height of under 44mm and a flange height below
25mm, with one as low as 19mm. The flange width is
22mm or below. Although the extremes of the two types
were very distinct, there were a number of examples
that fell between each group, but a couple of factors
suggest that there were intentional differences between
the two groups. Although some small tile examples
were found in the highly fired fabric, most examples
were in a slightly softer, more orange fabric, without
wipe-marks (where the body survived), and the manner
of dealing with the ends of the flanges was different.
To make a tegula fit snugly with the tiles above and
below it on a roof, the top end has the flanges cut away
and the lower corners of the other end of the tile are
undercut (for common styles, see Brodribb 1987, fig
7). In the Jarrow assemblage, there were few surviving
corners, but those present suggested that the undercut
at the lower edge of the large tiles was usually nothing more than a shallow square cutaway from the lower
surface, which did not narrow the width of the tile in
the usual way (Fig 26.5.1, CT3, 5mm deep). Some
examples of corners, presumed to be from the lower
edge of the tile, had no form of undercutting or cutaway flange at all, but simply a rounded end to the
flange. Perhaps to compensate for this very shallow, or
absent, undercut, the flanges at the top of the tile were
cut back quite severely, leaving a section of tile c
6075mm long without flanges (Fig 26.5.1, CT4).
Fig 26.5.1 Tegula profiles and undercut and cut away flanges (CT15). Not to scale. A Croom, AMacM
30
Table 26.5.1 Dimensions of imbrices from Jarrow

Context
Code
456
456
456
456
JA
JA
JA
JA
67
67
67
67
RJ
RJ
RZ
RJ
L (mm)
W ext (mm)
W int (mm)
lowest surviving W ext (mm)
330+
415+
360+
185
175
160
180
114
130
110
135
115
There were only a couple of examples of cut flanges

among the examples of small tiles. These examples
had the end of the flange itself cut to a point (Fig
26.5.1, CT5). One example had the point left on the
outer edge of the flange, and another on the inner edge
of the flange; these may possibly represent top and
lower end of the tiles, but more, and better preserved,
examples are required before anything certain can be
said about them.
The large tegulae often had very distinctive wipe
marks on their upper surface, apparently not found on
the smaller tiles (as far as can be seen with the small
surviving fragments) and not at all on the imbrices. The
wipe marks are very closely set faint parallel lines, as if
the tiles were wiped over with a coarse cloth. The lines
generally run down the tile, with horizontal or diagonal
sweeps near the ends.
No nail holes were observed on the surviving fragments.
125
Traces of finger-groove decoration or signatures

were found on 16 tegulae (Fig 26.5.2, CT610). There
was only one possible example of a semi-circular finger-drawn arc on the lower part of the tile, which is
usually the most common form of embellishment.
Imbrices
Although there are no complete examples there were a
few large fragments of imbrex, as listed inTable 26.5.1.
The width (W) of the top end of the tile is given both
externally (ext) and internally (int). The external
width of the lowest part of the tile to survive is also
given. These imbrices are of the standard, tapering
form; they had been utilised to construct a drain just
outside the west wall of Anglo-Saxon Building A.
There are a number of examples with decoration,
generally unusual on imbrices (Brodribb 1987, 24).
One or two have finger-grooves along the lower edge,
Fig 26.5.2 Signatures on tegulae (CT610) and imbrices (CT1112). Not to scale. A Croom, AMacM
while others have repeated bands of wavy fingergrooves up the whole body of the tile (Fig 26.5.3).
There are also examples with possible signatures (Fig
26.5.2, CT1112). The drawings of the signatures are
aligned so that the top of the tile, where known, would
be towards the top of the figure.
Bessales
There is only one example of a bessalis in the highly
fired fabric. There is a second example in the more
usual sandy tile fabric.
Discussion
The tiles were not made with any great care. Pebbles
and sandstone flakes up to 20mm across were left in
the clay, and the tiles were not finished off with any
great effort; the imbrices have fingerprints on the surface and accidental pre-firing notches on the edges and
31
the tegulae often have very obvious wipe marks. The

mixed colours of the tiles may perhaps have been
intentional, as tiles deliberately overfired are known to
have been used on roofs (Brodribb 1987, 1367;
Bidwell 1996, 26), but the presence of so many
colours (red, orange, brown, purple and piebald), and
some quite clearly warped tiles (Fig 26.5.1, CT1), perhaps simply reflects poorly controlled kiln firing.
While in general terms, the tiles from Jarrow have a
characteristically Roman form, they do not resemble
those from the forts at South Shields and Wallsend
(the two closest known Roman sites to Jarrow), which
have been studied in some detail. The tiles from these
forts are usually made of a sandy orange fabric, not as
highly fired as the Jarrow examples, and without any of
their distinctive features. The form of undercutting on
the tegula flanges is also very different, as is the high
incidence of both the decoration on the imbrices and
the signatures on the tegulae. The Jarrow tiles almost
certainly did not come from either of these forts.
Fig 26.5.3 Decorated imbrices (CT1315). Scale 1:4. A Croom, AMacM
32
Fig 26.5.4 Distribution of Roman tiles at Jarrow from Anglo-Saxon and LS/EM (red) and medieval (blue) contexts.
AMacM
Whatever their origin, there can be little doubt that
the tiles were utilised at the site. Only a tenth of the
Roman tiles come from deposits of Anglo-Saxon date,
including several large pieces of imbrex which had been
utilised to construct a drain just to the west of Building
A, but almost 30% come from Late Saxon or Early
Medieval deposits, principally debris from the main
Anglo-Saxon buildings. The remainder of the material
is residual in medieval and later deposits (although a
few pieces were reused to line medieval stone drains).
Although the tile was widely distributed across the site,
there were two clusters of higher density, corresponding to the Building D/workshops complex and a possible working area on the southern slope (Fig 26.5.4).
This clustering strongly suggests that the tiles were

employed in some purpose connected with these structures.
In the absence of evidence of Roman occupation on
the site, either the tiles were retrieved from another,
non-military, Roman site in the vicinity, or were specifically made in Roman style for the monastery. If the
former, then the high incidence of decorated imbrices
and of signatures implies special selection of tiles; alternatively this unusual feature of the assemblage might
support the case for post-Roman manufacture. A piece
of tile from a later Saxon context (JA 73 UF, context
2016) submitted for thermoluminescence dating yielded a result of 320130; 190 AD, giving a range at 2
sigma of 60 BCAD 700. Consequently it is most likely

that the tile was manufactured in the Roman period,
but a Dark Age or early Anglo-Saxon date cannot be
ruled out (see Appendix G).
What were the tiles used for? In addition to secondary use, they could have been used as roofing material in the Anglo-Saxon period. We are, after all, told
that Benedict Biscop imported Gaulish craftsmen in his
desire to create buildings in the Roman manner. It
should also perhaps be noted that very few stone roof
flags were found in Anglo-Saxon or Late Saxon to Early
Medieval contexts (see Ch 26.3 above, stone roof
flags). Stone roofing material, however, may have been
rather easier to reuse whether as roof covering or simply as general building material in the medieval period. Otherwise, the only demonstrable uses of these
ceramic tiles are secondary, for example in the construction of drains or as the source of the tile chips used
in opus signinum flooring. The roofing of the AngloSaxon buildings is discussed further in the lead report
(Ch 26.6) and the Buildings Summary (Ch 26.7).
CT1
Cross-section of large tegula, overfired and warped.

Purple colour. Fig 26.5.1.
Context: 3724 JA 75 MU LS/EM 7505
CT2 Cross-section of small tegula. Overfired, dark brown
to dark grey (from same tile as CT5, non-joining).
This tile had a small area of mortar on the top surface near the flange (not shown). Reused in medieval
drain. Fig 26.5.1.
Context: 1979 JA 73 SM Med 1 7305
CT3 Lower end of a tegula, showing undercutting (same
tile as CT7). Fig 26.5.1.
Context: 2645 JA 73 RO Med 1 7302
CT4 Top end of a large tegula showing a cutaway flange.
Overfired, purple colour (same tile as CT6). Fig
26.5.1.
Context: Layer 96 JS 76 JM (=JA 76 AM) Med 1 JS
Area V
CT5 Cut away flange on small tegula. Sandy fabric, overfired dark orange to dark grey (same tile as CT2
above, non-joining). Fig 26.5.1.
Context: 1979 JA 73 SM Med 1 7305
CT6 Signature on tegula towards top of tile. Overfired
purple colour (same tile as CT4 above). Fig 26.5.2.
Context: Layer 96 JS 76 JM (=JA 76 AM) Med 1 JS
Area V
CT7 Signature on tegula with undercut flange, towards
lower edge of tile. Orange colour (same tile as CT3
above). Fig 26.5.2.
CT8 Signature on tegula with rounded end to flange
(?lower end of tile). Orange colour. Fig 26.5.2.
Context: 3724 JA 75 MH LS/EM 7505
CT9 Signature on tegula with cut away flange, towards top
of tile. Orange colour, darker surface. Fig 26.5.2.
Context: 456 JA 67 RJ Saxon 6701
CT10 Body sherd of tegula with finger-groove decoration.
Red colour. 26.21.
Context: Layer 11 JA 76 AY LS/EM JS Area V
CT11 Lower end of imbrex? Finger-groove along end of tile,
and finger-groove decoration. Orange colour. Fig
26.5.2.
33
Context: 2596 JA 73 PX Med 1 7302

CT12 Top end of imbrex, with possible signature very near
the top edge. Fig 26.5.2.
CT13 Imbrex with paired finger-groove decoration. Fig
26.5.3.
Context: 456 JA 67 RZ Saxon 6701
CT14 Imbrex with multiple finger groove decoration. Fig
26.5.3.
CT15 Top end of imbrex with bands of finger-groove decoration. The whole of the surviving long side has been
chipped away on the lower surface. Orange colour.
Fig 26.5.3.
Medieval floor and wall tiles

by Anne Jenner and Belinda Burke
Forty-nine ceramic tiles from Jarrow and Jarrow Slake,
the majority represented by fragments, were identified
as medieval floor or wall tiles. These were recorded
using criteria based on Stopfords recording system for
plain floor tiles (Stopford 1990, 1218). Not all tiles
appear in the catalogue below, but a full record exists
in archive. Where there was no complete measurement
for any side, the following fragment codes were used; A
<60mm square, B <60 120mm, C <120mm square,
D <150 200mm. Seven production groups were identified, based on fabric, dimensions, and general
appearance, and these are described below.
Group I (CT16)
One square tile (CT16) and eight fragments. The fabric is finely gritty, sandy and brittle. The tiles have a
white slip under a clear lead glaze, resulting in a
creamy yellow colour. In most cases the glaze and slip
together form a thin coat, which is often worn to a matt
colour, with patches where it has flaked off completely. Thickness ranges from 2429mm. Two have nail
holes.
Group II (CT17)
One whole tile and two fragments, green glazed, with a
fabric similar to that of Group I. The fabric is oxidised
to a light pinkish-orange brick colour, suggesting a
lower firing than the other green-glazed tiles (groups
IVVI, below) with a brighter mottled green glaze. The
dimensions of the tiles in these two groups are also
linked; comparison of CT17 with CT16 suggests that
they might well have come from the same floor, perhaps forming a chequered pattern of green and yellow.
Group III (CT1822)
One square tile (CT22) and nine fragments. The fabric has a very brittle, highly laminar structure, densely
packed with fine white quartz, making the clay mixture
very short/dry. The group is characterised by a clear
34
lead glaze over a sparse white slip that would seem to

have been scraped across the surface with a board to
produce a streaked, two-tone effect.
Group IV (CT2326)
Seven fragments in a sandy, harder fired, less laminar
fabric than Group III, with a smoother fracture, fired
to a salmon pink colour. The fabric is similar to that of
green-glazed pottery (E12b) and the surface is covered
evenly with a bright, lustrous, suspension glaze, dark
green to black, mottled with lighter green.
Group V (CT27)
Eleven fragments, green glazed, with a similar fabric to
IV, but denser, higher fired (almost to stoneware) and
with more white mica. There are occasional large
round holes up to 4mm across where rounded red iron
ore and burnt organic material have dropped out. All
the tiles in this group are heavily and uniformly worn
on the surface, suggesting that they may have belonged
to the same floor.
Group VI (CT28)
Four fragments with green glaze. Similar to fabrics IV
and V, but less well sorted, with occasional larger and
generally more rounded grains of black and red iron
ore breaking through the surface. It is very highly fired,
reduced to a greenish colour in patches beneath the
glazed upper surface, possibly because the clay has not
been wedged as well as III and IV, leaving pockets of
burnt organics which help to reduce the fabric. The
core is purplish-brown. Fracture is more angular and
uneven than III and IV.
Group VII (CT2931)
Five small fragments, including one from Jarrow Slake
(Area IV Layer 38). The fine red fabric and lustrous
gold glaze suggest that they may be imports from the
Low Countries, bearing similarities to Low Countries
pottery (type G12). CT29 is the thinnest of the floor
tiles, while CT30 and CT31 have been interpreted as
wall tiles, since they are only 1112 mm thick. (The
other two fragments were slivers whose thickness could
not be measured.)
Discussion
None of the tiles from Jarrow had been scored for splitting. Where the lower surface survived, it was in all
cases sandy, with no evidence for the use of keys. Most
were slightly bevelled. There were only three complete
tiles. Of these, CT16 and CT17 were of similar dimensions, while CT22 was significantly larger (125 123
mm). Seven other tiles had one complete side, six
(from Groups III, IV and V) with measurements rang-
ing from 121 to 126mm, suggesting a similar size to

CT22, while CT23 (Group IV) was 145mm long.
As noted, the fabric and glaze of Group VII suggests a Low Countries origin. Groups IVI all contain
some examples with nail holes, and the use of a nailed
board in manufacture is generally seen as a Low
Countries technique (Eames 1980, 275). The use of a
sparse, scraped slip under a clear glaze, found in
Group III is common on plain glazed tiles of the 16th
century and later and, owing to its association with nail
holes, it has been seen as a Netherlandish trait (Eames
1980, 96). However, the similarity in fabric of some of
the green-glazed tiles to local pottery (type E12b) suggests that these were locally produced, and there are a
few examples of the use of nail boards on locally produced tiles from Byland and Rievaulx Abbeys in
Yorkshire (Eames 1980, 270). Possibly groups IVVI
with their coarser fabric and characteristic green glaze
were local products, while the other groups, IIII and
VII, were imported.
All the tiles were undecorated, apart from the occasional appearance of incised lines, particularly in
Group IV. Their function is uncertain, partly because
the tiles are so fragmentary, but in one example,
CT28, the line appears to provide a frame for the tile,
similar to a design from Rievaulx Abbey, dated by
Eames to the 13th to 15th century (Eames 1980, 459,
catalogue no. 6158, design no. 141).
This assemblage of tiles is small and fragmentary.
None of the tiles were in situ, and little may be gleaned
from their distribution across the site, mainly in late
contexts, especially where there has been considerable
disturbance and soil movement outside the main buildings in the later gardens and allotments. The presence
of mortar on the surface of two tiles (CT20, CT24)
indicates their reuse as building material. The remains
of mortar flooring that might have been a setting for
ceramic tiles towards the end of the medieval occupation was found in rooms ER3 and ER4 (Vol 1, Ch 20).
Three of the heavily worn Group V tiles were found in
trench 7102; one from a disturbed Med 2? clay surface
(3474), the others from post-medieval cemetery contexts. Perhaps they came from a floor in the church.
Dating is also problematic. Following the pottery
dating, Group VII, with affinities to Low Countries
Red ware, could date from the mid-14th century
onwards, while the green-glazed tiles linked to the later
Green-Glazed wares, Groups IVVI, could be expected to date from the 15th or early 16th century
(although parallels for the incised lines on Group IV
tiles have been dated earlier, see above). Six tiles (two
from Group I, one from Group III and three from
Group V) were found in Med 2 contexts, including one
fragment (from Group I) from a building clearance
layer (2067) in trench 7304 and one from the demolition phase of the Medieval 2 hearths in ER5 (CT18).
This would indicate that they had been used, and subsequently displaced, before the end of the monastic
period, hence suggesting an earlier date.
CT19
CT20
CT21
CT22
Fig 26.5.5 Complete glazed floor tiles from Jarrow. Scale

1:2. KM
CT16 Fine fabric, hardness: average, fracture slightly
jagged. Fine pinkish red matrix with abundant
quartz, well-sorted sub-angular white quartz
<0.1mm. Moderate inclusions of rounded red ore up
to 0.1mm and sparse pockets of burnt organic material, occasionally larger. Some rose-coloured quartz,
more rounded. The matrix is slightly laminar. The
finished edges are quite smooth. White slip under
clear lead glaze. Two nail holes are visible, at diagonally opposed corners. Fig 26.5.5.
109 108 T 25mm
Context: 2944 LPM JA 69 AK 6902
JARBW 1997.4163
CT17 Fabric similar to CT16, but better wedged and sorted.
The break is relatively clean and smooth with abundant fine inclusions of white quartz and some pinkish
and grey quartz, all sub-rounded, from 0.25 to 0.5mm
across, black and red iron ore. The matrix also contains small chips of angular white mica. Four nail holes
visible, three in corners and one central. Fig 26.5.5.
105 104 T 24mm
Context: not known
JARBW 1997.4195
CT18 Fabric very fine and gritty to feel, also soft, brittle
and powdery. The broken edge is quite jagged and
CT23
CT24
35
laminar. There are pockets of grog up to 2mm long.

Fine white quartz, approx 1mm, angular and subrounded. Surface abraded and worn, but there is evidence of smeared slip and yellow/clear lead glaze.
Not illus.
Fragment code C, T 35mm
Context: 1250 Med 2 JA 71 IQ 7106
JARBW 1997.4187
The fabric is similar to CT18, with some larger white
subrounded quartz, sparse on the lower surface. The
surface feels rough and slightly powdery. Patches of
white slip over a randomly smoothed/combed upper
surface covered by a brownish-green lead glaze. (The
context was recorded as 1789, but the code is now
illegible. A Med 1 date seems unlikely.) Not illus.
Fragment code D, T 25mm
Context: 1789? Med 1 7105
JARBW 1997.4186
The fabric is similar to CT18, but fired to a brighter
red brick colour. It is slightly harder, smoother and
very brittle. There is a patch of mortar on the surface
of the tile. Not illus.
Context: 2976 LPM JA 69 FD 6904
JARBW 1997.4170
Fragment decorated with a clear lead glaze over a slip
which has been smeared across the surface with a
wooden block?, leaving a combed effect of yellow and
light brownish-green. There is a scored groove c
55mm from the edge of the tile, but not parallel to it.
Not illus.
Context: 2944 LPM JA 69 AK 6902
JARBW 1997.4162
Fabric similar to CT18. There is evidence of the use
of slip and traces of glaze, but the surface is very
worn. Not illus.
125 123 T 28
Context: 255 LPM JA 65 TK 6507
JARBW 1997.4156
Fabric with moderate to abundant subrounded burnt
organic material, the majority of which is fairly well
sorted and up to 2mm long. Moderate flecks of white
mica, small angular chips of matt white quartz c
0.1mm, abundant, but not as abundant as in Group
II (see CT17), abundant flecks and chips of red iron
ore, mainly angular and subrounded. Occasional grog
approximately 1mm across and sparse areas where
organic material (grass or twig?) has burnt or eroded
away. A thick layer of dark green gently pitted glaze
which appears to have crawled back over a lighter
thinner layer of patchy yellow/green glaze, possibly the
result of some form of oil or grease in the lower layer
of glaze. Where the glaze has not adhered, the surface
shows through as a darker slightly reduced margin
above the brick red of the core fabric. Not illus.
145 T 25mm
Context: 3002 LPM JA 69 DM 6902
JARBW 1997.4165
Fragment with a thick glaze similar to CT23. The
lower surface is covered with mortar and there is a
large patch on the upper surface. There is an irregular furrow or scoring on the surface under the glaze.
Not illus.
36
CT25
CT26
CT27
CT28
CT29
CT30
CT31
Context: 2976 LPM JA 69 BY 6904

JARBW 1997.4169
Fragment with an unglazed groove, possibly scored
after the tile was glazed. Not illus.
Context: 1567 Modern JA 71 KH 7105
JARBW 1997.4185
A line was scored into the fabric before glazing and
firing, 20mm from the edge of the tile running parallel to it. Nail holes were noted at one corner and in
the presumed centre of the tile. Not illus.
Context: 1523 LPM JA 71 GU 7105
JARBW 1997.4183
Sandy undersurface and very well worn upper surface with remnants of a green glaze. Not illus.
121 T 26mm
Context: 3088 LPM JA 69 HZ 6902
JARBW 1997.4167
The glazed surface is worn and matt, but was originally a fairly even and thick green glaze. There is a
scored line approximately 30mm and 20mm parallel
to the two surviving edges of the tile, perhaps indicating a frame around a central square/rectangle.
Sandy undersurface. Not illus.
124 T 26mm
Context: 3563 LPM JA 70 MI 7004
JARBW 1997.4173
Floor tile, with gold lustrous glaze on upper surface.
Fine, fairly compact matrix which is slightly
smoother than the local fabric. It is oxidised to a
brick red colour, with well-sorted abundant white
quartz approx 0.1mm, sparse flecks of mica and red
iron ore. Not illus.
Fragment code B, T 20mm
Context: 5804 EPM JA 66 AO 6601
JARBW 1997.4158
?Wall tile with similar fine matrix, slightly laminar,
with fewer and smaller quartz inclusions than the
floor tile, some tiny holes where ?quartz has fallen
out. Not illus.
Fragment code A, T 12mm
Context: 2825 Med 1 JA 78 IP 7803
JARBW 1997.4200
?Wall tile with similar fabric to CT30. Not illus.
Fragment code A, T 11mm
Context: 1667 EPM JA 71 OT 7105
Medieval bricks from Jarrow

by Rosemary Cramp
A quantity of hand-pressed bricks were found on the
site either in situ as part of medieval structures, or displaced but within a medieval context. Two principal
types were identified.
The first type was composed of a soft yellowish clay
with a powdery surface. Complete specimens measured about L 230250mm; W 100110mm; T
5060mm. They were found in situ in trench 7603 in
context 925, the entrance to the oven 1051 (room
ER7), as well as in several contexts in trenches
7008/7106 (room ER5). Further examples were found
in 3388, bedding around the ovens; forming the base
of hearth 1252, as well as in 1241, the fill of oven 1254,
in 1278, the backfilling of 4638, a primary Medieval 1

hearth, and in 1250, the demolition of the Medieval 2
hearths. All of these were therefore associated with the
domestic rooms in the East Range, and numerous
examples were found in the early post-medieval demolition deposits in the East Range. It is therefore clear
that these bricks were used in the construction of ovens
and hearths.
A second type of brick was of hard fired red clay.
Few excavated examples were whole, but fragments
occurred in contexts with the yellow bricks. One complete example from a late context measured L 90, W
80, T 40mm. These too were probably mainly used in
hearths.
The contexts yielding the in situ bricks belong to the
refurbishments of the Medieval 2 period, which could
have begun as early as the early 14th century.
Bk1
Bk2
Bk3
Bk4
Bk5
Bk6
Bk7
Bk8
Bk9
Bk10
Bk11
Bk12
Bk13
Bk14
Bk15
Bk16
219
205
175
110
105
170
160
125
217
245
175
170
110
145
215
175
100 50mm
100 55mm
100 55mm
105 45mm
90 40mm
100 55mm
100 50mm
75 60mm
110 50mm
120 55mm
95 40mm
105 50mm
80 50mm
90 40mm
100 55mm
75 40mm
925
925
1278
1635
2139
1104
970
2837
3127
1176
1082
1082
1082
1139
1139
1139
Med 1b
Med 1b
Med 2a
Med 2
Med 2
Med 2
Med 2
Med 2
Med
EPM
EPM
EPM
EPM
EPM
EPM
EPM
JA 76 CV 7603
JA 76 CV 7603
JA 71 PG 7106
JA 71 NG 7105
JA 73 PF 7304
JA 75 GJ 7504
JA 76 CK 7604
JA 78 KE 7803
JA 69 JU 6902
JA 75 CQ 7502
JA 75 CT 7504
JA 75 CT 7504
JA 75 CT 7504
JA 75 NB 7504
JA 75 NB 7504
JA 75 NB 7504
26.6 Lead
Lead seems to have been a prized commodity during
the Anglo-Saxon period. Since lead is easily recyclable,
its discovery is not as common as iron on most sites.
Wearmouth and Jarrow, however, yielded a significant
quantity of this material from early contexts, frequently distributed around buildings where it had fallen in
molten form and in areas where it was obviously being
recycled. The Wearmouth excavations in 1960 uncovered several small lead-melting hearths near to the
south wall of the church (see Vol 1, Fig 10.1) that have
been interpreted as part of the rebuilding activity in the
11th century by Aldwin and his monks. At Jarrow a
major deposit of melted lead was found in and around
a hearth inserted into the west end of Building D in the
middle to late Saxon period (see Vol 1, Fig 16.56). In
situ deposits of melted lead were also found alongside
Buildings A and B at Jarrow (see discussion below),
and despite the amount of lead which must have been
recycled, these monastic sites are rich in the survival of
this material. A significant amount of lead detected in
the bones of the skeletons from these sites might indicate extensive use of lead and lead working, or perhaps
the storage of water in lead vessels.
Ninth-century documentary sources from Mercia

and Wessex indicate that by that date ecclesiastics could
control lead mines (Biddle 1990, fig 90), but no such
evidence yet exists for Northumbria. Supposition as to
the source of the lead must therefore rely on the archaeological record, but it seems possible that much of it was
retrieved from Roman sites nearby, and, like Roman
lead, analysis has shown that it had been de-silvered.
In 1967, the late Harold Taylor kindly arranged for
specimens of Jarrow lead to be analysed by Dr F
Kreutsch, Dombaumeister at Aachen, Germany, in
order to compare them with samples from the Palatine
chapel at Aachen. Table 26.6.1 presents the analyses
that demonstrated the de-silvering.
In addition, Brills analyses of the cames (window
leads) also provided evidence of de-silvering (see Ch
27.2). An examination of the lead from the lead-melting hearths at Wearmouth in 1960 (considered to be
Anglo-Saxon lead remelted) by the Chief Chemist, Mr
G Inskip of Associated Lead Manufacturers Ltd at
Elswick, Newcastle, did not consider the de-silvering
process, but from his local knowledge he was able to be
more specific about origins. The percentage compositions he recorded are presented in Table 26.6.2.
Inskips conclusions were as follows:
A lead which contains copper and silver and
low bismuth with so little other impurities can
be assumed to have been produced directly from
lead ore and the composition is typical of a lead
produced from an ore in the Durham area.
British lead ores are particularly noted for low
bismuth contents. Derbyshire ores also have low
silver contents (0.5 oz approx) but the ones
mined in the north and north-east contain both
copper and silver. The present-day ores mined
in Weardale are higher in silver content (5 to
10 ozs per ton), but these are produced from
mines that are much deeper than those that
would have been operated in the 11th century,
so this lead could have been produced from ore
mined in Weardale in those times.
We do not know if the lead mines in Weardale were
in operation in the Roman period. Most of the evidence for lead mining is further south in Derbyshire
37
but the collection of lead ore from the northern area in

the Anglo-Saxon period remains a possibility, especially since crystals of fluorspar were recovered from the
workshops areas beside Building D at Jarrow (see Ch
35.3, residues) a mineral for which the nearest source
is Weardale.
Structural lead
by Michael Trueman and Rosemary Cramp
Although there is no reference to the use of lead in the
documentary descriptions of buildings on these two
sites, references do exist that describe the use of this
material on buildings elsewhere in Northumbria. Bede
records that Eadberht (Bishop of Lindisfarne, 66898)
renovated the wooden church there, built by his predecessor Bishop Finan, in that he removed the reed
thatch, and had the whole of it, both roof and walls,
covered with sheets (or plates) of lead (HE III.25).
The word lamina which is used in the text seems, in
Medieval Latin, to mean a plate, and it has been suggested by Harrison (1894) that the church as depicted
in Ms CCC 183, frontispiece to Bedes Lives of St
Cuthbert (Temple 1976, ill no. 29) was intended to represent Finans church with the small rectangular plates
on the sides being lead plates. At all events this was an
extraordinary enshrining of a building but may have
been inspired by the activities of Eadberhts contemporary, Bishop Wilfrid of York, who according to
Stephanus, his biographer (Colgrave 1927, 35) in
c 669 renovated the ancient church in York built by
King Edwin, and covered the roof ridges with pure
lead. The poem De Abbatibus, dedicated to Ecgberht,
Bishop of Lindisfarne, 80321, indicates that a church
founded in the reign of King Osred, 70516, and
another later Northumbrian church were roofed with
lead (Campbell 1967, 14, 36).
The structural lead was considered in detail in an
MA dissertation by Michael Trueman (1985), and his
work forms the basis for most of the comment here.
Trueman constructed the following standardised terminology: sliver a thin narrow piece of lead cut to a width
of 5mm or less (Fig 26.6.1); strip a thin, wider piece
550mm in size, with at least three cut edges (Fig
26.6.2); plate a large piece intentionally cut to a shape
of 50-500mm in width (Figs 26.6.326.6.4); sheet a
Table 26.6.1 Compositional analysis of specimens of Jarrow lead, compared to samples from Aachen
Jarrow
Aachen
Ag
Sb
Sn
As
Cu
Bi
Fe
0.0250
0.0184
0.011
0.050
0.074
0.010
0.0037
0.004
0.021
0.004
0.008
0.0043
Table 26.6.2 Compositional analysis of melted lead from Wearmouth
Wearmouth
Ag
Sb
Sn
Cu
Bi
Cd
Zn
3.5 ozs (0.011%)
trace
trace
0.025
0.001
0.0001
nil
38
Fig 26.6.1 Lead slivers (Pb13). Scale 1:1. TM
Fig 26.6.2 Lead strips (Pb412). Scale 1:2; photos NTS.

TM
fragment with two cut and sometimes folded edges (Fig
26.6.3); melted lump a thick piece of cut or cast metal,
but of no determinate shape (Fig 26.6.5). This terminology is used here in the catalogue. Other artefacts
such as window leads, plumb bobs and weights are classified by their common names, and are presented in the
small finds section of the report (Ch 31.8, below). Due
to the large numbers of items involved, only the illustrated items of structural lead are catalogued here.
The significance of the slivers is not always easy to
determine. They are most readily explained as off-cuts
from the shaping or trimming of lead sheets either in
relation to the original constructions or in subsequent
repairs and renewals, or from the cutting up of sheets
for reuse. Some of the slivers and narrow strips are
twisted (Fig 26.6.1) but others are quite flat and may,
as suggested below, have some relationship to window
leading. At Wearmouth the disturbances and truncation of the site have meant that there is less evidence
surviving from the Anglo-Saxon occupation levels, but
slivers were found in early Anglo-Saxon contexts.
Some of these slivers were discovered in early graves
or in the cemetery earth (eg contexts 503 and 1673)
and these may be survivals from the initial construction of buildings on the site. At Jarrow, 50 AngloSaxon contexts produced slivers, one of which
(context 2885), yielded 121 items from a construction
deposit for Building D. On the other hand, context
3381, the debris from Building B, produced 130 flat
and 37 twisted slivers which could represent lead for
reuse (for similar evidence from Whithorn, see Hill
1997, 3967). Other large deposits of such fragments
were found in contexts which might imply that the lead
from the site was recycled in the late Saxon and preNorman periods, for example 324 fragments uncovered in context 625, an accumulation of material above
the Anglo-Saxon occupation.
The sites of Wearmouth and Jarrow have provided
tangible evidence for lead roofing on the buildings of
the Anglo-Saxon period. Trueman identified several
plates or sheets from Wearmouth, such as Pb17 (Fig
26.6.3); other more anonymous fragments come from
context 1812/1813 (MK 60 DP 2 and MK 60 EA 1),
a lead-melting hearth dated to the period of the
Norman reconstruction; and finally, a large whole
piece, Pb15 (Fig 26.6.4). Although the last is from a
late medieval deposit, it could give some idea of the
scale of these sheets. There is not a sufficiently large
distribution of lead from the pre-medieval contexts at
Wearmouth to lead to any significant conclusions (Fig
26.6.6), although there is a marked line to the south of
the church and along the line of Building B. At Jarrow,
where there is less truncation of deposits (although
there is considerable late disturbance over Building A),
the picture is clearer. Fragments of lead sheeting survive in pieces such as that from context 3341, the
burning over the Anglo-Saxon floor level of Building B
(JA 69 VD); other pieces from medieval or later contexts include Pb20, Pb21 and Pb14 (Fig 26.6.3). Most
telling, however, is the distribution of melted lead
found in pre-Medieval 1 contexts (Fig 26.6.7). Apart
from a few pieces found near to the Eastern Church,
lead is concentrated around the wall lines of the AngloSaxon buildings which indicates how much lead was
employed on these structures. Moreover, it is noticeable that the Medieval 1 and 2 contexts at both Jarrow
and Wearmouth (Figs 26.6.6 and 26.6.7) do not produce anything like the same quantity of lead fragments
nor are they distributed in a clear relationship to the
post-Conquest building layout. In fact the distribution
from these later contexts rather reinforces that of the
Anglo-Saxon implying that much of the material is
residual. This point is discussed further below (Ch
26.7, Summary of building materials).
39
Fig 26.6.3 Lead plates (Pb1314) and sheet fragments (Pb1921). Scale 1:2, except Pb20, 1:4; photos NTS. YB, TM
that in the 6th to 7th century the northern basilica

received a metal roof which replaced the Roman tiles,
and that five intact plaques of lead survived.
Slivers (Fig 26.6.1)
Pb1
Pb2
Pb3
Twisted sliver.
L 30 W 23 T 7mm
Context: 1891 Med MK 66 QV 6602
Sliver.
L 40 W 3 T 3mm
Context: 1891 Med MK 66 RQ 6602
Twisted sliver.
L 43 W 5 T 1.3mm
Context: 713 SaxonMed JA 67 HU 6701
JARBW 1996.3174
Strips (Fig 26.6.2)

Pb4
Fig 26.6.4 Example of a complete lead plate from a medieval

context at Wearmouth (Pb15). Scale approx 1:4. TM
Pb5
Comparable use of lead sheets and small lead plates

is recorded on the continent, for example in the
account of the excavation of the Merovingian churches at Rouen (Le Maho 1994, 13), where it is reported
Pb6
Small rectangular strip cut at one corner.

L 22.5 W 20 T 2mm
Context: 647 LS/EM JA 67 RF 6704
JARBW 1996.3430
Rolled rectangular strip.
L 40 W 12 T 711mm
Context: 2647 L Sax/Med JA 73 RO 7301
JARBW 1995.47
Curled narrow strip with a cut at one end.
L 97 W 12 T 3mm
Context: 3046 Norman JA 69 WE 4 6904
JARBW 1996.3436
40
Fig 26.6.5 Large piece of melted lead (Pb22). TW

Pb7
Pb8
Pb9
Pb10
Pb11
Pb12
Bent rectangular strip.

L 77 W 22 T 7mm
Context: 705 Med 1 JA 67 OT 6701
JARBW 1996.3421
Small rectangular strip.
L 34 W 12 T 1.2mm
Context: 2147 Med 1 JA 73 RT 3 7304
JARBW 1996.3492
Rolled up strip. Fig 26.6.2.
L 20 W 10 T 23mm
Context: 1944 Med 12 JA 73 PP 5 7305
JARBW 1995.46
Rolled up strip.
L 42 W 22 T 18mm
Context: 429 EPM JA 65 AKV 6507
Small narrow strip.
L 35 W 7.5 T 1.2mm
Context: 227 EPM JA 67 GQ a 6701
JARBW 1996.3418
Strip.
L 87 W 11 T 8mm
Context: 2319 LPM JA 75 KZ 7501
Pb14
Pb15
Pb16
Pb17
Pb18
Pb19
Pb20
Plate and sheet (Fig 26.6.3)

Pb13
Plate bent in half.

L 60 W 37 T 2.5mm
Context: 2006 Med 1 JA 73 SU 7305
JARBW 1995.44
Pb21
Pb22
Folded plate.
L 76 W 60 T 3-5mm
Context: 1836 EPM JA 73 FD 7305
JARBW 1995.43
Complete plate folded on two corners. Four horizontal holes have been pierced along one of its edges.
Fig 26.6.4.
L 311 W 235 T 3.5mm
Context: 142 Med 2 MK 74 GT 21 7403
Off-cut with cutting for strips.
L 84 W 1525 T 3mm
Context: 1036 Saxon MK 69 HU 6901
Sheet with cuts.
L 71 W 56 T 7mm
Context: 2214 L Sax MK 61 JY 6901
Folded sheet.
L 55 W 50 T 2mm
Context: 1951 LS/EM MK 66 ZW 6605
Irregular and twisted tapering sheet.
L c 105 W 30 T 2mm
Context: 62 LS/EM JA 65 QH 6511
Sheet with a hole.
L 185 W 176 T 1.5mm
Context: 4495 Med 1 JA 69 IS 6905
JARBW 1995.42
Sheet.
L 41 W 32 T 1mm
Context: 3116 Med 1-2a JA 69 NJ 2 6901
Large piece of melted lead. Possibly includes window
41
Fig 26.6.6 Distribution of lead at Wearmouth from pre-Conquest (red) and medieval (blue) contexts. AMacM
cames which have been partially melted down. This
comes from a later bedding trench over Building D
that could contain residual material. Fig 26.6.5.
L 11 W 5.6 T 1.5mm
Context: 1837 EPM JA 73 EY 7305
Fittings
In addition to the off-cuts and fragments of sheet there
is also considerable evidence from Wearmouth and
Jarrow of the fittings used to attach lead tiles or sheeting to the roofs. This group of distinctive objects was
categorised by Trueman (1985, 1017). They are
short rectangular strips 3060mm in length, 1530mm
in width and 24mm in thickness, which have been
folded and pierced by a nail. His term, fitting, is used

here, instead of the term clip used in an earlier publication (Cramp 1969, 37, 48 and fig 24.3) for his types
IIV, but for his type V, the term washer is preferred
(see Fig 26.6.8). About 100 complete and fragmentary
fittings were found at Jarrow, and 25 at Wearmouth,
but despite the discrepancy in numbers, the surviving
material need not be representative of their frequency
of use on each site. However, there may have been
minor technological differences in the manner of roof
coverings on each site. It is noteworthy that type II fittings were only found at Jarrow, that type IV is much
more common at Jarrow, while type III is much more
frequent at Wearmouth, and washers are only found at
Jarrow (Fig 26.6.9). Many of the fittings from
42
Fig 26.6.7 Distribution of melted lead at Jarrow from pre-medieval (red) and medieval (blue) contexts. AMacM
Wearmouth come from contexts such as late Saxon
graves that have cut through the ruined monastic
buildings, or from pits which contain only preConquest material (see Fig 26.6.10) while the evidence from Jarrow where these fittings were found
not only in the destruction levels of Buildings A and B
but also on the floor of Building D underlying its final
collapse (see Fig 26.6.11) demonstrates unequivocally the pre-Conquest use for this type of artefact. The
types are presented in Figures 26.6.1226.6.16.
Manufacture and form
From the evidence of one rough and one smoother surface on these pieces, it is envisaged that the lead was
sand cast into sheets which were then marked out for
cutting by a tool similar to modern tin-snips or a hammer and chisel. It was then cut into strips; rolls of such
strips are Pb9 and 10 (Fig 26.6.2 above). Seven fittings
had faint lines scored on their surfaces, and many
retain the mark of a nail head (Pb37, Pb39, Pb40; Fig
26.6.13) while others have the iron nail still in place
(Pb61 and Pb62; Fig 26.6.15, from late Saxon contexts and Pb56; Fig 26.6.14 from a medieval context).
The differences in width between the types may not
be significant, although the most robust group is type
II from Jarrow (Fig 26.6.13). However, as Trueman
noted, not one of this group is complete in length, in
contrast to the majority of those of type III (Fig
26.6.14). The increase in strength may indicate a different function or an improvement in technology
43
Fig 26.6.8 Roof fitting types (after Trueman 1985). AMacM

through experience, a possible explanation also for the
much larger specimens of such fittings that occur on
later medieval sites (see below).
Despite detailed comparison of the sizes of the
shanks and heads of the nails, it would seem that the
sizes of the nail heads and the forms of the shanks that
survive with the fittings differed greatly in the thirtyfour specimens from Jarrow and thirteen from
Wearmouth. The original lengths of the nails were estimated as 3040mm, and no distinction in the type of
nail used with each type of fitting was discernible
(Trueman 1985, 249, 3841).
Function of the fittings
Fig 26.6.9 Number of fittings at A. Wearmouth and B.

Jarrow (after Trueman 1985). AMacM
These fittings may have performed a variety of functions. One that was initially considered the fastening
of stone slates to rafters was ruled out by Trueman
because he believed that the fittings and the slates were
not found in the same contexts. However, fittings and
stone tiles do occur together in some deposits at
Wearmouth (contexts 1790, 2058 and 2069). In most
places at Wearmouth, as noted above, the lead had
been gathered together for re-melting in hearths, and
here fittings and fragments of lead sheets were found
together, implying that they could have been used
together. At Jarrow some of the fittings were clearly distributed around the exterior of buildings, while stone
tiles were found over the interior. Their distributions
might indicate the use of both materials on roofs (see
buildings summary below). It is probable therefore that
the fittings held lead flashing on the ridges and small
sheets elsewhere on the buildings, while some fittings
may have supported lead guttering and it has even been
suggested that some might have held plant supports
(Trueman 1985, 79). The Wearmouth and Jarrow
44
Fig 26.6.10 Distribution of fittings from pre-Conquest (red) and medieval (blue) contexts at Wearmouth. AMacM
types II and III are similar to the fold-over clips used,
even today, in holding the edges of pieces of lead in
sheets or flashing on roofs (Trueman 1985, 735 and
pls VIIIIX). Their small size in relation to similar fitments from later medieval sites, taken together with the
fragments of lead sheets/tiles, suggests that they may
have held together smaller areas of lead than similar fitments on medieval and later roofs (see Harbottle and
Salway 1964, 1701 for one of the earliest discussions
of these larger clips; for a more recent publication see
Caldwell 1995, 89, fig 80). The type IV fittings could
have had a variety of purposes wherever a nail head
needed to be protected, and the washers (type V)
which often bear the imprint of a large nail head (eg
Pb72, Fig 26.6.16) could also have served numerous
functions (see also Hill 1997, 392). Some of the

pierced lead discs were more carefully rounded with
small central holes (Fig 26.6.16, Pb82) and do not bear
the imprint of a nail. Seven of them (Pb7177, Fig
26.6.16), were found on the floor of Building D and
could have had a different purpose rather than roof fittings. Similar sets have also been found at Whithorn
although these seem to be rather smaller (Hill 1997,
390) and there the function was also left uncertain.
Type 1 fittings (Fig 26.6.12)
Pb23
Type I with nail mark.

L 41 W 21 T 2mm
Context: 683 Saxon JA 67 PB 12 6703
JARBW 1996.2651
Fig 26.6.11 Distribution of fittings from Anglo-Saxon (red) and medieval (blue) contexts at Jarrow. AMacM
Pb24
Pb25
Pb26
Pb27
Type I with nail.

L 50 W 26 T 2.5mm
Context: 1784 Saxon JA 71 SX 7105
JARBW 1996.2683
Type I.
L 43 W 20 T 2mm
Context: 2016 ML Sax JA 67 UF 12 7305
JARBW 1996.2694
Type I.
L 26 W 19 T 1.5mm
JARBW 1996.2695
Type I.
L 38 W 23 T 2.5mm
Context: 3301 L Sax JA 69 TB 1 6904
JARBW 1995.54
Pb28
Pb29
Pb30
Pb31
Pb32
Type I with nail.

L 46 W 20 T 2.5mm
Context: 679 LS/EM JA 67 MQ 6703
JARBW 1996.2646
Type I.
L 53 W 25 T 2.5mm
JARBW 1995.51
Type I.
L 49 W 24 T 2.5mm
Context: 1987 Med 1 JA 67 PM 2 7305
Type I.
L 33 W 17 T 2mm
Context: 2141 Med 1 JA 73 PZ 1 7304
Type I.
L 40 W 24 T 2.5mm
45
46
Fig 26.6.12 Type I roof fittings (Pb2335). Scale 1:2,

photos NTS. TM, YB
Pb33
Pb34
Pb35
Context: 3401 Med Ib JA 67 XN 6904

Bent type I.
L 57 W 25 T 2.5mm
Context: 2609 Med 2 JA 73 QK 5 7303
JARBW 1996.2686
Type I.
L 55 W 38 T 1.5mm
Context: 17 Med 2 JA 66 ZJ 6601
JARBW 1996.2634
Type I with nail.
L 47 W 24 T 2.5mm
Context: 1629 LPM JA 71 LB 7105
JARBW 1995.50c
Fig 26.6.13 Type II roof fittings (Pb3651). Scale 1:2,

photos NTS. TM, YB
Type II fittings (Fig 26.6.13)
Pb36
Pb37
Pb38
Type II with nail.

L 41 W 23 T 2.5mm
Context: 1044 Med 1 JA 65 TA b 6511
Type II with nail mark.
L 45 W 19 T 2mm
Context: 683 Saxon JA 67 PB a 6703
Type II with two nail holes.
Pb39
Pb40
Pb41
Pb43
Pb44
Pb45
J
Pb46
Pb47
Pb48
Pb49
Pb50
Pb51
L 42 W 21 T 2mm
Context: 683 Saxon JA 67 PB 10 6703
JARBW 1996.2649
L 47 W 23 T 2.5mm
Context: 647 LS/EM JA 67 PA 6704
JARBW 1996.2652
L 38 W 24 T 2.5mm
Context: 3317 L Sax JA 69 TU 6902
Type II.
L 33 W 23 T 2.5mm
Context: 3414 L Sax JA 69 YF a 6902
Pb42 Type II with nail mark.
L 38 W 23 T 2.5mm
Context: 2145 Norman JA 73 RE 7304
JARBW 1996.2689
Type II.
L 55 W 23 T 2.5mm
Context: 1784 Saxon JA 65 QH 3 6511
JARBW 1996.2629
Type II with nail.
L 44 W 22 T 3.5mm
Context: 625 LS/EM JA 71 JB 18 7105
JARBW 1996.2666
Type II.
L 48 W 24 T 2mm
ARBW 1996.2667
Type II with nail and cut mark.
L 48 W 24 T 2.5mm
JARBW 1996.2669
Type II with nail.
L 54 W 24 T 2mm
JARBW 1996.2672
Type II. Fig 26.6.13.
L 100 W 26 T 3mm
Context: 682 Med MK 61 CG 6104
Type II.
L 46 W 21 T 2mm
Context: 447 Med 1 (dist) JA 67 FA 1 6702
JARBW 1996.2645
Type II with nail.
L 42 W 24 T 2.2mm
Context: 1993 Med 2 JA 73 QP 7305
JARBW 1996.2692
Type II.
L 54 W 23 T 2mm
Context: 3177 EPM JA 69 MD a 6902
JARBW 1996.2655
Fig 26.6.14 Type III roof fittings (Pb5257). Scale 1:2,

photos NTS. TM, YB
Pb57
Pb53
Pb54
Pb55
Type III.
L 51 W 22 T 3mm
Context: 695 Saxon MK 61 KH 6104
Type III with impression of nail head.
L 40 W 28 T 2.5mm
Context: 1790 L Sax MK 66 UJ 6603
Type III.
L 55 W 20 T 2mm
Context: 2002 Norman? JA 73 TL 2 7305
JARBW 1996.2693
Type III.
L 37 W 19 T 2mm
Context: 1653 Med 1 MK 62 GC a 6201
Pb56 Type III with nail.
L 49 W 22 T 2.5mm
Context: 44 Med 1 JA 66 OS 88 6601
Type III.
L 23 W 22 T 2mm
Context: 1009 Med 2 MK 69 EU 6901
Type IV fittings (Fig 26.6.15)

Pb58
Pb59
Pb60
Pb61
Pb62
Pb63
Type III fittings (Fig 26.6.14)

Pb52
47
Pb64
Pb65
Pb66
Type IV with traces of iron.

L 20 W 23 T 2mm
Context: 186 LS/EM JA 65 SU 6509
JARBW 1996.2624
Type IV with nail.
L 28 W 20 T 1.5mm
Context: 5839 LS/EMMed JA 66 VU 6601
JARBW 1996.2642
Type IV.
L 17 W 20 T 2mm
Context: 627 LS/EM JA 71 HE 39 7103
JARBW 1996.2674
Type IV.
L 31 W 21 T 1.5mm
Context: 3927 LS/EM JA 71 IM 7103
JARBW 1995.50a
Type IV with nail.
L 15 W 20 T 1.5mm
JARBW 1995.50b
Type IV with nail.
L 20 W 23 T 1.5mm
Context: 1133 LS/EM JA 75 LL 7504
JARBW 1996.2698
Type IV with nail.
L 32 W 30 T 1mm
Context: 820 Med 12 JA 65 LR 6508
Type IV with nail.
L 10 W 20 T 2.5mm
Context: 2 LPM JA 65 FW 6501
Type IV with nail.
L 21 W 32 T 1.5mm
Context: 432 LPM JA 66 CK 2 6601
JARBW 1996.2641
48
Fig 26.6.16 Lead washers (Pb7082). Scale 1:2. TM,

YB
Pb71
Pb72
Pb73
Pb74
Fig 26.6.15 Type IV roof fittings (Pb5867) and fragments (Pb6869). Scale 1:2, photos NTS. TM, YB
Pb67
Type IV with nail.

L 15 W 18 T 3mm
Context: 2 LPM JA 65 GX 1 6501
JARBW 1995.48a
Pb75
Pb76
Fragmentary fittings (Fig 26.6.15)

Pb68
Pb69
Fitting fragment with nail.

L 33 W 18 T 1mm
Fitting fragment with nail.
L 22 W 24 T 3mm
Context: 5416 Med JA 65 MRb 6501
JARBW 1996.2620
Pb77
Washers (Fig 26.6.16)

Pb70
Washer (Type V).

L 20 W 19 T 1.2mm
Context: 2869 Saxon JA 76 FH 3 7602
JARBW 1995.117
Pb79
Washer (Type V).

L 25 W 23 T 1mm
Context: 2876 Saxon JA 76 GH 3a 7602
JARBW 1995.118
Washer (Type V).
L 24 W 20 T 1.5mm
Context: 2876 Saxon JA 76 GH 3b 7602
JARBW 1995.118
Washer (Type V).
L 22 W 20 T 1.5mm
Context: 2876 Saxon JA 76 GH 3c 7602
JARBW 1995.118
Washer (Type V).
L 25 W 23 T 1mm
Context: 2876 Saxon JA 76 GH 3d 7602
JARBW 1995.118
Washer (Type V).
L 23 W 22 T 1mm
Context: 2876 Saxon JA 76 GH 3e 7602
JARBW 1995.118
Washer (Type V).
L 24 W 19 T 1.5mm
Context: 2876 Saxon A 76 GH 3f 7602
JARBW 1995.118
Washer (Type V).
L 29 W 27 T 1.5mm
Context: 2876 Saxon JA 76 GH 3g 7602
JARBW 1995.118
Pb78 Washer (Type V).
L 17 W 13 T 1.5mm
Context: 995 M Sax JA 76 HY 7604
JARBW 1995.119
Washer (Type V).
L 25 W 25 T 1.5mm
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ 361 7305
JARBW 1995.115
Pb80
Pb81
Pb82
Washer (Type V).

L 15 W 14 T 1mm
Context: 2190 M Sax JA 73 VP 5 7304
JARBW 1995.116
Washer (Type V).
L 29 W 26 T 1.5mm
Context: 2010 LS/EM JA 73 TW 7305
JARBW 1995.55
Washer (Type V).
L 23 W 22 T 1.5mm
Context: 2643 Med 1 JA 73 RK 1 7302
JARBW 1995.114
Window lead
by Rosemary Cramp
Anglo-Saxon
Compared with the amount of lead of other types that
has been found at Wearmouth and Jarrow in contexts
dating to the pre-Conquest period, the paucity of evidence for lead window cames cannot be entirely
explained away as the careful recovery of the material
for recycling, although this must be part of the explanation, and indeed in a lump of melted lead from
Jarrow (Pb22), the shapes of cames are clearly visible
(Fig 26.6.5 above). The lack of evidence for lead
cames before the 10th century, however, seems to be
characteristic of Anglo-Saxon sites (Biddle 1990 I, 96).
In a recent review of lead cames, David Whitehouse
concluded that cames, seem to have been invented by
the late 8th century and in the 9th century their use
was widespread. In every case, however, only a small
quantity of caming was found (Whitehouse 2001, 39).
It seems generally agreed that the earliest cames were
cast in short lengths and both wooden and metal
moulds have been suggested. Since the discovery of a
limestone mould from Saint-Denis which has been
identified as for casting leads (Stiegemann and
Wemhoff 1999, ill 94), stone can be added to the list as
a potential casting medium.
As I have discussed in relation to the distribution of
window glass in Building D at Jarrow (Ch 27 below,
window glass; Cramp 1975c, 945) and also the early
window glass from Whithorn (Cramp 1997, 329),
there were means of fixing window glass other than in
lead cames. The presence of short slivers of thin lead
sheeting in early deposits including graves at
Wearmouth and Jarrow, as mentioned above, could be
related to this question. Some of these could have been
off-cuts from the initial building construction. Others such as the 54 slivers of lead varying in length from
about 870mm and 45mm in width, found in context
655 at Jarrow (burnt charcoal and rubble in the collapsed walling of Building B) are possibly a good
example of a different use. The context is late Saxon or
Norman and the fragments could well be dismembered parts of something like the interlace grill from
Wearmouth (Pb83, Fig 26.6.17) which is discussed
further in the catalogue below.
49
There is, however, a type of lead came found in a

small quantity at both sites, which is pre-Conquest in
date. A few examples were found in undisturbed
Anglo-Saxon contexts at Jarrow, such as the four
which survived under the collapse of Building D
(Pb8487), and a similar piece from Wearmouth
(Pb88) was found with Anglo-Saxon rubble in a SaxoNorman well shaft. These are characteristically short,
nipped lengths of rounded H-shaped section, which
had either been reshaped or might be seen as fitting
into wood or framing plaster (Fig 26.6.18). They
seem to be a distinctive Anglo-Saxon form, since
almost identical shapes have also been found in 8thcentury deposits at Flixborough (Cramp forthcoming
c). These short straight lengths are nevertheless not
plausible as holders for the complex shapes of grozed
glass quarries recovered from Building D (see Ch
27.1, window glass). It seems unquestionable that
more flexible leading must have existed, and among
the melted lead found on the opus signinum floor and
on the line of the south wall of Building A (eg context
228, JA 67 GT), as well as in the disturbed levels over
Building D, more complex cames are possibly discernible (see Fig 26.6.5 above). Moreover, a piece of
red glass which has survived with its leading from
Wearmouth (Pb90) is almost certainly a pre-Conquest
piece even though it came from a later context. It
remains possible that some of the cast leads found in
medieval contexts at both sites might be residual from
the Anglo-Saxon period, since they appear very similar in form to the leads discovered in 8th to 9thcentury contexts at sites such as Rouen or Paderborn,
Westphalia (see below). The comparable leads from
Wearmouth and Jarrow are listed below according to
their context date.
At Wearmouth apart from the large quantity of thin
slivers and the short nipped cames mentioned above
no conventional cames survived in Anglo-Saxon contexts. At Jarrow also no recognisable lead cames were
retrieved from the destruction deposits of the two main
Anglo-Saxon stone buildings, although window glass
survived in some quantity. Moreover on the floor of
Building B, underneath the burning level (context
3229, JA 69 XA), there were 272 slivers of lead, 18
melted pieces and 13 small irregular strips; many of the
small strips were only about 30mm in length. Similarly,
in context 3406 (JA 69 WE) there were at least nine
twisted slivers, mostly about 30mm in length and 2mm
in width. Many other twisted slivers of similar length
and width were found with larger, flat melted pieces on
the Anglo-Saxon ground surface to the north of the
building. Among the ashy deposits over room Bii (such
as context 6033, JA 69 YD) there were, however, larger melted fragments that may, conceivably have once
been conventional cames. The area above the floor and
surrounding the exterior of Building A had also been
very disturbed by the later cemetery and by gardening,
but no lead cames were found with the Anglo-Saxon
window glass deposits.
50
Fig 26.6.17 Lead window grill from Wearmouth (Pb83). Reconstruction by Gwenda Adcock. Scale 1:1. YB, G Adcock
Sites of high-status Carolingian buildings such as
Rouen, Farfa, Paderborn and San Vincenzo al
Volturno, dating from the beginning of the 9th century,
have all produced some lead cames of H-shaped section (see Stiegemann and Wernhoff 1999, 163 and
1834, ills 64, 92, 93). Fragments from Paderborn,
however (ibid, ill 64), include, as well as the grooved
leads, short flat strips which resemble those from
Wearmouth and Jarrow, and could indeed be something similar to the strips of lead with irregular cross
sections found with 6th-century window glass from
the Museum Basilica at Philippi. Whitehouse in discussing these assumed that, In the late 8th and 9th
centuries, the development of coloured and/or painted
windows went hand in hand with the development of
H-shaped cames (Whitehouse 2001, 40) and this

seems plausible. It seems nevertheless reasonable to
assume that there were various ways of holding window glass in place at this period, and future excavation
and research may reveal this more clearly.
Medieval
The manufacture of medieval cames was described in
the 12th century by Theophilus Book 2 (Dodwell
1961) as cast in wooden or iron two-piece moulds, and
this method has been generally accepted. The
medieval cames from Jarrow were examined by Dr
Barry Knight in 1987, and his identifications and terminology have been retained in the catalogue. Knight
51
Fig 26.6.18 Anglo-Saxon lead cames. Scale 1:1. YB, TM

Pb83
Fig 26.6.19 Profiles of medieval window cames (after

Knight 1986): A. Casting flash untrimmed; B. Partly
trimmed; C. Fully trimmed to created straight outside edge.
AMacM
has classified lead cames according to the way in which
the casting flash along the outside edge of the moulds
was trimmed (or not), giving a variety of differing profiles (Fig 26.6.19), although the cames are often so
squashed or distorted that it is impossible to allocate a
type. Milled cames of post-medieval type (his types
DG) were retrieved in some quantity from both sites
but are not included here.
Most of the medieval leading came from late
medieval or early post-medieval contexts in a broken
and twisted form (see Pb104, Fig 26.6.20), and at
Wearmouth a considerable amount of leading, some
with glass attached (Pb99100, Fig 26.6.20), was
found in dumps inside the disused latrine pit. Leads
from medieval contexts or early post-medieval demolition contexts are listed below, together with an illustrated sample of representative medieval types from
contexts of later date.
Pb84
Pb85
Pb86
Pierced lead sheet discovered as a crumpled ball of

lead which, when opened out, revealed five end or
side pieces of a narrow panel that contained two conjoined and two fragmentary knots of a six cord pattern. Fig 26.6.17.
One side of the pieces was whitened by a substance that may have served as an adhesive. This
piece is too thin to serve as a ventilation grill, such as
those found in the later medieval period, and was initially thought to be a template (Adcock 1974, 39),
but it is more credible as a pattern applied to the surface of window glass, held in place by a plaster or
wooden frame. Cut-out patterns in lead such as these
have been found in Studenica, Yugoslavia, where ten
plaques of lead measuring 363mm by 400mm and
400mm by 405mm were recovered, the ornament
consisting of stylised silhouettes of animals, birds
and rosettes (Cramp 1970b, 329). Other fragments
of thin sheet found in contexts such as 2087 (MK 67
GE 10) could be part of similar features.
L 159 W 45 T 1mm
Context: 1166 LS/EM MK 61 FG 6105
Short length of cast came of H-shaped section but a Dshaped profile. One end has been pinched in. Compare
Pb86 and examples from Flixborough. Fig 26.6.18.
L 30 W 7 T 7mm
Context: 2018 ML Sax A 73 UZ 330 7305
JARBW 1995.176
Short length of a heavy cast came of H-shaped section but with a D-profile. The flange is untrimmed;
partly melted at one end. This may be a half-finished
piece since it was found on the workshop floor of
Building D. Fig 26.6.18.
L 51 W 10 T 10mm
JARBW 1995.177
A short length of cast came tightly nipped at each
end, D-shaped profile. Fig 26.6.18.
52
Fig 26.6.20 Medieval lead cames. Scale 1:2. YB
Pb87
Pb88
Pb89
Pb90
Pb91
Pb92
Pb93
L 51 W 8 T 8mm
Context: 2011 L Sax JA 73 TX 9a 7305
JARBW 1995.175
Two short lengths of cast came, now with a T-shaped
sections but probably originally joined lengthways,
giving an H-shaped section and D-shaped profile.
Fig 26.6.18.
each L 25 W 5 T 5mm
Context: as Pb86 JA 73 TX 9bc
JARBW 1995.175
Cast piece? Squashed/melted. Not illus.
L 43 W 5 T 10mm
Context: 2863 LS/EM JA 76 DK 148 7602
JARBW 1996.2602
A short length of cast came of H-shaped profile
nipped at one end. The surface is very eroded, and
one face is flat, the other slightly bowed. The deposit
in the fill of the shaft, 1377, in which it was found
contained only Anglo-Saxon building debris including glass, and some human bone. Fig. 26.6.18.
L 31 W95 T 5mm. Greatest depth of groove 4mm
Context: 1423 LS/EM MK 64 WK 6403
Complete D-shaped glass quarry of red Anglo-Saxon
glass, with H-shaped came around the curved side.
The leading is rough and appears to have been filed,
giving an angled profile. Its thickness is about 6mm.
See also Ch 27.1, glass report (= GlW MK no. 2).
Fig 26.6.18.
Context 2192 Med 1 MK 60 EM 6003
Cast came with wood attached; six melted pieces,
four with charcoal attached. Missing. Not illus.
Measurements not recorded.
Context: 3060 LS/EM JA 69 GG a, b 6903
Quarry of opaque medieval glass, about 45 45mm
square, surrounded by cames of type C on all four
sides. Fig 26.6.20.
lead: W 6 T 6mm
Context 1192 Med 1? MK 62 IR 6201
Long straight piece of cast came, type C. Fig 26.6.20.
L 97 W 7 T 5mm
Context: 259 Med 1? MK 74 HL 7401

Piece of cast came twisted and covered with mortar
throughout its length. Not illus.
L 45 W not measurable T 5mm
Context: 1204 Med 1 MK 64 SD 6402
Pb95 Cast came, type C. Not illus.
L 38 W 5 T 5mm
Context: 1965 Med 1 JA 73 NM 7305
JARBW 1996.2591
Pb96 Cast twisted and flattened came (see also Ch 27
below, Brill report). Fig 26.6.20.
L 27 W 8mm.
Context: 1198 Med 1 JA 75 KG c 7502
JARBW 1996.2601
Pb97 Three cast fragments. Not illus.
L 43 W 5 T 8mm; L 27 W 8 T 11mm; L 37 W 8 T
3mm
Context: 1198 Med 1 JA 75 KG a-b, KG 2a 7502
JARBW 1996.26002601
Pb98 Cast piece that is flat and narrow. Flanges trimmed.
Not illus.
L 22 W 8 T 4mm
Context: 596 Med 1 JA 78 ISa 7802
JARBW 1996.2604
Pb99 A large amount of medieval glass and cames was
found in the fill of a disused latrine. The example
illustrated here is a triangular quarry enclosed in type
C cames. Fig 26.6.20.
lead W 5 T 8mm
Pb100 Complex piece of leading of type C, comprising a triangular and half-round shape with glass surviving in
the triangle. Fig 26.6.20
lead W 7 T 6mm
Context: as Pb99
Pb101 Seven lengths of cast came, both straight and curving, type? B. All have evidence of junctions. Lengths
are from 40mm to 85mm and the widths of the leading is consistently 3mm while the grooves are 5mm
thick. Fig 26.6.20.
Pb94
Context: as Pb99
Pb102 Piece of cast came of type C from a clearance
deposit. Not illus.
L 70 W 5 T 5mm
Context 127 Med 2 MK 74 EC 7403
Pb103 Cast piece split longitudinally. Casting flash trimmed
off. Fig 26.6.20.
L 62 W 8 T 4mm
Context: 2541 Med 2 JA 73 ME a 7301
JARBW 1996.2593
Pb104 Cast piece that is very twisted. The flanges have been
trimmed. Fig 26.6.20.
L 36 W 8 T 8mm
Context: as Pb103 A 73 ME b
Pb105 Four cast pieces. (a) possible tie attached, with junctions. (b) very flat faces; longitudinal line on the
inside face. (c) longitudinal line on the inner face?
Traces of casting bubbles. (d) piece with a thin,
square section, may be a later type? Not illus.
L 69 W 5 T 5mm; L 61 W 5 T 5mm; L 58 W 5 T
5mm; L 41 W 5 T 5mm
Context: 5679 Med 2 A 65 ABS ad 6504
JARBW 1996.2570; 2565; 2566; 2567
Pb106 Cast piece that is rather squashed. Not illus.
L 44 W 5 T 5mm
Context: 1531 Med 2 JA 71 FU 7105
JARBW 1996.2582
Pb107 Short length of cast came of medieval type C, twisted at one end. Found in destruction levels of Wall VI.
Not illus.
L 55 W 4 T 5mm
Context: 314 LPM MK 71 DK 7102
Pb108 Two fragments of cast cames of type C? (a) curved,
appears to have a junction. (b) flattened and distorted. From the destruction level of the medieval buildings. Not illus.
a. L55 W 4 T 5mm; b. L not measurable W 4 T
5mm
Context 238 Med 2/EPM MK 74 DO 1 and 2 7401
Pb109 Partly melted piece that is very distorted. Not illus.
L 42 W 3 T 5mm
Context: 1873 EPM JA 73 GT 7305
JARBW 1996.2598
Pb110 Cast piece. The flange tapers possibly from bottom
of mould? Not illus.
L 178 W 6 T 5mm
Context: 2540 EPM JA 73 LY 7301
JARBW 1996.2592
Pb111 Cast piece. Type C. Not illus.
L 58 W 8 T 5mm
Context: 569 EPM JA 78 ER 7802
JARBW 1996.2610
Pb112 Two cast pieces that have been squashed. Type C?
Not illus.
L 32 W 6 T 4mm
Context: 2346 EPM JA 78 HY b 7801
JARBW 1996.2605
Pb113 Cast piece, ?type B. Fig 26.6.20.
L 28 W 6 T 5mm
Context: 5845 LPM JA 66 WL a 6601
JARBW 1996.2577
Pb114 Three pieces of cast came, one with junction. Type
C. Fig 26.6.20.
L 29 W 5 T 5mm; L45 W 4 T 3mm; L 23 W 5 T
3mm
53
Context: 303 LPM JA 66 CU b 6601

JARBW 1996.2573
Pb115 Cast piece with lightly scraped flanges, curved. Type
B. Fig 26.6.20.
L 36 W 8 T 5mm
Context: 2034 LPM JA 73 FM 7304
JARBW 1996.3366
Pb116 Came junction with fragment of opaque, ?painted
glass. Flange profile not clear. Not illus.
L 80 W 35 came width 10mm
Context: 5675 LPM JA 65 ZC 6504
26.7 Summary: the appearance of

the buildings
by Rosemary Cramp
Anglo-Saxon Wearmouth
At Wearmouth, where, as frequently noted, the AngloSaxon contexts were severely truncated and disturbed,
it is difficult to be dogmatic about the appearance of
the buildings above ground level. There is no evidence
for wattle and daub structures, and only in Phase 1 of
Building D (see Vol 1, Ch 9) might the clay and stone
foundations have supported a half-timbered superstructure. The superstructures of Wall 2 and the
sunken adjunct Building C are also problematic. The
foundations of all the other structures were of limestone and poured mortar, and there is good evidence
from the rebuilding levels that the walls were internally faced with plaster (see Fig 26.2.1) and most probably coated with whitewash on the exterior (see Fig
26.2.1). There is evidence that some of the internal
walls were decorated with painted plaster, and
although most of this was found in clearance dumps
and fills, it seems possible that the red-striped plaster
(Figs 26.2.4, 26.2.6) was associated with Building B,
the long gallery. The distribution of the stone stripwork which must have divided up the wall surfaces and
the many fragments of small baluster shafts which were
found in the central clearance dumps suggest that
these also may have enhanced the facade of Building B.
The flooring of the Wearmouth buildings is likewise
problematic, since although opus signinum has been
found in some quantity on the site, only in one place
did a small amount survive in situ (see Vol 1, Fig 9.2).
Unfortunately this was not in a well-defined building,
but a case can be made for the flooring of Building B
to have been of that material (Vol 1, Ch 9). The distribution of window glass from the site again seems to
reflect a distribution of cleared Anglo-Saxon building
material, but it seems probable that all of the major
buildings were glazed.
In considering the roofing materials for the buildings, the distributions although sparse are suggestive. The evidence from the middle of the complex, an
area that was a cemetery in the Anglo-Saxon period
and the centre of the cloister in the post-Conquest
period, is largely derived from clearance deposits but
54
the distribution of lead (Fig 26.6.6) is markedly associated with the gallery and the south wall of the
church, and this distribution is reinforced by that of
the lead fittings (Fig 26.6.10). Some limestone tiles
were clearly in use in the Anglo-Saxon period since
they are found with other distinctive Anglo-Saxon
sculptures and plasters in Late Saxon or Late
Saxon/Early Medieval contexts. Groups of stone tiles
were found near to Building C, alongside Wall 2, and
around the south range. Since there is so much other
permian limestone on the site it seems likely that limestone slates were used on some pre-Conquest buildings, and lead roofing on others, notably the church
and Building B.
Despite the loss of floor levels for the Anglo-Saxon
buildings, the debris of these buildings does provide
some impression that they were richly decorated on the
interior and even on the exterior in the manner of some
late Roman buildings (see Ch 28, discussion of stripwork) and that their appearance would have been truly
in the Roman manner.
Anglo-Saxon Jarrow
The walling of all of the excavated buildings was of
small neat sandstone blocks and the mortared stone
walls were whitewashed on the exterior and plastered
on the interior, with certain areas at the east end of
Building B and the north wall of Building D
enhanced with colour (Fig 26.2.5). There is also evidence from Building A that at least part of the interior
was decorated with sculptured panels (Fig 28.2.8). As
is evidenced from its distribution, all of the three stone
buildings excavated had windows glazed with coloured
and plain glass (Fig 27.1.510).
The distribution patterns of lead at Jarrow are strikingly linked to the Anglo-Saxon buildings as demonstrated by material from the secure pre-Conquest
contexts (Fig 26.6.7). Much of the lead derived from
the medieval levels, and seems to be residual since it
follows the same distribution, which is linked to the
pre-Conquest building plan rather than the medieval
(Fig 26.6.7). A significant area of the roofs must then
have been covered with lead. There was also a distribution of limestone flags over Buildings A, B and D (Fig
26.4.1). One must therefore consider whether there
were mixed roof coverings with stone flags in the main
roof area and lead flashing along the ridges, with possibly lead plates along the eaves with fittings to attach
the lead, and indeed whether roof coverings changed
through time.
If the roofing pattern seems to be similar for all of
the buildings, the floors were markedly different: large
areas of opus signinum survived in situ throughout
Building A, and in the north room of Building B (Bii),
interpreted as a chapel. In the rest of Building B,
although there were traces of mortar on the floor,
which might indicate there had been some covering,
the surviving floor surface was of beaten earth with
some stone paving (see Vol 1, Ch 16, Figs 16.8, 16.26,

16.33) and the same type of flooring was found in
Building D (Vol 1, Fig 16.55).
There remains the problem of the red ceramic tiles
that were found in some quantity in pre-Conquest levels. A few were found in situ lining a drain at the west
end of Building A, and there was a scattering of Roman
style tiles also over all the stone buildings. However,
the only large deposits of this material were in the workshop areas and dumps at the south of the site where the
red tile seems to have been crushed for reuse. Some
could well have been used to add the brick content to
the concrete mix of the opus signinum flooring, but it is
the firm opinion of the Roman specialists that the tegulae and imbrices were unlike those from nearby Roman
sites (Ch 26.5). This raises again the question which
has been posed for other Anglo-Saxon church sites as to
whether the Anglo-Saxons were making ceramic tiles in
the period of the 7th to 9th century, rather than merely recycling Roman material. On the whole it seems
unlikely that such an industry would have been located
in the north in the post-Roman period, especially in the
absence of any evidence for a local pottery industry.
There is firmer evidence for the appearance both
externally and internally of the stone buildings at
Jarrow than at Wearmouth. Both sites had coloured
glass windows and evidence for polychrome sculptures
and wall plaster. Both had evidence for the use of opus
signinum. At Jarrow, however, it was possible to detect
what would appear to be a hierarchy of flooring which
is matched in Building A by the elaborate carvings of
the central pillar and the wall plaques (see Ch 28) at
the east end of the building. In Building B the importance of the small room Bii, which is interpreted as a
chapel, is confirmed by its opus signinum flooring, while
the east end of Bi and the north wall of Building D
have both produced elaborately decorated wall plaster,
and these are areas in which visitors might be expected. The impression provided by both sites is, however,
one in which the founders had produced buildings
which would have been significantly different from the
domestic halls of the laity (see Vol 1, Ch 24).
Medieval Wearmouth
At Wearmouth there was a reconfiguration of the
claustral interior, but several building lines continued
and some of the fabric seems to have been reused,
although the distinctive Anglo-Saxon decorative features such as stripwork were cut off, and there was a
greater use of sandstone in the rebuilding. It seems
probable that the windows were renewed and reglazed, and a large quantity of glass was found in rubbish deposits within and around the medieval latrines,
intermixed with some material dating up to the end of
the 16th century (see Ch 27.4).
The distribution of lead was very sparse and no particular pattern emerges (Fig 26.6.6). A very small
number of ceramic roof tiles (see also Chapter 33,
pottery report) were found that might be consistent

with their use to enhance part of a roof, mainly as ridge
tiles. Limestone roof flags were, however, scattered
widely around the cloister to the east, west and south,
and even on what may be thought of as an outbuilding,
to the west of the west range (Fig 26.4.1). The deposit
around the southern porticus at the west end of the
church could indicate that this also was roofed with
stone slates.
The documentary evidence is here informative: as
late as the time in which Symeon of Durham was writing, the roof of the church was thatched (Appendix
A5.6) and lead appears to have been purchased to roof
the choir in stages. For example the status of 1371
allows for the covering of a quarter of the choir (Raine
1854, 166), and in 1372 the southern part of the choir
(Raine 1854, 176), but the statuses repeatedly record
the purchase of quantities of stone flags, particularly in
the later period. There is, for example, a record of a
new stone roof in 1448 (Raine 1854, 205), and in
1452, 5000 tiles were purchased from Baron Hilton
(Raine 1854, 208).
It is possible, then, that stone roof flags from the
pre-Conquest period were recycled in the earlier
medieval period of the 11th to 13th/14th centuries, but
that these needed massive replacement in the 15th
century. The locally available limestone seems then to
have provided the major roofing material in the Middle
Ages. What little evidence there is for flooring seems to
be mainly stone slabs, but there are a few displaced
glazed ceramic floor tiles (see pottery report). The
reuse and then demolition of the buildings in the early
post-medieval period and the subsequent urban development leaves one with little impression of the appearance of the medieval buildings at Wearmouth.
Medieval Jarrow
At Jarrow some of the walls of the medieval buildings
are still standing (Vol 1, Ch 19, Figs 19.319.9) and it
is clear from a comparison of their fabric with that of
the Anglo-Saxon chancel, as well as by the fact that the
Anglo-Saxon walls are robbed to the foundations, that
the stones were recycled from the pre-Conquest walls.
The manner in which these buildings were roofed is
not, however, so clear. As stated above, the distributions of lead appear to be residual and related to the
Anglo-Saxon buildings (Fig 26.6.7), and some other
roof covering must have been the norm in the postConquest period. Stone flags, both limestone and
sandstone, are, however, distributed around the East
55
and South Range buildings and the Cloister and this

indicates that stone was a common roofing material in
the Medieval 1 and 2 periods, with massive sandstone
flags being about a quarter of those used (Fig 26.4.3).
It seems possible then that some of the limestone slates
were recycled from the pre-Conquest period but a new
source of sandstone slates was used in a medieval
phase.
From the documentary evidence it is recorded that
at the time of Aldwins refoundation the church was
thatched with hay (Appendix A5.1), and in the
Durham statuses for 13701 (54) and 13712 (56)
there are items of expense for the purchase of heather
and the work of thatching the buildings (see Vol 1,
Appendix A5.8) although these need not have been
for the major claustral buildings. From the early 15th
century the returns show costings, as in 14323, for
tegulis calce lattez et broddez. Tiles, laths and nails are
subsequently recorded as a regular expense into the
early 16th century (see Appendix A5.8), but whether
these were stone or if the term also covered ceramic
tiles is a moot point, since quantities of unglazed red
clay tiles were recovered from late medieval contexts,
and these are different from the Roman tiles recovered
from Anglo-Saxon contexts.
Flooring for the buildings may have been mainly
stone slabs, since some displaced examples did survive
but in the East Range in the area identified as the
Chapter House a mortary deposit on the floor could
indicate that a ceramic tiled floor had been removed.
Only three complete glazed tiles were recovered, however, although there were more fragments, none of
which were elaborately decorated, and a considerable
number of unglazed floor tiles (see Ch 26.5). The
glazed fragments were scattered across the site, mainly
in early and late post-medieval contexts, and where
they occurred in the six medieval contexts they were in
clearance deposits or pits and so could not be related
to any specific buildings. In the more domestic rooms
of the East Range, ER 5 and 7, however, hand-pressed
bricks in soft yellowish and hard red clay fabrics were
discovered in situ, forming the basis of hearths and
ovens (see Vol 1, Ch 20 and Ch 26.5).
The major buildings were almost certainly glazed
but the distribution of medieval glass is sparse and is
not helpful in deciding if some were more elaborately
glazed than others. On the whole, the picture of the
medieval buildings is not one on which much expense
has been lavished after the initial building campaign
(see Ch 29.1), and this is in keeping with the picture
provided by the documentary evidence.
27 Window Glass
27.1 The Anglo-Saxon window glass
Many scientists in England and the USA have generously given their time to undertake a range of analyses (see below), and their work helped to shape the
direction for research on this glass. Scientific analyses
were first undertaken by F Frost and John Hunter,
using an electron microprobe (Hunter 1971; Cramp
1970b, 3335), and later by Alwyn Cox using EDXRF
(see archive report). The most extensive and extended
scientific research has, however, been completed by
Robert Brill who has undertaken a detailed chemical
analysis of the glass and produced a full report (see Ch
27.2). This has been taken as the major scientific
account of the glass on both sites. Finally a review of
the various results and further analyses were undertaken by Michael Tite, Mavis Bimson and Ian Freestone
of the British Museum Research Laboratory, with
some additional work on the crucibles by Julian
Henderson and Justine Bayley (see Ch 27.3 and 35.2
respectively). Research such as this, carried out over a
long period of time and with a variety of instrumentation that recorded different elements, is not strictly
comparable in the resulting analyses, but the results
have a compound value. Robert Brills report, which
was completed in 1999 with some revisions in 2000, is
reproduced in full below (Ch 27.2). In 2001, Ian
Freestone and Michael Hughes developed some of
Brills results and concluded from an improved understanding of the production and distribution of raw
glass from the Mediterranean and Near East that many
of the research questions asked in the 1970s could now
be answered (see below and Ch 27.3). The results of
the various analyses (which exist as archive reports) are
incorporated into this general assessment.
by Rosemary Cramp
At both Wearmouth and Jarrow a considerable quantity of plain and strongly coloured window glass, cut and
grozed into a variety of shapes, was found in close association with the Anglo-Saxon buildings (see Vol 1, Figs
16.35, 16.36, 16.60 and 16.64). From Wearmouth,
302 fragments were recorded on site, and 1827 from
Jarrow. During the post-excavation programme some
fragments have been reconstructed and others rejected
for various reasons. After post-excavation study, the
revised totals are now 298 from Wearmouth and 1756
from Jarrow, a number of which join other pieces. Such
figures are therefore only useful to provide general comparison with other sites. At Wearmouth the glass was
more scattered because of the greater post-medieval
disturbance of that site, but at Jarrow enough was found
at its original point of deposition to be able to deduce
the positions of some windows (see Vol 1, Figs 16.35,
16.36). Although the glass, both in quantity and colour
variation, is the most significant group so far found in
Britain, the total area of glass that it constitutes is not
large. This might, however, have been expected from
the small size of the surviving church windows, which
at Jarrow are further diminished in aperture by the
stone closures, one of which is only 185mm in diameter (Vol 1, Fig 12.3). Textual reference to window glass
in the 7th and 8th centuries implies that it was then a
rare medium for windows and a prized commodity
(Dodwell 1982, 634, 2634; Cramp 2000, 105). It is
moreover still a comparatively rare find on early
medieval sites in the British Isles and on the continent,
although the use of window glass probably became
more common from the 9th century onwards, as the
finds from San Vincenzo and other continental sites
indicate (DellAcqua 1997; and see below).
A full catalogue of each fragment of the glass from
both sites was prepared by Margaret Firby, and her
manuscript notebooks with drawings of individual
pieces and of the fragments which she managed to join
together exist in the site archive. The condensed catalogue is here provided in tabular form, but because of
the large quantity of fragments involved it has proved
possible to illustrate only a selection. Complete quarries and some partial quarries which have distinctive
features are illustrated in Figures 27.1.127.1.10. In
addition, the full colour range of the glass is illustrated
in Figure 27.1.11. The characteristic features of the
glass have had to be summarised and synthesised
rather than repeated in each entry, as is common in
reports of smaller quantities of this material; the catalogue is presented as Appendix 27.1.1 with an introductory explanation of the terms used.
The historical background

The historical importance of the glass from these sites
lies in its contemporary documentation which provides
the introduction to most historical studies of glass making in England. In the foundation references to
Wearmouth, Bede tells us that when the church was
nearly complete, in 674, Benedict sent to Gaul for
glaziers to glaze the windows of the church, porticus and
refectories or upper stories (HAB 5 and Vol 1, Ch 4
and Appendix A2.3), since the art was apparently at
that time unknown in Britain.1 These artisans also
taught the art of making glass lamps and vessels for
liturgical use, and this link between blown vessel glass
and window glass is important since it seems to indicate that the same workmen were involved in the production of both types of glass, although analyses of the
Wearmouth, Jarrow and Whithorn glass often indicate
different compositions for the two types (see Brill
below, and Hold 1991, 62). It is of course possible that
56
27: WINDOW GLASS
57
Fig 27.1.1 Pale, light and deep blue Anglo-Saxon window glass from Wearmouth. Scale 1:1. YB, PF
the vessels analysed from these sites are later imports
replacing the vessels made by the glaziers from Gaul.
By the mid 8th century, however, the abbot of
Wearmouth had again to send to the continent (this
time to Mainz), for glass-workers who could make glass
vessels, since, as he said, his community were entirely
ignorant of the art (see Vol 1, Appendix A3.7). This letter has been taken by some commentators to indicate
that skilled glass-workers only stayed for a short time at
a site to perform the task of glazing and then departed.
Nevertheless, the glass at Jarrow was, if anything, of
better quality and more varied in colour, and these windows could have been inserted eight years or more after
Wearmouth. It is possible, however, that there were
trained craftsmen on site at Wearmouth (whether
Gauls or English pupils) for a generation, but by the
mid 8th century the art of glass making had been lost.
Research questions
These texts and other brief references to glass in contemporary works from the continent or England (see
Lafond 1966, 2226; Cramp 1975c, 93 and Dodwell
1982, 634, 2634) posed a number of questions for
which some answers have been forthcoming during the
excavation and long post-excavation programme (see Ch
27.2 and 27.3 below). Was there a distinctive Gaulish
tradition in the making of window glass, and, if so, how
similar was the Wearmouth and Jarrow material? Did the
foreign glass workers bring their raw materials such as
natron with them to add to local materials for manufacture on the site, or did they bring blocks of made-up
glass for re-melting and blowing? Did the same tradition
or even the same workmen continue in operation at
Jarrow ten years after the importation to Wearmouth?
58
Fig 27.1.2 Pale and light turquoise Anglo-Saxon window glass from Wearmouth. Scale 1:1. YB
27: WINDOW GLASS
Fig 27.1.3 Pale, light and dark green Anglo-Saxon window glass from Wearmouth. Scale 1:1. YB, PF
59
60
Fig 27.1.4 Amber, red and red-streaked Anglo-Saxon window glass from Wearmouth. Scale 1:1. YB
Were there individual deposits of glass which were sufficiently different in composition to suggest a Gaulish and
a Mainz tradition, or a variant type specific to these two
sites? Were there differences between the two sites, or
between different buildings and even windows of the
same site? Could one identify the function of buildings
by whether they were glazed or not and so relate them to
the buildings mentioned in the texts? Many of these
questions are also addressed in Brills text.
Before assigning the Wearmouth/Jarrow glass to any
tradition it was necessary to characterise it, and to have
comparable material from other sites in the British Isles
and on the continent. The post-Roman tradition or traditions of the continent are not fully established
although much work has been done on the vessel glass
from various sites, and analyses exist for Roman
material. Analyses of Carolingian window glass have,
however, become more available recently from sites such
as Paderborn, Westphalia (Wedepohl et al 1997),

Corvey (Stephan and Wedepohl 1997, 6735, 70715)
and Rouen (Le Maho 2001). The discovery of NotreDame de Bondeville, Normandy (see below) and publication of the San Vincenzo deposits (Moreland 1985;
DellAcqua 1997) has in addition produced a quantity
of comparable coloured window glass of proximate date.
Characteristics of the glass

The visual attributes of the Wearmouth/Jarrow glass
were determined by Donald Harden, Margaret Firby,
Roy Newton and the author in the 1960s. The physical
appearance of the glass from the two sites is closely similar and the glass is of good durability, although there
are some fragments that have weathered more than others, or show stress cracks (Fig 27.1.18f; Newton 1985,
945). A non-quantitative analysis undertaken by
27: WINDOW GLASS
61
Fig 27.1.5 Pale, light and deep turquoise Anglo-Saxon window glass from Jarrow (no. 1385 with pink streaks). Scale 1:1. YB
62
Pilkingtons in 1966 established that the glass was of the

soda-lime variety and a quantitative electron probe
analysis by Frost confirmed this (Cramp 1970b,
3335). That broad distinction from potash glass has
been maintained in all the other more detailed analyses
since, although there are subtle shadings between sodalime and potash glass and Brill has been able to group
the material he examined into distinctive categories (see
Ch 27.2 below). This shading off between soda-lime
and potash has now been noted in other early glasses
(see Brill 1999a, 295; Evison 1988b; Henderson 1985;
1992; Heyworth 1992; Stephan and Wedepohl 1997;
Wedepohl et al 1997; Wedepohl 1999, 219). It is interesting also that some analyses have shown higher potash
content in the glasses with a more weathered surface
(see below; see also Biddle and Hunter 1990, 447).
The glass was, when first discovered, independently pronounced as cylinder-blown by Donald Harden
and by Hartley Wood of Sunderland, whose workshop
at that time still made glass by that method. The flamerounded ends and cut sides of the cylinders, the elongated bubbles in the metal, as well as the differences in
the two surfaces of many fragments the one shiny and
the other matt and striated, a distinction which is produced during the flattening of the cylinder in the
annealing process are clearly visible in many surviving samples. (For a full account of this production
method see Harden 1961, 414.) On some of the matt
surfaces the effects could have been produced by cooling and re-heating on a sandy wooden surface (see also
Appendix 27.2.1 below).
The thickness of the glass varied even in a single
quarry one for example varied between 1.5 and
3.0mm. The thinnest glass (MK no. 255) was about
0.7mm and the thickest (JA no. 219) about 4.7mm.
The colourless glasses were usually the thinnest and
the most intensely coloured were the thickest (compare
Fig 27.1.6, JA nos 1214 and 1379). This distinction
was probably intentional, but it is interesting that all of
this glass is markedly thinner than Roman window
glass or the later medieval window glass from the site,
some of which is also of good durability (see Ch 27.2
below). Other physical characteristics proved more
variable.
Shape
Many of the quarries are in geometric shapes: squares,
rectangles and triangles are all represented as well as
more complex shapes (see Fig 27.1.16ae), including
pieces with curved edges. As noted previously (Cramp
1970c, fig 1), some triangles could have been cut from
rectangular quarries.
Colour
The most difficult physical characteristic of glass to
describe consistently is colour. Colour perception, as is
common knowledge, varies from individual to individual
and, as Biek and Bayley state, depends basically on a

certain limited acceptance, by the eye, of selected radiation coming from an object in which, during reflection and transmission, some components have
absorbed part of the light falling on it (Biek and
Bayley 1979, 14). Since the main raison dtre of window glass is to transmit light, its colour should ideally
be defined in terms of transmitted light and so the reference chart for such colours should also be clear.
Among British archaeologists John Hunter has tried
most persistently and effectively to use common and
precise definitions for reporting glass colourants, at
one time using the standard ICI paint colours (Hunter
1980) or the CIE international colour system. Optical
signature techniques have also been used for identification of colourants when used in transreflectance
modes (Hutchings and Sanderson 1981). Although we
attempted to provide some spectrophotometric and
colour measurements for the glasses (Padgam archive
report) it was decided to provide in the catalogue
broad colour definitions which can be related to pantone colour charts, easily accessible to any reader. The
colours are defined in terms of colour range, not a simple 1:1 identification of hue. The colour chart (Fig
27.1.11) and the colour definitions of the individual
pieces in the catalogue are the work of Margaret Firby
and the author and we are indebted to Ken Jukes for
his patient digitising of the spectrum. However, it
should be noted that Brill uses the term aqua for pale
blue/pale green and this has been retained in his work
(Ch 27.2). Those glasses defined as pale blue/
turquoise/green and yellow green, should probably all
be seen as colourless, with different batches including
more or less iron and decolourants or heated to different temperatures. The other broad definitions are
shades of blue, turquoise, green, yellow green, greenish amber, brownish amber. There were also reds (the
rarest colour; Fig 27.1.17f and 27.1.19a, b.) and twocolour glasses including those with layers of red trails
and swirls embedded in greens (eg Fig 27.1.4, MK no.
177 and Fig 27.1.10) as well as two-colour greens and
amber (Fig 27.1.18a). One complete quarry from
Wearmouth, which was amber with darker amber
streaks, was further decorated with white marvered
trails (MK no. 234: Fig 27.1.4; Fig 27.1.18b; Cramp
1970b, LIVe), in the manner common on early
medieval vessels, studs, and gaming pieces (see Ch
31.4, glass objects GlO 17). The unique decoration of
this piece caused Harden to doubt if it could be window glass: its design is wrong and it is too opaque. He
preferred to consider that it is an inlay for a box, shrine
or even an altar, to be seen in direct and not transmitted light (Harden 1978, 8, pl Vb). It is true that the
white trails are best seen in reflected light, but there are
other unique pieces from these sites, and, as I have
stated elsewhere, streaked glasses such as this could
perhaps have been inspired by late antique alabaster
windows (Cramp 1970a, 16). There were also two
fragments of dichroic glass (JA nos 20 and 975,
27: WINDOW GLASS
63
Fig 27.1.6 Pale, light and deep blue and light and deep turquoise-blue Anglo-Saxon window glass from Jarrow. Scale 1:1. YB
Fig 27.1.18cd), which could have been used for special effects (see Ch 27.2 below) either in window glass
or in settings for liturgical objects.
More common than the streaked amber or green
streaked grey, or the dichroic blue/amber, are the green
or turquoise glasses that are streaked, trailed, or marbled with red (Fig 27.1.19). Red glass is extremely rare
in the 7th century, but at Wearmouth/Jarrow there are
fragments that are opaque red (Fig 27.1.19ab; Cramp
1975c, fig 4). Red window glass has been found elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon England only at Glastonbury,
but on most sites where Anglo-Saxon glass has been
found there is a small amount of red streaked glass (see
below). There is a considerable quantity of such
streaked glass from Wearmouth and Jarrow, with a
marked concentration in Building D (Vol 1, Fig 16.60).
The nature of this type of glass has been most recently

discussed by Vera Evison, who concludes, from the evidence of a crucible base with residues from the
Barbarathermen, Trier, that the marbling effect was
produced in the crucible before blowing, and not by a
layering technique during the blowing process (Evison
1988b, 2223 and fig 8). This is a reasonable deduction
for some pieces where the streaks and blotches are diffuse, and have sometimes a purplish colour where they
have melted into the basic blue-green metal (Fig
27.1.19). There is from Jarrow a fragment of amethyst
glass and several pinkish ones which could have been
produced in this way. The same process is seen in the
Whithorn glass where two fragments have an overall
pinkish or lilac colour (Cramp 1997, 329). There is,
however, another type of two-colour glass where thin
64
Fig 27.1.7 Pale and light green and turquoise-green Anglo-Saxon window glass from Jarrow. Scale 1:1. YB
threads and trails must have been applied during the
blowing process: they can be seen in cross section,
either just under the surface of the glass or lying at two
levels within its layers, sometimes crossing each other at
angles (see Fig 27.1.19d, f and Ch 27.2 below). The
effect is clearly contrived, and I have elsewhere suggested that some of the effects produced would have been
particularly suitable for indicating drapery (Cramp
1975c, 92).
It is possible that the glassmakers exercised only
imperfect control over their colour mixes, but this is a
matter that has been much debated. Theophilus,
II.vii.viii (Dodwell 1961, 402) describes the fortuitous way in which molten glass can change its colour
as it is heated further, and modern experiments have
shown that glass containing both iron and manganese,
as this glass does, could assume any colour from pale
blue (when fully reduced) through green, yellow,

brown, and pink to violet (when fully oxidised) by the
addition of oxygen to the atmosphere (Newton 1985,
100). How manganese was added as a decolourant has
been debated by Brill (see below) and also by Newton,
who would see this added to the mix in the wood ash.
It seems unlikely that it was added as a separate entity
since the colours which it characteristically produces
white/whitish clear, pink and purple are very rare in
the Wearmouth/Jarrow repertoire (eg MK nos 182,
206; JA nos 276, 312, 320, 535, 1349).
I have elsewhere compared the Wearmouth/Jarrow
colour range with that described in the Merovingian
glass from Sry-ls Mzires, France, and contrasted it
with the Byzantine glass from Ravenna, which does
include the pinks and strong purples (Cramp 1970b,
328 and notes). The San Vincenzo and Rouen glass
27: WINDOW GLASS
also seems to belong to the western continental range

of colour, but whether this tradition depends on a difference of ingredients or of furnace type and control is
not possible to say. Certainly there must have been an
element of serendipity in the manufacturing processes,
but the window composers (who were not necessarily
the same people as the glass makers), probably selected their shades of colours from a stock of the existing
sheets or even quarries, and could thereby achieve
quite subtle shading.
The analyses of the glass have proved that the
colours were produced, as might have been expected,
by metallic oxides: two fragments analysed by Cox
(MK no. 232, JA no. 220) were both a turquoise blue
and had very high levels of copper oxide. This has been
further tested by Brill who has noted the fact that the
Wearmouth blue glasses which he analysed contained
a mixture of copper oxide and cobalt oxide, while the
Jarrow specimens had only copper and no cobalt, with
the exception of the vessel glass (see Ch 33.2, vessel
glass catalogue). Aspinall independently tested for
cobalt and copper using NAA to measure long-term
radioactivity. He found cobalt in Wearmouth glass but
not in Jarrow, and also found a high mercury (Hg) element in the Wearmouth samples which he attributed to
a difference in sources of raw materials (Aspinall
archive report). The other colourants of the glasses,
including silver and gold in the dichroic glass, as well
as the changes produced by oxidising and reducing
conditions are discussed by Brill (Ch 27.2).
One other constituent of these glasses that has produced considerable scientific debate is the high lead
content in some of the glasses. This has been considered by Brill and, in a separate series of investigations,
by Tite and Freestone in order to sort out whether the
glazed pots and crucibles are of a similar composition
to the window glass. This has an obvious bearing on
the question of whether there is evidence for glass
manufacture on the site. The crucibles and residue
remains are discussed in separate reports (Ch 35).
Brill has defined three major groups of glasses,
which he calls Wearmouth, Jarrow, and Low Lime
glasses. The conclusion reached by all the analyses is
that the glass conforms to a western European tradition, that there are significant differences between
groups of glasses from Wearmouth and Jarrow, and
that the Wearmouth glass is closer to the continental
tradition as exemplified by San Vincenzo than is
Jarrow. Freestones analysis using Brills data separates
out the bulk of the Jarrow glasses as having lower levels of MnO and Sb2O5 than Wearmouth and San
Vincenzo. This could imply a local tradition established for a time at Wearmouth and then transferred to
Jarrow where it later diverged, or that we are seeing in
the glasses which make up the Jarrow group, which are
all from Building D, the work of the putative Mainz
glaziers or the import of glass blocks from another
source. Since so many of the quarries of glass in the
Building D area were fused together, one on top of
65
another, it is possible, as I have said elsewhere, that

they were stored as quarries rather than fusing into
blocks when the building was fired, but had this been
the case one would have expected similar colours to
have been stored together, and this is not so. This
problem is further discussed in the site analysis of that
area (see Vol 1, Ch 16).
The distribution of glass at Wearmouth

The distribution picture of the window glass from
Wearmouth is distorted, as is that of the Anglo-Saxon
architectural fragments with which it is reasonably
associated, by the fact that the centre of the building
complex, and the medieval cloister, had been used for
dressing back stone in the period when the site was in
course of reconstruction. It was also the area for
dumping material from what was most likely the clearance of the long gallery, Building B. If one ignores the
concentration in and around the fill of the pit/well
(1377) and recognises that in no place are there intact
Saxon layers of the type found in some places at
Jarrow, then some pattern does emerge. There is a
clear association of window glass, both plain and
coloured with the long gallery, Building B (see Vol 1,
Fig 9.33). Fragments were found alongside its walls
from the northernmost point where it is presumed to
join the southern wall of the church (the line of which
is indicated by four fragments of glass), to where it
joined Wall K in the south. There are no clusters large
enough to indicate windows, unless the significant
deposit around the sunken structure C can be interpreted as such. There are a small number of fragments
alongside Walls VI, F, and H and inside the structures
which they form. There was a denser distribution
alongside Walls 3 and 2, and this, which is reinforced
by the distribution of painted plaster (Fig 26.2.4
above) and opus signinum, does seem to indicate an
Anglo-Saxon building in this area.
The distribution of vessels, mounts, and millefiori
settings (see Ch 31.4, glass objects and Fig 31.4.5)
could indicate that the sacrarium to the south was situated between Walls V and VI (see Vol 1, Ch 16).
The Jarrow buildings

The Wearmouth group as defined by Brill also
includes two fragments (JA nos 188 and 191) from the
areas of Jarrow Building A and Building B respectively. This Wearmouth group Freestone has also noted
as containing significant quantities of MnO and Sb2O5
in a similar ratio to the glasses from San Vincenzo, so
that there is a clear distinction between the glass from
Wearmouth, together with these pieces from Buildings
A and B, and the other large and homogeneous group
from Jarrow Building D: JA 73 UZ (context 2018). It
is unfortunate that the majority of the glasses analysed
by Brill were from Building D and that there was not a
comparable number from Buildings A and B.
66
Fig 27.1.8 Deep turquoise-green and yellow-green Anglo-Saxon window glass from Jarrow (nos 880, 889 ribbed). Scale
1:1. YB
Coxs analyses (see Fig 27.1.20), which concentrated on Buildings A and B, revealed very little differences between the two structures but a rather higher
concentration of potash in a deposit of glass found
close to the first buttress east of the annexe (his no. 2),
which was all colourless and more weathered. It is
possible therefore that this was a replaced window.
Building A had suffered a fierce fire at the end of its
life: stone was discoloured, a layer of charcoal covered
the opus signinum floor at the east end, and the glass
from that area, which lay undisturbed, was all cracked
and distorted by heat (Fig 27.1.18f). The west end of
the building may have been reused at a later date and
no Anglo-Saxon ground surfaces survived. The surviving clusters of glass along the line of the south wall of
Building A indicate the position of at least two windows between the east end and the annexe (see Vol 1,
Fig 16.35), and there may well have been one other
window nearer to the east end, where a window head
was also discovered (AS48). The glass from this area
included some amber and deep blue, pale and light
green as well as blue green that were triangular and
rectangular in shape. Deposit no. 2 has been noted
above as being mainly blue-green/colourless and
weathered and severely warped by heat. Margaret
Firby calculated that the fragments of rectangular and
triangular quarries make up about 1120 sq mm, and
fragments without grozing about 270 sq mm approximately 1850 sq mm in all. Deposit no. 3 to the east
also included some dark blue and some amber glass.
There were some fragments of glass at the west end of
the building but not enough to cluster into a window
position. Two clusters of glass on the north side of the
building could also indicate the position of windows:
both of these deposits contained some amber, blue,
and red streaked glass (Cramp 1970b, pl LIVb). Glass
from this building and from Building B was subsequently set in a window in St Pauls chancel (Figs
27.1.12 and 27.1.15c).
Building B had likewise suffered a severe fire at the
end of its life, and a major group of glass lay among a
deposit of ash at the east end of the chapel (see Vol 1,
Fig 16.36). The glass was heat shattered and no complete quarries survived, but the fragments that did were
rectangles or triangles in a full range of colours:
turquoises, blues, greens, amber, and red streaked. A
scatter of similar colours to the north and south of the
main building indicated that there were other windows, but they could not be precisely located. Some
glass fragments from the northern part of the site
including one of the dichroic fragments (JA no. 20; Fig
27.1.18c) and one red (JA no. 64; Fig 27.1.19b) may
have derived from the church, but it is impossible to be
certain of this.
27: WINDOW GLASS
67
Fig 27.1.9 Amber and greenish amber Anglo-Saxon window glass from Jarrow (JA no. 1705 with thumb-print). Scale 1:1. YB
The distribution of glass over Building D (Vol 1,
Fig 16.60) is totally different from that elsewhere. Not
only are there more fragments about 1289 from the
building but they are widely dispersed over the entire
length of the building with the greatest concentration
in the eastern half, about 3.05m south from the north
wall with a scatter beyond the east and west walls. This
distribution has been analysed according to colour
(archive plan) and according to the distribution of
glasses that joined (several joining fragments were
found a metre apart and fragments of one quarry were
as much as 2.2m apart), but no conclusive explanation
of the distribution emerged. Most of the glass is badly
heat cracked and warped; some quarries, as previously
stated, are fused together. Since fragments of millefiori
rods and crucibles were also found on the floor of this
building, it was originally conjectured that the glass
might have been gathered together in a workshop. It
now seems more likely that the dispersed deposit represents what was left when the glass windows exploded
with heat, some pieces falling to the north and some to
the south of the wall. It is possible that the glass was
then raked over to retrieve the leads and the fragments,
if any, which were not affected by the fire. Despite the

fact that this area yielded the most impressive range of
colours from the whole site including a substantial
amount of red and red streaked glass (Cramp 1975c,
fig 4), most of the surviving glass was slightly distorted
by heat, and a good deal of it had picked up a layer of
sandy earth as it had lain on the floor of the room, so
that it could have been considered unsuitable for reuse.
On the other hand, the distribution of glass in the collapse level above the floor (Vol 1, Fig 16.64) shows a
cluster of fragments near to a collapsed window head
(AS49).
The reconstructed figure

The range of quarry forms and how they are related to
colours have been enumerated elsewhere (Cramp
1975c, 914). It was clear from the first analysis of the
glass from Building D that there were quarries of widely varying shapes: squares, rectangles, triangles, diamonds, and a significant group (which embraced almost
all the pale colourless glass), which were carefully
grozed into curves (Fig 27.1.14; Cramp 2000, fig 2).
68
Fig 27.1.10 Red and red-streaked Anglo-Saxon window glass from Jarrow. Scale 1:1. YB
Some of these curved quarries were tiny and some
quite large but it was the most unusual shapes that
demanded attention. There was one complete red
quarry in a half circle and the curve fitted exactly a Vshaped piece in deep turquoise blue. Other quarries in
turquoise greens and blues were carefully grozed into
narrow curving strips. There were several truly colourless pieces, one of which closely resembled a head with
perhaps part of a brown beard (Fig 27.1.16e), the others two feet, one half turned and the other frontal.
These appearances of human form, together with the
semicircle in the V which is so reminiscent of the
draped figures of apostles in Insular manuscripts in
which an undergarment shows beneath the outer drapery (see for example Alexander 1978, 31, 224, 253)
emboldened us to think of a window depicting a
27: WINDOW GLASS
69
Fig 27.1.11 Colour range of Anglo-Saxon window glass. KJ

human figure. The pale blue curving fragments could
be reconstructed into an arched frame, and the
turquoise curves seemed to indicate a shoulder line.
Given a reasonable height of about ten times the height
of the head, there was certainly enough glass to form a
standing or seated figure. That was as far as seemed
possible to presume. It would be possible to assume
that the drapery of the presumptive figure was shaded
to give the impression of folds, and that the large
quarries with rich red streaks could indicate a draped
background, but the figure remains a conjectural

restoration. It is possible that in the future, patient
rethinking of the surviving quarries will produce a different solution for their complex shapes, but it is a reasonable supposition that the quarries contain the
elements of a human figure. The most complete and
unwarped quarries were mounted by the York glaziers
in leads of the same scale as the early medieval cames
found on the site (see Ch 26.6, lead), and in such a
manner that they could be taken apart without damage
70
Fig 27.1.12 Fragments from Buildings A and B used to create circular window now in south wall of St Paul's church. MF, YB
Fig 27.1.13 a. Quarries from Building D used to create rectangular window (BWM-R), MF, YB, and b.Rectangular quarries from Building D used to create square window (BWM-S), MF, CU, both now in Bedes World Museum
27: WINDOW GLASS
71
Fig 27.1.14 Quarries and fragments from Building D used to reconstruct figural window now in Bedes World Museum
(BWM-F). MF, YB
The setting of the glass

to the glass (see archive report). This exercise was very
illuminating since the leading added life to the figure
in a very striking way (Fig 27.1.15b). The strong
emphatic lines of the features and drapery in such manuscripts as the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Durham
Cassiodorus (B.II.30) seem reminiscent of the effect.
Even small areas of colour are not lost but emphasised
by the leads. Other complete quarries were sorted into
diamond shapes and square forms and have been
mounted for display together in the Bedes World
Museum (Fig 27.1.15a, d).
Many of the complex shapes of the glass quarries are

quite small, and have been carefully shaped by pincers,
the cuts of which are very fine indeed when the glass is
especially thin. When a straight cut edge (see Fig 27.1.1,
MK no. 255; 27.1.3, MK no. 103) or a rolled edge (Fig
27.1.6, JA no. 1214; 27.1.9, JA no. 23) survives, this has
been left if the shape was as required but some edges
have been partially reshaped by pincers. Cutting of glass
or semi-precious stones into small complex shapes has
of course a long tradition in Anglo-Saxon jewellery
72
Fig 27.1.15 Leaded windows at Jarrow as reconstructed: a. Rectangular. b. Figural. c. Circular. d. Square (all but c are
from glass from Building D). MF, KJ
27: WINDOW GLASS
73
Fig 27.1.16 Shapes of window glass. a. Rectangular quarries from Jarrow. b. Diamond shaped quarries from Jarrow.
c. Acute-angled triangular pieces from Wearmouth. d. Triangular quarries from Jarrow. e. Non-geometric quarries from
Jarrow. MF, KJ
74
Fig 27.1.17 Colour range of window glass. a. Pale greenish (colourless) quarries. b. Pale to deep green. c. Pale to deep blue.
d. Light to deep turquoise. e. Greenish amber. f. Light and dark red. MF, KJ
Fig 27.1.18 a. Amber quarries from Jarrow. b. Amber quarry with white marvered trails from Wearmouth (MK no. 234).
cd. Two examples of dichroic glass (blue in reflected light/amber in transmitted light) from Jarrow (JA nos 20 and 975).
e. Ribbed green glass from Jarrow (JA nos 636, 1232, 1233). f. Fragments of glass cracked by heat and with weathered surfaces, high potash content (from south wall of Building A). MF, KJ
76
Fig 27.1.19 a. Semi-circular red glass enclosed in leading from Wearmouth (MK no. 2). b. Red glass (MK no. 98 and JA
no. 64). c. Finely streaked red on green quarries from Jarrow. d. Heavily streaked red on green quarries from Jarrow.
e. Detail of a heavily streaked quarry from Jarrow. f. Microphotograph of glass with applied trails. MF, KJ
27: WINDOW GLASS
77
Fig 27.1.20 Cox EDXRF analysis (1981). a. Pale greenish glass with weathered surface from south of Building A, Jarrow,
no. 165. b. Deep turquoise green glass from Wearmouth (no. 273), showing higher copper peak, which determined colour. A
Cox
(Bruce-Mitford 1978, 447547), when the glass is set
in gold or copper alloy cloisons. (I have mentioned
elsewhere the theft of a glass window from the church
at Yzeure, France, by a Gaulish jeweller as quoted in
Gregory of Tours (Cramp 1975c, 95).) One would
expect then that given the technology for the casting of
cames that it would be an easy transition from copper
alloy to setting glass in lead. A few cames of lead have
been found at both Wearmouth and Jarrow in undisputedly Anglo-Saxon contexts, but always combined
with lead slivers and melted lumps (see Ch 26.6, lead
report). For example, from Jarrow context 2018 (the
layer of silt which overlaid the floor of Building D
before the building collapsed over it, and which contained only Middle Saxon material), there were five
strips or slivers, several of them twisted, four discs (two
of them pierced), a rectangular fitting, more than forty
fragments of melted lead varying from droplets about
6mm long to irregular sheets about 90 60mm, and
two came fragments with heavy flanges and of a curved
H section (see Ch 26.6, Pb8586). As mentioned

above, the glass fragments are very dispersed in this
building, and there had been a large hearth constructed at the west end in a secondary phase of activity
which contained a deposit of melted lead (Vol 1, Ch
16). It therefore seems probable that most of the lead
from cames and roofs was recycled, and that the glass
was usually set in lead cames that were then held in
wooden frames. These wooden frames could account
for the significant quantities of charcoal which were
found associated with the glass and leads. I have considered elsewhere alternative means of setting the small
quarries, whether in plaster with spigots, as in
Byzantine glass, or possibly with lead grilles superimposed on the glass and held in wood framing (Cramp
1975c, 94). In the latter case, however, there would be
no need to cut the quarries exactly. The panel of interlace cut into a flat sheet, which was found as a screwedup ball among demolition debris at Wearmouth, does
suggest that grilles of lead may sometimes have been
78
applied to glass to give complicated decorative effects

(Ch 26.6, Pb84). This lead pattern may, however, have
decorated something like a reliquary.
Summary conclusions
The answers to the questions posed at the beginning of
this section are not entirely conclusive. The glassworkers brought to Wearmouth from Gaul could have
been trained in the eastern Mediterranean, and could
indeed have imported raw glass from that area, as both
Brill and Freestone have suggested. The sources of
such distinctive continental traditions are not easy to
identify, partly because there is not a substantial
amount of analytical evidence for comparison, particularly from France where the closest parallels clearly
occur, but also because if raw glass was being imported from the Eastern Mediterranean to various
European centres this could disguise differences in
production centres. Likewise, if itinerant craftsmen
were involved this also would blur the picture.
Nevertheless there may be close links between the various British ecclesiastical sites; it is noteworthy that the
likeness
between
the
San
Vincenzo
and
Wearmouth/Jarrow glass, for example, is, in physical
appearance, not as close as between Wearmouth/
Jarrow, and Whithorn or Repton. The chemical compositions of San Vincenzo are similar, as Brill points
out, but are closest to the Wearmouth glasses, and the
main group of Jarrow glasses seem very different (Ch
27.2 and 27.3). So far, in view of the few analyses of
comparable date which we have, it is impossible to say
that there was an undisputed link with any external
production centre, but the differences which have been
noted in the compositions of the glasses and the versatility in the shaping and composition of the panes
could imply that there may have been local modifications of glass in whatsoever form it had been imported
to the sites.
Some differences of composition observed in glasses from the sites are indicative of a change noted elsewhere in Europe during the 8th to 10th centuries,
namely a change from the Roman soda-lime to a mixed
alkali tradition (see Henderson 1992, and Heyworth
1992, Bayley 2000a; Wedepohl 2001). This change
may have been gradual and sporadic in different areas,
but the soda-lime composition of the Glastonbury
glass has been accepted by Evison as one reason for redating that material from the 10th to the 8th century
(Evison 2000b, but also Brill 1999a, 2947). Some differences between the glasses at Wearmouth/Jarrow
could well be chronological, reflecting changing technologies or sources of supply, as likewise the compositional differences between much of the window glass
and some of the vessels could indicate a different
source of supply for finished vessels. It should nevertheless be remembered that the glass-workers from
Gaul imported by Abbot Benedict are reported to
have made not only window glass but also vessels,
and Abbot Cuthberts letter to Mainz asking for glassmakers (Vol 1, Appendix A3.7) expected that they
would also be making glass vessels. At Paderborn and
Glastonbury also there was evidence for the manufacture of both vessel and window glass. It is possible,
however, that there was a greater breakage of vessels
than of windows, and so a greater need for buying in
new material, although in two hundred years some of
the window panes may well have needed replacement.
The south window of Building A at Jarrow and the
mixed types of glass found in the deposits in Building
D (see Ch 27.2) could well signal such replacement.
The evidence for small-scale glass working at
Jarrow is indisputable, as the crucibles, hearth, and
waste products indicate, but the glass residues on the
small crucibles (see Ch 35) are of a high-lead glass
which, as Bayley has shown, is of a type which is otherwise known from Gloucester, Lincoln, and York,
where it was made or melted in the 10th or 11th centuries (Bayley 1979; 1982). This glass seems to have
been used exclusively for small trinkets such as beads
or rings, not window-glass, but the distinctive debris of
trinket making is not present at Jarrow. The problem of
these crucibles is, however, discussed in relation to the
crucibles and the glazed pottery in Ch 35.1, and their
use does not seem to be related to the making of glasses for windows. One crucible is, however, large enough
for melting a substantial quantity of glass (see Ch 35.1
and Bayley 1984) and might have melted glass for
some replacement panes. The larger site of Wearmouth
would be expected to be the major craft centre, and so
far the area near to the River Wear, where on analogy with Jarrow such craft working could have been
located, has not been excavated. There are, however,
certain residues and fragments of what may be kiln
waste which could indicate that there was glass working nearby (see Ch 35.1, residues).
Wearmouth and Jarrow in comparison

with other sites
At the time when these sites were excavated very little
window glass was known from contemporary sites elsewhere in the British Isles or on the continent. The situation in 2001 is very different, since more than a
dozen British sites have now produced some window
glass. These sites are: Barking, (Heyworth 1992, 170);
Beverley (Henderson 1991); Brandon (Evison 1991,
88, 66y, and Cramp forthcoming a), Brixworth
(Hunter 1977), Dacre (Newman and Leach forthcoming); Escomb (Cramp 1971); Flixborough (Cramp
forthcoming b), Glastonbury (Harden 1978, 710;
Bayley 2000b; Evison 2000b); Hamwic/Southampton
(Harden 1959; Hunter 1980; Hunter and Heyworth
1998); Old Windsor (Harden 1961, 54); Repton
(Cramp and Heyworth forthcoming); Thetford
(Harden 1961, 534); Uley (Price 1993, 189); Wells
(Rodwell 2001, 481 pl XIII); Whitby (Evison 1991,
1434, 107j); Whithorn (Cramp 1997) and
27: WINDOW GLASS
Winchester (Biddle and Hunter 1990). Brandon has

produced a large quantity of mainly colourless glass,
and there are significant quantities of strongly coloured
glass from Whithorn and Winchester, with rather less
from Glastonbury, Repton, Dacre and Beverley, all of
which are ecclesiastical sites (Cramp 2001).
Nevertheless in the quantity of glass retrieved, and the
range of quarry shapes and colours, the material from
Jarrow is outstanding.
The evidence for glass making, as opposed to glass
working, sites in Britain is so far very slender and only
two sites have produced firm structural evidence for
large-scale production. Four furnaces were excavated
at Glastonbury Abbey, between 1955 and 1959
(Radford 1958), and a full evaluation and publication
of the evidence has recently been undertaken by
Justine Bayley (2000b). The furnaces were oval in plan
and about 4ft to 6ft (c 1.221.83m) across and showed
evidence for several firings. They had been very efficiently demolished after use and it was not possible to
be certain of the shape of their superstructures
although their fills contained reused Roman tiles and
lumps of both oxidised and reduced fired clay with vitrified surfaces and dribbles of glass on them (Bayley
2000b, 173). Whether parts of the same furnace were
used for both melting and annealing glass, or there
were separate furnaces for each process (as the excavators originally suggested) remains uncertain, but this
seems to have been quite a large-scale operation, and
belonging to a single episode. Radford certainly considered the furnaces all belonged to the same stratigraphic horizon. The study of the glass (Evison 2000b)
has shown it to be all of one period, although one
which is not yet very closely dated (Bayley 2000b). The
excavators dated the glass to the late 9th or 10th
century, at a period after the reestablishment of
monastic life by Dunstan c AD 940. Evison has, however, suggested that this glass working episode could
belong to the period when King Ine of Wessex (AD
688726) first built a stone church on the site. In support of this conclusion she puts forward the facts that,
Only soda glass is represented and the finds include
several distinctive fragments of soda glass which can be
closely matched in form and colour at other late
7th8th century sites (Evison 2000b, 194). In this
case the glass is closely comparable with that from
Wearmouth/Jarrow, but the change from soda to mixed
alkali glass is still not closely datable throughout
Britain. It is interesting, however, that all of the intact
furnaces included both vessel and window glass as well
as, in two cases, beads (Bayley 2000b, table 3). The
waste products included fragments of pots, about
180mm in diameter, and some raw material for working including the corner of a slab of dark emerald glass
and square and cylindrical rod fragments. There were
also fragments of vessels as well as a mosaic cane and a
bichrome rod (Harden 1978, 10). The nineteen fragments of window glass were cylinder blown, and
included fragments of light blue, green/blue,
79
brown/amber, brown/red, green and red streaked, a

range of colours also found at Whithorn, Repton and
Flixborough.
At Barking Abbey two furnaces, about 2.5m in
diameter and lined with ceramic tiles, have been
found, the clay floor of one having been dated by
archaeomagnetism to AD 92560 (MacGowan 1996).
The furnaces have been presumed to be associated
with glass manufacture since a pit near to one of them
has yielded substantial glass-working remnants as well
as vessel, window glass and reticella rods (Webster and
Backhouse 1991, 913, fig 67). A full report of this
important site is awaited.
It is interesting that Barking, like Glastonbury, produced some sherds of strongly coloured glass, and that
the other ecclesiastical sites mentioned in the introduction to this section have all produced a few similar
sherds, while the secular sites have so far produced only
uncoloured window glass in various shades of green. As
with Glastonbury the predominant colours for the glass
from the ecclesiastical sites is pale to light blues, greens
and light greenish amber, and only Wearmouth and
Jarrow have produced pure reds and a range of
two-coloured streaked glass, although Beverley, Dacre,
Flixborough, Glastonbury, Repton, Whithorn,
Winchester and York have some red-streaked glass.
Whithorn and Repton also have small amounts of deep
turquoise blue, and in fact have produced the largest
quantity and nearest colour range to Wearmouth and
Jarrow. However, none of the British sites has produced
painted decoration on glass, as has survived in some
quantity from the beginning of the 9th century onwards
on the continent (Le Maho 2001, 122, and below).
On the continent, recent finds have provided some
close similarities with the mosaic of shapes from
Wearmouth and Jarrow. In 1999 excavation of the
church of Notre-Dame de Bondeville, Normandy,
revealed a church of the late 7th century abandoned in
the first half of the 8th century, and associated with the
building were pieces of glass, green, yellow or blue,
some still in their leads, cut into a mosaic of shapes,
some apparently parts of figures. Similar pieces were
associated with a stone building of 8th-century date at
Vieux (Le Maho 2001, 1224), while at Sion, Sous-leScex, triangular and rectangular fragments of window
glass in blues and greens have been excavated from a
church site (Goll 2001, 88, fig 2). These sites in
Normandy may well provide a hint as to the origin of
the Gaulish glaziers who were summoned to
Wearmouth.
The publications of sites from the Carolingian period onwards have, however, demonstrated great
advances in the range of decoration of glass at that
time; for example from Farfa Abbey, Italy, there were
fragments of two-colour green streaked, one fragment
of red striped with black and green and seven painted
fragments, one with an elaborate palmette (Newby
1991, fig 3a); at Rouen some glass was painted with
floral designs and part of a Carolingian inscription
80
(Le Maho 2001, figs 17); at Mustair a range of

strongly coloured glasses in a variety of shapes has
been discovered (Goll 2001, 8898, figs 58); while at
San Vincenzo al Volturno and at Paderborn a large collection of strongly coloured glasses in one and two
colours or painted, and a wide variety of quarry
shapes, have been discovered (Stiegemann and
Wemhoff 1999, 1605, 1802, figs 636, 8992;
DellAcqua 1997). These continental sites demonstrate that in the 9th and 10th century glass quarries
became larger, as well as more varied in decoration
no doubt as a concomitant of larger windows. It is a
sad lacuna in the British evidence that so far no window glass with painted decoration has been forthcoming from buildings of the 10th to 11th century and in
fact, with the exception of Winchester, that no quantity of window glass has been found in relation to the
reformed monastic churches.
The earlier finds from Wearmouth and Jarrow show
a versatility and inventiveness in combining line and
colour which is quite distinctive. Indeed the leading, in
the case of the Jarrow figure for example, is reminiscent of the heavy outlining of figural details and the
folds of garments which is so characteristic of the illustrations in Hiberno-Saxon manuscripts such as the
Lindisfarne Gospels. One can now begin to envisage in
glass compositions comparable artistry, and possibly
stylistic distinctions, to compare with that found in the
better known Anglo-Saxon productions in other media
such as metalwork and manuscripts.
Appendix 27.1.1 Catalogue of window glass

by M Firby et al
Introductory note
The glass is listed in running numbers for each site, by
site code, trench, context, and context phase. This is
followed by: Colour; number of grozed edges (G);
number of rolled or flame rounded edges (R); shape
(S) whether curved [C], diamond [D], irregular [I],
parallelogram [P], rectangular [R], rhomboid [Rh],
square [S], triangular [T]; and completeness (C), in
which 1 = complete, 2 = nearly complete, 3 = half, 4 =
corner, 5 = fragment, ? = completeness unknown. The
description of each fragment is necessarily brief and
only the most distinctive characteristics are noted.
Measurements, given in millimetres, are maximum
dimensions; the very smallest featureless fragments
from Jarrow were not measured. The archive version of
this table includes all drawing and photographic
reference numbers; here only the pieces illustrated in

the report are cited. The Report column covers those
pieces referred to in both published and archive reports.
With the exception of a few pieces at Corning (listed in
Brills report, Ch 27.2, Appendix 27.2.2) and at
Pilkingtons Glass Museum, all of the Wearmouth
glasses are in Sunderland Museum. The Jarrow glasses
are at Bedes World Museum with the exception of the
pieces set in the round window of St Pauls chancel,
noted as Church. Some of the pieces in the museum
have been set in leads for display (see Figs
27.1.1427.1.15); these are cited as BWM-F = figural
panel; BWM-R= rectangular panel; BWM-S = square
panel. Most individual fragments of glass have been
separately accessioned and numbered by the museums.
1986
2192
1155
1155
1155
689
1156
687
1165
1165
1165
687
1166
1166
1166
1166
1166
1145
1166
1166
1166
347
347
347
347
347
347
347
347
347
347
347
347
347
347
347
878
878
878
1167
1167
1167
1167
1167
1167
1167
1167
6004
6003
6104
6104
6104
6104
6103
6104
6105
6105
6105
6104
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6102
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6107
6107
6107
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
EC
EM
CE
CE a
CE b
DB
DI
DJ
DZ
DZ a
DZ b
EH
EK a
EK b
EK c
EK d
EK e
ER
ES a
ES b
ES c
FG a
FG b
FG c
FG d
FG e
FG f
FG g
FG h
FG i
FG j
FG k
FG l
FG m
FG n
FG o
FJ
FJ
FJ
FUa
FUb
FUc
FUd
FUe
FUf
FUg
FUh
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
60
60
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
61
Trench Cont
No. Code
EPM
Med 1
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
Saxon
Saxon?
Saxon/Med
Med 1
Med 1
Med 1
Saxon/Med
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
Saxon
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
Modern
Modern
Modern
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
Conphase
Pale yellow green
Ruby & opaque
Light blue
Pale green
Pale green
Pale green
Blue
Light green
Deep blue
Light blue
Light blue
Pale turquoise
Pale blue
Deep green
Pale blue
Pale blue
Pale blue
Pale green
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale green
Light green
Pale green (aqua)
Pale blue
Pale green
Pale green
Pale green
Red
Green
Green
Blue green
Green
Amber
Deep green
Deep blue/green
Light green
Dark green
Clear
Blue
Bright green
Pale blue
Pale blue
Pale green (aqua)
Green
Green
Deep blue
Colour
Wearmouth Anglo-Saxon Window Glass
2?
1
1
2?
1
1
2
1
1
2?
1
1?
Rh
R?
C?
C?
Short cylinder edge; cracked

Thick.
Iridescent.
Iridescent
Very bubbly.
Internal strain cracks
Curved
Featureless
Featureless
Featureless
Featureless
Iridescent
Very iridescent
Clear and unweathered
Iridescent surface. One striated. Fixing line

Slight iridescence and some cracks
Shiny with some bubbles
Thick
Iridescent with elongated bubbles. One striated
Iridescent with elongated bubbles. One striated
Slight iridescence. Bubbly
Iridescent surface. Cracked, striated & bubbly
Featureless
Featureless
Featureless
Featureless
Striated and bubbly
Iridescent with oval bubbles
Featureless
Featureless
Internal strain crack
Slightly iridescent and matt. Surface scratched

Glass with lead mount half disc shaped
Slight iridescence.
Iridescent.
Description
35
43
15
9
13
21
30
22
24
21
27
20.5
28
15
13
11
11
14
17
14
15
25
26
31
20
26
29
28
17.5
12
16
14
15
31
15
13
16
30
27
16
15
30
36
26
17
0
11
L
28.5
26
6
9
5
10
11
12
10
7
9
8
13
7
10
2
4
10
10
14
5
5.5
10
12
11
9.5
10
8.5
7
11
10
12
12
12
10
9
13
15
3
8
4
25
25
21
5
0
8
W
1.5
2.8
1.5
2
0.8
1.2
2
1.6
3
3
3.5
2
2.5
1.25
2.25
0.75
2
2.6
1.2
1.5
1.8
0
2
2
2
2.5
2.5
2.5
1.5
2
2.5
0
0
1.5
0
0
1.25
1.75
2.5
2.75
3
2
2
1.5
0
0
0
Th
27.1.1
27.1.1
27.1.1
27.1.2
27.1.1
27.1.1
27.1.3
27.1.1
27.1.3
27.1.4
Fig
Location
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Brill
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden, Padgham
Harden
Brill
Harden
Brill
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Cox
Report/
analysis
27: WINDOW GLASS

81
1167
1167
1167
1167
1167
1167
1167
1167
1167
1167
1167
1167
1167
1167
1167
1167
1167
1167
1168
1168
1156
1156
1156
688
1156
1182
1183
1183
1168
1147
1161
1172
2214
1176
694
1635
1666
1666
1666
1664
1666
1647
1666
1666
1714
1714
1714
1714
1670
1670
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6105
6103
6103
6103
6104
6103
6105
6105
6105
6103
6101
6103
6105
6103
6103
6104
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6202
6202
6202
6202
6201
6201
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
61 FUi
61 FUj
61 FUk
61 FUl
61 FUm
61 FUn
61 FUo
61 FUp
61 FUq
61 FUr
61 FUs
61 FUt
61 FUu
61 FUv
61 FUw
61 FUx
61 FUy
61 GH
61 GK
61 GK
61 GL
61 GM
61 GM
61 HJ ?
61 HQ
61 IB ?
61 IH
61 IH
61 IX
61 JB
61 JK
61 JL
61 JO
61 JZ
61 KG
62 CF
62 CI
62 CI
62 CI
62 CQ
62 DF
62 DJ
62 DX
62 EI
62 EMa
62 EMb
62 EMc
62 EMd
62 EPa
62 EPb
Trench Cont
No. Code
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
Saxon?
Saxon?
Saxon?
Saxon
Saxon?
Med 2/EPM
Med 2/EPM
Med 2/EPM
L Sax
U/S
Saxon?
Med 1
L Sax
Med 1
Saxon
EPM
EPM
EPM
EPM
EPM
EPM
L Sax
EPM
EPM
EPM
EPM
EPM
EPM
L Sax/Norman
L Sax/Norman
Conphase
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Green
Dark green
Light blue
Red
Pale turquoise
Bright green
Pale green str purple
Light green
Light green
Light green
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Green
Pale green
Light turquoise
Pale green
Pale green
Pale yellow green
Pale yellowish blue
Pale blue
Pale blue
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
Mid blue
Light turquoise
Light turquoise
Light turquoise
Pale green
1
Pale green
Light green
Pale green
Pale green
Light green
1
Light green
Light green
Light green
Light green
Light green
Light green
Light green
Light green
1?
Darkish turquoise
Pale green
Light green
Pale green
1
Deep brownish amber
Pale turquoise
Pale green
Colour
T?
C?
Uneven surface. 1 slightly matt. Possibly vessel?

Shiny and iridescent. 1 side striated
Featureless
Featureless
Slightly iridescent. 1 striated
Slightly iridescent
Featureless
Shiny. Contains dark impurity
Good surfaces. 1 striated. Bubbly
Iridescent
Iridescent
Iridescent
Iridescent
Tiny bubbles. Slightly curved
Matt surface. 1 striated. 1 scratched
Scratched
Many bubbles, fairly shiny
Very thick. Clear. Weathered
Iridescent/matt. Strain cracks. 1 curved cut

Fine bubbles. Surfaces good
Internal strain cracks.

Featureless
Featureless
Featureless
Featureless
Featureless
Featureless
Featureless
Featureless
Featureless
1 cut edge
Strain cracks
Tiny bubbles. 1 strain crack. 1 shiny, 1 matt
Very bubbly. One edge ground matt
Thick
One straight cut edge
Shiny. 1 edge finely polished
Featureless
Featureless
Featureless
Featureless
Description
18
16
0
10
19
11
19
11
12
9
18
13
9
7
7
13
8
25
21
9
12
10
17
17.5
23
17
16.5
17
22
40
22
0
0
22
15
27.5
24
14
14
29
25
9
21
18
21.5
27
21.5
22.5
21
29
L
5
4
0
7
18
5
8
7
7
7
5
6
2
3
6
8
6
18
17
4.5
12
4.5
3
12
15
7.5
4.5
7.5
13
25
12
0
0
11.5
10
10
5
11
8
19
17
8
9
12
19.5
11.5
15
12
11
9
W
1.4
3
1.8
2
1.5
0
2
2
2
1.5
2.5
2
2.5
1.5
2.25
2
1.8
1.8
2.5
3
1.4
1.2
1
2.8
1.2
1
1.6
1.4
1.2
9.5
1.5
0
0
2
0
1.2
2.2
1.5
1.2
1.9
1
1.5
1
1.75
1.5
1.4
0.5
1
1
2
Th
27.1.1
27.1.1
27.1.3
27.1.3
27.1.2
27.1.2
27.1.4
27.1.3
27.1.2
27.1.3
Fig
Location
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Lost
Harden
Harden, Padgham
Report/
analysis
82
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
62
62
62
62
62
62
62
62
62
62
62
62
62
62
62
62
62
62
62
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
6202
6202
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6405
6403
6403
IJ
IM
IU
IV
JO
JY a
JY b
AAG
AAK
DW
ET
HK ?
JK
LL
LZa
LZb
LZc
NP
OH
OO
QAa
QAb
QAc
QAd
QAe
QAf
QAg
QAh
QAi
QB ?
QH
RS
1672
1672
1696
1194
1672
1672
1672
1517
1467
1345
1345
1355
1
1372
1376
1376
1376
1385
1382
1387
1474
1474
1474
1474
1474
1474
1474
1474
1474
1336
1386
1402
6201 1692
IC
1672
1683
1929
1663
1685
1653
1187
1690
1672
1696
1672
6201 1672
6201 1642
6201 1672
98 62 ER
99 62 FH
100 62 FV
FW
FX ?
FY
FZ
GL
GO
GQ
HC
HP
HS
HT
Trench Cont
No. Code
Saxon
Saxon
L Sax
Med 1
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
LS/EM
Med
Med
Med
Modern
LS/EM
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
LS/EM
EPM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
Med 2
Med
LS/EM
L Sax
Saxon
L Sax
Med
LPM
Norman?
Med 1
Med
L Sax
Saxon
L Sax
Saxon
Saxon
EPM
Saxon
Conphase
Amber
Light green str red
Light turquoise
Light green
Green
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Clear
Pale green
Deep turquoise blue
Dark blue
Clear
Pale blue
Light green
Blue green
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale green
Yellow green
Very pale turquoise
Blue
Blue green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Pale green
Pale turquoise
Very pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Clear
Pale yellow green
Deep red
Light green/olive
Light green
Pale blue str red
Pale blue
Emerald green
Green
Deep blue
Red
Pale green
Pale turquoise
Colour
1
1
1
T
PT
T
T
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
T
T
T
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2?
1?
C?
19
15
16
23
22
22
18
14
11
30
15
38
30
18
27
19
17
Str green. Uneven surfaces
29
Uneven surfaces
19
9
Striations
24
12
Thick. May not be glass? Possibly rock crystal
20
16
18
Iridescent and bubbly
24
Curved
17
Iridescent and bubbly. Tip broken off
33
Iridescent and bubbly.
33
Point of a triangular quarry.
23
Bubbly and matt surface.
13
Bubbly and matt surface
10
17
Iridescent
16
Surfaces good but uneven. Elongated bubbles
18.5
Slightly iridescent & bubbly. 1 shiny, 1 matt.
30
Iridescent. Pentagon shape, not flat. 1 possible cut edge 45
55
40
20
22
Cracked.
28
13
24
Possibly part of a triangle
18
Bubbly marked surface. Impurity causing thickening 18
Weathered surface
28
Glossy.
Featureless.
Short cylinder edge. Flame rounded corner.
Bubbly & uneven
Striated, bubbly and scratched
Not used
Slightly uneven surfaces
1 edge straight & 1 curved. Surfaces uneven.

Matt with a few bubbles. Weathered.
Pale red splashes. Iridescent and featureless
Matt, some iridescence
Deeper red streaks. 1 matt and 1 glossy.

2 pieces. Circular groove and raised ridge
Iridescent. 1 smooth & 1 striated. 1 edge rounded.
Thick
1 shiny, 1 matt. 1 edge part rounded. Bubbles
Description
15
16
17
15
3
12
6
6
12
5
10
11
24
22
14
10.5
6
5
11
14
20
30
30
45
9
18
7
9
17.5
14
11.5
23
19
11
3
21
12.5
17
13
11.5
7
14
11
23
18
9
15
2.4
1.25
2.5
2.5
1.75
1.5
0
3.25
1.75
1
2.25
0
1.25
1.5
2
1.5
1.5
1
1.25
1.25
1.2
1.3
0
2.5
0
1
0
1.25
0
1.4
1
2
1.6
2
0
1
1.75
1.75
1
0.5
0.5
2.8
2.2
2
2.5
2
Th
27.1.3
27.1.3
27.1.2
27.1.3
27.1.2
27.1.2
27.1.2
27.1.2
27.1.
27.1.3
27.1.1
27.1.3
27.1.2
27.1.2
27.1.3
27.1.4
27.1.4
27.1.1
27.1.3
27.1.3
27.1.3
27.1.4
Fig
Lost
Lost
Location
Lost
Harden
Harden
Brill 2487 Corning
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Report/
analysis
27: WINDOW GLASS

83
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6602
Dark
6603
6602
VY 1
VY 2
WB 1
WB 2
WB 3
WK
XD
XN
178 64 XQ a
179 64 XQ b
180 64 XY
181 64 YN
182 64 YZ a
183 64 YZ b
184 64 YZ c
185 64 Yzd
186 64 ZM
187 64 ZP
188 64 ZS
189 66 FT
1846 EPM
191 66 HB
192 66 HL
TC 2a
TC 2b
TC 2c
TD
TG
TX
TX
TX
UD
UR
UW 1
UW 2
UW 3
VP 1
VP 2
VP 3
6403
6403
6403
6403
6401
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
1435
1435
1439
1449
1457
1457
1457
1457
1458
1461
1498
97
green
1738
1862
1416
1416
1418
1418
1418
1423
1440
1434
1483
1483
1483
1407
1284
1472
1472
1472
1491
1495
1411
1411
1411
1413
1413
1413
1396
1482
1401
1401
1401
1406
1483
1483
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
RY
SC
SZa
SZb
SZc
TB
TC
TC 1
Trench Cont
No. Code
Pale turquoise
Pale green
Pale turquoise
Light blue
Clear/whitish
Light blue
Light turquoise
Turquoise
Deep amber
Pale turquoise
Green
Pale green
Amber
Light turquoise
LS/EM
Med 2
Pale green
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale blue
Very pale green
Turquoise str purple
Pale blue
Light green
Pale green
Pale green
Pale blue
Light turquoise
Light turquoise
Pale blue
Light turquoise
Light turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale yellow green
Pale olive green
Pale blue
Pale turquoise
Light turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale green
Light turquoise
Green
Light green str wine
Colour
L Sax
L Sax
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
L Sax
E Med
LS/EM
LS/EM
EPM?
EPM?
EPM?
LS/EM
Saxon
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
Saxon
E Sax
E Sax
E Sax
Saxon
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
L Sax
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
Conphase
T
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
1?
1
1?
2
1?
1
28
C?
C?
C?
18
30
19
17
22
51
13
27
Iridescent
Thick
Iridescent & bubbly. 1 side striated
7
Bubbly. Shiny surfaces

Point of a quarry
Bubbles & crack. Uneven surfaces. Tip of triangle

1 striated. 1 uneven surface
Bubbly. Matt surfaces. Rounded edge
Iridescent.
One edge rounded
29
20
18
17
20
26
11
9
27
11
14
42
2
23
19
Streak? Bubbly & iridescent. Part of 1 straight cut edge23

Iridescent & bubbly. Strain cracks
18
Iridescent & bubbly. Strain cracks
16
Iridescent & bubbly
31
Iridescent
15
Slight iridescence
39
Slight iridescence
21
19
Slight iridescence. Scratched. 1 side striated
21
Slight iridescence. Curved striations. Bubbles
29
Slight iridescence
16
Slight iridescence. Thick
21
Slight iridescence
16
Bubbles.
34
Surface cracks.
20
Bubbly. 1 side cylinder edge & 2 opposite short
45
edges grozed
43
Featureless
12
Part fractured. 1 surface uneven
16
9
5
Surfaces matt. 1 striated & pitted
22
Iridescent and bubbly. Scratched
22
Bubbly. One edge straight cut
39
Bubbly. Rounded corner
Good surface. Curved. Thick

Bubbly and shiny but uneven. Two cut edges
Heat warped
Heat warped
Slight iridescence.
Very bubbly with surface iridescence
Description
18
6.5
16
16
4
5
18
16
9
9
15
8
3
20
35
5
10
3
4
17
16
26
15
5.5
8
22
11
7
8
4.5
12
19
7
4
14
20
5
23
8.5
19
10.5
6
5
34
2
24
27.1.1
27.1.3
27.1.4
27.1.1
27.1.3
27.1.1
27.1.1
27.1.4
27.1.3
27.1.2
Fig
1.5
27.1.2
1.3
2.5
1
27.1.1
0
0
1.75 27.1.2
1.75 27.1.2
1
2.5
3
1.8190
?
1.25
2.2
1.5
1.5
1.75
1.25
1.5
1.75
1.5
2.5
1.5
1
1.75
1.5
1.25
2
2.5
1
4
2.5
1.5
3
1.8
2
1.5
2
3.5
1
2
3
1.5
2
0.75
2
Th
Location
66 GH
Harden
Brill 3051
Brill 3052
6602
Harden
Harden/Cramp 1970a
fig 2a
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
Harden
BM exhibition 1986
Harden
Harden
Report/
analysis
84
69
69
69
69
235
236
237
238
HH 2
HH 3
HH 4
HQ
6901
6901
6901
6901
6901
6901
6903
6901
69
69
69
69
231
232
233
234
CW b
CW c
GP
HH 1
6603
6603
6603
6603
6603
6602
6602
6603
6602
6601
6602
6602
6602
6601
6601
6602
6602
6602
6601
6602
6603
6603
6603
6601
6602
6702
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
6702
6702
6901
66 JC
66 JD
66 JE
66 JL
66 JL
66 LF
66 LH
66 NW
66 OP
66 QB
66 QR
66 RA
66 RN
66 SF
66 SK
66 SM
66 SY
66 SZ
66 TB
66 TC
66 UB
66 UC
66 UH
66 UR
66 VM
67 DR b
67 DU
67 DU
67 EM
67 EV
67 EY
67 FC
67 GC
67 GD
67 GK
67 GR ?
67 HB ?
69 CW a
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
1042
1042
1042
969
1011
1011
918
1042
1784
1776
1784
1744
1744
1856
1870
1776
1896
1607
1931
1915
852
1609
1551
1788
1784
1789
1551
1906
1784
1752
1790
1610
1911
2131
2058
2058
2058
2075
2077
2078
2086
2065
2089
2150
2152
1011
Trench Cont
No. Code
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
LS/EM
EPM
EPM
EPM
L Sax
Saxon
Med 1
Saxon
Med 1
Med 1
EPM
Med 1
Med 1
Med 2
L Sax
LPM
Saxon
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
Saxon
Saxon
L Sax
LS/EM
Saxon
Saxon
L Sax
Saxon?
Saxon
EPM
Med 2/EPM
Med 2/EPM
Med 2/EPM
Med 2/EPM
Saxon
L Sax
Med 1
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
EPM
Conphase
Light
Light
Light
Light
green str red

green str red
green
green (aqua)
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Light turquoise
Amber
Amber
Pale turquoise
Light turquoise
Light green
Blue
Light turquoise
Pale blue
Light green
Light blue
Green
Light green
Light turquoise
Pale green
Clear/whitish
Pale green
Pale green
Pale green
Amber
Light green
Light turquoise
Light turquoise
Pale blue
Pale turquoise
Green
Light green
Light turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale green/colourless
Light turquoise
Pale green/colourless
Light bluish
Light green
Pale green
Pale turquoise
Light turquoise
Blue green
Light blue
Pale turquoise
Colour
1?
3
2
1
2
3
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
T
T
4?
4?
C?
Joining fragments
Joining fragments
Tiny fragment
Clear. Curved striations. Grozed away from matt.
1 cut edge
Bubbly
Slightly clouded
Bubbly
Few bubbles and impurities. Striated. Thick.
1 cut edge
Very bubbly, slightly iridescent
Cracked
Heat warped and surface bubbled. Thick
3 looped white trails parallel with long edge,
shading and veining
Very bubbly. Good surface, 1 striated

Bubbly with slight iridescence. Ground edges?
Two dark streaks. Bubbly
Slightly bubbly. Thick

Bubbly and scratched
Bubbles
Iridescent
Major part of a quarry

Fine bubbles. Iridescent and uneven surfaces
Fine bubbles, matt & iridescent
Chipped edges, twisted & cloudy

Short cylinder edge. Bubbly
Slight iridescence. Fine bubbles
Small & featureless
Small & featureless
Parallel cracks. Thick
Fine bubbles & iridescent surfaces. Chipped edges
One cylinder edge.

Slight iridescence. Strain cracks
Bubbles, matt and striated
Matt surface and bubbles. Large flake chipped out
Thick & clear
Iridescent and bubbles
Slight iridescence
Bubbly & slightly iridescent
Iridescent
Description
16
9
9.5
19
13
8
12.5
12.5
11
13
17
12
11.5
7
4
6
18
11
30
19.5
14
4
8
0
10
12
16
7
12
7
7
10
16
6
9
15
4
44
14.5 13
13
9
11
1.5
45
39.3
21.5 11
36
5.3
30
17.5
81.7 40
29
22
27.5
22
26
28
21
17
12
18
24
17
19.5
12
9
17
20
16
45
23.5
20
15
14
0
11
23
30
10
14
15
18
12
21
15
16
20
13
53
2
2
1.5
2.2
2.4
1
4
3.3
1.25
2
2
2
2.75
2.25
1
1.7
1.2
1.5
2
1.2
0.8
0
2
3.4
1.7
0
2
3
1.5
1
2
0
1.25
3.5
2
1.5
0
1.5
2
1.5
2
1.5
2.5
1.3
2
3.2
Th
27.1.3
27.1.4
27.1.2
27.1.4
Fig
Lost
Brill 2489
?
Lost
Hunter
Location
Cramp
1970 pl 54e;
2000 col pl
Report/
analysis
27: WINDOW GLASS

85
GC b
GH
GH
GQ
GR
HW
HY
JB 1
JB 4
JB 6
JB 7
7402
7401
7401
7402
7401
7401
7401
7401
7401
7401
7401
74
74
74
74
74
74
74
74
74
74
74
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
137
262
262
179
264
2212
478
2213
2213
2213
2213
1042
1042
1050
979
936
601
715
606
718
605
618
624
639
639
639
639
639
639
638
638
638
638
638
638
638
638
639
639
639
342
343
343
650
400
230
250
262
137
6901
6901
6901
6901
6903
7101
7105
7101
7105
7101
7101
7101
7101
7101
7101
7101
7101
7101
7101
7101
7101
7101
7101
7101
7101
7101
7101
7101
7101
7103
7103
7103
7101
7103
7401
7401
7401
7402
69
69
69
69
69
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
74
74
74
74
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
IF a
IF b
IZ
JA
JH
EE
FX
GC
HK
HT
HX
JG
KL a
KL b
KL c
KL d
KL e
KL f
KV
KV
KV 3
KV 4
KV 6
KV 9
KV 10
KV 14
LA 12
LA 13
LA 3
MD
MO
MO
MQ
MW
CD
FE
FZ
GC a
Trench Cont
No. Code
Med 2
Med
Med
Med
Med
LS/EM
Saxon?
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
Saxon
EPM
LPM
EPM
EPM
Med2
EPM
LPM
Med
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
Med
Med
Med
Saxon
Med 1
EPM
Med
Med
Med 2
Conphase
Pale green yellow

Pale green
Pale green
Pale turquoise
Light green
Pale green
Light green
Light turquoise
Pale yellow green
Olive green
Light turquoise
Blue
Very pale (aqua)
Light green
Very pale (aqua)
Green
Light turquoise
Colourless
Light yellow green
Turquoise blue
Blue
Deep turquoise
Light turquoise
Light turquoise
Light turquoise
Pale green
Light blue
Pale blue
Pale green str yellow
Blue
Greyish
Light blue
Blue
Pale green
Light blue
Deep green
Pale green
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Deep green
Pale green
Deep blue
Colourless
Pale green
Light turquoise
Light turquoise str
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Light yellow green
Colour
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
3?
1
1?
1
1
4?
R?
T
T
I
T
T
1?
C?
25
57
41
Many oval bubbles. Matt with curved striations
60
Heat warped. Very uneven & pitted on one side
28.3
Shiny clear with tiny bubbles. 1 side striated
17.5
Uneven, heat warped, bubbly
11
62
6
26
Bubbly and cracked
30
Strain cracks. 1 matt & 1 uneven. Tiny bubbles
26.5
Bubbly but clear. Whole quarry?
61.2
Cracked. Bubbly and striated
39
Heat warped. Thin cylinder edge. Strain cracks
15
Bubbles and impurities. 1 striated. 1 pitted
21
Bubbly, iridescent and uneven. Very fine grozing
15
Matt surface. 1 striated. Elongated bubbles. 1 cut edge 24
Clear
9
Clear. Chip of glass
4
Bubbly, iridescent
18
Clear and bubbly
25
Bubbly. Slightly warped. 1 cylinder edge
26
Iridescent. 1 striated. Longitudinal cracks
24
Clear and bubbly
35
Bubbly, iridescent. 1 striated. 1 grooved
23
1 matt. 1 curved striations. Parallel scratches
33
Parallel striations. 1 cylinder edge. Bubbly
27
Bubbly, warped & striated. Very fine grozing
26
Pitted surfaces
20
Bubbly. 1 side feather striations. 1 smooth
16.5
16
One side striated. Bubbly
15
Bubbly and shiny surfaces
19
Red streak
30
Clear
30
Bubbles and good surfaces. 1 slightly striated.
21
Many elongated bubbles. Discoloured surface.
62
Red streak
Streaked/wine
52
Bubbles. Surfaces slightly iridescent & scratched
22
Bubbles
20
Bubbles
21
Cracks and bubbles. Slight iridescence
31
Tiny bubbles, iridescent and 1 side striated
36
13
Shiny and slightly iridescent
12
11
19
Iridescent & striated. Heat warped & bubbly
30
Curved striations. Trapezoidal
Description
32
18
17
17
9
22
9
10
3
7
29
20
28
23
28.4
18
12
11
26.5
3.5
7
14
9
24
17.5
7.5
12
11.5
20
3
3
5.5
14.5
20
8
17
7
22
20.5
18.5
7
14
8
11.5
15
21.5
23
13
26
2
1.3
1.5
2
2.4
2.5
1.5
2.5
1.3
1.8
1.5
0
2.2
0
1.3
4.1
2.4
1.5
0
1
0
2.5
3
3.8
2.8
1.5
1.8
0.7
2.2
1
0
2
2
1.5
2
1
1.3
2.5
1.8
1.5
1
2.5
0
2
1.2
0
2
1.8
2
Th
27.1.4
27.1.3
27.1.4
27.1.2
27.1.3
27.1.2
27.1.1
27.1.3
27.1.2
27.1.2
Fig
Location
Lost?
Cox, Padgham
Cox
Padgham
Padgham
Brill 2488
Cox, Padgham
Report/
analysis
86
7
8
10
12
502
502
502
502
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon?
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Conphase
65 AAM
65 ADJ
65 AEC
65 ALK
66 BF
66 BS
21
22
23
24
25
26
LZ
ME
MH
QA
TR
821
58
5553
5437
5585
6601 310
6601 373
6507 293
6510 169
6507 294
6507 5738
6508
6511
6506
6501
6506
65
65
65
65
65
16
17
18
19
20
120
96
98
98
98
98
96
180
180
180
180
180
5425
5332
58
6302
6302
6302
6302
6302
6302
6302
6509
6509
6509
6509
6509
6501
6511
6511
63
63
63
63
63
63
63
65
65
65
65
65
65
65
65
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
FH
FM
FW a
FW b
FW c
FW d
GB
GW
HA
HA a
HA b
HA c
HO
HT
KH
Trench Cont
No. Code
LPM
LPM
Med 1
Med 1
L Sax
L Sax
LS/EM
LPM
EPM
SaxonMed
Med 1
Med 1? (dist)
ML Sax
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
ML Sax
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
Med
EPM
LPM
Conphase
Jarrow Anglo-Saxon Window Glass
JN
JN
JN
JN
7401
7401
7401
7401
74
74
74
74
295
296
297
298
500
501
501
502
502
502
502
7401
7401
7401
7401
7401
7401
7401
74
74
74
74
74
74
74
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
JH
JJ
JJ
JN
JN 2
JN 5
JN 6
Trench Cont
No. Code
Green
Greenish
Pale green
Green
Pale green
Amber
Dark green
Green
Brownish amber
Blue
Milky blue/amber
R?
T?
2?
1
1
Pale green
1
Pale green
1
Green
Green
Green
Green
Dull brown (opaque)
Green
Light blue green
Bluish aqua
Bluish aqua
Bluish aqua
Amber
Green
Green
2
Colour
Pale green
Light turquoise
Light yellow green
Light turquoise
Pale green
Pale turquoise
Light turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale yellow green
Pale green
Pale green
Colour
1?
C?
C?
Iridescent and scratched
Large elongated bubble
Lycurgus dichroic type, cf 73 UZ 341
Heat cracked
Circular raised ridge on one face
Slightly curved
Large bubble
Iridescent and decayed

Surface cracks, iridescent. 1 surface striated

1 side shiny, 1 side matt and striated
Description
Bubbles & iridescence. 1 shiny, 1 striated. Curved

side grozed
1 surface striated and 1 matt
A few bubbles. Shiny surfaces
Good surfaces. Corner fragment
Shiny surfaces, few tiny bubbles
Bubbly. Surfaces good but iridescent

Good shiny surface with very few bubbles
Bubbly. Good surfaces. Part of one removed
Description
20
24
25
32
28
28
25
1.5
19
20
10.5
23
22
22
25
20
29
16
12
22
21
10
21
28
0
47
13
15.5
17
15
31
33
21
19
14
11
22.5
8
19
24
7
28
25
20
1.5
10
14
18.5
9
13
14
23
12
12
8
10
4
7
9
14
23
0
37
8.5
8.5
8
4.5
12
12.5
11.8
11.5
6.5
3
13
3
1.5
2.5
1.25
2
3
0.15
1
2.2
2
1.2
1.75
2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.75
1.75
2
1
1.5
2.5
2
0
1.5
Th
1.5
1.7
1.5
1.5
0
1.8
1.3
2
1
1.2
1.3
Th
27.1.7
27.1.9
27.1.8
Fig
Fig
Location
Location
Cramp
1970, pl 54b
Cramp
1970, pl 54b
Cox; Cramp
1970, pl 54c,d
Bradford
Lost
Cramp
1970, pl 54b
Report/
analysis
Cox
Cox
Brill 2486
Report/
analysis
27: WINDOW GLASS

87
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
HW a
HW b
JY
JY ?
KS 72
KZ 41
LA 42
LB 37
LB 37a
LB 37b
LC 43
DP a
DP b
DP c
FC
FF 5
FF 5
FF 6a
FF 6b
FF 6c
FF 6d
FF 6e
GH
GH
GM
GM
GM
GQ 31
GS
GU
GV 13
GV 16
GV 19
GV 23
GY 52
GY 53
GY 54
GZ 50
GZ 51
GZ 55
HJ
HP 14
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
28
28
318
318
564
39
39
39
39
39
39
374
374
374
38
35
39
39
39
39
39
39
40
40
5913
5913
5913
561
37
5950
38
38
38
38
553
553
553
39
39
39
562
354
432
432
432
382
303
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
66
66
66
66
66
27
28
29
30
31
CK a
CK b
CK c
CM
CU
Trench Cont
No. Code
Med
Med
LS/EM
LS/EM
Med 2
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM?
Modern
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
Med 2
Med 2
Med 2
Med 2
LPM?
Med 2
LPM?
LPM?
LPM?
LPM?
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LPM
LPM
LPM
Med
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
EPM
LPM
Conphase
Green
Dark red
Light green
Green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue
Blue green
Blue green
Bluish
Deep green
Blue green
Blue green
Very deep blue
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Green
Blue/white
Greenish
Green
Blue green
Blue green
Amber
Green
Green
Blue
Green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Light blue green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green str red
Colour
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
3
2
R?
R
T
C?
Slightly curved. Iridescent
Iridescent
Iridescent
Iridescent
Iridescent
Fine stress marks
Fine surface line across one corner. Bubbly
Iridescent
Iridescent
Small round & oval bubbles. Matt but not flaking
Bubbled
Iridescent
Bubbly and iridescent
Iridescent and bubbly. 2 pieces join together
Iridescent
Pitted. Large bubble

Bubbled, iridescent
Iridescent. Cf 66 MQ
Heat warped. Joins FF 6e

Heat warped. Joins FF 6d
Bubbly
Bubbly. Shiny surfaces. One face has a ridge-like area
Bubbly
Some red marks. Joins 66 MK
Iridescent
Heat warped
2 fine red lines
Line scratched across
Description
20
26
0
24
12
28
30
17
15
22
9
35
32
30
35
47
12
28
12
15
29
16
16
21
15
23
0
31
14
15
31
14
16
21
17
63
43
17
11
9
11
46
24
31
20
26
28
18
16
0
12
10
16
17
12
10
15
4
34
29
16
21
28
11
9
11
7
16
13
12
13
7
10
0
7
10
26
14
8
10
14
9
39
9
13
11
4
7
30
10
21
9
10
19
1
1.75
0
2.5
1.5
2
1
1.5
1.5
1.5
1
2.75
2
2
2.5
1.75
1.5
1.25
1.25
1.5
1.5
1.5
1
2
0.75
2.25
0
1.5
1
1.2
1.5
0
2
1.5
1.25
1
1.5
1.25
1.5
1.25
2
2.5
0
0
0
2.25
1.75
Th
27.1.10
27.1.5
Fig
Location
Brill
Brill
London
Poly
Cox
Brill
Brill
Newton
Church
Church?
Lost
Corning
Corning
Padgham; Church?
Cramp 1970,
pl 54b
Cox
Brill
Report/
analysis
88
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
42
42
431
5913
43
43
43
43
43
43
43
43
43
43
43
43
43
46
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
66 LD 32
66 LE 40
66 LF 34
66 LG 38
66 LH 44
66 LJ 33
66 LK 35
66 LL 47
66 LM 48a
66 LM 48b
66 LN 49
66 LN 49
66 LO 36
66 LP 46
66 LQ 30
66 LR 28
66 LS 21
66 LT 12
66 LU 24
66 LV 22
66 LW 18
66 LX 17
66 LY 20
66 LZ 26
66 MA 45
66 MB 11
66 MC 15
66 MD 39
66 ME 29
66 MF 14
66 MG 27
66 MH 25
66 MK 74
66 ML 75
66 MM
66 MO
66 MQ 2
66 MQ 65
66 MQ 66
66 MQ 68
66 MQ 70a
66 MQ 70b
66 MQ 70
66 MQ 70
66 MQ 70
66 MQ 71
66 MQ 71?
66 MQ 73
66 MQ 73b
66 NY 101
Trench Cont
No. Code
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LS/EM
LS/EM
Med 2
Med 2
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
Conphase
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Greenish amber
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green with red
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Bluish
Blue green
Blue
Blue green
Amber
Very deep+F139 blue
Blue green
Blue green
Deep green
Pale blue (aqua)
Green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Green
Pale green
Colour
Semi-opaque. Fine line across one corner
Heat warped
Description
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
3?
1
1
1
2
2
1
Hx
Thin and bubbly
Bubbly
Bubbly and clouded

Bubbly. Fine line across one corner
Bubbly
Joins 66 FC
Clouded and bubbly
Clouded and bubbly
Hexagon shaped. Joins 66 PYa
Fine lines on surface

Slightly warped
Heat warped, irregular

Heat warped, irregular. 2 pieces join
Heat cracked
Iridescent. Joins 66 LY
Bubbly
Iridescent
Iridescent, scratched surface
Joins 66 LT
Scratched
C?
Scratch across glass
G
24
11
13
13
19
13
10
15
17
15
11
8
14
12
18
17
15
44
14
29
16
33
22
15
22
42
42
8
19
16
13
19
26
26
18
65
0
26
13
33
21
18
36
18
40
24
13
18
18
16
L
18
7
7
7
7
12
8
15
7
5
9
4
11
9
8
13
19
30
6
17
14
17
20
9
13
41
15
7
16
7
9
12
13
13
17
33
0
20
11
9
9
8
13
15
9
7
7
12
10
11
2
0.75
1.75
1.25
1.5
0
2.5
1.5
1
2
0
2.5
0
1.75
1.75
0.75
1
1
1.5
1.25
1
1
2.25
1
1.5
1.25
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
1.75
1.5
1.75
2
1.25
1
2.75
1.5
1.5
1
1.25
1.25
2
1.75
1.5
0.75
Th
27.1.7
Fig
Cox
Report/
analysis
Church
Location
27: WINDOW GLASS

89
46
44
47
318
318
318
318
318
318
318
318
318
318
318
318
318
431
431
431
563
370
5845
5845
5959
5959
563
16
361
361
361
361
319
319
319
319
319
345
5845
5845
5845
5845
362
524
362
362
362
362
362
5801
5845
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
66 NY 111
66 OS 57
66 PO 135
66 PY a
66 PY b
66 PY c
66 PY d
66 PY e
66 PY f
66 PY g
66 PY h
66 PY i
66 PY j
66 PY k
66 PY l
66 PY m
66 QA
66 QK
66 QK
66 RD
66 RM
66 SE 8
66 SE 18
66 SF
66 SF
66 TM 139
66 TU
66 TW
66 TW a
66 TW b
66 TW c
66 UE
66 UE a
66 UE b
66 UE c
66 UE d
66 UF
66 UH
66 UH
66 UH 26
66 UH 30
66 VA 20
66 VB 7
66 VC 5
66 VC 8
66 VC 10
66 VC 12
66 VC 13
66 VV 42
66 VX
Trench Cont
No. Code
LS/EM
Med 1
LS/EM?
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
Med 2
Med 2
Med 2
EPM
Med
LPM
LPM
Modern
Modern
LS/EM
Saxon?
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LS/EM?
LS/EM?
LS/EM?
LS/EM?
LS/EM?
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LS/EM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LS/EM
LPM
Conphase
Dark green
Green str red
Green
Deep green with red
Deep green
Deep green
Deep green
Deep green str red
Deep green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Deep green
Deep green
Deep green
Deep green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Light blue green
Green
Green
Blue green
Blue green
Green
Green
Green
Amber
Amber
Amber
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Blue green
Amber
Green
Blue green
Green
Blue green
Pale green
Blue green
Green
Blue green
Green
Blue green
Blue green
Green
Deep clear green
Colour
1
1
2
T
T
C?
15
22
15
32
15
10
13
11
43
Bubbly
36
25
12
Bubbly. Joins 66 PYa, b & f
30
Bubbly. Joins 66 PYa, b & f
24
Bubbly
13
Bubbly
11
Bubbly
23
16
13
Cracked and slightly warped.
24
Matt, bubbly. Parallel striations on one side
23
Decayed
16
Opaque and decayed
23
Faint trace of decoration? Cloudy
29
Cloudy
7
8
Bubbly
19
13
39
8
23
Thin and bubbly
22
Thin and bubbly
24
Thin and bubbly
23
Thin and bubbly
12
Thin and bubbly
12
18
Clear
10
Cloudy
13
26.5
Cloudy
30
Iridescent. Pale greenish amber in transmitted light 22
Bubbly. Slightly cloudy. 1 shiny, 1 matt.
26
Iridescent.
16
Cloudy surface
23
Cloudy surface. Heat warped
23
Melted
13
Cloudy
23
Bubbly
47
9
Fracture lines
Bubbly
Bubbly. Fine lines
Bubbly. Joins 66 MO
Bubbly
Bubbly
Bubbly
Bubbly
Description
7
10
14
27
13
9
6
4
40
18
11
6
29
9
4
3
12
5
8
9
23
8
8
15
7
6
16
5
5
3
5
19
18
13
12
11
10
4
6
12
7
18
22
6
12
16
9
15
10
7
W
1.25
1.25
2
1.5
1.5
2
2
1.5
2
0
1.75
1
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.1
1
1
2
2.1
0
0
0
0
1.5
1
1
1.75
1.75
1.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
1.3
0.75
1.5
2
0
1.2
4
1.5
1.5
2
0
1
1.75
1.5
Th
27.1.10
Fig
Church
Location
Cox, Freestone
Cox
Cox
Cox
Cox
Newton
Report/
analysis
90
GG a
GG b
GG c
GP
IC
KG
MB
MB
MB a
MB b
MD a
MD b
NR
PI
PZ
RO
SV
UA
UT
VG
VG
WG
WI a
WI b
WI c
WJ
WM a
WM b
WP a
WP b
XA
6901
6901
6903
6901
6902
6903
6903
6903
6903
6903
6902
6902
6903
6903
6902
6902
6903
6904
6904
6903
6903
6902
6902
6902
6902
6903
6902
6902
6901
6901
6901
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
3060
3060
3060
3066
3099
3060
3175
3175
3175
3175
3177
3177
3178
3231
3323
3271
3296
3155
3384
3266
3266
3313
3383
3383
3383
3178
3385
3385
3145
3145
3229
362
364
5814
5861
198
703
446
203
203
230
5246
679
680
647
683
656
3010
3032
6601
6601
6601
6601
6701
6701
6702
6701
6701
6701
6702
6703
6703
6704
6703
6704
6902
6904
66
66
66
66
67
67
67
67
67
67
67
67
67
67
67
67
69
69
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
VY 37
WX
WZ
YZ
EY
EZ
GK
GR
HD
HV
LA
MQ
NM
PA
PB
SB
EN
EW
Trench Cont
No. Code
Colour
LS/EM
LS/EM
LE/EM
EPM
EPM
LS/EM
Med 2?
Med 2?
Med 2?
Med 2?
EPM
EPM
LS/EM
Saxon
Med 1b
Med 2
LS/EM?
Med 1?
Saxon
LS/EM
LS/EM
Med 1
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
LS/EM
Saxon
Saxon
LS/EM
LS/EM
Saxon
Light blue
Very pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Light bluish green
Green
Blue
Pale green
Greenish turquoise
Green
Blue
Green str red
Pale green
Pale green
Very pale green
Pale green
Pale green
Pale green
Light green
Pale green str red
Clear pale green
Pale amber
Dark turquoise
Green
Green
Greenish amber
Pale green
Light green
Blue green
Deep turquoise blue
Light green
Clear
LPM
Blue green
LPM
Blue green
Saxon 2
Green
Med
Blue green
SaxonMed 1 Green
LPM
Green
LS/EM
Pale green
LPM
Green
LPM
Pale green
Med 1
Pale blue green
L Sax
Pale green
LS/EM
Amber
L Sax
Deep blue
LS/EM
Light green
Saxon
Light green
Saxon
Green str red
LPM
Green
Med 2
Deep turquoise
Conphase
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
T
T
Rh
C?
Joins 69 WP b
Striations
Translucent
Heat cracks. 1 surface matt with striations
Opaque. Very few small bubbles

Cloudy
Matt surface. Small bubbles
Heat fractured. Joins 69 YD

Opaque, with scattered small bubbles
Clear
Bubbly
Bubbly
Slightly warped
Clear with scattered round bubbles

Oval bubbles
2 matt surfaces. Striations
With dark line

Heat cracked
Iridescent.
Cloudy and iridescent

Cloudy and iridescent
Bubbly
Cloudy and bubbly
Thick
Iridescent
Slightly warped
Slightly bubbly, cracks
Slightly clouded
Clear and bubbly
Clear.
Description
28
30
14
22
31
65
19
17
0
0
27
23
16
24
35
13
17.5
28
16
19
20
13
22
19
18
38
12
25
27
35
7
66
16
20
16
18
28
25
24
27
23
12
12
33
20
38
9
20
37
21
14
9
16
13.5
19
14
5.5
0
0
24
19
4.3
13
26
10
12
16
8
10
4
12.5
9
18
15
20
6
12.5
9
17.5
6
26
6
15
13
15
11
16
9
15
7
9
3
6
7
24
9
12
11
1.8
1.2
1.8
2.3
0
3.2
2
2
0
0
0
0
2
1.1
0
1
1.3
3
2
2
1.2
1.5
0
0
0
2
2.2
4.7
1.5
1.5
0
1.25
0.75
1
1
3.5
2.5
1
1.75
1.25
1.25
1.2
1.5
1.75
1.25
1
0.75
1.3
0
Th
Fig
Church?
Church
Church
Church
Church
Location
Church
Church
Church
Cox; Freestone
Cox/Bradford
Cox; Freestone
Brill&Cox
Brill
Brill
Lost
Lost
Church
Church
Church
Church
Church
Church
Brill
Brill
Cox
Cox
Brill 2474;
Freestone
Church
Church
Cox
Report/
analysis
27: WINDOW GLASS

91
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
XN b
XN c
XT a
XT b
XT c
YD
YD
YD a
YD b
YD c
YH
YT
GG
HP
JZ
MN
OV
PF
QW
RH
RQ
RW
RW
RW a
RW b
SE
SV
TV
UB
UB
VL
WJ
WQ
6902-44433
6902-44433
6902-44439
6902-44439
6902-44439
6901 6033
6901 6033
6901 6033
6901 6033
6901 6033
6901 3417
6901 3167
7003 3828
7001 4896
7001 4888
7005 4197
7001 4898
7001 4920
7003 3863
7001 4898
7004 3626
7001 4898
7001 4898
7001 4898
7001 4898
7001 4898
7002 4340
7005 4251
7001 4898
7001 4898
7001 4898
7005 1
7001 4972
6901 3229
6901 3229
6901 3229
6901 3229
6901 3229
6901 3229
6901-33395
6901-33395
6901-33395
6901-33395
6901-33395
6901-33395
6901-33395
6901-33395
6902-44431
6902-44433
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
XA
XA a
XA a
XA b
XA b
XA c
XE 3
XE 4
XE 5
XE 6
XE 7
XE a
XE
XE
XF
XN a
Trench Cont
No. Code
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
LS/EM
LS/EM
LPM
LPM
Med
Saxon
Med
Med
Saxon
Med
Saxon
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med 1
Saxon?
Med
Med
Med
Modern
LS/EM
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
L Sax
Saxon
Conphase
Cracked and very bubbly

Small round bubbles. Joins 69 XE 4
See 69 XE 3.
Cut edge? Many small bubbles, matt both sides
Slightly pitted
Striations on one side, many bubbles

Small bubbles
Slightly bubbly
Many small bubbles
Description
26
17
20
17
17
26
34
21
43
51
37
35
30
37
5.5
55
Joins 69 XN b. When joined all edges are grozed.

Very weathered surface. Thickness varies enormously
See 69 XN a
24
27
Cut for church
33
44
14
Heat warped, with scattered bubbles
52
Round and elongated bubbles. Joins 69 KG, 69 YD b 40
Bubbles
33
Bubbly. Joins 69 KG, 69 YD
20
Cf 69 YD b
22
Many oval bubbles of varying size
20
Few scattered bubbles, shiny surfaces
34
25
52
17
19
25.7
23
23.5
19
20
18
Uneven
28.5
Joins 70 RW b.
35
See 70 RW a. Joined
0
12
17.3
21
Curved striations
40
25
18.5
20
15
C?
Heat warped
Bubbly. Striations
1?
2
3
1
1
1
2
1
Pale green
Pale green
Pale green
Pale green
Pale green
Clear bluish green
Clear blue
Pale blue green
Blue
1
Blue
Clear amber
2
Clear pale green
2
Dark green
Pale green
Pale green
Very pale green
Pale green
1?
Greenish aqua str red
Greenish aqua
1?
Pale green
Pale green
Blue
Light blue green
1
Greenish aqua
1?
Greenish aqua
1
Green
Light green
1
Light green str red 1?
Deep blue
Green str red
Greenish aqua
Light green
Greenish aqua
Clear mid green

Clear pale green
Olive green
Clear pale green
Green
Clear green
Pale light green
Pale light green
Pale yellow green
Clear light green
Pale green str red
Blue
Mid green
Light blue
Emerald green
Pale green
Colour
17
21
28
13
13
27
24
8
11
15
11
21
23
31
9
14
11
9
7
18
13
8.5
25.5
20
0
8
8
4
19.5
18
11
17.4
5
17.5
10
17
14
13
18
16
11
22
25
20
19
29
8
4
42
3
0
0
0
0
3.7
3.2
1.7
3.2
2
3
3
0
3
2.5
1.5
2
2.2
1.7
0
0
1.6
2.8
1.4
0
2.3
1.4
1.5
2.8
0
2
1.5
1.6
1.75
1.6
2
1.6
1.2
1.75
1.7
1.5
2.3
1.3
0
2.2
3.2
2.4
1
3
Th
27.1.7
Fig
Brill
Cox
Report/
analysis
Church
Church
Church
Church
Church
Church
BWM-C
Church
Church
Church
Church
BWM-C
Church
Church
BWM-F
Church
Church
Church
Church
Church
Church
Location
92
4340
3910
4390
4007
4986
4993
4177
4997
4997
4011
3677
3419
4942
4234
1547
1547
1573
1573
1704
1704
1704
1573
1704
1666
1454
1772
1776
1777
1777
1777
1446
1779
1784
1786
1787
1792
1795
2489
2034
2122
1960
2139
2586
2141
2141
1994
2144
2143
2649
1996
7002
7003
7002
7006
7001
7001
7006
7001
7001
7006
7007
7008
7001
7005
7105
7105
7105
7105
7105
7105
7105
7105
7105
7105
7106
7105
7105
7105
7105
7105
7106
7105
7105
7105
7105
7105
7105
7302
7304
7304
7305
7304
7301
7304
7304
7305
7304
7304
7305
7305
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
70 WZ
70 XH
70 XK
70 YH
70 ZL
70 ZR
70 AAD
70 AAP
70 AAP
70 AAU
70 AFU
70 AFW
70 AHF
70 AHJ
71 HT a
71 HT b
71 LE
71 PC
71 PJ
71 PJ
71 PJ
71 PK
71 QH
71 QK
71 RQ
71 RY
71 SE
71 SG a
71 SG b
71 SG c
71 SJ
71 ST
71 SX
71 SZ a
71 TB
71 TJ
71 TV
73 FY
73 JT 3
73 LK
73 MY
73 PF 9
73 PO
73 PS 3
73 PZ 8
73 QT
73 RD 5
73 RU 5
73 SA 1
73 SO 7
Trench Cont
No. Code
Med 1
Saxon
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
Med
Saxon
Med
Med
Saxon
Med 1b-2
Med 2
Saxon-Med
Saxon
Modern
Modern
LPM
LPM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LPM
LS/EM
LPM
Saxon
Med 1
Med 1
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
LS/EM
Saxon
LS/EM
LS/EM
Med 1?
LS/EM
LPM
LPM
Med 2
Med 1?
Med 2?
Med 2
Med 1
Med 1
Med 1
Med 1
LS/EM
Med 1
Med 1
Conphase
Light green
1
Very pale green
1?
Dark red
1
Greenish aqua
1
Clear/whitish
Pale green
Light green
1
Greenish aqua
Pale green
Green
Very pale green
1
Aqua
3
Greenish aqua
Clear
1?
Green
Green str red
Amber
Amber
Greenish amber
Green
1
Greenish amber
Deep turquoise blue
Peacock blue
Greenish amber
Pale green
Colourless
Greenish aqua
Pale Green
Greenish amber
Greenish amber str red
Clear greenish aqua
Greenish aqua
Light green
2
Greenish aqua
Pale turquoise
1?
Colourless
1
Pale green
1
Pale green str red
not rec
not rec
Clear/whitish
Green
Turquoise
Pale turquoise
3
Colourless
Pale turquoise
Colourless
Yellow green
Clear/whitish
Pale turquoise
Colour
Heat warped, opaque and bubbles
Bubbles, black impurity. Probably a whole quarry
Iridescent.
Matt and bubbly surfaces
Matt surfaces
Iridescent
Semi-opaque. Straight edge may have been cut

Heat warped
Surfaces smooth, one slightly striated
Description
Iridescent
Iridescent
1?
C?
S
21
24
13
23.7
29
11.2
17
30.7
30
12.5
18
48
17
20
13
15.5
13
12
15
19.5
25
18
22
22
20
14
9
26
17
24
17
12
32.5
12
19.5
28
27
17
14
17
15
33
10
26
15
37
20
8
6.5
14
L
18
17
9.5
14
19.8
6.3
10.2
10.6
10.8
3
17.5
33
11.5
12
8
11
11
12
5
9.5
19
3.5
19
14
13
11
5.8
14.5
11
16
9.4
4.5
23.4
11
18.4
24
29
8
10
13
11
7
6
27.5
13
38
10
7
7
9
W
2.3
1.9
2
2
2.2
2
1.8
2.5
3
1.8
1.5
2
2
0
0
2
0
1
2
1.5
0
1.7
0
0
0
0.8
1.3
1
0
0
0.7
2
1.7
1.6
2.8
1.6
1.2
1.2
0
0
1.5
0
0
2.2
0
3.1
0
0
0
0
Th
27.1.5
Fig
Brill 2481
Bradford
Bradford
Report/
analysis
BWM-S
Church?
Church
Church
Church
Church
Church
Church
Location
27: WINDOW GLASS

93
73 TX 8
73 TX 10
73 TX 11
73 UF 3a
73 UF 3bd
73 UF 4
73 UF 5
73 UF 6
73 UF 7
73 UF 8
73 UF 14
73 UF 16
73 UF 17
73 UF 22
73 UG 2
73 UG 3
73 UG 5
73 UG 7
73 UG 8
73 UG 9
73 UG 10
73 UG 15
73 UH 1
73 UH 5a-c
73 UL 1
73 UL 2
73 UL 3
73 UN 1
73 UN 2
73 UR 1
73 UZ
73 UZ
73 UZ
73 UZ
73 UZ 11
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
TX
TX
TX
TX
TX
TX
TX
2
3
4b
5
6
7a
7b
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
2016
2016
2016
2016
2016
2016
2016
2017
2017
2017
2017
2017
2017
2017
2017
2186
2186
2011
2011
2011
2016
2016
2011
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2011
2011
2011
2016
2016
2016
2016
2011
2011
2011
2011
2011
2011
2011
2002
2007
2007
2008
2010
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
73
73
73
73
73
322
323
324
325
326
SQ
TE 1
TE 4
TK
TW
Trench Cont
No. Code
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
Saxon
Saxon
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
L Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
Norman?
L Sax
L Sax
LS/EM
LS/EM
Conphase
Pale turquoise green

Pale turquoise
Pale bluish green
Pale turquoise
Green str red
Pale greenish
Pale turquoise
Light green
Light green
Deep turquoise
Light green
Deep turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale green
Light turquoise
Deep turquoise
Brownish amber
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Light green
Turquoise/amber/blue
Very pale green
Light blue green
Pale turquoise + red
Deep turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Light green
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Green str red
Brownish amber
Yellow green
Light green
Light green
Light green str red
Pale turquoise
Light green
Deep turquoise
Amber
Turquoise
Light green
Light blue
Pale green
Colour
4
2+
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
C?
20
21
11
26
44
23
21
16
Joins with 73 UZ 154b, 155, 198, 269c, 280d, 297i&g 19
20
18
1 smooth straight edge. Irregular rectangle
28
Heat cracked.
Slightly heat warped. Calliper mark
42
22
11
22
Joining pieces
25
13
1 straight cut edge. Streaky. May show position
28
of came
29
Clear
22
1 cut edge. Opaque with bubbles
34
Faint red marks?
16
43
21
Outside edge may be a cut edge
33
25
26
1 cut edge. Many elongated bubbles
33
19
Joins 73 UG 10
31
26
See 73 UG 8
25
15
28
Three pieces join together
38
26
Bubbles. Complete quarry
35
2.5 edges grozed, 1.5 edges cut. Complete quarry
30
11
14
17
Two pieces join together. Fused layers
0
25
Striated surface. Elongated bubbles
31
21
0
2 pieces
Opaque with surface striations. Joins 73 UZ 24
One shiny and 1 matt surface. Some weathering
Fitted w/ UZ 102 c, d and e
Many bubbles
Description
11
13
25
15
28
9
19
11
11
28
6
24
6
20
14
11
30
21
18
30
8
7
15
0
21
26
15
0
17
15
9
15
20
5
26
11
17
11
11
7
13
17
9
11
10
15
34
0
0
3.9
0
0
0
0
0
0
2.5
0
1.9
0
1.9
0
0
0
0
1.8
2.4
0
0
0
0
2.1
2.5
1.8
0
2.2
0
0
1.5
2
0
1.5
2
0
0
1.7
0
0
2.2
0
0
0
1.7
2.4
Th
27.1.5
27.1.5
27.1.7
Fig
Freestone
Freestone
London
Poly
Padgham
Report/
analysis
BWM-S
BWM-F
BWM-S
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-S
BWM-S
BWM-F
BWM-R
BWM-F
Location
94
73 UZ 27
73 UZ 28
73 UZ 29
73 UZ 30b?
73 UZ 31a
73 UZ 31b
384
385
386
387
388
389
Red on green
Pale turquoise
Light green
Pale turquoise
Light green str red
Light green str red
73 UZ 31f
73 UZ 32a
73 UZ 32b
73 UZ 32c
73 UZ 33
73 UZ 35
73 UZ 36
73 UZ 37
73 UZ 38
73 UZ 39?
73 UZ 41
73 UZ 42
73 UZ 42a
73 UZ 43
73 UZ 44
73 UZ 45a
73 UZ 45b
73 UZ 45c
73 UZ 46
73 UZ 48
73 UZ 49
73 UZ 50a?
73 UZ 50b
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Blue
Greenish amber
Pale turquoise
Pale blue
Light green str red
Red on green
Green
Blue
Dark red
Blue
Light green str red
Pale green with red
Deep blue
Light blue
Pale green
Pale turquoise
Light blue green
Pale turquoise
Blue
Brownish amber
Blue
Green
Blue
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax

Deep turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turqoise
Pale turquoise
Pale blue
Colourless str red
Green str red
Emerald green
Green str red
Light blue
Pale turquoise
Light blue
Greenish turquoise
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Colour
Pale turquoise
Greenish amber
Dark red
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Conphase
390 73 UZ 31c 7305 2018 ML Sax

391 73 UZ 31d? 7305 2018 ML Sax
392 73 UZ 31e 7305 2018 ML Sax
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
73 UZ 13
73 UZ 14
73 UZ 15a
73 UZ 15b
73 UZ 16a
73 UZ 16b
73 UZ 17
73 UZ 18
73 UZ 19
73 UZ 20a
73 UZ 20b?
73 UZ 22
73 UZ 23
73 UZ 24
73 UZ 25
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
Trench Cont
No. Code
1
1
1
1
1
1?
1
1
4
1
1
3
1
2
C?
19
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
41
0
0
0
0
0
29
53
16
40
26
0
36
0
28
51
21
32
0
0
9
0
0
19
Complete diamond quarry
32
Heat warped
0
Joins UZ 197
20
Red smudged. Rounded bubbles
24
Matt surfaces. Slightly warped. Bubbly
38
Partly laminated. 2 cracks
0
1 large elongated & many small bubbles
0
Joins UZ 45c
31
1 large elongated bubble
35
See UZ 45a
0
0
Complete quarry, with dark streaks. Scattered bubbles 35
Almost clear
0
Heat damaged
0
Heat warped
0
Streaks at different levels and crossing. Joins

UZ 323a, 340
Joins UZ 153d,297a,379a,440
Curved, twisted
Opaque, heat warped. Part of a quarry. Joins
UZ 123 ,202, 347
Twisted, with hole. Calliper mark?
Joins UZ 203b
Clear
Heat warped
Joins 73 TK. Rectangular fragment

Other edges may have been cut. Traces of copper
on edges
Heat warped. Bubbles and black impurity specks

Flashed red. Many bubbles and dark streaks
Curved and twisted
Joins UZ 116, 176a, 349b
Heat warped
Rather cloudy. Complete quarry
Description
15
14
0
0
8
0
0
12.5
30
0
18
19
33
0
0
30
27
0
0
20
0
0
0
13
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
27
0
0
0
0
0
15
15
12
20
11
0
32
0
19
30
0
1.2
0
0
1
0
0
0
2.4
0
2
1.8
3.5
0
0
0
2.3
0
0
2.4
0
0
0
1.2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
2.5
1.2
0
2.7
0
4
0
1.7
1.8
Th
27.1.5
27.1.6
27.1.7
Fig
BWM-S
Location
Padgham
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-S
BWM-R
BWM-S
BWM-R
BWM-F?
BWM-F
BWM-S
BWM-R
Brill 2482 G405
Report/
analysis
27: WINDOW GLASS

95
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
55b
55c
55d
57a
57b
57c
57d
57e
57g
57h
57i
57j
57k
57l
58a
58b
59a
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
73 UZ 53c
73 UZ 53d
73 UZ 53e
73 UZ 53f
73 UZ 53g
73 UZ 53h
73 UZ 53i
73 UZ 53j
73 UZ 53k
73 UZ 53l
73 UZ 53m
73 UZ 53n
73 UZ 53o
73 UZ 53p
73 UZ 53q
73 UZ 53r
73 UZ 53s
73 UZ 53t
73 UZ 53u
73 UZ 53v
73 UZ 53w
73 UZ 53x
73 UZ 53y
73 UZ 53z
73 UZ 53aa
73 UZ 53ab
73 UZ 54
73 UZ 55a
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
7305 2018 ML Sax

7305 2018 ML Sax
7305 2018 ML Sax
416 73 UZ 53
417 73 UZ 53a
418 73 UZ 53b
Conphase
Trench Cont
No. Code
Pale turquoise
Pale green
Pale green
Red
Dark greyish green
Clear
Amber
Green
Light green
Pale turquoise
Light green
Green
Pale turquoise
Light green
Blue green
Turquoise
Green
Light green
Light green
Red on green
Red on green
Almost clear
Red on green
Red & white on blue
Pale green
Red & blue on green
Blue green
Light green
Pale turquoise
Almost clear
Green
Blue green
Green
Blue
Pale turquoise
Red on green
Pale green/turquoise
Green str red
Pale green
Green
Amber
Pale green str
Blue / turquoise
Light turquoise
Pale green
Colour
4
2?
1
1
C
T
C?
25
26
30
21
22
21
25
22
24
0
28
23
26
21
0
0
20
0
15
0
18
0
0
17
0
0
19
46
27
36
36
0
0
0
Complete quarry. Opaque
43
Joins UZ 277c, 407i
35
0
Opaque, twisted
0
0
0
Matt surface. Joins UZ 57k to form most of quarry 25
Heat warped
0
0
See UZ 57h
0
0
Fused and twisted lump
0
Lump
0
24
With darker blue green on 1 side and red smears.

Heat warped. Tool marked
Rhomboid
Heat warped
Heat warped
joins 53h
Fused.
Straight cut edge, streaked

Fused.
Heat warped.
joins 53u, smudged red

Streaked
Smudged streaks
Red smudged
Layers of glass fused together

Heat warped
1 edge cut to a smooth curve. Matt surfaces
Small bubbles
Description
0
0
0
16
22
0
0
0
0
21
0
0
0
0
0
0
25
11
14
11
15
20
20
24
16
11
0
14
11
11
8
0
0
10
0
9
0
11
0
0
10
0
0
17
30
27
26
15
0
0
0
0
2.9
0
0
0
0
1.3
0
0
1.3
0
0
0
1.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3.6
2.2
0
0
Th
27.1.7
Fig
Padgham
Brill
Brill 2461
Report/
analysis
BWM-F
BWM-R
Church
Location
96
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
73 UZ 64b
73 UZ 64c
73 UZ 64d
73 UZ 64e
73 UZ 64f
73 UZ 64g
73 UZ 64h
73 UZ 64i
73 UZ 64j
73 UZ 64k
73 UZ 64l
73 UZ 64m
73 UZ 64n
73 UZ 64o
73 UZ 64p
73 UZ 64q
73 UZ 64r
73 UZ 64t
73 UZ 64u
73 UZ 64w
73 UZ 64x
73 UZ 64y
73 UZ 64z
73 UZ 64aa
73 UZ 64ab
73 UZ 64ac
73 UZ 64ad
73 UZ 64ae
73 UZ 64af
73 UZ 64ag
73 UZ 64ah
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
59b
59c
60a
60b
60c
60d
60e
60f
60g
62a
62b
62c
62d
62e
62f
62g
63
64a
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
Trench Cont
No. Code
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Conphase
1
1
4
Pale green & red

Brownish amber
2
Light turquoise
1
Light turquoise
1
Light turquoise
2
Blue str red
Light turquoise
1
Pale turquoise
1
Light turquoise
1
Light turquoise
1
Light green
Light turquoise
1
Pale turquoise
Pale green
Light turquoise
Pale turquoise
1
Light green
Green
Deep green st blue 2
Green
1
Light green
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise w re d
Light green
Amber
1
Pale turquoise
1
Red on green
1
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Colourless
Colourless
Very pale turquoise
Green str red
Green
Light green
Olive green
Turquoise
Turquoise
Pale green
Pale turquoise
Pale turqoise
Pale turquoise
Pale green
Pale green
Pale green
Light green
Pale green & red
Colour
Joins UZ 64x
Joins UZ 279
Dulled surfaces
Joins UZ 64aa
Heat warped. Red streak & blotches on 1 face

Joins UZ 64b
Joins UZ 64a & 73 VW 10a
Darker at one side. May be whole quarry
Slightly twisted
Heat warped
Heat warped
Heat warped
Description
1 curved cut edge. Heat warped

Twisted and burnt
Heat warped
C?
Slightly opaque. Tiny bubbles
18
0
0
0
0
0
42
0
0
0
0
39
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
36
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
31
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
17
18
0
0
0
0
0
17
0
0
0
0
22
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
25
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
18
2
2.7
0
0
0
0
1.8
2
0
0
0
2.3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
Th
27.1.7
Fig
Report/
analysis
BWM-S
BWM-S
BWM-S
BWM-S
BWM-F
BWM-S
Location
27: WINDOW GLASS

97
73
73
73
73
73
73
551
552
553
554
555
556
88
89
90
91a
91b
92
557 73 UZ 93
558 73 UZ 96
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
2018
2018
2018
2018
2108
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Conphase
7305 2018 ML Sax

7305 2018 ML Sax
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
73 UZ 68
7305
73 UZ 72ad 7305
73 UZ 74
7305
73 UZ 75
7305
536
537
538
539
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
73 UZ 64ai
73 UZ 64aj
73 UZ 64ak
73 UZ 64al
73 UZ 64am
73 UZ 64an
73 UZ 64ao
73 UZ 64ap
73 UZ 64aq
73 UZ 64ar
73 UZ 64as
73 UZ 64at
73 UZ 64au
73 UZ 64av
73 UZ 64aw
73 UZ 64ax
73 UZ 64ay
73 UZ 64az
73 UZ 64ba
73 UZ 64bb
73 UZ 64bc
73 UZ 65ac
73 UZ 67
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
Trench Cont
No. Code
1
2
2
2?
1
2
Green
Green
2
1
Blue
Pale turquoise w/ red 2
Greenish amber
2
Light turquoise
Yellow green
1
Greenish amber
4
Light green with red

Pale turquoise
Light green str red
Light green str red
Amber
Blue
Pale green
Blue
Pale green
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Deep turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale green
Pale turquoise
Pale green str red
2
Blue & red on green
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Red on green
1
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Light green str red 1
Pale turquoise
Green
Green
Pale turquoise
Green
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Light green
Green
Red on green
Pale green
Pale turquoise
Clear/whitish F1310
Colour
1?
C?
R
T
0
0
0
0
0
Burnt. Blurred markings and streaks
0
0
0
0
Red streaks cross one another. Joins 73 VW 10a
24
0
Lump
0
0
0
28
0
0
0
Lump
0
0
Twisted and burnt
0
Three pieces fit together. Heat warped and bent up 55
Heat cracked. One of 3 colourless fragments.
0
Compare 73 VS and WG 1
Matt surfaces
28
2 smooth cut edges?
30
19
Clear. Hardly any bubbles. Angle of quarry with
25
marked grozing. Corner fragment
Red smear. Red trail blue in transmitted light
29
0
Heat warped and fractured
26
Joins UZ 137,372a
32
18
Joins UZ 177
17
0
Heat warped
40
0
Heat warped
0
Matt surface, tiny bubbles. Joins UZ 269d to form
complete quarry
23
Joins UZ 299
0
Swirls at two levels. Joins UZ 154a,161,260b,297b 34
Almost opaque
26
Heat warped
24
Joins UZ 205b,280k,280m,327f,442. See 442
24
Complete. Wavy surface striations. Faint darker
29
streaks. Many bubbles
Heat warped
0
0
Scattered tiny bubbles
Description
0
0
16
0
30
22
14
14
28
26
0
23
16
16
12
0
12
0
0
23
15
12
21
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
24
0
0
0
0
17
0
0
0
0
0
0
38
0
0
0
2.8
0
2.3
1.6
0
2.1
1.8
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2.2
1.2
0
2.1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
Th
27.1.10
27.1.7
Fig
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F?
BWM-S
Location
BWM-S
Church
Newton
BWM-F
Brill 2468 Brill
Report/
analysis
98
73 UZ 100 7305
73 UZ 102a 7305
73 UZ 102b 7305
73 UZ 102ce7305
564
565
566
567
73
73
73
73
73
73
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
124
125a
127
129
130
131
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
ML Sax
ML Sax
MMLL Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
596
597
598
599
600
601
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
7305 2018 ML Sax

7305 2018 ML Sax
7305 2018 ML Sax
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
593 73 UZ 121
594 73 UZ 122
595 73 UZ 123
7305
7305
7305
7305
73 UZ 112Aa 7305
73 UZ 112Ab 7305
73 UZ 112Ac 7305
73 UZ 112Ad 7305
73 UZ 112Ae 7305
73 UZ 112Af 7305
73 UZ 113 7305
73 UZ 114 7305
73 UZ 115 7305
73 UZ 116 7305
73 UZ 117 7305
73 UZ 118 7305
73 UZ 120 7305
109
110
111
112
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
73
73
73
73
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
576
577
578
579
104b
104c
105
105b
106a
106b
107
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
7305 2018 ML Sax
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Conphase
568 73 UZ 103
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
97a
97b
97c
98
99
73
73
73
73
73
559
560
561
562
563
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
Trench Cont
No. Code
Pale turquoise
Blue
Green
Blue green str blue
Very pale green
Deep turquoise
Greenish amber
Greenish amber
Dark red
Green
Green str red
Green str red
Green
Green str red
Green str red
Pale green str white
Pale turquoise
Green str emerald
Emerald green
Pale turquoise
Green str red
Green str red
Light green str red

Pale turquoise
Red
Blue green str blue
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
all
2
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
2
Pale green str red
Pale green
Pale green/blue aqua 1
Pale green
Greenish amber
3
Pale green with red
Pale green str red

Blue
Blue
Pale turquoise
Pale green str red

Pale green str red
1
Green
Almost clear str red
Pale green str red
1
Colour
I
R?
R
R
D
I
C
I
R
T
C?
18
35
21
50
0
0
16
33
27
0
30
48
0
23
0
50
37
0
0
33
35
13
17
17
25
0
0
18
22
22
0
27
19
0
17
0
35
17
0
0
11
15
44.5 32.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Joins UZ 20a,176a,349b to make almost a quarry
18.5 18.5
0
0
Curved.
0
0
Thin streak. Joins UZ 191, rolled edge fitting grozed 20
20
edge. As fitted 2/UZ 191 is 40 20 2.9
Clear with reddish brown & green darker streaks
29
14
Bubbles of various sizes. Heat cracked
27
16
16
9
UZ 31e, 202, 347
Curved
0
0
0
0
0
0
Part of irregular quarry. Surface striations. Joins UZ 112 30
30
1 curved cut edge. See also UZ 64k, 133, 181
29
23
Heat warped
26
12.5
Same glass as UZ 299a

With darker streaks. Complete semicircular quarry
Part of irregular quarry. Surface striations.
Joins UZ 129
Joins UZ 112Abf,320a. Thin red lines
Fine red trail. Joins UZ 112Aa, 112Acf, 320a
Fine red trail. Joins UZ 112Aab, 112Adf, 320a
Joins UZ 112Aac, 112Aef, 320a
Fine red trail. Joins UZ 112Aad, 112Af, 320a
Fine red trail. Joins UZ 112Aae,320a
Complete? Slightly wavy surface, shiny. Faint

darker streaks. Bubbles
Tiny bubbles, 1 side shiny, 1 matt. Coarse grozing
Joins UZ 362e
Slightly twisted. Joins UZ 400
With darker bands. Three pieces fit together.
Joins UZ 192c
Heat warped. Red surface blotches blue in
transmitted light
Heat warped
Thin red trail and faint blue. Joins UZ 97b, UZ 99

Thin red trail and faint blue. Joins UZ 97a, UZ 99
Heat cracked
Heat warped
2 concentric & 1 diverging fine trails. Joins UZ
97a, 97b. 1 fine red line? 1 shiny & 1 matt surface
Description
0
0
0
1.8
2.7
3
2
1.8
2.2
2.2
2
2
2
2
2
0
0
0
2.7
0
0
2.9
0
0
2.7
1.8
0
0
0
0
3
0
3
2.3
0
1.2
0
3.7
1.6
0
0
0
1.6
Th
27.1.9
27.1.6
27.1.7
Fig
Report/
analysis
BWM-F
BWM-S
BWM-R
BWM-R
BWM-R
Brill
BWM-S
BWM-F
BWM-R
Brill
Brill
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
Location
27: WINDOW GLASS

99
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
73 UZ 150a
73 UZ 150b
73 UZ 151
73 UZ 152a
73 UZ 152d
73 UZ 153a
73 UZ 153b
73 UZ 153c
73 UZ 153d
73 UZ 153e
73 UZ 153f
73 UZ 154a
73 UZ 154b
73 UZ 154d
73 UZ 154e
73 UZ 154f
73 UZ 154g
73 UZ 155
73 UZ 156
73 UZ 159
73 UZ 160
73 UZ 161
73 UZ 162
73 UZ 163
73 UZ 164
73 UZ 165a
73 UZ 165b
73 UZ 166
73 UZ 166
73 UZ 167
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
7305 2018 ML Sax
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
617 73 UZ 149
136
137
139
140
142a
142b
142c
144
145
7305 2018 ML Sax

7305 2018 ML Sax
7305 2018 ML Sax
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
614 73 UZ 146
615 73 UZ 147
616 73 UZ 148
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
Green
Pale green
Light turquoise
Dark red
Pale green
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Deep turquoise blue
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Green
Red
Pale green
Deep turquoise
Pale green
Green with red
Deep turquoise blue
Amber
Pale green
Very pale turquoise
Pale green
Amber
Very pale turquoise

Emerald
Greenish amber
1
1
2
1
1
1
2?
1
1
1
2
2
2?
Green
2
Light green with red 1
Light green
Pale turquoise
Light green
Light green
1
Deep turquoise green 2
Blue green str red
1
Colour
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
Conphase
Almost clear
Very pale turquoise
Pale green with red
Trench Cont
602 73 UZ 132? 7305 2018 ML Sax

603 73 UZ 133 7305 2018 ML Sax
604 73 UZ 134 7305 2018 ML Sax
No. Code
C?
Heat warped
0
Curved with 1 cut edge (see UZ 130). Joins UZ 181 29
Heat warped. Swirls & swathes of purply red. Joins 28.5
UZ 192a, 342. Red streaks at 2 levels
0
Heat curved. Concentric red lines. Joins UZ 80, 372 22.5
0
0
Heat warped
0
0
0
Quarry.
19
Cylinder edge with dark purple red streaks. Many
37
bubbles. Heat cracked
29
0
Flashed or burnt opaque red on one side.
Complete quarry
20
With darker streaks. Joins UZ 238a,b, 305a, 379
33
to form almost complete quarry
0
0
17
Translucent with dark streaks
29
0
Joins UZ 153f, 335e
0
0
0
Joins UZ 31, 297a, 379a, 440
21
Straight edge
0
Joins UZ 153a, 335e
0
Swirls at two levels. Joins UZ 89, 161, 260b, 297b 34
Joins TX 5, UZ 155, 198, 269i,e, 280d, 297i,g
0
0
0
0
0
Joins TX 5, UZ 154b, 198, 269i,e, 280d, 297i,g
0
Ribbed or fluted. Joins UZ 434a,b
17
0
20
Swirls at two levels. Joins UZ 89, 154a, 260b, 297b 39
1 curved cut edge
24
0
0
35
28
3 fragments of melted glass
0
29
0
Description
0
0
12
21
0
0
0
0
10
0
0
30
0
0
0
0
0
0
15
0
17
10
15.5
0
0
16.5
17
0
15
0
20
24
14
0
0
10
0
0
0
0
0
16
23.5
0
14
27
0
0
2.3
2
0
0
0
0
1.2
0
0
2.3
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.5
2.3
2
2
2
0
0
1.8
0
0
0
0
1.2
2.3
0
0
0
2.3
0
0
0
0
0
1.9
2.7
0
2
2.5
Th
27.1.7
27.1.10
Fig
BWM-F
BWM - F
BWM-F
BWM-S
BWM-F
BWM-F
Location
BWM-F?
BWM-F
Church
BWM-F
BWM-F
Cox
BWM-F?
Brill 2483
Newton
Report/
analysis
100
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Pale turquoise
Green with red
Green
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale green
Pale turquoise
Brownish amber
Pale turquoise
Light green
Green with red
Pale turquoise
Pale blue
Turquoise
Deep turquoise blue
Pale green
Very pale turquoise
Light green str red
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
7305 2018 ML Sax

7305 2018 ML Sax
1
1
2?
2
Greenish amber
2
Deep turquoise blue 3
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
690 73 UZ 195
691 73 UZ 196
192b
192c
192d
192e
193a
Dark red
Light blue
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
1
1
1
1
1
4?
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
3
3
3
4
3?
1
2
688 73 UZ 193b 7305 2018 ML Sax

689 73 UZ 194 7305 2018 ML Sax
73
73
73
73
73
Green with red

Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Green
Light green
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Deep turquoise blue

Deep turquoise
Green and turquoise
Deep turquoise
Deep turquoise
Pale green
Green with red
Green
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Deep turquoise
Light blue
Amber
Almost clear
Pale green str red
Emerald green
683
684
685
686
687
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Colour
Green
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190a
190b
190c
191
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Conphase
682 73 UZ 192a 7305 2018 ML Sax
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
176b
177
178
179
180
181
182
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
168
168a
169
169a
169b
169c
171
172?
173a
173b
174a
174b
174c
174d
175
176a
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
Trench Cont
No. Code
1
2
C?
23
35
0
24
24
24
0
0
33
0
27
33
0
0
0
29
21
20
0
Joins UZ 196. 2 dulled surfaces
16
0
Matt surface, 1 edge smooth curved cut. Joins UZ 133 35
Joins UZ 349d, also UZ 192, 349a,c, though
19
colour varies (total 53 50)
Heat warped
0
0
0
Heat warped
0
Joins UZ 173a
31
0
0
1 small bubble. Possibly whole rectangular quarry
25
0
0
Elongated bubbles. Thin red streaks. Grozed edge 22
joins rolled edge of UZ 120. See UZ 120
Heavily streaked purple red. Heat warped. Joins
26
UZ 134, 342
Streaked purple red. Heat warped. Joins UZ 349a
0
With darker grey-blue bands. Joins UZ 102c,d,e
37
Heat warped
0
Heat cracked fragment
17
Clear, many small bubbles. Joins UZ 280g, 335f,g.
1 matt and 1 glossy surface
32
Translucent with darker streaks. Joins UZ 266, 321 23
Surface striations & iridescence. Bubbly. Joins
UZ 247, 282a
33
0
Joins UZ 179
25
Heat warped and cracked. Joins UZ 82
Elongated bubbles & impurity specks. Joins

UZ 20a, 116, 349b
Many small bubbles

Slightly twisted strip
3 twisted lumps
Joins UZ 187
3 pieces of melted glass

Many tiny bubbles
Heat warped
Heat warped
Description
1.7
2
2.2
0
1.8
23
0
20
0
4
0
1
2.3
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
2
0
0
2.7
0
1
0
1.8
0
2
2
1.5
1.8
0
1.4
2.6
0
0
0
2
0
1.5
0
0
0
0
2.7
Th
16.5
8
0
48
0
8
24
0
0
0
0
16
0
0
12.5
0
0
16
20
10
0
14
0
14
12
18.5
16.5
0
21
21
19
0
0
10
0
18
10
0
0
0
29
27.1.7
27.1.5
27.1.10
27.1.5
27.1.5
Fig
Report/
analysis
BWM-R
BWM-F
BWM-R
BWM-S
BWM-F
BWM-R
BWM-F
BWM-F
Location
27: WINDOW GLASS

101
73 UZ 210 7305
73 UZ 211 7305
73 UZ 211a 7305
73 UZ 211b 7305
73 UZ 211c 7305
73 UZ 211f 7305
73 UZ 211g 7305
73 UZ 211i 7305
73 UZ 213 7305
73 UZ 214 7305
73 UZ 215 7305
73 UZ 216ai 7305
73 UZ 216c 7305
73 UZ 216d 7305
73 UZ 216f 7305
73 UZ 216h 7305
73 UZ 217 7305
73 UZ 218ac7305
73 UZ 219a 7305
73 UZ 219b 7305
73 UZ 219c 7305
73 UZ 219d 7305
73 UZ 221 7305
73 UZ 222? 7305
73 UZ 223 7305
73 UZ 224 7305
73 UZ 225 7305
73 UZ 226 7305
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
203d
204
205a
205b
206a
206b
208
209a
209b
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
197
198
199 ?
200a
200b
201
202
203a
203b
203c
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
Trench Cont
No. Code
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Conphase
2
1
2
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Blue
Pale turquoise
Blue
Light blue
Deep blue
Amber
Deep blue
Deep blue
Deep blue
Turquoise
Amber
Very pale blue
Turquoise blue
Very pale green
Deep blue
Light blue
Greenish amber
Greenish amber
Greenish amber
Blue
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Clear
Greenish amber
Very light green
Pale turquoise
1
2?
1
2
1
D?
T
R
1
1
1?
3
2

Green
Blue green
Yellow green
1
Light green
1
Light green
Green with red
Light turquoise
1?
Pale turquoise red str 1

Almost clear
Red on green
Red on green
Blue
Dark opaque red
Pale turquoise
Greenish amber
Greenish amber
Colour
C?
26
0
0
25
0
0
0
45
29
25
15.5
0
0
0
0
21
32
32
15
21
0
0
15
0
0
0
18
27
21
14.5
0
0
0
0
11
24.5
26
10
1 straight cut edge. Heat warped. Purple red

streaks & smudges
Heat warped and slightly iridescent. Part of a vessel? 27.5 17
Surface striations and some iridescence
25
20
Joins UZ 211c. Overall measurement
35
29
Small fragment
0
0
See UZ 211a
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Heat warped. Iridescent surface
37
20
32.5 12
UZ 216a,b,e,g,i fit together. Irregularly shaped
quarry. Overall measurement
45
27
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Heat warped
0
0
3 pieces fit together. Striations and iridescence
25
20
Melted over irregular surface & very warped
0
0
With deep swirl
0
0
Melted over irregular surface, very warped
0
0
Melted over irregular surface, warped & twisted
28
23
Warped and twisted. Thickness very varied
35
14
Curved
0
0
Twisted, opaque
0
0
0
0
13
11.5
0
0
Joins UZ 428
Heat warped
Joins UZ 91b, 280k,m, 327f, 442
Part of quarry. Joins UZ 31e, 123, 347

Slightly heat warped. Joins UZ 318b
1 cut edge. Same glass as UZ 32a
Joins UZ 296g,i. 1 matt and 1 shiny surface.
Large elongated bubble
Joins UZ 312
Small round bubbles. Joins UZ 41

Joins TX 5, UZ 154b, 155, 269i,e, 280d, 297i,g
Heat warped
Description
1
0
0
0
0
0
1.2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3.9
1.2
1.8
0
0
0
0
0
0
2.4
1.5
0
0
0
2.1
0
0
0
1.8
1.7
2
1.7
0
0
0
0
2.2
2.4
2
1.2
Th
Fig
Brill 2479
Brill 2469
Cox
Report/
analysis
Church
Church
BWM-F
BWM-R
BWM-F
BWM-S
BWM-F
BWM-F
Location
102
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
UZ 255
UZ 256
UZ 257
UZ 258
UZ 259
UZ 260a
UZ 260b
UZ 260c?
UZ 261
248a
248b
249
250
251a
251b
252
253
254
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
2?
1
2
3
2
all
Light green
Light mid blue
Very pale turquoise
Light green
Green with red
Light green str red
Blue
Turquoise
2
2
1
Light green
1
Blue
2
Almost clear
Light green
1
Amber
1
Green and red
Light green
Pale turquoise
1
Pale turquoise
Light green
Pale turquoise
Light green
Clear
Green with red/blue 2
Green
Green str red
Light blue
1
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
240b
240c
240d
240e
241
242
244
245
246
247
765
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
Pale green
Green
Olive green
Deep turquoise blue
Pale turquoise
Streaky brown amber
Greenish amber
Greenish amber
Green
Amber
Amber
Pale green
Brownish amber
73 UZ 233b 7305
73 UZ 234 7305
73 UZ 235 ? 7305
73 UZ 236 7305
73 UZ 237 7305
73 UZ 238ab7305
73 UZ 239 7305
73 UZ 240a 7305
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Almost colourless
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
Deep turquoise blue all
Colour
745 73 UZ 232 7305 2018 ML Sax

746 73 UZ 233a 7305 2018 ML Sax
228
229a
229b
230
231
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
740
741
742
743
744
73
73
73
73
73
7305 2018 ML Sax
739 73 UZ 227
Conphase
Trench Cont
No. Code
R
D
T
2
1
1
C?
0
24
0
0
0
0
36
60
0
0
Fused lump
0
Very heat warped with bubbled surface
25
0
2 pieces fit together with UZ 149, 305a, 379. 1 cut edge 38
Whole quarry. Dark blue stain at one side. 1 edge cut? 32
Small bubbles. Whole quarry when joined with
48
73 VW 4c
0
0
0
0
Heat cracked
0
Grozed edges curved
19
0
25
0
Iridescent. Curved surface striations. Joins
48
UZ 194, 282a
Curved
0
Curved
0
1 edge partly rolled and partly grozed
35
Heat cracked
0
Heat warped
0
0
Melted
0
1 red spot
0
Heat warped. Joins UZ 272a, 296a. Part of quarry 23
with 2 grozed edges (total 40 37.5)
0
Bubbles and impurities. Opposite long edges grozed 24
Clear with few bubbles. Slightly heat warped
27
Heat cracked
0
0
Impurities and elongated bubbles
31.5
Swirls at two levels. Joins UZ 89, 154a, 161, 297b 44
Curved, heat warped
0
0
Heavily streaked purplish red. Elongated bubbles

parallel to streaks
Few very small bubbles. Complete irreguarly

shaped quarry
Part of Y-shaped quarry. Joins UZ 276a. Evidence

for a figure
Description
0
14
21
0
0
16
42
0
0
0
0
19
0
0
0
0
0
12
0
0
0
0
0
14
0
9
0
31
0
0
0
17
0
32
26
25
0
17
0
0
0
0
15
49
0
1.7
2.7
0
0
2
2.3
0
0
0
0
2.3
0
0
0
0
0
3.5
0
0
0
0
0
2.5
0
2.1
0
2.2
0
0
0
2.3
0
2.3
2
1.5
0
1
0
0
0
0
1.8
2.9
Th
Fig
BWM-F
BWM-F
Location
BWM-F?
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-S
BWM-R
BWM-R
Brill 2466 Brill?
Report/
analysis
27: WINDOW GLASS

103
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
274a
274b
275a
275b
275c
275d
275e
276a
276b
276c
276d
277a
277b
277c
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Light green
Almost colourless
Deep turquoise blue
Mid blue green
Greenish amber
Very pale turquoise
Dark red
Deep turquoise
Pale green str red
Almost colourless
Almost colourless
Almost colourless
Red
Dark sage green
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
813
814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Pale green
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
812 73 UZ 272b 7305 2018 ML Sax
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
Blue
Blue
Blue
Light green str red
Almost colourless
Light green
Almost colourless
Light green
Turquoise
Almost colourless
Very light green
Pale turquoise
73 UZ 269f
73 UZ 269g
73 UZ 269h
73 UZ 269i
73 UZ 269j
73 UZ 269k
73 UZ 269l
73 UZ 269m
73 UZ 269n
73 UZ 269o
73 UZ 271
73 UZ 272a
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Light green str red
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
799 73 UZ 269e 7305 2018 ML Sax
267a
267b
267c
267d
267e
267f
268
269a
269b
269c
269d
Light blue green

Light green
Blue
Light blue
Blue green
Green
Yellow green
Light green
Light green
Almost colourless
Pale turquoise
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
Green
Light green
Greenish amber
Pale green with red
smudge
Dark red
Colour
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
ML
ML
ML
ML
7305 2018 ML Sax
2018
2018
2018
2018
Conphase
787 73 UZ 266
262
263
264
265
7305
7305
7305
7305
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
783
784
785
786
73
73
73
73
Trench Cont
No. Code
1
4
all
1
1
2
1
1
1
1?
1
1
3
2
1
1
R
Y
C?
28
0
0
27
34
38
27
0
0
0
Ribbed
13
Heat cracked. Joins UZ 327a, 370d, 404b & VW 18h 32.5
Heat warped
36
Heat warped
41
0
Matt surface, tiny bubbles. May join UZ 87 to
51
form complete quarry (total 50 45 2.8)
UZ 269e & i join with TX 5, UZ 154b, 155, 198,
58
280d, 297i,g
0
Heat warped. Probably 1 cut edge. Iridescent
46
Melted
0
See UZ 269e
0
0
Joins UZ 280e
0
0
0
0
0
27
Diagonal groove from damage while hot. Joins
23
UZ 254, 296a
Heat warped. Joins UZ 322 to form part of quarry 32
with 2 grozed edges (total 50 20 1.7)
0
0
Opaque
18
Tiny bubbles, shiny surface
27
0
Smooth surfaces
22
18.5
Joins UZ 227 to make Y-shaped quarry
35
0
0
0
0
Opaque, twisted
0
Joins UZ 57b, 407i to make almost complete quarry 23
With streaks. Joins with UZ 193b, 321 to form

almost complete quarry
Heat warped
Complete quarry. Cloudy with tiny bubbles

Heat warped. Tiny bubbles. Joins UZ 297f
Heat cracked
Description
0
0
14
23.5
0
15
13.4
12.5
0
0
0
0
0
15
11
0
18
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
25
20
54
14
26
0
0
0
12
14.5
33
13
0
23
12.5
0
0
26
13
0
0
1.4
2.9
0
2.2
1.3
2.6
0
0
0
0
0
2.5
1.7
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2.2
3.4
1.7
3.1
0
0
0
0
2
1.8
0
0
0
2.8
0
0
2.6
2
Th
27.1.10
27.1.8
Fig
Brill 2470
Cox
Report/
analysis
BWM-R
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-R
BWM-R
BWM-F
BWM-R
BWM-R
Location
104
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
296b
296c
296d
296e
296f
296g
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Light green
Light green
Almost colourless
Blue
Red
Greenish amber
73
73
73
73
73
73
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
866
867
868
869
870
871
285d
285e
285f
288
289a
289b
289c
290
292a
292b
294
295a
295b
296a
Greenish amber
Turquoise with red
Deep turquoise blue
Light green
Greenish amber
Deep turquoise blue
Blue
Light green
Very light green
Very light green
Blue
Light green
Light blue
Light green
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
852
853
854
855
856
857
858
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
Pale with dark str

Yellow green
Almost colourless
Light green
Almost colourless
Mid blue
Greenish amber
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Turquoise
Brownish amber
Almost colourless
Almost colourless
Deep turquoise green
Pale blue
Pale blue
Pale blue
Pale turquoise?
Light green
Light green
Light green
Light green
Yellow green
851 73 UZ 285ac 7305 2018 ML Sax
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Colour
Greenish amber
Light green
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Conphase
849 73 UZ 282b 7305 2018 ML Sax

850 73 UZ 284ad7305 2018 ML Sax
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
73 UZ 280h
73 UZ 280m
73 UZ 280n
73 UZ 280o
73 UZ 280p
73 UZ 282a
843
844
845
846
847
848
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
277d
277e
277f
278
279
280a
280b
280c
280d
280e
280f
280g
280h
280i
280j
280k
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
Trench Cont
No. Code
2?
1
2
1?
2
2
1?
3
2
1?
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
C?
0
23
0
0
Joins UZ 64u
27
Strip with ?calliper marks. Joins UZ 371b
34
Strip with ?calliper marks. Heat warped
45
Strip with ?calliper marks. Heat warped. Joins UZ 371b 0
Joins TX 5, UZ 154b, 155, 198, 269i,e, 297i,g
0
0
0
Joins UZ 193a, 335f,g to form part of quarry
45
0
Curved
0
Curved
0
UZ 280k & m join UZ 91b, 205b, 327f, 442 to
29
form part of quarry. See 442
0
See UZ 280k
27
0
Heat warped
0
Curved
0
Joins UZ 194, 247 to form large part of quarry.
13
Heat cracked
22
4 lumps heat fused glass. Several quarries fused to45
gether. Tool marks on surface. Evidence for remelting
Three pieces fit with UZ 371c to form part of
39
quarry. Eroded surfaces
Part of triangular or rectangular quarry
29
Complete quarry, one corner heat warped
25
Heat warped. Possible calliper mark
25
0
1 matt, 1 shiny face
27
Complete quarry in two pieces
40
0
Iridescent, warped & bubbly. Surface striations
53
31
25
19
0
25
Slightly heat warped with tiny bubbles. Joins
40
UZ 254, 272a
0
Heat warped
0
0
Heat warped
0
Opaque
18
UZ 296g & i fit with UZ 203c. See UZ203c
29
Tip of triangular quarry, very clear and golden
Description
0
0
0
0
10
17
16
14
18.5
0
26
34
0
50
11
16
10
0
11
37.5
35
16
33
0
17
0
0
0
16.5
0
12
0
0
18
4
4
0
0
0
0
41
0
0
0
22
0
0
0
0
1.5
1.2
1.2
1.2
3
0
2.3
2.3
0
3.7
0
0
1.8
2.5
1.8
3.5
1.2
0
0
0
2.1
0
0
0
2.2
0
1.8
0
0
2
1.7
1.7
0
0
0
0
1.7
0
0
0
2.1
Th
27.1.9
27.1.9
27.1.6
Fig
Padgham 2
Newton
Newton
Report/
analysis
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-R
BWM-R
BWM-F
BWM-F?
BWM-F
Location
27: WINDOW GLASS

105
310?
311
312
315a
315b
316
318a
318b
318c
319b
320a
320b
321
322
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
916 73 UZ 323a 7305 2018 ML Sax
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Light blue green

str red
Olive green
Pale turquoise
2
Light green
1
Light green
1
Light turquoise
1
Blue
Pale turquoise
1
Light green
1
Green turquoise
4?
Green str red
1
Greenish amber
Red
2
Pale green
2
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
902
903
904
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
912
913
914
915
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
73 UZ 297j 7305
73 UZ 297k 7305
73 UZ 298 7305
73 UZ 299a 7305
73 UZ 299b 7305
73 UZ 299c 7305
73 UZ 299d 7305
73 UZ 300a 7305
73 UZ 300bc7305
73 UZ 302 7305
73 UZ 303a 7305
73 UZ 303b 7305
73 UZ 303c 7305
73 UZ 303d 7305
73 UZ 304a 7305
73 UZ 304b 7305
73 UZ 305a 7305
73 UZ 305b 7305
73 UZ 306 7305
73 UZ 307 7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900
901
297b
297d
297e
297f
297g
297h
297i

Pale turquoise
1
Pale turquoise
1
Pale green with red 2
Light green str red 2
Green
Pale green str red
smudge
Green
Green
Mid blue
2
Light turquoise
2
Blue
Pale turquoise
1
Blue
Pale green
Pale turquoise&amber
Turquoise, red surface
Deep turquoise
1
Turquoise
Almost colourless
Light green
Amber
1
Deep turquoise
1
Amber
1
Very pale green
Light turquoise
2
Pale green
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
1?
2
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
Colour
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
Conphase
Blue
Greenish amber
Pale turquoise
Trench Cont
872 73 UZ 296h 7305 2018 ML Sax

873 73 UZ 296i 7305 2018 ML Sax
874 73 UZ 297a 7305 2018 ML Sax
No. Code
1?
D
T
R
C?
R
R
S
0
0
51
0
0
Rather opaque and with many bubbles of varied size 21
Corner of quarry. Many bubbles
44
Twisted strip. Joins UZ 88
0
0
Curved
35
0
Layers fused together. Two pieces join
0
Melted. 1 large piece plus fragments
27
1 cut edge. Heat warped
33
Heat warped
0
0
Heat warped
0
0
29
Joins UZ 149, 238a,b, 379
18
Heat cracked
0
19
Heat warped. Triangular tip of tool mark possibly 0
ridged
Twisted strip
0
Heat warped
20
Joins UZ 203d
15
0
0
0
0
Strip. Joins UZ 203a
44
0
Twisted and opaque
28
Fine red trail. Joins UZ 112Aaf
33
22
Opaque. Joins UZ 266, 193b to make most of quarry 28.5
Slightly warped. Iridescent, matt and bubbly. Joins 35
UZ 272b
Streaks at different levels and crossing. Joins
37
UZ 31b, 340
46
0
0
Heat warped. Tiny bubbles. Joins UZ 265
34
UZ 297g & i join TX 5, UZ 154, 155, 198, 269, 280 59
0
See UZ 297g
0
See UZ 296g and 203c

Joins UZ 31c, 153d, 379a, 440 to form most of
quarry. Almost colourless
Swirls at two levels. Joins UZ 89, 154a, 161, 260b
Description
22
0
16
10
0
0
0
0
10
0
27
12
10
20
15
0
0
10
23.5
0
0
9
0
0
23
19
0
0
0
0
22
11
0
14
0
45
0
0
16
53
0
0
0
0
34
2.5
0
1.5
0
0
0
0
0
2.4
0
2.2
2
0
2
1.7
0
0
1.9
2.3
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2.4
0
2.3
0
0
2
1.7
0
0
0
0
1.3
Th
27.1.5
27.1.10
Fig
Bradford
Report/
analysis
BWM-F
BWM-R
BWM-R
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-S
BWM-S
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
Location
106
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Green
1
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Yellow green
Brownish amber
2
Green with red
Green
Green with red
Amber
Pale turquoise
1
Amber
2
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Blue
Pale turquoise
Blue
Pale turquoise
1
Green
Pale blue
1?
Deep turquoise blue 3?
Pale green
Pale green
Turquoise
Pale green
Dark blue
Amber
Turquoise & amber
Light green
Pale turquoise
Blue
Blue
Pale turquoise
2
Turquoise
1
Pale green str red
Mid turquoise blue 1
Pale turquoise
2
Pale turquoise
1
Green
1
Green
Amber
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
1
73 UZ 327c
73 UZ 327d
73 UZ 327e
73 UZ 327f
73 UZ 327g
73 UZ 327h
73 UZ 327i
73 UZ 327j
73 UZ 327k
73 UZ 327l
73 UZ 327m
73 UZ 327n
73 UZ 327o
73 UZ 327p
73 UZ 327q
73 UZ 327r
73 UZ 327s
73 UZ 327t
73 UZ 328a
73 UZ 328b
73 UZ 329a
73 UZ 329b
73 UZ 329c
73 UZ 329d
73 UZ 329
73 UZ 329
73 UZ 329
73 UZ 330a
73 UZ 330b
73 UZ 332a
73 UZ 332b
73 UZ 332c
73 UZ 333a
73 UZ 333b
73 UZ 333c
73 UZ 334a
73 UZ 334b
73 UZ 334c
73 UZ 334d
73 UZ 334e
73 UZ 335a
73 UZ 335b
73 UZ 335c
73 UZ 335d
73 UZ 335e
920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
928
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960
961
962
963
964
1
1
Light green str red
Colour
919 73 UZ 327b 7305 2018 ML Sax
Conphase
Red
Yellow green
Trench Cont
917 73 UZ 323b 7305 2018 ML Sax

918 73 UZ 327a 7305 2018 ML Sax
No. Code
T?
C?
36
28
16
Joins UZ 153a,f
0
22
0
0
Joins UZ 327o
0
Joins UZ 91b, 205b, 245, 280k, 280m,442. See 442 32
16
0
0
Curved
32
0
Joins UZ 327s
0
0
0
Joins UZ 327e
0
0
Heat warped
0
0
Joins UZ 327l
0
Very heat warped
0
Very heat warped
45
Heat warped. Surfaces dulled and melted
23
0
0
0
Twisted and burnt
0
Melted
0
Melted
0
Melted. 3 fused layers
0
0
0
0
Heat warped
0
Heat warped
0
26
0
0
Fragment
13
Almost colourless. Weathered surface
24
0
0
Heat warped.
0
0
Opaque. Heat cracked. 2 matt surfaces

Faint bluish streaks. Joins UZ 268, 370d, 404b
& VW18h
Heat warped. Part of triangular or irregularly
shaped quarry. Joins UZ 400a
Description
Th
0
0
0
28
15
0
0
28
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
33
22
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
25
0
0
13
21
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
15
23
18
0
0
0
1.7
1.3
0
0
2.1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3.5
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
1.5
1.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
2.5
16 3.5 0
0
0
27.1.6
27.1.5
Fig
Brill 2462
Brill
Report/
analysis
Brill 2467
Brill 2467
BWM-R
Location
27: WINDOW GLASS

107
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
1008 73 UZ 348a 7305 2018 ML Sax

1009 73 UZ 348b 7305 2018 ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
Almost clear
Pale turquoise
3
2
1?
1
4
1?
1
1
1
Blue
Almost colourless
Blue
Light green
Amber
Clear
Blue
Amber
Amber
Opaque dark
Opaque
Clear
Deep turquoise blue
Amber
Light green
Blue
Blue
Clear
Clear
Amber/blue green
Blue
Blue
Green
Clear
Light green
Deep turquoise blue
Dark red
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
981 73 UZ 343e
982 73 UZ 343f
983 73 UZ 343g
984 73 UZ 343h
985 73 UZ 343i
986 73 UZ 343j
987 73 UZ 343k
988 73 UZ 343l
989 73 UZ 343m
990 73 UZ 343n
991 73 UZ 343o
992 73 UZ 343p
993 73 UZ 343q
994 73 UZ 343r
995 73 UZ 343s
996 73 UZ 343t
997 73 UZ 343u
998 73 UZ 343v
999 73 UZ 343w
1000 73 UZ 343
1001 73 UZ 344a
1002 73 UZ 344b
1003 73 UZ 344c
1004 73 UZ 344d
1005 73 UZ 345?
1006 73 UZ 346
1007 73 UZ 347
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
Greenish amber
4
Deep green turquoise 2
Greenish amber
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
978 73 UZ 343b 7305 2018 ML Sax

979 73 UZ 343c 7305 2018 ML Sax
980 73 UZ 343d 7305 2018 ML Sax
Blue green/amber
Light green str red
Light green
Light green
Light green
Light green
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale green
Pale turquoise
Light green str red
Colour
Deep turquoise blue
7305 2018 ML Sax

7305 2018 ML Sax
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
Conphase
977 73 UZ 343a 7305 2018 ML Sax
975 73 UZ 341
976 73 UZ 342
335f
335g
336a
336b
337a
337b
338a
338b
339
340
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
965
966
967
968
969
970
971
972
973
974
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
73
Trench Cont
No. Code
1?
T
D
R
D
1
1
1?
C?
45
0
19
Twisted lump
0
Surface striations. Faint blueish streaks on one side 29
Curved
0
0
0
Other long edge probably cut
43
Heavy swathes of light and purple red crossing at
41
angles. Joins UZ 31b, 323a
1 cut edge? Lycurgus dichroic type, cf 65 TR
21
Heat warped. Crossing swathes of purplish red.
35
Joins UZ 134, 192a
Quarry? Heat warped, bubbly. 1 smooth straight
27
cut edge
Quarry. Heat warped
30
Quarry. Heat warped
24
Joins UZ 377c to form rhomboidal quarry with 3
0
grozed edges (total 34 31 2)
Heat warped
0
0
0
Heat warped
0
Joins UZ 343m
0
Heat warped. Joins UZ 343v
0
Joins UZ 343t
0
Heat warped. Opaque
0
Joins UZ 343i
0
0
Heat warped
0
0
Heat twisted. 1 straight cut edge
27.5
Complete quarry. Head warped
20
0
Heat warped. Joins UZ 343k
0
Heat warped
0
0
Lump.
0
Seven small fragments
0
13
0
Heat warped
0
Heat warped
0
Curved
0
Most of a quarry
29
30
UZ 31e, 123, 202
Heat cracked
0
0
UZ 335f,g join UZ 193a, 280g

See UZ 335f
Description
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
22
15
0
0
0
0
0
0
13
0
0
0
0
11
30
27
21.5
0
26
18
20
42
0
17
0
19
0
0
0
9
27
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.8
2.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.5
0
0
0
0
1.5
2.2
2
1.4
0
2.1
2.4
2.3
1.7
0
2.5
0
2.9
0
0
0
1.8
2.5
Th
27.1.7
Fig
Church
BWM-R
BWM-R
BWM-F
Location
BWM-F
BWM-R
LondonPoly
Church?
Brill 2485
Report/
analysis
108
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
1018 73 UZ 362b
1019 73 UZ 362c
1020 73 UZ 362d
1021 73 UZ 362e
1022 73 UZ 362f
1023 73 UZ 362g
1024 73 UZ 362h
1025 73 UZ 362i
1026 73 UZ 362j
1027 73 UZ 362k
1028 73 UZ 362l
1029 73 UZ 362m
1030 73 UZ 362n
1031 73 UZ 362o
1032 73 UZ 362
1033 73 UZ 363a
1034 73 UZ 363b
1035 73 UZ 363c
1036 73 UZ 363d
1037 73 UZ 363d
1038 73 UZ 363e
1039 73 UZ 363f
1040 73 UZ 363g
1041 73 UZ 363h
1042 73 UZ 363i
1043 73 UZ 363j
1044 73 UZ 363k
1045 73 UZ 363l
1046 73 UZ 363m
1047 73 UZ 363n
1048 73 UZ 363o
1049 73 UZ 363p
1050 73 UZ 363q
1051 73 UZ 363r
1052 73 UZ 363
1053 73 UZ 363
1054 73 UZ 364a
1055 73 UZ 364b
7305
7305
7305
7305
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Red and purple streaks at different levels. UZ 349a,c

join UZ 182, 192b, 349d
Joins UZ 20a,116,176a
See UZ 349a. Curved
Joins UZ 182, also UZ 192, 349a,c though colour
varies
Streak blue in transmitted light, red in reflected
Curved
1 side curved
Concentric red stripes. Matt surfaces. Slightly
iridescent and heat warped
Heat warped
c & d fit together
c & d fit together
Curved strip. Joins UZ 102a
Description
T
T
a & b fit together. Heat warped. Iridescent

a & b fit together. Calliper mark?
b & q fit together

c, n & r fit together
Five lumps melted and twisted
a, h & i fit together. See UZ 363a

a, h & i fit together. See UZ 363a
m & n fit together

m & n fit together
g & o fit together
Fused and fragmented glass
a, h & i fit together
b & q fit together
Opaque. Tool mark on surface
4 fused layers. Tong mark, dimensions of 10 9.
Triangular and serrated tongs
Matt surface and 1 cut edge
C?
g & o fit together

Heat warped
1
2
1
1
3
3
2?
1
1
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Light green
Light green
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Light green
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Light green str red
Light green
Turquoise, blue, amber
Light blue
Clear pale turquoise 2
Clear pale turquoise 2
Light blue with str

Light turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale green w/ red
stripes
Blue
Blue
Blue
Light blue
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Blue
Green
Pale turquoise
Light green
Amber
Amber
Amber
Pale turquoise
Blue and amber
Light green
Light green str red
Light green
Dull red
Yellow/green/blue
351
355
356
360
1014 73
1015 73
1016 73
1017 73
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
Emerald green
Light green str red
Light green str red
Colour
1011 73 UZ 349b 7305 2018 ML Sax

1012 73 UZ 349c 7305 2018 ML Sax
1013 73 UZ 349d 7305 2018 ML Sax
Conphase
Light green str red
Trench Cont
1010 73 UZ 349a 7305 2018 ML Sax
No. Code
0
0
12
36
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
18
0
0
0
56
32
0
0
0
35
0
0
0
0
17
0
0
0
0
0
0
27
18
0
16
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
15
0
0
0
29
18
0
0
0
14
0
0
0
0
17
0
0
0
0
0
0
25
15
0
12
0
19.5 15
0
0
31
23
35
31
0
0
19
41
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.5
1.5
0
0
0
1.2
0
0
0
0
2.3
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.5
0
0
2
0
2.3
0
2
2
0
0
2
Th
27.1.5
Fig
Newton
Newton
Newton
Report/
analysis
BWM-F
BWM-F
Church
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-R
Location
27: WINDOW GLASS

109
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
1087 73
1088 73
1089 73
1090 73
1091 73
1092 73
1093 73
1094 73
1095 73
1096 73
1097 73
1098 73
372b
372c
372d
372e
372f
372g
372h
371c
371d
371e
371f
372a
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
7305
7305
7305
7305
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
1083 73
1084 73
1085 73
1086 73
370e
370f
371a
371b
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
1068 73 UZ 366h 7305

1069 73 UZ 366i 7305
1070 73 UZ 366j 7305
1071 73 UZ 366k 7305
1072 73 UZ 366 7305
1073 73 UZ 367 7305
1074 73 UZ 368a 7305
1075 73 UZ 368b 7305
1076 73 UZ 368c 7305
1077 73 UZ 369a 7305
1078 73 UZ 369b? 7305
1079 73 UZ 370a 7305
1080 73 UZ 370b? 7305
1081 73 UZ 370c 7305
1082 73 UZ 370d 7305
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Greenish amber
Almost clear
Light green
Almost clear
Light green str red
& blue
Light green
Light turquoise
Pale green
Almost colourless
Amber
Turquoise
Almost colourless
Blue
Red
Blue
Pale blue
Almost clear
Pale green
Pale green
Almost clear
Turquoise and blue
Pale turquoise
Very pale turquoise
Amber
Turquoise
Light green red str
Turquoise
Light green
Yellowish green
Light blue
Turquoise
Light blue
Pale turquoise
2018
2018
2018
2018
7305
7305
7305
7305
366d
366e
366f
366g
1064 73
1065 73
1066 73
1067 73
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
Very pale blue
Pale turquoise
Pale green
Very pale turquoise
Very pale turquoise
Brownish amber
1063 73 UZ 366c 7305 2018 ML Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Colour
Pale green str red

Pale turquoise
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Conphase
1061 73 UZ 366a 7305 2018 ML Sax

1062 73 UZ 366b 7305 2018 ML Sax
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
363c
364d
365a
365b
365c
1056 73
1057 73
1058 73
1059 73
1060 73
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
Trench Cont
No. Code
1
1
1?
2
all
3
3
1+
C?
35
29
0
0
0
12
13
0
24
0
27
0
14
0
0
0
0
0
17
0
0
0
30
0
0
9
9
0
0
0
0
0
19.5
14
26.5
25
0
0
22
0
0
8
0
11.5
0
23
18.5 18
36
38
0
0
0
18
19
0
0
0
0
3 pieces of melted glass
0
Heat warped. Iridescent matt surfaces with bubbles. 26
Bubbles. Joins UZ 233a
16
Tiny elongated bubbles. Matt surfaces
33
25
0
0
38
0
0
Joins UZ 268, 327a, 404b, VW 18h to form
13
most of quarry
0
0
Strip. Calliper marks. Heat twisted
46
Strip. Calliper marks. Matt & bubbly. Fitted
31
to UZ 280a & c
Joins UZ 285a,b &c
23
0
0
0
3 curved red streaks, 1 straight blue streak. Joins
47
UZ 80, 137
0
1 surface striated
27
0
0
0
0
Heat warped
0
i & j fit together. Lump
i & j fit together
Opaque. Scattered small bubbles. Joins UZ 397a

Possibly part of a rectangle
Few bubbles. Smooth surface

Many small bubbles. Part of irregular triangle with
squared off end
Heat warped. 3 main purple/red streaks
Head shape. 1 cut edge. Heat warped. Amber
fused on
Small bubbles. Green tinge. Very coarse grozing.
Two matt surfaces
Heat warped
Description
0
3.6
0
0
0
0
0
1.2
0
0
0
2.3
0
0
1.7
1.7
0
0
0
0
0
1.6
1.2
2.4
0
0
0
1.9
0
0
2
0
0
0
2
3.2
2
0
0
0
1.5
1.3
Th
27.1.5
Fig
BWM-F
Location
Brill 2456
Brill 2456
Newton
Newton
BWM-F
BWM-R
BWM-F
Brill 2466 Brill?
Newton
Brill 2477
Newton
Padgham
Report/
analysis
110
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
1118 73
1119 73
1120 73
1121 73
1122 73
1123 73
1124 73
1125 73
1126 73
1127 73
1128 73
1129 73
1130 73
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
377h 7305
377i 7305
377j-l 7305
377 7305
378a 7305
379a 7305
379b 7305
379c 7305
379d 7305
379e 7305
379f 7305
380a 7305
380b 7305
1131 73 UZ 380c 7305

1132 73 UZ 380d 7305
1133 73 UZ 380e 7305
1134 73 UZ 380f 7305
1135 73 UZ 380g 7305
1136 73 UZ 380h 7305
1137 73 UZ 381a 7305
1138 73 UZ 381b 7305
1139 73 UZ 382ad7305
1140 73 UZ 382e 7305
1141 73 UZ 383 7305
1142 73 UZ 384a 7305
1143 73 UZ 384b 7305
1144 73 UZ 386a 7305
1145 73 UZ 386b 7305
1146 73 UZ 386c 7305
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
1099 73
1100 73
1101 73
1102 73
1103 73
1104 73
1105 73
1106 73
1107 73
1108 73
1109 73
1110 73
1111 73
1112 73
1113 73
1114 73
1115 73
1116 73
1117 73
373
374a
374b
374c
374d
374e
374f
374g
374h
374i
375
376
377a
377b
377c
377d
377e
377f
377g
Trench Cont
No. Code
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Conphase
Light blue
Clear str white
Blue
Emerald
Blue
Light green
Pale turquoise
Blue
Pale turquoise
Turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale green str red
Pale green str red
Pale turquoise
Blue
Pale green
Rh
Streaks crossing at different levels

Heat warped
Heat warped
Heat warped
2
1
1
1
4 heat warped lumps
Heat warped
Rather opaque
Heat warped
Clear
Joins UZ 149, 238a,b, 305a

Complete quarry. Rather opaque. Elongated bubbles
b & c join. Heat warped. Fused on 2 pieces of
pale green
b & c join
Slightly opaque
R
Heat warped. & cracked. Corner impression by

grozed edges
Fused lump
Copper red surface patches. Opaque and bubbly
3 fused lumps
5 fragments with multicoloured fused layers
Clear. Shiny faces, 1 striated. Bubbles
Clear. Heat warped. Joins UZ 31, 153d, 297a, 440
Large part of rhomboidal quarry. Joins UZ 343d

Heat warped
Heat warped
Heat warped
1 straight cut edge

Irregular. Heat cracked
Burnt lump with 3 fused pieces

Irregular. Heat warped & cracked
Description
2
1
C?
T?
T
1
2
S
T
1
1
1
1
Green/blue
Emerald green
3
Turquoise
Green/blue/amber/red
Greenish amber
2
Pale turquoise
1
Light green
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Blue
Amber
1
Light blue
2
Green/amber/white
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Light greenish blue
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Amber
Deep turquoise blue
Green str red
Green
Greenish amber
Blue
Blue
Green
Brownish amber
Colour
0
0
0
27
0
0
0
20
0
16
22.5
0
16
32
15
12
0
30
0
0
23
24
20
40
22
0
23
24
35
0
0
0
0
0
33
35
30
0
0
23
26
26
0
34
0
0
17
24
0
0
0
15
0
0
0
19
0
14
10.5
0
15.5
12
11
10
0
26
0
0
18
10
16
17
19
0
19
15
20
0
0
0
0
0
27
31
29
0
0
19
16.5
17
0
28
0
0
14
20
0
0
0
1.6
0
0
0
1.9
0
0
1.7
0
1
0
0
0
0
2.2
0
0
1.6
1.5
0
0
0
0
0
1.2
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.6
3
0
0
0
2
0
0
2
0
0
2
1.8
Th
27.1.9
27.1.5
Fig
Brill 2453
Brill 2484
Brill 2484
Brill
Freestone
Padgham
Brill
Report/
analysis
BWM-R
BWM-S
BWM-F
BWM-R
BWM-F
BWM-S
BWM-S
Location
27: WINDOW GLASS

111
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Light green str red

Pale turquoise
Pale green
Pale green
Amber
Deep blue
Pale green
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
1184 73
1185 73
1186 73
1187 73
1188 73
1189 73
1190 73
404a
404b
404c
405
406a
406b
406c
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
1169 73 UZ 397bd7305
1170 73 UZ 397e 7305
1171 73 UZ 398a 7305
1172 73 UZ 398b 7305
1173 73 UZ 399a 7305
1174 73 UZ 399b 7305
1175 73 UZ 399c 7305
1176 73 UZ 400a 7305
1177 73 UZ 400b 7305
1178 73 UZ 401a 7305
1179 73 UZ 401b 7305
1180 73 UZ 401c 7305
1181 73 UZ 401d 7305
1182 73 UZ 402a 7305
1183 73 UZ 403 7305
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
395b
395c
395d
396
397a
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Pale turquoise blue

Pale yellow green
Pale blue
Turquoise green
Turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Amber/pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Green
Pale blue
Pale green
Pale blue
Pale green str red
Blue
Deep blue
Very pale green
Light turquoise
Turquoise
Turquoise
Pale blue green

Pale blue green
Light green
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Pale turquoise
Pale green
Pale turquoise
Dark cobalt blue
Light green str red
1164 73
1165 73
1166 73
1167 73
1168 73
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Colour
Blue
Light turquoise
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Conphase
1162 73 UZ 394b 7305 2018 ML Sax

1163 73 UZ 395a 7305 2018 ML Sax
388b
89a
389b
389c
390
391
392
393a
393b
394a
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
1152 73
1153 73
1154 73
1155 73
1156 73
1157 73
1158 73
1159 73
1160 73
1161 73
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
1147 73
1148 73
1149 73
1150 73
1151 73
386e
386f
386g
387
388a
Trench Cont
No. Code
1
1
1
1
1
2?
1
2
3
2
1?
1
1
1
2
1?
C?
0
20
16
17
12
31
18
36
18
36
8
0
0
0
35
Twisted. Joins UZ 403

Joins 73 WH d,e,f,g,h,i,j
Heat warped
Heat warped
Heat warped & broken. Matt, iridescent surfaces.
Bubbly
Heat warped
0
Weathered surfaces. Opaque with blue marks. 1
50
curving & 1 straight grozed edges, 1 edge cut straight
to form irregular triangle
0
32
Tiny bubbles
22
Heat warped
0
Opaque, slightly heat warped and bubbly. Joins
37
UZ 366g. Possibly part of rectangle
b, c & d fit together. Heat warped
57
Small fused lump
0
Heat warped
0
Heat warped
0
Heat warped
0
Heat warped
0
Heat warped
0
Part of irregularly shaped quarry. Joins UZ 327b
20
Heat warped. Faint marks of callipers? Joins UZ 102 26
Warped and bubbled. Partly iridescent with striations 37.5
19
Strip
25
0
0
Warped. Surface smudged with oblique layers.
20
Joins UZ 391
Warped. Matt striated surfaces. Bubbly
34
Joins UZ 268, 327a, 370d, VW 18h
30
0
9
0
0
0
a & b fit together. Purple red streaks. Many small

oval & round bubbles
a & b fit together. See UZ 388a
Heat warped
Heat warped
Heat warped
Heat warped
Heat warped
Heat warped
Description
21
16
0
7
0
0
0
25
0
0
0
0
0
0
12
7.5
33
16
10
0
0
10
0
20
21
0
32
0
34
0
17
15
10
12
11
16
26.6
15
28
10
0
0
0
28
2
2
0
1
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
2.5
2.7
2.8
0
2.8
0
0
3
0
3
1.4
0
2
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
2.8
1
3.5
1
4
0
0
0
0
2.5
Th
27.1.6
27.1.5
27.1.8
27.1.10
Fig
Bradford
Brill 2453
Brill 2453
Brill
Report/
analysis
BWM-R
BWM-F
BWM-R
Brill
Location
112
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
1
1
1
Light green str red

Pale turquoise
Very pale turquoise
Very pale turquoise
Deep blue
Light green
Light green
Green with red
Deep turquoise blue
Green
Deep turquoise blue
Very pale green
Green
Green
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
1220 73
1221 73
1222 73
1223 73
1224 73
1225 73
1226 73
1227 73
1228 73
1229 73
1230 73
1231 73
1232 73
1233 73
428
429
430a
430b
430c
431a
431b
432
433a
433b
433c
433e
434a
434b
Light turquoise green

Pale turquoise + red 1
1218 73 UZ 426b 7305 2018 ML Sax

1219 73 UZ 427 7305 2018 ML Sax
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
Pale green
Clear blue
Light turquoise green 1
1215 73 UZ 424f 7305 2018 ML Sax

1216 73 UZ 425 7305 2018 ML Sax
1217 73 UZ 426a 7305 2018 ML Sax
T
T
T
T
S
D
T
1
1
1
3
2
Pale turquoise
1
Pale turquoise
Very pale green
Pale turquoise
Pale blue
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
1208 73 UZ 421a 7305

1209 73 UZ 421b 7305
1210 73 UZ 422a 7305
1211 73 UZ 422c 7305
1212 73 UZ 422e 7305
1213 73 UZ 423 7305
1214 73 UZ 424ae 7305
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Pale turquoise
Light green
Light green
Mid green dark str
Pale turquoise
Light green
Pale turquoise
Turquoise green
Pale green str white
Pale green
Brownish amber
Pale turquoise
Dark blue green
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
407e
407g
407h
407i
407j
412
416a
416b
417a
417b
418
419
420
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
1195 73
1196 73
1197 73
1198 73
1199 73
1200 73
1201 73
1202 73
1203 73
1204 73
1205 73
1206 73
1207 73
2?

Pale turquoise
2
Colour
1193 73 UZ 407c 7305 2018 ML Sax

1194 73 UZ 407d 7305 2018 ML Sax
Conphase
Greenish blue
Mid blue
Trench Cont
1191 73 UZ 407a 7305 2018 ML Sax

1192 73 UZ 407b 7305 2018 ML Sax
No. Code
2
4
C?
20.5
15
14
18.5
19
14.5
0
0
0
0
0
13
0
20
26
37
25
32
28
27.5
0
0
0
0
0
28
0
27
11
0
33
0
12
0
0
0
21
0
0
0
19
10
0
8
0
0
13
25
0
17.5
13
0
0
42
28.5
25
20
30
28
25
44
0
a and c fit together
27
26
0
0
5 pieces join 73 VW 27c,e,g,h. Iridescent striations. 46
Very weathered surfaces
0
0
Matt surface, tiny bubbles. Part of strip quarry with 34
1 cut edge
0
Heat warped. Bubbly. Red surface mark. Part of
35
strip quarry
Joins UZ 208
35
0
33
0
1 straight smooth edge
26
0
0
0
30
0
0
0
Joins UZ 156. Ribbed
19
Joins UZ 156. Ribbed
22
Heat warped. A few tiny bubbles. Irregularly

shaped quarry with 2 grozed & 2 cut edges.
Almost rectangular
Slightly iridescent
2 shiny faces. Sides partly cut & partly grozed
Joins UZ 57b, 277c to make almost complete quarry

Slightly heat warped
Warped. Matt and iridescent surfaces. Bubbly.

Possibly part of a vessel
Most of quarry. Striations & impurity specks. Bubbly
Matt surface. Tip of triangle with 1 curved & 1
straight grozed edges
Matt surface. Joins 73 UF 16
Description
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.3
0
0
0
1.5
1.5
0
1.5
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1.8
2.8
0
0
2.8
1.2
0
0
0
0
0
1.7
0
4
4.2
2.2
Th
27.1.8
27.1.6
Fig
BWM-R
BWM-S
BWM-R
Location
Brill 2480
Brill 2457
Brill 2457
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-S
London Poly
Report/
analysis
27: WINDOW GLASS

113
2018
2018
2018
2761
2017
2017
1845
1845
1845
1845
1845
1845
1845
2190
2190
2190
2190
2190
2190
2191
2191
2191
2192
2022
2022
2022
2022
2022
2022
2022
2022
2022
2022
2023
2023
2023
2023
1244 73 UZ 443ae 7305

1245 73 UZ 444 7305
1246 73 UZ 446 7305
1247 73 VB
7303
1248 73 VF 5
7305
1249 73 VF 6
7305
1250 73 VM 1
7305
1251 73 VM 2
7305
1252 73 VM 3
7305
1253 73 VM 5a
7305
1254 73 VM 5b 7305
1255 73 VM 5c
7305
1256 73 VM 5d 7305
1257 73 VP
7304
1258 73 VP 6
7304
1259 73 VP 7
1260 73 VP 10
1261 73 VP 11
1262 73 VP 13
1263 73 VS
1264 73 VS 1
1265 73 VS 2
1266 73 VT 2
1267 73 VVa
1268 73 VVb
1269 73 VVc
1270 73 VV 1a
1271 73 VV 1b
1272 73 VV 2a
1273 73 VV 2b
1274 73 VV 2c
1275 73 VV 3a
1276 73 VV 3b
1277 73 VW 3a
1278 73 VW 3b
1279 73 VW 3c
1280 73 VW 3d
7304
7304
7304
7304
7304
7304
7304
7304
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
2018
436
437
438a
438b
439a
439b
440
441a
442
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
UZ
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
M Sax
M Sax
M Sax
M Sax
M Sax
M Sax
M Sax
Saxon
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
Med 2
L Sax
L Sax
Norman
Norman
Norman
Norman
Norman
Norman
Norman
M Sax
M Sax
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Green
Amber
Blue
Very pale turquoise
Very pale green
Clear
Clear
Very pale turquoise
Very pale turquoise
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Very pale turquoise
Very deep turquoise
w/ red streaks
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Light green
Light green
Colourless
Green
Clear blue
Green str red
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Light green
Light bluish green
Light green
Light turquoise
Pale turquoise
Deep yellow green
Brownish amber
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Light green
Pale green/red
Green
Clear blue
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Yellow green
Colour
1235 73
1236 73
1237 73
1238 73
1239 73
1240 73
1241 73
1242 73
1243 73
Conphase
Pale turquoise
Trench Cont
1234 73 UZ 435ad7305 2018 ML Sax
No. Code
3
1?
I
T
T
T
2
1
3
2
2
1
1
4
1
1
2+
1
D
T
C?
1
1?
2
1
1
1
G
48
0
0
0
Heat warped
0
Matt & partly iridescent. Bubbly
33
0
Clear, bubbly & warped. Joins UZ 31, 153d, 297a, 379a 19
0
Bubbly & matt. Joins UZ 91b, 205b, 245, 280k,m, 70
327f. Many fine elongated bubbles. Heat cracked
Five fragments
0
14
Heat warped
0
Matt surfaces. Round & elongated bubbles
35
40
0
Curved
0
0
0
a and b fit together
0
a and b fit together
0
0
0
0
Heat warped. Burnt streaky red on surface.
24
Now opaque red surface
Milky with scattered bubbles. Matt surfaces
25.5
0
0
Heat cracked
0
Bubbly, shiny surfaces
16
0
Curved
0
36
a and b fit together. 1 cut edge. Matt surface, striations 38
a and b fit together. 1 cut edge. Calliper mark
0
Matt surface, striations
0
Scattered bubbles
32
Opaque with many bubbles
34
Matt surface with bubbles of varying sizes
32
0
Many tiny bubbles
22
1 edge curved & smoothly cut. Surface striations.
23.5
Darker streaks. Marked striations
28
Many tiny bubbles. 1 edge partly cut, partly grozed 23.5
b and c fit together. Shiny and clear
27
b and c fit together
0
0
Four pieces fit together. Heat warped. Matt and

iridescent
Heat warped
Fused
Description
17
0
0
0
13
0
0
19
19
0
0
39
26
15
0
15
14
19
14
15
0
0
0
12
0
31
30
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
22.5
0
0
0
0
18
0
18
0
50
32
2.5
0
0
0
2.8
0
0
1.6
2
0
0
3
3
1.8
0
1
2
1.8
2
2.4
0
0
0
0
0
1.5
2.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0.8
0
1
0
2.1
Th
27.1.8
27.1.9
27.1.8
Fig
Padgham S1
Freestone
Biek
Report/
analysis
BWM-F
BWM-R
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-S
Biek
Location
114
10b
11
12
13a
13b
14
15a
15b
16
18a
18b
18c
18d
18e
18f
18g
18h
20a
20b
20c
20d
20e
20f
20g
21
22
23a
23b
23c
23d
23e
23f
23g
23h
23i
23j
23k
24a
24b
24c
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
1290 73
1291 73
1292 73
1293 73
1294 73
1295 73
1296 73
1297 73
1298 73
1299 73
1300 73
1301 73
1302 73
1303 73
1304 73
1305 73
1306 73
1307 73
1308 73
1309 73
1310 73
1311 73
1312 73
1313 73
1314 73
1315 73
1316 73
1317 73
1318 73
1319 73
1320 73
1321 73
1322 73
1323 73
1324 73
1325 73
1326 73
1327 73
1328 73
1329 73
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
7305
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
VW
1281 73
1282 73
1283 73
1284 73
1285 73
1286 73
1287 73
1288 73
1289 73
4a
4b
4c
5
6
7
8?
9
10a
Trench Cont
No. Code
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Conphase
Pale green
Pale green
Very pale green
Amber
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Light turquoise
Blue
Amber
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale green
Yellow green str blue
Pale turquoise
Amber
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Green
Pale turquoise
Light turquoise blue
Blue green str red
Emerald green
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Turquoise
Brownish amber
Deep turquoise blue
Deep turquoise blue
Deep turquoise blue
Pale turquoise
Turquoise
Greenish amber
Light turquoise
Turquoise
Green with red
Pale turquoise
Light green str red
Colour
2
3
3
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
1?
2
3
S
S
3
3
3
3
4
C?
R
R
R
R
R
R
T
R
R
T
S
0
26
25
0
0
0
0
0
Red streaks and swirls cross one another at different

levels. Joins UZ 64a,b
24
0
Curved
0
0
0
0
0
0
Heat warped
0
0
Matt surfaces. Joins VW 23a,c,d
40
Laminated surface. Joins VW 27i
23
Matt surface, scattered bubbles
31
Clear with shiny surfaces
15
37.5
0
0
Joins UZ 268, 327a, 370d, 404b
58
27
Warped and opaque
0
0
0
0
0
Matt & slightly iridescent surfaces. One darker streak 33
Heat warped
13
0
a, c & d join with VW 18a. Matt surfaces
39
0
See VW 23a
0
See VW 23a
0
e, f, g & h fit together. Matt and bubbly surfaces
24
See VW 23e
0
See VW 23e
0
See VW 23e
0
On each face can see lines which could show leading 20
0
1 cut edge. Possibly whole quarry
34
Two curved grozed edges
27
b, c & e fit together
33
See VW 24b
0
Curved
Curved
Twisted lump
Bubbly. Joins UZ 240a to make complete quarry
Description
24
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
37
16
22.5
13
13
0
0
40
15
0
0
0
0
0
23
10
0
37
0
0
0
27.5
0
0
0
14
0
20
15
32
0
0
14
19
0
0
0
0
0
1.7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2.8
2
1.2
2.3
1.8
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
3.4
1.8
0
2.8
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
2.3
0
1.4
1.6
2
0
0
1.2
1.5
0
0
0
0
0
Th
27.1.8
Fig
Brill 2450
Report/
analysis
BWM-R
BWM-F
BWM-S
BWM-S
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-S
BWM-S
BWM-S
BWM-S
BWM-F
BWM-R
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-R
Location
27: WINDOW GLASS

115
2372
1121
2376
2376
2376
2376
2376
2376
2376
2376
2378
1201
1124
Med 1?
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
Med 1b
Med 1b
Med 2
7505
7504
7505
7505
7505
7505
7505
7505
7505
7505
7505
7502
7504
1365 75
1366 75
1367 75
1368 75
1369 75
1370 75
1371 75
1372 75
1373 75
1374 75
1375 75
1376 75
1377 75
EY 288
JQ 4
JX
JX 8
JX 10
JX 11
JX 16
JX 17
JX 52
JX 84
KK 6
KM
KP?
7505 2372 Med 1?

7505 2372 Med 1?
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
Med 2
Conphase
1363 75 EY 12
1364 75 EY 186
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2023
2024
2024
2024
2024
2028
2028
2029
2029
2021
2021
2021
2021
2021
2021
2021
2021
2021
2021
2021
1086
Trench Cont
1330 73 VW 24d 7305

1331 73 VW 24e 7305
1332 73 VW 24g 7305
1333 73 VW 24h 7305
1334 73 VW 25a 7305
1335 73 VW 25b 7305
1336 73 VW 26ab 7305
1337 73 VW 27a 7305
1338 73 VW 27c 7305
1339 73 VW 27e 7305
1340 73 VW 27g 7305
1341 73 VW 27h 7305
1342 73 VW 27i 7305
1343 73 VZ 1a
7305
1344 73 VZ 1b
7305
1345 73 VZ 2
7305
1346 73 VZ 3
7305
1347 73 WE a
7305
1348 73 WE b
7305
1349 73 WG 1ac 7305
1350 73 WG 4?
7305
1351 73 WH a
7305
1352 73 WH b
7305
1353 73 WH c
7305
1354 73 WH d
7305
1355 73 WH e
7305
1356 73 WH f
7305
1357 73 WH g
7305
1358 73 WH h
7305
1359 73 WH i
7305
1360 73 WH j
7305
1361 73 WH k
7305
1362 75 DJ?
7504
No. Code
Pale blue
Pale green
Pale green
Pale green
Light green
Light green
Deep turquoise blue
Deep turquoise
Light blue
Pale green
Light green
Colourless
Pale green str red

Greenish amber str
Deep turquoise blue

Deep turquoise blue
Amber
Pale turquoise
Pale green
Brownish amber
Deep turquoise blue
Pale blue
Pale blue
Pale blue
Pale blue
Pale turquoise
Almost clear
Clear pale green
Red str
Mid blue
Greenish amber
Amber
Clear/whitish
Very pale turquoise
Amber
Deep green turquoise
Pale turquoise
Dark turquoise green
Turquoise
Pale blue
Colour
2
1
2
1?
1?
1
2
1
2
1
4
3
2
2
2
2
2
3
2
Rh
T?
T
R
R
R
R
1?
C?
0
0
0
0
0
Curved or twisted
0
Two pieces join to make almost complete quarry
46
19
c, e, g & h join with UZ 424ae. Striations & bubbles 46
See VW 27c
22
See VW 27c
18
See VW 27c
24
Laminated surfaces. Joins VW 18b
34
Heat warped
22
Many tiny bubbles. Calliper mark?
41
0
Twisted and deeply indented from damage while hot 29
Twisted. Indentations from tool marks or damage
25
Heat warped. Has a reddish tinge to its colour
15
Three lumps
0
Heat warped
0
Complete quarry. Small round bubbles
43
23
25
d, e, f, g, h, i & j fit with UZ 392. See UZ 392
18
See WHd. See UZ 392
0
See WHd. See UZ 392
0
See WHd. See UZ 392
0
See WHd. See UZ 392
0
See WHd. See UZ 392
0
See WHd. See UZ 392
0
0
Reddish deposit on one side (oxidised copper?).
26
Medieval?
Slight iridescence
15.5
Dark streaks. Whole quarry, heat warped. 1 matt.
32
Bubbly
Flaking & iridescent. Small scattered round bubbles 15
Calliper marks?
35
1 large elongated bubble & tiny bubbles
12
18
Tiny bubbles, surfaces striated but shiny
18
1 large bubble & tiny bubbles. Surface striations
18
Curved tapering point. Cf 75 MN 9
26
10
Flaking and iridescence
18
Matt surfaces
13
1 surface shiny, pitted; 1 matt, iridescent
30
Slight iridescence and striations
15
Surfaces with deposit probably burnt on. ?Medieval 23
See VW 24b
Description
12.5
22
12
5
8.5
13
9
7.5
12
8.5
20
9
17
14.5
27
0
0
0
0
0
0
22
15
42
22
7
11
26
20
13
0
20
21.5
12
0
0
28.5
16
17
16
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
0.8
2
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.8
1.6
0.8
2
1
2.2
1.5
2
2
2.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
2.2
0
2
2
2
2
2
2
3.8
0
3.8
1.5
1.3
0
0
2.2
0
1.7
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Th
27.1.8
Fig
Freestone
Report/
analysis
Unknown
Unknown
BWM-F
BWM-F
Unknown
BWM-F
BWM-R
BWM-R
BWM-R
BWM-R
BWM-R
BWM-R
BWM-R
BWM-R
Church
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-R
BWM-F
BWM-S
Location
116
1418 76 CC 40
1419 76 CC 41
1420 76 CC 42
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
7602 2857 ML Sax

7602 2857 ML Sax
7602 2857 ML Sax
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
7602 2857 ML Sax
1408 76 CC 11
7602
1409 76 CC 14
7602
1410 76 CC 15
7602
1411 76 CC 17
7602
1412 76 CC 20
7602
1413 76 CC 30
7602
1414 76 CC 32
7602
1415 76 CC 35
7602
1416 76 CC 36
7602
1417 76 CC 37ab 7602
1407 76 CC 10
2857
2857
2857
2857
7602
7602
7602
7602
1403 76
1404 76
1405 76
1406 76
4
5a-b
6
9
7602 2857 ML Sax
1402 76 CC 3
CC
CC
CC
CC
7602 2855 Med 1

7602 2855 Med 1
7602 2857 ML Sax
Med 1
LS/EM
Norman
Norman
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
Mid 1b
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
Modern
Modern
Modern
Modern
Modern
Modern
Modern
Modern
Med 1
Conphase
1399 76 BK
1400 76 BK 1
1401 76 CC 2
1204
1133
1135
1135
1138
1138
2379
2381
2383
2383
2383
1137
2856
2856
2856
0
2854
2854
2854
2854
2855
7502
7504
7504
7504
7504
7504
7505
7505
7505
7505
7505
7504
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
1378 75
1379 75
1380 75
1381 75
1382 75
1383 75
1384 75
1385 75
1386 75
1387 75
1388 75
1389 75
1390 76
1391 76
1392 76
1393 76
1394 76
1395 76
1396 76
1397 76
1398 76
KY?
LL 2
LR 1
LR
MB a
MB b
ME 2
ML
MN 2
MN 7
MN 9
MZ
BV? a
BV? b
BV? c
AY
BJa
BJb
BJc
BJd
BK
Trench Cont
No. Code
1
2
2
2
1
Aqua with purple/red

Greenish aqua
3
Pale green (aqua)
1
Pale greenish amber 2
Pale green
Mid blue
Pale green
2
2
1
Light yellow green

Deep turquoise blue
Pale str red
1
Amber
Light green
1?
Pale turquoise (aqua)
Pale turquoise
Pale green & red
Colourless
Pale green (aqua)
Medieval?
Surface iridescence
Description
T
R
9.5
20
9
8.5
18
6
12
22
10
0
14
10
27.5
12.5
11
9.5
4
7
8
6
28.5
11
20
11
15.5
23
27
20
9.5
11
15.5
13
17
12
18
17.5
10
6
16.5
15.5 14.5
15
25.6
13.5
14
23
21
9.5
42
27
19.5 13.5
21
43
22
26
29
14
14
36.5
13
0
21
25
37
21.5
25
28
14
16
23
8
29
11
23
15
21
Slightly iridescent
17
Heat warped. Surfaces uneven with incorporated debris 18
20
Smudged purple/red. Heat warped. Matt
17
10.5
Two pieces fit together. 1 surface shiny, 1 matt.
17
Bubbles. Fine grozing
With darker markings. Heat warped
48
Heat warped. Dull uneven surfaces
26
Matt surfaces
20
Thinner at one corner. One side deeply marked.

Melted rough shape. Trace of triangular toolmark
Slightly iridescent. Bubbles. Joins 76 CE 1
1 (or more) straight cut edge. Matt & striated. Bubbles
Heat warped. Surfaces uneven with incorporated
debris
Darker streaks. Whole quarry. Scattered bubbles
One partly cut edge
Heat warped
Two fragments fit together. Matt
Tiny round bubbles
1 surface matt, 1 shiny. Few bubbles. Joins 76 CC
107 to form an irregular shape w/ 1 straight and 1
curving edge
Fine red streaks. Very heat warped. One surface
bubbled
Very heat warped
Very heat warped. Surface bubbled
Matt surfaces
Iridescent
Heat warped with matt surface

Matt surface
Slightly warped
Scattered bubbles. Slightly iridescent
1 large bubble & many small bubbles

Red/purple streaks give an almost grey colour
Joins MN 7
Joins MN 2
Curved tapering point. Matt surfaces. Cf 75 JX 16
C?
1
2
Slightly heat warped. 1 shiny, 1 striated surface
1
1
Light green
Very pale turquoise
Light blue
Green str red

Deep blue
Turquoise aqua
Yellow green
Greenish amber
Pale turquoise
Clear green
Pale turquoise str
Turquoise blue
Light turquoise
Pale green blue
Pale green blue
Pale green
Pale green aqua
Pale clear green
Clear green
Pale green
Pale clear green
Deep blue
Colour
4
2
2.1
0
3
1
0
1.4
2.4
0
1.3
1
1.2
1.3
2
1.2
1.7
2.8
2
2
2
2.5
3
1.7
2.3
2.5
1.3
1.6
2.7
1
0
1.6
2
2.8
2
9.5
4
1.8
1.7
2
2
5
Th
27.1.6
27.1.9
27.1.5
27.1.5
27.1.6
Fig
Report/
analysis
BWM-R
BWM-F
BWM-R
BWM-F
Unknown
BWM-F
Unknown
BWM-F
Location
27: WINDOW GLASS

117
Green/turquoise
Light turquoise
7602 2857 ML Sax

7602 2857 ML Sax
7602 2857 ML Sax
1462 76 CC 113
1463 76 CC 114a 7602 2857 ML Sax
Light amber
Deep turquoise
Greenish amber
Greenish amber
Dark red
Pale green
Bright green
Light green
Green
Light blue green
Light yellow green
Pale green with red
Deep turquoise blue
Deep turquoise blue
Amber
Pale greenish amber
1460 76 CC 111
1461 76 CC 112
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
7602 2857 ML Sax
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
1459 76 CC 110
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
7602 2857 ML Sax

7602 2857 ML Sax
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
Clear
Green
Dark blue
Dark blue
Dark blue
Pale green str red
Greenish amber
Pale green (aqua)
Amber
Light green
Light green
Pale green
2
Clear
Pale green
1
Turquoise with red
Blue
Light blue green
3
Light yellow green 1
Mid cobalt blue
Emerald green
1
Light turquoise str red
Pale yellow green
Colour
1457 76 CC 108
1458 76 CC 109
91
92
93
97
98
100
102
103
104
106
107
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
1446 76
1447 76
1448 76
1449 76
1450 76
1451 76
1452 76
1453 76
1454 76
1455 76
1456 76
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
1422 76
1423 76
1424 76
1425 76
1426 76
1427 76
1428 76
1429 76
1430 76
1431 76
1432 76
1433 76
1434 76
1435 76
1436 76
1437 76
1438 76
1439 76
1440 76
1441 76
1442 76
1443 76
1444 76
1445 76
46
47
49
50a
50b
50c
51
58
59
64
66
67
68
69
70
71
76
78
81
82
83
85
87
90
7602 2857 ML Sax
1421 76 CC 44
Conphase
Trench Cont
No. Code
1?
T
T
C?
1 shiny, 1 matt. Few bubbles. Joins 76 CC 9. See

76 CC 9
Heat warped. Matt. Fine dark pitting on one side
Heat warped. Internal layering. Originally dark
blue green?
Quarry. Heat warped. Surface pitted & irregular.
1 cut edge?
1 shiny, 1 matt
Heat warped. Very few bubbles. Traces of copper
red on surface
Quarry. Heat warped. Deep grooves from melting.
Tool marks on surface
Matt with bubbles

1 shiny, 1 matt
Curved with partial melting
Heat warped. Whole quarry? Edges curved
Heat warped and some oxidation. Edges curved
Part of narrow quarry. Opaque

Clear with tiny bubbles & slighly iridescent
Heat warped & irregular surfaces
Slightly iridescent
Slightly heat warped. Matt. Scattered bubbles.
Sides may be cut
Matt. Scattered tiny bubbles
Heat warped
Heat warped
Matt surfaces
Slightly curved
Matt surfaces. Tiny bubbles
Shiny surfaces. Clear

Heat warped. Bubbled surfaces
Heat warped, almost opaque. Surface marked
Heat warped and indented
Debris on surface
Heat warped
Matt surfaces
Very heat warped. Deep turquoise green fragment

attached
Description
18
7
7
0
13
7
12
18
11
5
13
7
17
5
21
14.5
10
12.5
14
22
12
12.5
22
3.4
7.5
11.5
9
7.7
12
15
10
10
13.5
9.5
24
13
19
7.5
27
23
12.5 10.5
33
19.5
24
21
10.5
13.5 6
20
10.5
10
0
18.5
17.5
21
27
26
10.5
13
22
18
9.5
22
17
10
14.5
20
31
22
19
24
9.5
19
13
19
11
15
15
24
19
14.5
10
27.5
24
1.5
1.2
2.2
1.4
2.5
1.2
0
1.3
0
1.2
1.4
1.3
1.8
1.8
1.3
1.8
0
0
1.7
0
0
0
3
1.8
0
3.5
1.2
0
1.6
0
1.5
0
2
0
0
1.8
1.2
2
2
2
Th
27.1.7
Fig
Report/
analysis
BWM-F
BWM-R
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
Location
118
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
1464 76 CC 114b
1465 76 CC 115
1466 76 CC 117
1467 76 CC 118
1468 76 CC 119
1469 76 CC 121
1470 76 CC 128
1471 76 CC 133
1472 76 CC 134
1473 76 CC 135a
1474 76 CC 135b
1475 76 CC 136a
1476 76 CC 136b
1477 76 CC 137
1478 76 CC 141
1479 76 CC 142
1480 76 CC 144
1481 76 CC 146
1482 76 CC 147
1483 76 CC 148
1484 76 CC 150
1485 76 CC 153
1486 76 CC 157
1487 76 CC 158
1488 76 CC 159
1489 76 CC 161
1490 76 CC 162
1491 76 CC 163
1492 76 CC 164
1493 76 CC 165
1494 76 CC 168
1495 76 CC 171
1496 76 CC 172
1497 76 CC 173
1498 76 CC 174
1499 76 CC 175
1500 76 CC 176
1501 76 CC 177
1502 76 CC 178
1503 76 CC 179
1504 76 CC 180
1505 76 CC 181
1506 76 CC 182
1507 76 CC 184
1508 76 CC 185
1509 76 CC 186
1510 76 CC 189
1511 76 CC 190
1512 76 CC 193
1513 76 CC 194
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
Trench Cont
No. Code
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
Conphase
Light turquoise
Light green str red
Light blue green
Light yellow green
Amber
Light yellow green
Pale yellow green
Turquoise
Mid blue
Light yellow green
Light yelow green
Green
Green
Deep turquoise blue
Deep turquoise blue
Amber
Light green str red
Amber
Pale yellow green
Light green
Pale yellow green
Turquoise/blue
Light yellow green
Light yellow green
Deep green turquoise
Yellow green
Deep turquoise blue
Turquoise green
Light yellow green
Light yellow green
Light yellow green
Light turquoise blue
Light yellow green
Green
Pale yellow green
Deep turquoise blue
Pale green & red
Light yellow green
Pale amber
Clear str red
Light green
Mid greenish amber
Pale green
Amber
Light turquoise
Mid turquoise blue
Deep blue
Pale turquoise
Amber
Light yellow green
Colour
R?
3?
1
1
1
1?
2?
1?
1?
3?
2
1
1
1?
C?
6.5
Matt
12
Matt, surface cracks on 1 side. 2 straight edges cut? 31
17
Almost opaque
16
1 surface shiny, 1 matt
21
Matt
12.5
16
Heat warped and irregular
20
8
4
Heat warped
9
Heat warped
8
Heat warped. Yellow green fragment attached
20
1 surface shiny, 1 matt
15.5
Heat warped. Very uneven surfaces with debris
25
Very heat warped
24
25
6
Heat warped. Debris adhering
19
Heat warped
10
2 pieces fused together. Surfaces bubbled
32
9.7
7.5
Heat warped. Red surface oxidation
27
Matt. Slight iridescence
28
19
Heat warped. Red surface mark
22
6.5
10
13.4
Heat warped
16
Heat warped
35
Red surface marks
19
Heat warped
7
Heat warped
13.5
2 internal layers. Outer surfaces light red
10
12
Heat warped
13.5
12
Matt. Very few tiny bubbles. Grozed edge curved
25
Heat warped. 1 iridescent, 1 matt. Both indented
27.5
Matt. Tiny bubbles
28
Heat warped. 1 surface very crozzled
15
7
Heat warped. Surface crozzled. Paler at thin edge
17.5
Heat warped. Irregular & indented. Surface crozzled 30
24
Heat warped. Surface pitted. Whole quarry?
22
14
Description
4
11
12.5
8.5
19
6
10
10
15
4
3
6
4.5
7.5
7
23
16
9
5
15.5
7
26.5
8
6
18
26
9
16
3.4
8
6.8
11.5
15.5
13
5
9
8
5
10.5
12
14
25
24
12.5
4
12.5
28.5
20
21
3.5
W
1.5
1.5
3
3
0
1.3
1
0
0
1.3
1.3
0
0
2.3
1.6
0
4.3
0
1
3.5
2.5
3
1.6
1
2.3
1.5
0
2.3
1
0.8
1
2
3
0
1.8
1.8
2.3
2
3
0
2
2.5
1.8
2.2
1.5
3.5
6
0
0
0.9
Th
Fig
Report/
analysis
BWM-F
BWM-R
BWM-R
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-S
Location
27: WINDOW GLASS

119
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC 225
CC 226
CC 227
CC 228
CE 1
CE 2
CE 6
CG 2
CG 3ab
CG 4
CN 1
CN 2
CN 3
CN 4
CN 5
CN 7
CN 8
CN 9
CO 2
1526 76
1527 76
1528 76
1529 76
1530 76
1531 76
1532 76
1533 76
1534 76
1535 76
1536 76
1537 76
1538 76
1539 76
1540 76
1541 76
1542 76
1543 76
1544 76
1545 76
1546 76
1547 76
1548 76
1549 76
1550 76
1551 76
1552 76
1553 76
1554 76
1555 76
1556 76
1557 76
1558 76
217
218
220
221
223
224
208
209
210
211
212
214
215
216
202
205
206
207a
207b
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
1521 76
1522 76
1523 76
1524 76
1525 76
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7604
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
2859
2860
2860
2860
2860
2860
2860
2860
2860
971
2857
2857
2857
2857
2858
2858
2858
2859
2859
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
2857
Trench Cont
195 7602
196 7602
197 7602
198 7602
199 7602
200 ? 7602
201 7602
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
1514 76
1515 76
1516 76
1517 76
1518 76
1519 76
1520 76
No. Code
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
LS/EM
M Sax
M Sax
M Sax
M Sax
M Sax
M Sax
M Sax
M Sax
Med 1b
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
Med 1b
Med 1b
Med 1b
LS/EM
LS/EM
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Conphase
2?
3?
1
Amber
Pale green
Green
Pale turquoise
Pale str red
Blue
Light green
Pale green str red
Deep turquoise
Pale yellow green
Light green
Amber/light green
Light green
Amber
Deep/light blue
Deep turquoise blue
2?
1?
2?
3
3
Pale turquoise
Light yellow green
Pale yellow green
1
Greenish yellow
Pale yellowish
Pale yellow green

Light yellow green
Light yellow green
Amber
Light amber
Light green
Pale turquoise
1?
Pale blue green

Pale turquoise
Deep turquoise
Pale green
Pale green/amber
Light greenish amber

Light greenish amber
Pale green
Dark red brown
Mid blue
Pale turquoise
2
Colour
D?
T
D
D
1?
1
1
C?
Matt iridescent surfaces, cracked
2 small fragments
Heat warped, very iridescent
Heat warped. Matt surfaces, 1 striated
Heat warped, opaque

Heat warped. Two pieces irregularly fused together
Matt and iridescent. Bubbles. Two pieces forming
quarry
Some heat warping
Shiny surfaces, 1 striated. Scattered tiny bubbles
1 shiny and 1 matt surface. Tiny bubbles
Heat warped. Matt and iridescent. Tiny bubbles
Heat warped. Deep turquoise fragment attached

Heat warped. Yellowish fragment attached.
Surfaces crozzled
Heat warped. Surfaces crozzled
Joins 76 CC 227 to make complete quarry
Joins 76 CC 226 to make complete quarry
Heat warped. Two pieces fused together
Iridescent & matt. Scattered small bubbles. Joins 76 BK
Matt. Scattered bubbles

Iridescent. Small bubbles
Heat warped
Heat warped. Internal red partial layer
Heat warped
Red oxide mark. Joins 76 DK 5 and DK 8 to
form quarry
Matt
Smudged red brown
Heat warped
Two pieces fused together. Bluish surface. Heavily
corroded. Evidence of triangular toolmarks (10 10)
Heat warped
Heat warped. Shiny. Faint darker streaks
Heat warped
1 matt, 1 slightly iridescent. Bubbles
Heat warped, opaque. With lighter streaks
Very irregular. Possibly vessel glass
Heat warped. Matt. Joins 76 CC 205. Opaque
reddish surface w/ fine smoky green and red streaks
Heat warped
Heat warped. Matt. Joins 76 CC 201. See 76 CC 201
Description
31
29
16.8
44
10
12
32
17
33
25
29
21
19
28
23
17
15
26
29
38
16.5
11.5
12
23
17
11
11.5
22
25
18
18
22
20
37
15
10
35
47
10.3
14.5
16
18
23
14
22
13
10.5
11.5
11
9
5
10.5
16
15
10
14.8
25.5
11
17
12.5
11
10
18.5
28
24
16.5
10
5
12
10
8
9.5
12.6
17
14
13
16
15
23
12
5
25.5
34
8.5
13
12
8
19
9
19
2.6
1.8
1.8
2
0
0
2.3
2.3
0
1.3
3.5
1.2
1.2
2.3
1.2
0
2.5
1
2
0
1.2
2
1.5
4
3.5
2
0.6
1.2
0
2
6
1.4
2.2
3
0
0
3
0
1.3
1.2
4
1.3
3
3
1
Th
Fig
Report/
analysis
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-R
BWM-R
BWM-R
BWM-F
BWM-R
Location
120
924
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
Trench Cont
1559 76 CP 1
7603
1560 76 DK
7602
1561 76 DK 1
7602
1562 76 DK 3
7602
1563 76 DK 4
7602
1564 76 DK 5a
7602
1565 76 DK 5b
7602
1566 76 DK 6ab 7602
1567 76 DK 7
7602
1568 76 DK 8
7602
1569 76 DK 14
7602
1570 76 DK 16
7602
1571 76 DK 19
7602
1572 76 DK 20
7602
1573 76 DK 21
7602
1574 76 DK 22
7602
1575 76 DK 23
7602
1576 76 DK 24
7602
1577 76 DK 25
7602
1578 76 DK 26a 7602
1579 76 DK 26bj 7602
1580 76 DK 28a 7602
1581 76 DK 28b 7602
1582 76 DK 29ah7602
1583 76 DK 34
7602
1584 76 DK 35
7602
1585 76 DK 35
7602
1586 76 DK 41a 7602
1587 76 DK 41b 7602
1588 76 DK 42a 7602
1589 76 DK 42b 7602
1590 76 DK 46
7602
1591 76 DK 49
7602
1592 76 DK 50
7602
1593 76 DK 51
7602
1594 76 DK 52
7602
1595 76 DK 53
7602
1596 76 DK 55
7602
1597 76 DK 56
7602
1598 76 DK 58
7602
1599 76 DK 59
7602
1600 76 DK 60
7602
1601 76 DK 61a 7602
1602 76 DK 61b 7602
1603 76 DK 61c 7602
1604 76 DK 62
7602
1605 76 DK 67
7602
1606 76 DK 68
7602
1607 76 DK 69
7602
1608 76 DK 70
7602
No. Code
L Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
Conphase
Pale blue green

1
Pale blue
Pale blue green
1
Pale green str red
Pale yellow green
1
Pale blue
Amber
2
Clear pale
1
Pale turquoise
1
Pale green
Clear
Pale yellow
1
Light amber
Light green
Light green
Light blue green
Light blue green
Pale blue green
Pale yellow green
Mid blue green
Pale green
Pale green with red
Pale yellowish
Pale yellow green
Pale green
Pale green
Pale yellowish?
Pale yellowish
Light turquoise blue 2
Pale yellow green
1
Pale green (aqua)
Light blue
Very pale turquoise 2
Clear
Pale amber
Pale green
Light amber
1
Pale turquoise
Pale yellow green
1
Pale yellow green
Pale yellow green
Clear
Pale yellow green
Light blue green
Greenish amber
Colour
C?
32
19
Matt surfaces. Bubbly
27
Red stripe
25
Matt surfaces. Few tiny bubbles
19.5
Joins DK 8 and 76 CC 216 to form quarry
29
9
Two pieces join
40.5
29
Joins DK 5 and 76 CC 216 to form quarry
29
Heat warped. Matt. Red/purple shading
21.5
Matt. Tiny bubbles
17
15
Matt.
13
1 surface shiny, 1 matt and striated. Joins 76 DK 59 21
Matt. Tiny bubbles
27
Heat warped. Iridescent
17.5
Heat warped. 1 surface crozzled
24.6
Heat warped. Matt, 1 iridescent
23.5
Matt. Bubbles
28.7
Nine tiny fragments
0
Iridescent
21.5
16
Eight tiny fragments
0
Thin red line
4.5
5
11.5
16
15
24
9.5
Matt
9
5.5
Matt & slightly iridescent. Few tiny bubbles
29
6.5
15
26
23
15
28
1 shiny, 1 matt & striated. Joins 76 DK 21
17
16
16
12
9.5
23
4
Heat warped, dull
12.5
Heat warped
29
Heat warped. Surface crozzled
11.5
Matt surfaces. Many tiny bubbles
Description
27
5
26
21
18
24
6
37
21
19
12.5
8.5
10
8
14
6.3
10
18
9.5
14
0
7
10
0
3
3
8
8
8.3
10
5
7
4.5
11.5
3
3.5
26
6
5
23
15
13
12
5
7
17
1.5
6
9.5
9.5
W
2.3
0
1
0
1.3
2.2
0
1.5
0
2.2
2.5
1.8
0
0.8
1.3
3.5
2
2.5
2.5
1.3
0
1.2
1
0
0
0
1.2
1.2
0.8
0
1.5
2
0
1
0
2.3
1.2
0
0
0
1.3
1.3
0.7
0.7
0.7
0
0
2.3
1.3
2.7
Th
27.1.9
27.1.6
Fig
Report/
analysis
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-S
BWM-F
BWM-R
BWM-R
Location
27: WINDOW GLASS

121
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
Conphase
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
7602 2863 ML Sax

7602 2863 ML Sax
7602 2863 ML Sax
1628 76 DK 93
7602
1629 76 DK 94
7602
1630 76 DK 95a 7602
1631 76 DK 95b 7602
1632 76 DK 96
7602
1633 76 DK 97a 7602
1634 76 DK 97b 7602
1635 76 DK 98
7602
1636 76 DK 99
7602
1637 76 DK 100 7602
1638 76 DK 101a 7602
1639 76 DK 101b 7602
1640 76 DK 102ac7602
1641 76 DK 103 7602
1642 76 DK 104 7602
1643 76 DK 107a 7602
1644 76 DK 107b 7602
1645 76 DK 108 7602
1646 76 DK 109 7602
1647 76 DK 110? 7602
1648 76 DK 111 7602
1649 76 DK 112 7602
1650 76 DK 114 7602
1651 76 DK 115 7602
1652 76 DK 116? 7602
1653 76 DK 117 7602
1654 76 DK 119 7602
1655 76 DK 121? 7602
1656 76 DK 122 7602
1625 76 DK 90
1626 76 DK 91
1627 76 DK 92
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
Trench Cont
1609 76 DK 71
7602
1610 76 DK 72
7602
1611 76 DK 73
7602
1612 76 DK 78ad7602
1613 76 DK 79
7602
1614 76 DK 80
7602
1615 76 DK 81
7602
1616 76 DK 82
7602
1617 76 DK 83
7602
1618 76 DK 84
7602
1619 76 DK 85a 7602
1620 76 DK 85b 7602
1621 76 DK 86
7602
1622 76 DK 87
7602
1623 76 DK 88
7602
1624 76 DK 89ab 7602
No. Code
Pale yellow green

Light green str red
Light blue
Light blue
Deep turquoise blue
Pale green (aqua)
Pale green
Light blue
Light green
Clear
Deep turquoise blue
?
Pale yellow green
Pale yellow green
Light yellow green
Pale green
Pale green
Pale yellow green
Pale yellow green
Clear
Pale yellow green
Pale yellow green
Pale yellow green
Pale yellow green
Clear
Pale yellow green
Mid blue
Clear
Pale yellow green
Clear
Pale yellow green
Light turquoise
2?
4
1
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise
Pale turquoise (aqua) 1
Pale blue green
Pale yellow green
Blue green
Pale yellow green
1
Clear
Blue green
Pale green
Blue green
Blue green
Light yellow green
Pale yellow green
Pale turquoise (aqua) 1
Blue green
1
Colour
Rh
1?
C?
5
18
Heat warped. Matt surfaces
22
Four small fragments
0
8
Clear and shiny. Same glass as 76 DK 85 and DK 89 21.5
Slightly iridescent
12.5
23
Cf 76 DK 80, 85, 89
5
2 small fragments
0
Clear and shiny. Cf 76 DK 80, DK 89
11.5
Clear and shiny
16
1 iridescent, 1 matt
14.5
Flaking
6
Heat warped. 1 shiny and iridescent, 1 matt
18
Two pieces fit together. Shiny surfaces. Cf 76 21
17
DK 80, 85
10
0
Red streaks and fine line. Matt & shiny. Bubbles.
One grozed edge is partly rolled
25
9.5
Heat warped
22.5
11.5
10
Whole quarry
30
1 matt, 1 shiny
17
7
Heat warped. 1 matt, 1 slightly iridescent
15
Iridescent
15
0
8
11
Three fragments
0
0
1 shiny, 1 matt
23
Matt. Scattered bubbles
23
Shiny
24
0
0
0
0
0
10
Slightly iridescent
20
38
Iridescent
0
Heat warped. Bubbled and indented
38
0
0
Description
25
5.5
20
9
7
11
8.5
5
9
4.5
0
6
10
0
0
5.5
18
13.5
0
0
0
0
0
8.5
3.5
22
0
19
0
0
4
0
3
14
12
0
2
10
8.5
12
4
0
4.5
5.3
7.4
5.5
16.5
4.3
1.8
2.5
2.5
1.8
1.8
2
1
1
1.6
1
0
1
0
0
0
1.3
0.9
1.3
0
0
0
0
0
1.3
1
0
0
2.5
0
0
0
0
1.8
0
1.8
0
0
4
1.4
0
3
0
4
4.3
1.6
1.5
1.3
Th
Padgham
Fig
Report/
analysis
Unknown
BWM-F
Location
122
2864
2864
2864
2864
1698 76 EK 14
7602
1699 76 EK 17ab 7602
1700 76 EK 19a 7602
1701 76 EK 19b 7602
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
2864
2864
2864
2864
2864
2864
7a
7b
9a
9b
11
12
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
EK
EK
EK
EK
EK
EK
1692 76
1693 76
1694 76
1695 76
1696 76
1697 76
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
Med 1
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
7602 2864 Saxon

7602 2864 Saxon
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
975
2864
2864
2864
1669 76 DK 137ab7602
1670 76 DK 137c,e 7602
1671 76 DK 137d 7602
1672 76 DK 138 7602
1673 76 DK 139 7602
1674 76 DK 140 7602
1675 76 DK 142 7602
1676 76 DK 143 ? 7602
1677 76 DK 145 7602
1678 76 DK 146 7602
1679 76 DK 147 7602
1680 76 DK 152a 7602
1681 76 DK 152b 7602
1682 76 DK 159 7602
1683 76 DK 160 7602
1684 76 DK 175 7602
1685 76 DK 178 7602
1686 76 DN 3
7604
1687 76 EK 1
7602
1688 76 EK 2
7602
1689 76 EK 3
7602
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
ML
Conphase
1690 76 EK 5
1691 76 EK 6
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
2863
28693
2863
2863
2863
Trench Cont
1657 76 DK 123? 7602

1658 76 DK 124 7602
1659 76 DK 125? 7602
1660 76 DK 126 7602
1661 76 DK 128a 7602
1662 76 DK128bd7602
1663 76 DK 129 7602
1664 76 DK 130 7602
1665 76 DK 131 7602
1666 76 DK 132 7602
1667 76 DK 135 7602
1668 76 DK 136ah7602
No. Code
Mid yellow green

Pale yellow green
Pale yellow green
Pale yellow green
Pale turquoise
Pale yellow green
Pale green
Pale green
Mid blue green
Light turquoise
Turquoise green
Pale turquoise
1
2
2
1
2
Pale green
1
Pale green str red
Pale green
Light blue
Pale blue green
Pale yellow green
?
Light amber
Light amber
1
Amber
Pale yellow green
1
Deep turquoise
Pale yellow green
Amber
Pale green
Pale yellow green
Clear
Pale turquoise
2
Emerald green
3
Pale turquoise
2
Clear
Yellow green
Clear
Pale yellow green
Bluish aqua
Pale green
Pale yellow green
Pale yellow green
Greenish amber
Pale yellow green
1
Pale green (aqua)
1
Deep turquoise & red 2
Colour
T
R
D
T
C?
Two pieces fit together. Matt & iridescent

Matt & iridescent. Tiny round bubbles
Matt & iridescent. Tiny round bubbles
Slight iridescence. 1 shiny & 1 striated. Varied

bubbles. Irregular rectangle
Yellow patches. Iridescent, matt and bubbly.

Joins 76 EK 3
Yellow patches. Some iridescence

1 edge broken but may be fourth side of quarry
Yellow patches. Iridescent, matt and bubbly.
Joins 76 EK 6
Heat warped
Small bubbles. Fairly shiny surfaces

Fragments
1 shiny, 1 matt
Heat warped. Matt
Heat warped quarry

Matt
Matt
Seven pieces fit together to form most of quarry.
One other warped. Red concentric stripes. Red
copper splodges on surface
Two pieces fit together
Two pieces fit together. Purple red smudges
Three fragments
Description
22
15
9
12.5
7
0
19
0
9.5
10
5
11
0
11
8
20
9
16
29
27
18
0
0
0
0
5.5
0
0
11
21.5
7.5
11
42.5
13
42
23
16
11
31
15
9.5
15.5 7.5
9
6.5
32
25
23
9
16
7.5
37
36.5
21.5 15
28
12
38
27
25
23
8
0
21
0
10
17
20
15
0
12
10
31
15
29
34
29
39
0
0
0
0
14
0
0
12
28
23
20.5
40
1.5
2
1
1
1
0.8
1.5
0
3.4
2.3
2.3
2.2
2.3
2
0
2
0
0
1
0
1
1.3
0
1.5
0
0
0
0
1.
0
2
2
1.3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
1
2
1
Th
27.1.6
27.1.10
Fig
Report/
analysis
BWM-S
BWM-S
BWM-F
BWM-S
BWM-R
BWM-S
BWM-F
Location
27: WINDOW GLASS

123
FH 3
FH 8
FH 12
FO 8
FO 9
FR 2
FR 5
FT 3
GB 1
GB 2
GB 3
GB 4
GB 7
GF 1
GG
GL 6
GL 7
HB
HF 2
HG 5
HG 8
HG 11
HN 1
HU 1
HU 5
HU 6
HV 15
BC 504
BS 513
CQ 525
1719 76
1720 76
1721 76
1722 76
1723 76
1724 76
1725 76
1726 76
1727 76
1728 76
1729 76
1730 76
1731 76
1732 76
1733 76
1734 76
1735 76
1736 76
1737 76
1738 76
1739 76
1740 76
1741 76
1742 76
1743 76
1744 76
1745 76
1746 76
1747 76
1748 76
7603
7603
7603
7603
7603
7602
7602
7603
7603
7602
7603
7603
7603
7603
7602
7604
7604
7604
7604
JS V
JS V
JS V
7602
7604
7604
7604
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7602
7604
7603
7604
7604
7602
7603
7603
7602
7602
7602
EK 24
EK 25
EK 26
EK 28
EK 30
EK 31
EK 34
ES 15
ET 1
FB 1
FB 2
FC 1
FG 3
FG 9ac
FH 2ad
FH 2ef
FH 1
1702 76
1703 76
1704 76
1705 76
1706 76
1707 76
1708 76
1709 76
1710 76
1711 76
1712 76
1713 76
1714 76
1715 76
1716 76
1717 76
1718 76
2873
2873
2873
2873
2873
2874
2875
948
948
2863
951
951
951
951
2886
985
985
985
992
29
45
69
943
982
982
982
2869
2869
2869
943
2864
2864
2864
2864
2864
2864
2864
977
937
980
980
2866
940
940
2869
2869
2869
Trench Cont
No. Code
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Pale
Pale
Pale
Pale
Pale
Pale
Pale
Pale
blue
green
clear green
green red str
green
yellow green
green
green str red
Clear
Mid yellow green
Pale blue
Amber
Clear
Pale green
Pale turquoise
Clear
Clear
Pale green str red
Pale green str red
Pale/light green
Pale green str red
Pale green str red
Turquoise green
Turquoise green
Clear pale aqua
Colour
L Sax
Pale blue
L Sax
Pale yellow green
L Sax
Light amber
L Sax
Pale clear
L Sax
Amber
Saxon or earlier Clear
Saxon or earlier Clear greenish
Saxon
Light yellow green
Saxon
Light green
ML Sax
Pale blue
L Sax
Light green
L Sax
Sage green
L Sax
Pale green
L Sax
Pale green
L Sax
Pale blue green
ML Sax
Clear str red
ML Sax
Pale green
ML Sax
Pale green
M Sax
Pale clear
Med 2
Deep turquoise blue
Med 1
Pale turquoise
Med 1
Pale turquoise
L
L
L
L
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
L Sax
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
L Sax/Norman
L Sax
LS/EM
LS/EM
L Sax
L Sax
L Sax
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Conphase
Slightly iridescent. I chipped, 1 matt surface

Slightly iridescent
1 edge may be cut
3
1
1
Shiny surfaces. Tiny bubbles

Joins 76 FR 5
1 heavy and 1 light red stripe

2 very shiny surfaces. Finely grozed
Matt
With darker stripes
Purple smudge at corner. Pitted surface. Bubbly
Shiny surfaces. Bubbly
Dark stain. Matt & striated
1
1
1P
Heat warped
Folded over and heat twisted. Thick red stripes.

Tong mark
Shiny surfaces. Small bubbles.
Matt & pitted surfaces.
1 small cut edge. Joins 76 HU 6.
Joins 76 FB 1, FB 2. Both sides shiny. Thick
red stripes
Joins 76 FB 2, FT 3. See 76 FT 3
Joins 76 FB 1, FT 3. See 76 FT 3
Heat warped, iridescent
Heat warped. Thick red stripes
Three pieces join to form quarry
Four pieces join together
Two pieces join together
Four pieces join together. Clear & shiny surfaces,
indented
Striated and dull surface.
Matt `crackle surface.
Matt surfaces, slight iridescence

Matt
Thumb mark on 1 side
Matt surfaces, 1 striated
Description
Fine red line. Heat warped. Matt surfaces

1 side iridescent. Tiny bubbles
1
1
C?
1
1
1
2
1
1
T
T
2?
2
1
1
2
T
T
2
2
1
1
3
G
11
9.5
6
28
12
12.5
6.5
25
9
17
17
19
25
27
20
6
41
20
17.5
15
28
20
12
11
19
24
28
30
24
27
22
23
28
28
45
22
24
18
24.5
17.5
15.5
10
17
15
12
11
13
19
24
10.5
14
17
19.5
16
26
7
23
19
18
9.5
11
19.5 9
35.5 16.5
35
16
29
22
26
16.5
34
31
19
8
42.5 15
21
25
9
28
38
23
20
22
11
35
21
22
38.5
35
29
11
37
0
1.5
1
0
1.8
0
0
1.5
0
1.2
2.7
0
1.4
2
2.2
0
1.7
1.8
0
1.5
1
2
2.3
4
1.8
2
2
3.7
1.3
0
0
1.8
1
1.6
0
1
2
0
0
1.3
1.8
2.4
2.5
2
0
0
2
Th
27.1.10
27.1.9
Fig
Padgham 2
Freestone
Report/
analysis
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-R
BWM-F
BWM-S
BWM-F
BWM-F
BWM-F
Location
124
1755 78 JN 10
1756 78 KX
Med 1
M Sax
M Sax
EPM
Saxon
EPM
Conphase
7803 2821 Med 12

7803 2845 Med
72
1007
1007
570
1030
2829
JS V
7804
7804
7802
7805
7803
1749 76
1750 78
1751 78
1752 78
1753 78
1754 78
CT 530
EF
EF 1
EU 1
JB 9
JH 2
Trench Cont
No. Code
Pale turquoise
Brownish amber
Pale green
Pale turquoise
Amber/turquoise
Greenish amber
Deep turquoise blue
Deep turquoise blue
Colour
Description
2?
Shiny surfaces
Two pieces warped and fused together by heat

Pitted on one surface
1 grozed edge curved. Cf 78 JH 2
1 grozed edge curved. Shiny, striated & pitted.
Cf 78 JB 9
C?
1
2
3
S
Thin red line. Shiny
G
13
19
11
18
23
19
11.5
16
25
19
23
14.5
27
20
26
41
2.4
4
3
0.8
1.5
0
1.8
2.2
Th
Fig
Report/
analysis
BWM-F
Location
27: WINDOW GLASS

125
126
27.2 Chemical analyses of some glasses from Jarrow and Wearmouth

by Robert H. Brill
Introduction
A group of glass fragments excavated at Jarrow and
Wearmouth was submitted to the author by Professor
Rosemary Cramp in 1975. Twenty-five fragments from
Jarrow and eight from Wearmouth were selected as
being representative of the group as a whole and were
analysed chemically. All were assumed to be window
glass fragments, except for three pieces which were
fragments of blue vessels and one piece that was indeterminate. The analyses were undertaken as part of a
long-term programme at The Corning Museum of
Glass in which some 3600 glasses have so far been
analysed (Brill 1999a; 1999b). A few lead isotope
analyses were also carried out. The author is grateful to
Prof Rosemary Cramp for allowing him to collaborate
in this research. He is also indebted to Dr David B
Whitehouse, Director of The Corning Museum of
Glass, for numerous helpful comments on early drafts
of this chapter, in particular those regarding his interpretation of the Latin passages.
There were numerous reasons for analysing these
glasses. To begin with, the Wearmouth and Jarrow
glasses are among the earliest known examples of
coloured window glasses. Therefore, it is important to
learn as much about them as possible. Moreover, they
may be associated with the written remarks of Bede
(see Ch 27.1).
More specifically, it was of interest to see if the glasses from the two sites are chemically identical or distinguishable from one another. It was also important to
see how the glasses from the two monasteries compare
to later stained glass windows. Medieval stained glasses
can be roughly classified according to three main compositional families: soda-lime-silica glasses (which are
rare), potash-lime-silica glasses (of which there are several variants), and mixed-alkali glasses (Brill and
Weintraub 1992; Brill forthcoming a).
As it turned out, the Jarrow and Wearmouth fragments are soda-lime glasses, which in itself raised further questions. The most obvious concern where and
how the glasses were made. Were the glasses made of
glass melted locally from regional raw materials? Were
they made of imported raw materials? Were they made
locally, but from imported cullet? If there was no hot
glass-working at the site, could the windows have been
assembled from imported flat glass? Or could the windows themselves simply have been imported? If either
the glass or the windows were imported, where did
they come from? It was expected that chemical analyses would be helpful in sorting out these various possibilities, although the analyses would not necessarily
provide definitive answers.
The fragments raise other questions too. For example, how do the Jarrow and Wearmouth glasses relate to
glasses from other sites in Britain and on the continent?
An understanding of that picture is just beginning to

emerge (see eg DellAcqua and Silva 2001; Cramp
2000; 2001). Unfortunately the current author is not
well acquainted with those glass contexts and, therefore, that will leave something of a gap in the
discussions that follow here. Deliberations related to
that subject are better left to the specialists who are well
versed in it.
In the broadest sense of all, how do the Jarrow and
Wearmouth glasses fit into the overall picture of the
history of glass? Are the Jarrow and Wearmouth glasses are better viewed as surviving relicts of an earlier
Roman technology (perhaps as a facet of a continental
industry that evolved from that technology), or as precursors of the great cathedral windows that would
come to dominate the glass-making scene a few centuries later?
Methods of analysis and treatment of data

The glasses analysed are described in Appendices
27.2.1 and 27.2.2, together with their site codes and
contexts. The analyses were performed, mainly in
1975 and 1985, by Dr Brandt Rising and his co-workers at Umpire and Control Services, Inc, West
Babylon, NY. In 1999, the data were published in a
compendium of all the analyses undertaken by the
Corning Museum up until that year, but no interpretation of the findings was included (Brill 1999a;
1999b).
Quantitative analyses of the major and minor oxides
were carried out by atomic absorption, while the trace
elements were analysed semi-quantitatively by emission spectrography. The Museums analytical reference
glasses A, B, C and D were used as standards (Brill
1999b, 53944). Phosphorus was determined colourimetrically, and silica was estimated by difference. The
analyses are reported as weight percentages of the
oxides. Following customary practice, reduced compositions were calculated. This is done by subtracting all
colourants, additives, and trace oxides, and then normalising the seven remaining major and minor oxides
to 100%. In the reduced compositions (which appear
at the bottom of the data tables) each oxide is designated by an asterisk. Reduced compositions sometimes
provide a sounder basis for making comparisons
among glasses than do the raw data.
The analyses are reported in Tables 27.2.127.2.4.
Mean compositions with 90% confidence limits for the
data in the first three tables are given in Table 27.2.5.
A number of graphs were plotted of the data, but those
shown in Figures 27.2.127.2.4 yielded both sufficient
information and the information most useful to sort
the glasses according to their compositions. Plots of
some of the trace elements (not shown here) also aided
27: WINDOW GLASS
127
Fig 27.2.1 CaO* vs Na2O* plots for Jarrow, Wearmouth, and low-lime glasses. Expressed as reduced compositions. R Brill
Fig 27.2.2 MgO* vs K2O* plots. R Brill
128
Fig 27.2.3 Fe2O3* vs Al2O3* plots. R Brill
Fig 27.2.4 MnO vs Sb2O5 plots. R Brill
27: WINDOW GLASS
somewhat in the classification process. In addition, a

triangular plot of the (Na2O* + K2O*), (CaO* +
MgO*), and (SiO2* + A12O3* + Fe2O3*) summations
was made.
Results of the analyses and compositional

categories
All of the glasses except one (a vessel fragment from
Wearmouth, which came from an early post-medieval
context and so could be later) turned out to be sodalime glasses of the low potassium (K2O)-low magnesium (MgO) type. This means that the glasses were
descended in some way from the natron-based technology of the Hellenistic and Roman worlds.
From a careful inspection of graphs of the data,
three chemically distinct groups emerged. Some samples did not fall unambiguously into any of these
groups, so it was necessary to create a fourth, miscellaneous, group. In sorting the glasses, particular significance was attached to the presence of antimony
because that serves as one of the chemical links that tie
certain of these glasses together, even though differences in other oxides might tend to separate them.
Jarrow Glass
The first group (Table 27.2.1) includes nine glasses
that resemble one another closely enough to regard
them as having been made in a single workshop, from
similar raw materials, following similar working procedures, within a rather limited interval of time. Because
all nine came from Jarrow, they have been called
Jarrow Glass. All are window glasses, and all are from
context 2018 (a silty accumulation over the floor of
Building D dated midlate Saxon). They include several colours: aqua, aqua with red streaks, blue, bluish
green, and ruby. These are soda-lime-silica glasses
(Na2O:CaO:SiO2) of the low potassium-low magnesium type, containing intentional additions (at some
stage of manufacture) of both antimony (Sb2O5) and
manganese (MnO). One fragment of blue glass, No.
2477, contains only a trace of antimony, but because
all of the other characteristics match this group so
closely, it was included with them.
Ordinarily, it is the simple presence or absence of
antimony at an intentionally added level that is most
significant. Even within groups of ancient glasses
known to have been made in the same place at roughly the same time, antimony levels and manganese levels are often quite variable. The Jarrow glass samples
are noteworthy in that their antimony values show less
variability than is usually found. This may indicate that
these particular glasses were all made from a single
starting melt to which antimony had been added. Such
reasoning ties these Jarrow glasses together even more
closely, arguing against any supposition that they were
made by recycling cullet from a variety of sources.
129
Wearmouth Glass
A second group of nine glasses, most of which came
from Wearmouth, are also soda-limes with low potassium and low magnesium. Most also contain both antimony and manganese at an additive level. All but one
are window fragments: No. 3056, a vessel fragment of
Anglo-Saxon date, being the exception. These glasses
are believed to have been made in a single workshop,
from similar raw materials, following similar working
procedures, within a rather limited interval of time.
However, they differ sufficiently from the Jarrow Glass
that it is likely they were not made at precisely the same
place and/or same time as that glass. This may reflect
a difference between the dates when the glasses were
made for the two monasteries.
As a group, these glasses have somewhat lower lime
(CaO) contents than Jarrow Glass and somewhat lower
potassium. Several have lower alumina (Al2O3) and
iron (Fe2O3), and higher antimony and manganese.
Moreover, the antimony is more variable than it is in
the Jarrow Glass. We have called this group (Table
27.2.2) Wearmouth Glass, despite the fact that the
group of nine includes three glasses excavated at
Jarrow near Buildings A, B and D (nos 2474, 3054 and
3056). Chemically, they all appear to belong together.
One of the Wearmouth fragments, no. 2489D, contains no manganese and only a trace of antimony, which,
for reasons explained below, accounts for its amber
colour. In connection with this, it is noted that one of
the glasses from Jarrow included in this same group
does contain manganese, and it has an aqua colour.
Low-lime glass
A third group, containing only four items (three from
Jarrow and one from Wearmouth) is decidedly different from the two groups described above. These have
been called Low-lime glass (Table 27.2.3) because
they contain significantly less lime than Jarrow Glass
and Wearmouth Glass. They also have somewhat higher soda contents and, perhaps most significantly, lack
intentionally added manganese or antimony (except
for traces of antimony in one sample). It is likely that
they were made in a different place and/or at a different time from the other two groups.
Miscellaneous glasses
About two-thirds of the glasses analysed fit into the
groups discussed above, but for the remainder it was
necessary to create a Miscellaneous Group. The chemical differences are significant but, even so, these glasses could well have been made in the same place as the
Wearmouth Glass and/or the Jarrow Glass. Most likely, they are simply off-composition, something that
could have happened for any number of reasons in
ancient glass-workshops. When dealing with analyses
of ancient glasses, it is not uncommon to find some
130
Table 27.2.1 Jarrow glass group (n=9)

2453
2457
SiO2 d
SiO2 a
68.81
66.33
Na2O
16.60
15.40
CaO
8.02
K2O
MgO
2467
2483
2484
2477
2456
2462
65.43
68.40
67.35
67.98
67.41
67.35
15.40
14.90
15.90
15.70
15.50
14.90
14.70
8.32
8.62
8.27
8.00
8.09
8.25
8.32
8.14
1.11
0.78
1.10
0.95
1.15
0.96
1.11
0.92
1.14
0.95
1.09
1.00
1.17
0.85
1.35
0.93
1.35
0.97
Al2O3
Fe2O3
TiO2
2.45
0.75
0.10
2.57
1.32
0.10
2.68
1.59
0.13
2.86
1.42
0.12
2.43
1.27
0.13
2.49
1.53
0.15
2.40
0.86
0.13
2.95
1.67
0.15
3.03
1.72
0.15
Sb2O5
MnO
CuO
CoO
SnO2
Ag2O
0.28
0.46
0.08
0.29
0.30
2.43
0.23
0.28
1.16
0.32
0.24
3.36
0.30
0.30
0.75
0.29
0.30
1.03
0.05
0.26
1.80
0.20
0.25
1.01
0.23
0.26
1.23
0.06
0.002
0.26
0.003
0.12
0.002
0.38
0.005
0.08
0.001
0.11
0.001
0.31
0.003
0.12
0.003
0.15
0.002
PbO
0.24
0.34
0.44
0.10
0.20
0.49
0.18
0.50
0.48
BaO
SrO
Li2O
B2O3
V2O5
Cr2O3
NiO
ZnO
ZrO2
0.02
0.05
0.005
0.05
0.03
0.06
0.009
0.02
0.02
0.05
0.009
0.02
0.03
0.06
0.008
0.02
0.005
0.005
0.01
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.005
0.005
0.02
0.04
0.009
0.02
0.005
0.04
0.05
0.005
0.02
0.005
0.005
0.03
0.05
0.01
0.02
0.005
0.04
0.06
0.005
0.02
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
P2O5
0.12
0.15
0.11
0.43
0.24
0.16
0.11
0.13
31.192
68.808
98.518
33.667
66.333
95.993
103.186
-3.186
100.6
34.568
65.432
94.912
32.646
67.354
97.254
32.023
67.977
97.007
32.588
67.412
97.532
32.646
67.354
97.264
Total
100-T=d
M
SiO2*
Na2O*
CaO*
K2O*
MgO*
Al2O3*
Fe2O3*
T*
2461
70.2
69.84
16.85
8.14
1.13
0.79
2.49
0.76
100.00
(Na+K)* 17.98
(Ca+Mg)* 8.93
(Si+Al+Fe)*73.09
(Na/K)
14.95
(Ca/Mg) 10.28
31.596
68.404
98.094
69.10
16.04
8.67
1.15
0.99
2.68
1.38
100.00
69.78
15.31
8.57
1.14
0.95
2.66
1.58
100.00
68.94
15.70
8.71
1.17
0.97
3.01
1.50
100.00
69.73
16.21
8.16
1.16
0.97
2.48
1.29
100.00
69.26
16.14
8.32
1.12
1.03
2.56
1.57
100.00
70.07
15.98
8.50
1.21
0.88
2.47
0.89
100.00
69.12
15.28
8.53
1.38
0.95
3.02
1.71
100.00
69.25
15.11
8.37
1.39
1.00
3.12
1.77
100.00
17.19
9.66
73.15
14.00
8.76
16.45
9.52
74.03
13.39
8.98
16.87
9.68
73.45
13.42
8.99
17.37
9.12
73.51
13.95
8.42
17.26
9.35
73.39
14.40
8.09
17.18
9.38
73.43
13.25
9.71
16.66
9.48
73.85
11.04
8.95
16.50
9.37
74.13
10.89
8.39
27: WINDOW GLASS
131
Table 27.2.2. Wearmouth glass group (n=9)

2486
2488
2489
2474
3051
3052
3053
3054
3056
SiO2 d
69.35
68.09
72.76
66.86
71.90
71.85
68.67
72.46
67.99
Na2O
16.3
17.0
14.3
17.8
17.2
14.3
15.3
14.4
17.4
CaO
7.02
6.52
7.11
7.43
5.65
6.22
7.12
7.30
6.46
K2O
MgO
0.84
0.76
0.91
0.92
0.97
0.76
0.90
0.95
0.68
0.56
1.00
0.83
0.66
0.80
0.86
0.86
0.73
0.76
Al2O3
Fe2O3
TiO2
2.96
0.89
0.12
2.62
1.23
0.12
3.01
0.57
0.1
2.19
1.12
0.15
1.77
0.84
0.13
2.21
1.32
0.2
1.85
1.19
0.15
2.10
0.99
0.13
2.69
1.22
0.1
Sb2O5
MnO
CuO
CoO
SnO2
Ag2O
0.41
0.40
0.57
0.01
0.05
0.001
1.00
0.54
0.43
0.05
0.08
0.001
0.02
0.083
0.05
0.49
0.32
0.03
0.005
0.001
0.50
0.46
0.3
0.02
0.08
0.001
2.54
0.60
0.25
0.06
0.02
0.001
0.08
0.27
0.23
0.02
0.001
0.95
0.58
0.3
0.01
0.04
0.001
0.05
0.001
1.10
0.47
0.52
0.07
0.02
0.001
PbO
0.18
0.33
0.11
0.47
0.15
0.45
0.53
0.07
0.31
BaO
SrO
Li2O
B2O3
V2O5
Cr2O3
NiO
ZnO
ZrO2
0.03
0.03
0.001
0.02
0.005
0.03
0.05
0.001
0.02
0.005
0.03
0.05
0.001
0.01
0.05
0.05
0.005
0.03
0.005
0.005
0.01
0.08
0.005
0.05
0.006
0.005
0.038
0.01
0.005
0.01
0.07
0.007
0.04
0.006
0.005
0.005
0.01
0.04
0.005
0.02
0.006
0.005
0.005
0.03
0.05
0.005
0.036
0.01
0.01
0.09
0.008
0.03
0.006
0.005
0.005
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.008
0.097
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
33.143
66.857
97.247
28.102
71.898
98.598
28.155
71.845
97.725
31.334
68.666
95.586
27.54
72.46
98.97
0.036
0.01
P2O5
Total
100-T=d
M
SiO2*d
Na2O*
CaO*
K2O*
MgO*
Al2O3*
Fe2O3*
T*
30.648
69.352
98.122
70.68
16.61
7.15
0.86
0.77
3.02
0.91
100.00
(Na+K)* 17.47
(Ca+Mg)* 7.93
(Si+Al+Fe)*74.60
(Na/K)
19.40
(Ca/Mg)
9.24
31.91
68.09
97.29
27.241
72.759
99.479
0.02
0.005
0.005
0.035
0.01
32.006
67.994
97.254
69.99
17.47
6.70
0.94
0.95
2.69
1.26
100.00
73.14
14.37
7.15
0.98
0.76
3.03
0.57
100.00
68.75
18.30
7.64
0.93
0.98
2.25
1.15
100.00
72.92
17.44
5.73
0.69
0.57
1.80
0.85
100.00
73.52
14.63
6.36
1.02
0.85
2.26
1.35
100.00
71.84
16.01
7.45
0.69
0.84
1.94
1.24
100.00
73.21
14.55
7.38
0.87
0.87
2.12
1.00
100.00
69.91
17.89
6.64
0.75
0.78
2.77
1.25
100.00
18.41
7.65
73.94
18.68
7.09
15.35
7.91
76.74
14.74
9.36
19.23
8.62
72.15
19.78
7.82
18.13
6.30
75.57
25.29
10.09
15.66
7.21
77.13
14.30
7.49
16.70
8.29
75.02
23.18
8.90
15.42
8.24
76.34
16.74
8.49
18.64
7.42
73.93
23.84
8.50
132
Table 27.2.3. Jarrow Low-lime group (n=4)

2454
2465
2450
2487
SiO2 d
72.63
69.23
68.74
71.99
Na2O
18.3
17.7
19.1
17.7
CaO
2.94
4.79
4.40
3.83
K2O
MgO
0.67
0.73
0.89
0.73
0.87
0.95
0.75
0.76
Al2O3
Fe2O3
TiO2
3.36
1.02
0.2
3.35
1.06
0.18
3.88
1.54
0.3
3.15
1.15
0.18
0.025
0.001
0.027
1.69
0.042
0.005
0.02
0.09
0.13
0.001
0.23
0.004
0.001
0.002
0.05
0.001
PbO
0.005
0.01
0.01
0.09
BaO
SrO
Li2O
B2O3
V2O5
Cr2O3
NiO
ZnO
ZrO2
0.01
0.03
0.005
0.01
0.02
0.009
0.02
0.03
0.005
0.03
0.03
0.003
0.01
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.01
0.01
0.01
P2O5
0.055
0.059
0.088
27.367
72.633
99.653
30.774
69.226
97.746
31.258
68.742
99.482
Sb2O5
MnO
CuO
CoO
SnO2
Ag2O
Total
100-T=d
M
72.89
SiO2*d
18.36
Na2O*
CaO*
2.95
0.67
K2O*
MgO*
0.73
3.37
Al2O3*
1.02
Fe2O3*
T*
100.00
(Na+K)* 19.04
(Ca+Mg)* 3.68
(Si+Al+Fe)*77.28
(Na/K)
27.31
(Ca/Mg)
4.03
70.82
18.11
4.90
0.91
0.75
3.43
1.08
100.00
19.02
5.65
75.33
19.89
6.56
69.10
19.20
4.42
0.87
0.95
3.90
1.55
100.00
20.07
5.38
74.55
21.95
4.63
0.024
0.01
28.013
71.987
99.327
72.47
17.82
3.86
0.76
0.77
3.17
1.16
100.00
18.58
4.62
76.80
23.60
5.04
samples straying from the central tendencies of a given

group of glasses to which one would normally have
expected them to belong. This is referred to, only halfjokingly, as the 5 to 15% rule.
It seems worthwhile to comment separately on the
eleven glasses forming the Miscellaneous Group
(Table 27.2.4):
1. Three window glasses from Jarrow, sample nos

2468, 2469 and 2479 (context 2018), are more or
less similar to one another. None contains antimony
or intentionally added manganese, accounting for
the fact that the first two are amber. Since the third
is blue, it has no need for a decolouriser. They are,
perhaps, a little more like Wearmouth Glass than
Jarrow Glass.
2. Sample nos 2466 and 2482 (context 2018) are from
Jarrow and are intermediate between the main
groups. They contain only traces of antimony, but
do contain some manganese. Both are red-streaked
glasses.
3. Sample no. 3049 (context 2018), is a ruby window
glass from Jarrow. As is explained below, it differs
from the red-streaked glasses in its microstructure.
The composition is unusual only in that it is relatively high in lithia (Li2O=0.03%). This was verified by a repeat analysis.
4. Sample no. 2481 is a dark blue glass from Jarrow
that has relatively high lime and low alumina. It is
uncertain from its appearance whether the glass is a
vessel fragment or window glass.
5. Two vessel fragments do not match any of the three
main groups. Sample no. 2476 is a dark blue glass
from Jarrow, having very high magnesia and high
lime. (The values were confirmed by a repeat analysis.) Sample no. 3055, from Wearmouth, is a bright
blue glass with a mixed-alkali composition the
only such glass among all those analysed here. It
could have been made with kelp. The contexts from
which these items derive suggest that they may be
of medieval or post-medieval date.
6. Sample no. 3050 is an extremely unusual dichroic
glass fragment found at Jarrow. It has a composition
intermediate between Jarrow Glass and Wearmouth
Glass and owes its colour mainly to the presence of
colloidal silver and gold (see below). It contains
antimony and manganese, but both at levels somewhat lower than those normally indicating intentional addition. Sample no. 2470, an amber glass, is
very close to the dichroic glass in composition,
except that it does not contain silver or gold.
Trace elements
There is nothing unusual about either the trace elements detected or the levels at which they occur: both
are what one expects to find in early glasses. The spectrographic analyses of the trace elements were done over
a period of several years, and although the same reference glasses were used, it would be best to be cautious
in making comparisons among the trace element data.
Most of the glasses contain zirconium (ZrO2) and
detectable levels of vanadium (V2O5), both of which can
be useful for characterising silica sources. The Lowlime glasses seem to have somewhat higher titania
(TiO2) contents than the other glasses. In several
instances, trace metals appear to be correlated with the
27: WINDOW GLASS
133
Table 27.2.4 Miscellaneous group (n=11)

2468
2469
2479
3049
2466
2482
2481
2476
3055
3050
2470
SiO2 d
71.35
72.11
69.83
68.36
68.74
69.23
69.31
65.23
65.69
70.25
70.11
Na2O
13.9
14.3
14.1
15.2
15.2
14.9
12.8
11.8
9.94
16.7
16.6
14.7
15.4
5.50
5.74
6.47
CaO
8.62
8.00
7.97
7.22
9.16
8.19
K2O
MgO
0.94
0.71
1.16
0.75
0.65
0.68
1.24
0.82
0.92
0.93
1.53
0.93
0.5
0.63
0.56
4.32
9.73
2.02
1.1
0.82
1.13
0.89
Al2O3
Fe2O3
TiO2
3.21
0.87
0.1
2.78
0.62
0.1
2.55
0.59
0.1
3.08
1.21
0.15
2.83
0.96
0.1
2.68
1.17
0.15
0.92
0.34
0.11
1.24
0.56
0.1
1.71
0.34
0.08
2.65
1.16
0.07
2.71
1.05
0.18
0.078
0.04
0.023
0.01
0.028
2.55
0.1
0.29
1.93
0.05
0.12
0.64
0.05
0.26
0.37
0.07
0.14
0.19
0.05
0.16
0.04
0.001
0.37
0.002
0.1
0.001
0.05
0.002
0.1
0.001
0.11
0.003
0.01
0.001
0.001
0.03
0.038
3.11
0.001
0.001
0.078
0.009
0.1
0.001
0.001
0.005
0.001
0.05
0.062
0.06
0.001
Sb2O5
MnO
CuO
CoO
SnO2
Ag2O
Au
0.00060.002
0.003
PbO
0.01
0.005
0.39
0.12
0.05
0.13
0.36
0.36
0.38
0.43
0.37
BaO
SrO
Li2O
B2O3
V2O5
Cr2O3
NiO
ZnO
ZrO2
0.03
0.05
0.007
0.02
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.05
0.005
0.01
0.005
0.005
0.05
0.05
0.03
0.02
0.03
0.06
0.007
0.02
0.04
0.07
0.005
0.01
0.005
0.005
0.05
0.01
0.005
0.01
0.005
0.005
0.2
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.005
0.005
0.02
0.05
0.07
0.02
0.04
0.009
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
P2O5
0.065
0.053
0.097
28.647
71.353
99.603
27.887
72.113
99.723
30.172
69.828
96.368
Total
100-T=d
M
SiO2*d
Na2O*
CaO*
K2O*
MgO*
Al2O3*
Fe2O3*
T*
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.023
0.01
31.644
68.356
97.126
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.12
0.16
0.048
0.035
31.264
68.736
98.736
30.766
69.234
98.634
30.692
69.308
99.198
34.77
65.23
99.11
0.005
0.005
1.33
0.01
34.309
65.691
94.931
0.01
0.49
0.1
29.755
70.245
98.415
29.895
70.105
98.955
71.64
13.96
8.65
0.94
0.71
3.22
0.87
100.00
72.31
14.34
8.02
1.16
0.75
2.79
0.62
100.00
72.46
14.63
8.27
0.67
0.71
2.65
0.61
100.00
70.38
15.65
7.43
1.28
0.84
3.17
1.25
100.00
69.62
15.39
9.28
0.93
0.94
2.87
0.97
100.00
70.19
15.11
8.30
1.55
0.94
2.72
1.19
100.00
69.87
12.90
14.82
0.50
0.64
0.93
0.34
100.00
65.82
11.91
15.54
0.57
4.36
1.25
0.57
100.00
69.20
10.47
5.79
10.25
2.13
1.80
0.36
100.00
71.38
16.97
5.83
1.12
0.83
2.69
1.18
100.00
70.85
16.78
6.54
1.14
0.90
2.74
1.06
100.00
(Na+K)* 14.90
(Ca+Mg)* 9.37
(Si+Al+Fe)*75.73
(Na/K)
14.79
(Ca/Mg) 12.14
15.50
8.77
75.72
12.33
10.67
15.31
8.98
75.72
21.69
11.72
16.93
8.28
74.80
12.26
8.80
16.33
10.22
73.45
16.52
9.85
16.66
9.25
74.10
9.74
8.81
13.41
15.45
71.14
25.60
23.33
12.47
19.90
67.63
21.07
3.56
20.72
7.92
71.36
1.02
2.72
18.09
6.67
75.25
15.18
7.00
17.92
7.44
74.65
14.69
7.27
134
Table 27.2.5 Mean compositions of the glass groups

Jarrow glass
means
SiO2*d
Na2O*
CaO*
K2O*
MgO*
Al2O3*
Fe2O3*
68.7
15.1
8.09
1.05
0.84
2.33
0.84
Sb2O5
69.4
15.9
8.47
1.21
0.95
2.73
1.39
Wearmouth glass
means
70.0
16.7
8.86
1.37
1.06
3.13
1.94
68.8
14.0
5.97
0.67
0.63
1.72
0.67
0.24
(n=9)
71.6
16.4
6.91
0.86
0.82
2.43
1.07
Low-lime glasses
means
74.3
18.8
7.86
1.05
1.00
3.14
1.46
68.9
17.5
2.83
0.65
0.65
3.03
0.87
0.79
71.3
18.4
4.03
0.80
0.80
3.47
1.20
73.8
19.2
5.23
0.96
0.95
3.91
1.54
0.005
(n=9)
(n=4)
Values reported are means with 90% confidence limits

* indicates reduced compositions
introduction of the cobalt and copper colourants, and

possibly with the manganese and/or antimony additives.
In this connection, it should be noted that some of the
earlier spectrographic analyses reported zinc as not
detected while later analyses run by atomic absorption
yielded values ranging from about 0.020.04%. The
atomic absorption values are more reliable.
Five of the glasses (nos 2453, 2474, 3051, 3052,
and 3053) may have marginally higher boron (B2O3)
contents than the others. It is not really clear, however, whether this is significant. Sample no. 2476 is
markedly higher in barium (BaO=0.20%) than any of
the other glasses, which must be related to its unusually high lime and magnesia. This is a vessel fragment
from Jarrow and would not necessarily be expected to
resemble the flat glasses chemically; as mentioned
above, it may also be of later date.
The presence of lead
The presence of traces of lead (PbO) in so many of the
glasses is readily explained by its having been brought
in by certain of the additives, but it is difficult to
account for quantitatively. The analyses suggest that the
cobalt always introduced some lead; the copper sometimes did and sometimes did not; and the antimony did
at least sometimes. It is not unexpected that the cobalt
would be accompanied by some lead, as was usual in
post-Roman glasses and occasional in Roman glasses.
The association of lead with copper is to be expected
because in ancient times when copper was added as a
colourant, it was normally introduced in the form of
material derived from bronze (or later from brass) and
from Roman times onward, bronzes usually contained
lead, often in excess of 1015%. Any association of lead
with antimony would most likely stem from the fact
that antimony ores often occur in association with leadbearing minerals. The analyses also suggest a cumulative effect in that those containing more than one of the
cobalt, copper, and antimony additives also tend to
contain somewhat higher percentages of lead.
Colour chemistry
The blue glasses
Early blue glasses were sometimes coloured with copper oxide (CuO), sometimes with cobalt oxide (CoO),
and sometimes with a mixture of both. Copper must
be present at a level of 0.51.5% as CuO to produce
the depth of colour usually found, but cobalt, being a
much stronger colourant, can produce a pronounced
blue colour even when as little as 0.02% is present.
Among the flat glass fragments, three blue pieces
from Jarrow (two of which are in the Jarrow Glass
group) are coloured with copper alone, whereas the
five blue specimens from Wearmouth (all in the
Wearmouth Glass group) contain both copper and
cobalt. This serves further to separate the two groups
chemically. In addition, a vessel fragment (no. 2481)
from Jarrow, which does not match any of the three
main groups, was coloured with cobalt only.
The copper colourant in ancient glasses apparently
was not normally introduced as a pure mineral or compound, but probably in the form of something like a
metallic oxide scale. Such scale could have been
obtained from a metalworkers shop or prepared in the
glass factory itself simply by heating a piece of scrap
metal, as it was in the Herat factory in 1977 (film, The
Glassmakers of Herat; Corning Museum 1979). In
many cases the colouring material (scale or otherwise)
must have been derived from a bronze or brass alloy,
because copper is so often accompanied in ancient
glasses by tin or zinc, and often also by lead.
A graph of the tin vs the copper content of all the
Jarrow and Wearmouth glasses that contained copper,
regardless of their colours, yielded a surprisingly good
straight line. The nineteen glasses containing greater
than 0.1% CuO were fitted mathematically to a
straight line and the following equation was found to
describe the percentage of tin in the glass as a function
of the percentage of copper.
%Sn = 0.007% + 0.120 (%Cu)
27: WINDOW GLASS
This equation indicates that the copper could have

been introduced into the glasses found at both Jarrow
and Wearmouth in the form of some chemical derivative (probably an oxide scale) of a binary bronze alloy
having a composition of 89.3% Cu: 10.7% Sn. Most
likely, however, the bronze would have been a ternary
copper:tin:lead alloy. Because we do not know how
much of the lead in any of the glasses came in with the
copper, and could only estimate how much came in
with the cobalt and/or antimony, it is not easy to calculate how much lead would have been in the hypothetical ternary bronze.
The three blue vessel glasses differ from one another. As pointed out above, one piece from Jarrow, no.
2476 has a stray composition: it is coloured with cobalt
only and thus it seems unconnected with the flat glass
from Jarrow (and may be of later date). The other blue
vessel glass from Jarrow, no. 3056 (which comes from
a good Anglo-Saxon context) is coloured with a mixture of copper and cobalt. In this respect, as well as in
its base composition, it resembles Wearmouth Glass.
As far as the chemical analysis is concerned, this vessel
fragment, although found at Jarrow, could have been
made at the same place and time as the Wearmouth flat
glass.
The single vessel glass analysed from Wearmouth
(no. 3055) differs drastically from all the other glasses
analysed, being a mixed-alkali glass. It obviously represents an entirely different glass-making tradition. It is
coloured by copper alone. Moreover, because this glass
contains 1.33% of zinc oxide (ZnO), its copper
colourant appears to be derived from brass rather than
from bronze. This further differentiates it from all the
other blue glasses analysed here. Assuming that all the
lead in the glass came in from this one source, the parent brass alloy would have had this composition: 65%
Cu: 26% Zn: 9% Pb. The zinc level seems somewhat
high, but that would have depended to some extent
upon what the brass had been used for originally
alternatively the source might have been waste material from a metalworkers workshop. This glass was definitely made at a different place and/or at a different
time than all the other glasses analysed. In fact, in
post-excavation it became clear that the context in
which this piece was found was early post-medieval in
date.
The ruby and red-streaked glasses
Among the fragments submitted were two small pieces
that might be properly described as ruby glasses. There
were also five pieces of aqua or colourless glass that
contain red streaks or swirls. All came from Jarrow.
Judging solely from the small fragment sent for
study, no. 3049 appears to be from a true ruby glass
one that consists of three well-defined layers. There is
a bubbly, pale greenish-aqua base glass, with a ruby
flashing on one surface. The flashing, in turn, is covered by a thin, colourless casing that contains a band
135
of fine seed. Another piece, no. 2483, has several thin

ruby layers distributed throughout its entire thickness
of bubbly, slightly bluish base glass. The microstructures of these two small fragments, different as they are
from one another, both resemble the microstructures
of later medieval ruby glasses. Chemically, however,
they have the same natron-type compositions of the
other colours of glass from Jarrow and Wearmouth.
The rest of the red Jarrow glasses should be examined
microscopically to see how many have the same
microstructures as described here.
The five red-streaked glasses are quite different.
They have swirls of red glass running through a greenish or colourless base. The swirls are ribbon-like
bands: narrow and more irregular than the laminar
ruby glass microstructure just mentioned for medieval
stained glasses. These red swirls are reminiscent of the
reddish and white opaque looped swirls that decorate
certain Roman and Byzantine vessels. However, this
type of glass occurs widely in early medieval contexts
and has occasioned considerable comment (see Ch
27.1 above).
In later centuries, when stained glass cathedral windows became common, ruby glasses sometimes had
noticeably different chemical compositions from the
other colours of glass in the same windows (Brill 1999
a; 1999b, sections XI in each). Since ruby glass was
still something of a speciality glass, and probably difficult to make, it is possible that it was brought in from
workshops other than those where the more common
colours were made. In the case of the Jarrow glasses,
the base compositions of the ruby and red-streaked
glasses are not significantly different from the other
colours, except for the slightly elevated lithium oxide
(Li2O) content of no. 3049. The two ruby glasses and
the red-streaked glasses were thus probably made in
the same place as the rest of the Jarrow glass.
Unfortunately, it was not possible to complete separate
electron microprobe analyses of the ruby and colourless zones of these and numerous other layered stained
glasses before publication.
If examinations of other Jarrow fragments confirm
that the two small pieces, nos 3049 and 2483, truly are
ruby glasses in the sense described above, that is
important evidence to be kept in mind. For example, it
would be inconsistent with the hypothesis that the
Jarrow glasses were recycled Roman glass, because
ruby glasses as distinct from red-streaked glasses
are as yet unknown (to this author) in Roman contexts.
One might go so far as to suggest that the Jarrow glasses would then represent a substantial advance beyond
conventional Roman colouring practices. This matter
deserves continuing review as new archaeological finds
come to light.
It appears that most of the ruby layers and reddish
streaks in the Jarrow glasses owe their colour to the
presence of cuprous (Cu2O) and/or colloidal metallic
copper, the same phases responsible for the colour of
other ancient and medieval red opaque and ruby glasses
136
(Brill and Cahill 1988). However, among the Jarrow

glasses, there is at least one very important exception
to this generalisation. This is a piece of streaked glass
that looks somewhat different from the other redstreaked fragments in that it has a dichroic appearance
(no. 2482). A separate analysis of the region of the
fragment containing the dichroic streamers showed
that part of the glass not only contains some
copper, but also about 620 parts per million
(0.00060.002%) of gold. This gold content must in
part be responsible for the particular colour pair
observed for its dichroic appearance: it shows a somewhat brownish-red colour by reflected light and a
bluish to purplish colour by transmission. This thin
fragment of dichroic glass is something of a puzzler,
but it does appear to be closely related chemically to
another piece from Jarrow, no. 3050, which also contains some gold, and, in addition, some silver (see
below).
apart from all the others. They are slightly different in

chemical composition, and they appear to have been
last melted under different redox conditions. There are
numerous examples of glasses from other sites (Brill
1999a; 1999b) that show the same effect, that is, glasses with manganese (and/or antimony) have the natural, default, colour of iron impurities, while those
lacking manganese are amber. This leads one to suspect that sometimes the function of the manganese was
not only to decolourise the glass, but also to prevent
the entire production from going amber. In the
authors experience, uncoloured ancient soda-limes
generally contain a background level of about
0.020.03% MnO. As a rule of thumb, when manganese is present at levels approaching 0.2% MnO or
greater it was probably deliberately added at some
stage in the materials history. Intermediate values may
indicate recycling.
The dichroic glass
The amber glasses

Among the glasses analysed were four amber-coloured
fragments, nos 2468, 2469, 2470 and 2489. Unlike
most of the other Jarrow and Wearmouth glasses, these
lack the manganese that was intentionally and routinely added as a decolouriser to so many early glasses. The lack of manganese is indirectly responsible for
the amber colour. Early amber glasses owe their colour
to an iron-sulphur complex that forms only under
strongly reducing conditions (Brill and Schreurs 1984).
In order to produce the amber, early glass-makers
could have established a smoky, reducing furnace
atmosphere by restricting the air supply or by introducing some wet organic matter; alternatively they could
have added an internal reducing agent to the melt.
In the case at hand, the situation might have been
less complicated. The decolourising properties of manganese depend on its behaviour as an oxidising agent in
glass melts, and that same oxidising behaviour also
inhibits the formation of the amber colourant. If the
glass-makers maintained a mildly reducing atmosphere
as, we believe, was ordinarily the case the amber
glasses could have resulted whenever manganese was
not added. It should be noted that these four glasses do
not contain antimony either, and antimony also acts as
an oxidising agent.
Interestingly, seven other glasses do not contain
intentionally added manganese. Three of these (nos
2479, 2481 and 3055) are blue, and would not have
required a decolouriser, while the other four (nos
2450, 2454, 2465 and 2487) are aqua or pale green.
The latter evidently were melted, or last remelted,
under conditions that were sufficiently oxidising to
prevent the amber colourant from forming, thus leaving the glasses with the natural aqua colour that results
from iron impurities. It is significant that these four
glasses constitute the Low-lime group. Hence, there is
evidence of two sorts that set the Low-lime glasses
The most extraordinary find among the fragments submitted is a small piece of dichroic glass, either from a
flat vessel or from the edge of a very thin crown of window glass (Fig 27.1.18d above). The glass has a
streaky, bluish-grey turbidity by reflected light, and an
orangey amber colour by transmission (see Cramp
1970b, pl LIVcd, for the other dichroic fragment
from Jarrow, JA 20).
Two separate analyses were made of this glass as
sample nos 2485 and 3050. The analyses agreed so
closely with one another that they are listed as a single
composite analysis under the heading 3050 in Table
27.2.4. The composition is more-or-less intermediate
between Jarrow Glass and Wearmouth Glass, but it is,
overall, similar enough to both that the glass could
have been made at the same workshop as either of
those groups. Electron microprobe analyses showed
that the glass contains approximately 0.003% gold and
0.062% silver, which accounts for its unusual dichroic
effect. (It also contains a little copper.) These small
traces of gold and silver, when present as colloidal metals, are sufficient to produce strong dichroism by a
combination of absorption and light scattering. This is
referred to as the Lycurgus Effect (Brill 1965a).
Curiously, an amber fragment of flat glass from Jarrow
(no. 2470) has an almost identical composition to that
of the Jarrow dichroic fragment but contains less than
0.001% silver, and, as far as could be established, no
gold. One suspects some sort of relationship between
the two glasses. This piece of dichroic glass, no. 3050,
might also be related in some way to the fragment with
dichroic streamers described above, no. 2482.
A reflectance spectrum (Fig 27.2.5) shows that the
Jarrow dichroic glass no. 3050 has a broad reflectance
peak of about 29% at about 470nm, tapering off to
about 13% in the red region. That explains the bluish
turbidity. A transmission curve rising from near 0% at
520nm to 24% at 670nm explains the orangey colour.
27: WINDOW GLASS
137
Fig 27.2.5 Transmission and reflectance spectra for dichroic glass no. 3050 from Jarrow. Curves account for colour differences when viewed by reflected and transmitted light. (The visible range extends from about 400nm to about 700nm). This
glass contains traces of gold and silver. R Brill
Fig 27.2.6 Transmission and reflectance spectra for dichroic glass no. 2482 from Jarrow. This glass contains traces of gold
only. R Brill
138
By coincidence, the curves for the other dichroic glass,

no. 2482, are about complementary to the first pair. Its
reflectance curve (Fig 27.2.6) peaks toward the longer
wavelengths and the transmission curve peaks toward
the middle wavelengths. Both of the transmission
curves are affected slightly by the presence of low levels of copper.
In addition to the Lycurgus cup, several other
examples of dichroic glasses from the Roman world
have been analysed (Brill 1999a; 1999b, sections V AE
in each). All are coloured with colloidal gold and/or
silver, although their individual dichroic colour pairs of
reflected and transmitted light vary markedly. The
colours depend on the relative amounts of the metals
present and on the sizes of the colloidal metal particles,
as well perhaps as on the metallic nature of the
particles.
Glasses showing colour effects similar to that of the
Jarrow fragment no. 3050 are sometimes found among
spoiled Islamic lustre wares (Brill 1968; 1970c). In
such cases, chance events during firing caused some of
the colloidal silver particles in their yellow or amber
lustre-stained regions to grow to larger particle sizes.
Similar firing accidents also sometimes produced
dichroic halos or other turbid optical effects in and
around the silver-stained regions of stained glass windows. In my opinion, however, there can be little doubt
that the Jarrow fragment is deliberately coloured.
One piece of ancient dichroic glass that closely
matches the particular colour combination of the
Jarrow piece is a fragment of vessel glass from Fustat in
Egypt (Brill 1999a; 1999b, section VII C in each, no.
3143). Its appearance is remarkably close to that of the
Jarrow fragment. Unfortunately, its date is uncertain,
although it has been said to be no later than 1088. The
Fustat glass is coloured with 0.30% silver and emission
spectrography did not detect gold at a level of 0.001%.
The base composition is not very different from the
Jarrow specimen, but it does, significantly, lack antimony and has almost double the lime content (very
few, if any, Islamic glasses contain antimony). It seems
improbable that these two glasses had a common origin, but the glass-makers who made them did share a
then uncommon and rather elegant secret for colouring glass. Although the glasses themselves might not
have been related, the glass-makers might have been,
even if they were separated by several generations.
The diatreta and deep-cut dichroic glasses mentioned above are characterised by a closely defined
chemical composition. The analysis of the dichroic
fragment from Jarrow is not a bad match for that composition. The only significant difference is that the
Jarrow fragment has a greater alumina content
(Al2O3=2.67% as compared to a range of 1.071.55%
for the Roman dichroic group).
It is possible that this fragment might have been a
special glass made at the factory where the rest of the
Jarrow glass was made, or that future excavation will
bring similar examples to light elsewhere. It is not
impossible that this piece of glass was once part of a

reliquary, or some other very special glass surviving
from the Roman world; or if one favours recycling
theories that it was part of some object made by melting down an ancient dichroic glass. The analytical evidence would be consistent with either hypothesis.
Similar reasoning can be applied to the other dichroic
fragment, no. 2482, mentioned earlier.
Basic formulation of the glasses

As noted above, the Jarrow and Wearmouth glasses are
soda-lime-silica glasses, typical of those made in the
natron-based tradition so common throughout much
of the Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine worlds (Brill
1999a; 1999b, sections IX in each). Natron-type glasses are characterised by relatively low potassium and
magnesium contents (both K2O and MgO less than
approx 1.2%) and high soda:potash ratios (Na2O/K2O
approx 1535). The chemical compositions of the vast
majority of glasses dating from the earliest periods of
glass-making up through Islamic times (excluding certain Iron Age glasses and the high-lead glasses from
Asia) can be accounted for by assuming that they were
prepared according to one of two basic recipes. In
either recipe, the three essential components (Na2O,
CaO, and SiO2) could have been introduced by using
only two main ingredients. The main ingredients were
silica and soda, with lime coming in as a contaminant
of one or the other. In one case, quartzite pebbles, consisting of relatively pure silica, were melted with plantash soda, and the soda contained the right amount of
lime to stabilise the resulting glass (Brill 1970b;
Lilyquist and Brill 1996, see esp fig 5; Brill 2001).
In the other case, natron, consisting of relatively pure
soda, was used with impure sand, such as that from the
beaches near the mouth of the Belus River, and the
sand contained the necessary lime (Brill 1988). The
two types of glasses can be distinguished from one
another today by their chemical compositions, the
most obvious distinction being that the natron-based
glasses have somewhat lower levels of K2O and MgO.
We emphasise that we are not saying that all ancient
glasses were made this way, only that they could have
been. (For mixed alkali glasses, see Henderson 1988b,
and Brill 1992. For various other compositions see
Brill et al 1995.)
It was possible that if the Jarrow and Wearmouth
glasses were made locally, they might have been made
from kelp ashes, since kelp is certainly abundant in the
region and was used in local glass-making later.
However, this notion can be quickly dispelled, because
kelps (meaning either the seaweed itself or its ashes)
contain about as much potassium as they do sodium.
Therefore, instead of yielding soda-lime glasses, such
ashes yield mixed-alkali glasses having roughly equal
percentages of soda and potash. Despite this, it seemed
that it would be both instructive, and perhaps useful
for future research, to analyse some local kelp.
27: WINDOW GLASS
Six samples were analysed of the ashes of various

seaweeds collected by Susan MacNeil from plants on
the beaches at Jarrow, South Shields, and Whitburn.
The botanical identifications and laboratory treatments are given below (Table 27.2.6). As expected, the
compositions varied, but they are reported here as a
single composite of salts, which, although arbitrary,
satisfies the valence requirements and mass balance of
the various cations and anions determined. The most
significant finding relative to the present study is that
the Na2O:K2O ratio is about 1.21.4, lower by factors
of 10 to 15 than the same ratio for Jarrow Glass and
Wearmouth Glass. This finding is consistent with other
analyses of kelp in the literature (Sanderson and
Hunter 1981a; Brill 1999a; 1999b, sections XXIV C in
each).
As noted above, the bright blue vessel fragment, no.
3055, from Wearmouth, which may be medieval or
post-medieval, is a mixed-alkali glass, having a
Na2O:K2O ratio of 1.02. It could perhaps have been
made from local kelp.
The origin of the glasses

From the remarks of Bede, discussed above by
Professor Cramp (Ch 27.1), it is clear that the vitri
factores he described were glass-makers, in the sense
that they fashioned windows from glass. But beyond
that, they made vessels and lamps as well, and taught
local people how to make glass, which strongly implies
that they worked hot glass, and were not simply glaziers
who made windows from pre-existing flat glass (D B
Whitehouse, pers comm). However, Bede does not tell
us whether the glass-makers melted the glass from
batch materials or whether they were glass-workers who
simply made glass artefacts by resoftening glass cullet.
Some specialists make this useful distinction between
the terms glass-making and glass-working. Either way,
a key to fully understanding the glasses from the two
monasteries lies in explaining their chemistry.
To reiterate the most salient chemical points: The
glasses are clearly descended from the glass-making
traditions of the Roman world. All are soda-limes of
the natron-type, and most contain antimony.
Moreover, although separable into three groups, those
groups are, essentially, more alike than they are unlike.
The presence of antimony is significant in that its general use seems to have gradually diminished, in favour
of manganese and tin, during the 2nd and 4th centuries AD. However, its use did persist in some glassmaking centres. For example, some later glasses found
in Italy and parts of the Byzantine World still contain
antimony.
These glasses are specifically referred to as natrontype glasses because, strictly speaking, it is not known
that they were made with natron, only that they have
compositions closely resembling glasses believed to
have been made with natron. Other two- or threeingredient batch formulations could have produced
139
glasses with the same compositions. For the moment,

however, natron seems to be the most probable source
of their soda.
It is also useful to recall that glass-making consists
of two separate operations: the preparation of the glass
itself from batch materials, and the fashioning of that
glass into objects. In ancient times the two operations
must often have been carried out simultaneously or in
close proximity, but we know for certain that in other
instances they were carried out at widely separated
locations after transporting glass ingots or cullet over
long distances (Bass 1984; 1987; Brill forthcoming b).
With this evidence in mind, there seem to be three
plausible explanations for the chemical similarities
between the glass from the monasteries and what is
called natron-based glass, in particular, if one assumes
that some sort of glass-making or hot glass-working
operations were actually carried out at the monasteries:
1. The glass itself could have been melted at the
monasteries from batch materials, then formed into
windows and installed. However, because the glass
is of the natron type (and also contains antimony)
this would appear to require the importation of
natron from Egypt, since no source of natron, or a
chemically equivalent alkali, is known to exist in or
near Britain. Egypt is specified because that seems
more feasible than the only other accessible sources
of natron (in Macedonia and Turkey, both of which
bear further scrutiny, but for unrelated reasons).
This possibility would have entailed the transport of
a sizeable quantity of a heavy, hygroscopic, somewhat corrosive, substance over a long distance. It is
doubtful if this explanation applies here.
Of course, this problem is not unique to the
WearmouthJarrow situation; it applies equally to
any supposition of natron-based glass-making elsewhere in Britain, or in Gaul or the Rhineland in
Roman times or thereafter.
2. The glass was melted from natron elsewhere, perhaps a long distance away, then brought as cullet to
the monasteries where it was resoftened and fashioned into flat glass for making the windows. (The
term cullet is used to refer to both large, unshaped
pieces of raw glass and to broken or waste glass
intended for recycling.) Simple practicality favours
the transport of cullet over the transport of natron,
the problems being less complicated than those of
transporting batch materials.
3. The window glass could have been made by resoftening Roman glass, either at the monasteries or
elsewhere, and then fashioning it into flat glass at
the monasteries. While the notion of recycling
Roman glass has its limitations for large-scale production, it could have made sense on a modest
scale, such as that involved here. Without strongly
championing the recycling hypothesis, it would
account neatly for the analytical match-ups and also
explain why some of the glasses contain antimony.
140
Recycling finds indirect support in a much later

passage in Theophilus (Hawthorne and Smith
1963, 59, II.12). It seems arguable that on this earlier occasion, pagan glasses could possibly have
been melted down to make a few small decorative
windows for the monasteries.
The pros and cons of these possibilities and perhaps others should be debated further (see Cramp
2000, 107 and Freestone, Ch 27.3 below). A few additional considerations are added below.
Although no furnace remains have yet been uncovered at either site, this does not preclude the possibility that they once existed or will be uncovered in the
future. The pivotal point was referred to above: if a factory made a natron-type glass, the glass-makers must
have had access either to natron or a chemically equivalent alkali. But that is only half of the problem: they
also would have needed a sand containing just the right
amount of lime impurities to make glasses that so
closely matched the compositions of the glasses
analysed. Otherwise, lime would have to have been
added separately, using a three-ingredient batch. That
is certainly possible, but would complicate the situation even further. Moreover, the glass-makers would
also have needed a source of stibnite, the mineral
which supplied the antimony, and pyrolusite, the most
probable source for manganese.
Possibly the riddle of the Jarrow and Wearmouth
glasses that is to say, why are they natron-type glasses?
cannot be solved until the evolution of glass-making in
Britain is better understood. Specifically, when did postRoman glass-making, as opposed to glass-working, really begin in Britain? As research continues, one hopes that
compositions will be obtained for as many dated sites as
possible. Sooner or later, distinctions among the natrontype, mixed-alkali, barilla-based and potash glasses
should emerge and the role of Jarrow and Wearmouth
glasses as either an integral part of the history, or as
stand-alone exceptions, should also become clear.
Considerable progress is already being made in this subject (see Price 2000; Tite this volume). It should be
noted that this text was submitted in 1999, and the
author is aware that important new research has been
published since then which has a bearing on this chapter.
Blue glass from medieval and early

post-medieval contexts
It is worth making another diversion. From numerous
chemical analyses (Brill 1999a; 1999b, sections XI in
each; Brill and Weintraub 1992; Brill 1997), we know
that northern European stained glass windows of the
12th and 13th centuries are predominantly potash-limesilica glasses, reflecting the fact that potash (from trees or
bracken) was the alkali used in their manufacture. In
contrast, the products of some other glass-making centres of the time for example, Central Italy (both vessels
and mosaics), Venice, the Byzantine world, and the
Middle East continued to be made in the two soda-lime

traditions handed down from the greater Roman world.
However, in certain 12th-century windows, dark
blue transparent soda-lime glasses have been found,
surrounded by potash glasses of all the other colours.
(They are nicknamed soda DBTs.) There are examples in 12th-century windows from Chartres, Notre
Dame en Vaux, Mont St Michel, Pavia, York, and
Glastonbury (the last tentatively dated to the 10th
century), as well as in a window from the collection of
the Cloisters in New York City (Brill 1999a; 1999b,
sections XI in each; Brill and Barnes 1981). A similar
clear blue glass to that found at Wearmouth was discovered in late medieval (see Ch 27.4) contexts at
Winchester (Biddle and Hunter 1990, 35761). The
soda glasses can sometimes be identified visually,
because they are usually much less weathered than
their potash neighbours.
The soda DBTs are all soda-lime glasses coloured
with cobalt and copper. They all contain antimony,
have low magnesia and generally (although not always)
low potassium, all appear to have been made with
natron, and all were made in a continuation of the
same tradition alluded to above, that of glass-making
in the Roman world. Their compositions are also a
close match to (among others) those of 12th-century
dark blue tesserae in the mosaics of San Clemente in
Rome (Brill 1999a; 1999b, sections IX O in each).
They are, however, chemically distinguishable from
the dark blue soda glasses in contemporaneous stained
glass from the Zeyrek Camii (c 1125) and the Kariye
Camii in Istanbul (Brill 1999a; 1999b, sections VIII C,
XI A, and XI B in each; Brill 2002).
By the 13th century, as far as we know now, the
soda DBTs had disappeared from northern European
stained glass, and instead, the newer dark blues were
potash glasses, just like all the other colours. It is as if
during the 12th century patrons had requested for
their own enterprises the same distinctive blue glasses
they might have seen on travels to Rome (or even
Constantinople). These were cobalt blues. Because the
western glass-makers did not have cobalt colourants
available (or did not know such colourants were locally available) the desired cobalt blue glasses had to be
imported from eastern or southern sources. Toward
the beginning of the 13th century, sources of cobalt
had apparently been opened up closer by, and northern European glass-makers were then able to use
cobalt (possibly in the form of zaffre) to colour their
own locally made potash glasses. The need for importing soda DBTs had come to a close.
The reason for this long diversion is that these soda
DBTs are very similar, chemically, to some of the dark
blue glasses from Wearmouth (and one from Jarrow
that was assigned to the Wearmouth glass group).
In Appendix 27.2.3, it is noted that they are also
similar in their lead isotope ratios. One wonders if
these Wearmouth dark blue glasses might be connected in some way with the soda DBTs. It must be
27: WINDOW GLASS
remarked even if without explanation that chronologically the Wearmouth glasses stand half-way
between chemically similar dark blue glasses that span
roughly a millennium of glass history.
Discussion
The 12th-century soda DBTs raise the same question
as do the Wearmouth and Jarrow glasses: were they
made of recycled Roman glass? As mentioned above,
the monk Theophilus wrote about this subject, probably in the 12th century. He noted that old blue glass
(both tesserae and vessels) was melted with a little
clear white to ... make from it blue glass sheets which
are costly and very useful in windows (Hawthorne and
Smith 1963, 59). This was probably true for some windows, but it seems doubtful that it could have applied
to all the 12th-century windows referred to above. The
supply of dark blue glass from surviving vessels and
tesserae from Roman mosaics would hardly have been
sufficient to supply enough glass for all the 12thcentury windows in which soda DBT glass has already
been found not to mention the places where it may
not yet have been recognised, or in windows that might
since have been lost.
Thus, instead of looking toward the recycling of
Roman glasses, it might be wiser to look more seriously toward contemporaneous glass-making centres as
the ultimate sources for the glass from which the 12thcentury soda DBT windows were made. Nonetheless,
it does seem arguable that on an earlier occasion, glass
from ancient pagan buildings (as Theophilus put it)
might possibly have been melted down to make a few
small decorative windows. The recovered window fragments from Jarrow and Wearmouth do, after all,
amount to only a few kilograms of glass.
Perhaps the notion of recycling Roman glass on a
grand scale has gained popularity because the flourishing glass mosaic industries of the early medieval period
have been overlooked. Byzantine mosaics are ample
evidence of vigorous and large-scale glass production
as are the remains of large-scale glass-making along the
Syro-Palestinian coast (Brill and Wosinski 1965;
Gorin-Rosen 1995).
At least some of the glass-making that continued in
Italy after the fall of Rome, or that was revived thereafter, appears to have carried on the earlier Roman traditions as far as batch materials were concerned.
Supporting evidence for such an Italian industry is
found in certain of the 8th- to 9th-century wares from
Farfa and in the 9th-century workshop sherds and
waste from San Vincenzo al Volturno (Brill 1999a;
1999b, Sections X A and X B in each; Whitehouse
1983; Ch 27.1 above). Several of the Farfa and San
Vincenzo glasses are especially close compositional
matches for five particular Wearmouth glasses (nos
2488, 3052, 3054, 3056, and 3089) on all their major
and minor oxides. The Farfa and San Vincenzo glasses
include vessel fragments, window fragments (some of
141
which are coloured) and waste glass. In addition,

Dr Whitehouse reminded the author that Lucia Sagu
has described the remains of a glass furnace and glassworking debris in Rome dating from the 5th to 7th centuries (Sagu 2000).
The compositions of many Byzantine mosaic
tesserae also resemble those of the Jarrow and
Wearmouth glasses. As noted above, these tesserae
clearly were products of a large-scale industry and
some of the earlier mosaics were contemporaneous
with the Jarrow and Wearmouth glasses. Our experience, although quite limited so far, has shown that
most Byzantine tesserae (including those from Italy,
Greece and Turkey) were natron-type glasses, and that
the most obvious chemical distinction among those
analysed is that the tesserae from more westerly locations appear likely to contain antimony while their
counterparts from more easterly locations do not.
The positing of large-scale, natron-based glassmaking at that time in Italy would depend on the
assumption of rather substantial commercial trade
between Italy and Egypt the most probable source of
natron. But it is perhaps more likely that Italian glassworking or, indeed glass-working anywhere on the continent, might have been fed by cullet from the Middle
East (that is to say the Near East plus Egypt). Although
the remains found at San Vincenzo seem to suggest a
rather modest scale of production, that factory, or
another one of similar size, would have been sufficient
to supply the correspondingly modest amount of glass
required for the monasteries windows.
In the interests of relating this discussion to broader
aspects of glass history, it is worthwhile to recall that
glass-making was a two-stage process. Where in the
post-Roman world were the glass-making centres where
the material itself was made centres on a scale suitable
to meet the needs of creating church mosaics?
Presumably, they were close to sources of raw materials, close to sources of fuel, and, possibly, close to
where such factories had been located by tradition.
Where, too, were the glass-working shops that made the
finished products? Closer, perhaps, to the markets,
close to some source of fuel or, possibly, close to where
such factories had been located by tradition. The only
archaeological evidence we know of for melting glass on
the requisite scale are the glass slab at Beth Shearim
and the furnace remains like those at Bet Eliezer, all
located near the Syro-Palestinian Coast (Brill and
Wosinski 1965; Gorin-Rosen 1995; Freestone and
Gorin-Rosen 1999; Aldsworth et al 2002). Perhaps
other remains are yet to be discovered, or might have
gone unrecognised, or else might lie beneath settled
locations where they will never be found. As for the
remains of workshops making the finished products,
they could well be scattered and somewhat smaller. The
discovery of factory sites, especially those where the
glass itself was melted, would go a long way toward
answering fundamental questions about how glass
industries evolved following the Roman period.
142
In short, as far as the chemistry alone is concerned,

the window glasses from Wearmouth and Jarrow could
well have come from Italy: or, in the form of cullet, they
could have come from the Levant or Egypt, by way of
Italy or some other intermediate glass-working centre.
Finally, one must wonder if the vitri factores could
have been something like itinerant glass-makers, carrying with them the tools of their trade and a supply of
cullet (and possibly flat glass?) that they fashioned into
vessels, lamps and leaded windows. Perhaps they followed along some network connecting the monasteries
of the day. Maybe they had not always lived in Gaul or
Mainz; maybe that was just where they had most
recently plied their craft. If they were associated directly with a religious order, that would have been in keeping with the Benedictines goal of self-sufficiency.
Professor Cramp has commented on the historical
significance of Bedes remarks concerning the glass
from the monasteries (Vol 1, Ch 4). Beyond the great
satisfaction of uncovering a possible connection
between the written word and excavated finds, they
also establish a notably early date for a specific occurrence of coloured window glass. That is extremely
important for glass history.
As valuable as the quotation is, though, it does not
tell us anything about the origin of the glass to which it
refers; it tells us only who made the glass into windows.
It is reasonable to assume, however, that chemically,
the glass probably closely resembles any other glasses
installed elsewhere by the same vitri factores which
leads to a final thought. If these people were, in any
manner of speaking, itinerant glass-makers, where precisely in Gaul (or near Mainz) might they have worked
previously? And where (if any) might their next destinations in Britain have been? In other words, where
else might we look to find contemporaneous coloured
glass windows (or their remains) that could be identified by natron-type compositions and the presence of
antimony?
Note on the analysis of local seaweed samples
by Susan MacNeil and Brian Huntley
On Wednesday 15 April 1987 at low tide fresh seaweed

was collected from the following three locations on the
north-east coast of England: Jarrow (NZ 341 654),
South Shields (NZ 378 682) and Whitburn (NZ 411
611). Dr Brian Huntley identified the seaweed as being
of the following three varieties (although not every
variety was represented at each location): Saw Wrack
(Fucus serratus), Bladder Wrack (Fucus vesiculosus) and
Egg or Knotted Wrack (Ascophyllum). The seaweed all
appeared to be fresh and healthy with the exception of
the Bladder Wrack from Jarrow, which looked polluted, with scum covering its leaves.
A sample of each variety was taken from each location and a photograph was taken with a 40mm scale
attached (Fig 27.2.7). The wet seaweed was weighed in
grams and the results were as follows:
Fig 27.2.7 Examples of seaweed types found at South

Shields (top), Whitburn (centre) and Jarrow (bottom). C
Harvey
Seaweed type Knotted
Wrack
Jarrow
None
Whitburn
100g
South Shields None
Saw
Wrack
None
200g
200g
Bladder
Wrack
200g
200g
200g
On Thursday 16 April 1987 the seaweed was hung

outside to dry away from sources of pollution for seven
days. However, since the seaweed did not dry out completely it was placed in a warm spot indoors for the
next four weeks until Thursday 14 May 1987.
27: WINDOW GLASS
143
Table 27.2.6 Plant ash compositions of seaweed specimens

Expressed as an oxide mix Mean composition (wt %) Expressed as salts and oxides
Na2O
K2O
CaO
MgO
Al2O3
Fe2O3
P2O3
SiO2*
28.0%
23.2
14.2
14.0
1.8
0.9
7.1
10.8
Sum
100.0%
Na2CO3
Na2SO4
NaCl
KCl
K2SO4
CaSO4
CaCl2
CaO
MgO
KOH
Al2O3
Fe2O3
P205
SiO2*
Sum
Na2O/K2O (ratio of mean values)

Na2O/K2O (mean of ratios of six individual analyses)
Composite composition (wt %)
3.0%
32.2
5.4
19.5
2.5
2.5
3.7
6.5
9.3
1.7
1.2
0.6
4.7
7.2
100.0%
Estimated ranges (where present)
1.35.0
2840
915
1027
212(?)
210
318(?)
412
712
37
0.4-0.7
0.20.5
27
116
1.21
1.34
Notes:
Values were calculated from quantitative analyses of six specimens (see above).
The combination of salts and oxides reported here satisfies both the mass balance from the analyses and the valence requirements of all the species determined, but other combinations of salts and oxides could also do the same.
The ranges reported correspond approximately to the least and greatest values among the individual analyses.
(?) indicates single, perhaps spurious, high values for nos 4523 and 4525.
SiO2* indicates SiO2 plus trace components, the silica presumably resulting largely from incomplete removal of sand from the
original plant specimens.
All analyses by Brandt A Rising and his co-workers at Umpire and Control Services Inc, West Babylon, NY.
The dried leaves were re-weighed on 14 May 1987

and the new results were as follows:
Seaweed type Knotted
Wrack
Jarrow
None
Whitburn
40g
South Shields None
Saw
Wrack
None
50g
50g
Bladder
Wrack
30g
70g
40g
On 19 May 1987 the crushed seaweed was placed

in crucibles and heated in a muffle furnace at 780C
for 18 hours. Some of the samples, especially those
from South Shields, set extremely hard in the crucibles
and it is of interest that some gave a kind of secondary
glaze to the outside of the crucibles.
Appendix 27.2.1 Microscopic examination

The weathering on all the fragments submitted is lightmoderate, usually taking the form of surface scums,
micropitting, or light iridescence (Brill 1999a, 18). As is
normal, where cords are exposed on the surface they are
preferentially weathered and thereby create some surface
relief. The same is true of old scratches on the surface.
All of the glasses are quite seedy with the smallest
bubbles being completely sphericalised (Brill 1962). For
larger bubbles, elongation tends to be only slight, but flattening of the larger bubbles into disks is both common
and very pronounced. This would seem to argue against
the windows having been made by the cylinder method.

Compared with other early glasses, relatively few batch,
refractory, or devitrification stones are present.
The glasses are, with few exceptions, quite cordy.
The cordiness, caused by chemical inhomogeneities,
does not appear as simple linear striations, but more
often as laminar bands or sheets. No planar seams or
bubble sheets were found of the sort that record interfaces where collapsing surfaces might have joined during manufacture.
Because the surfaces are altered by light weathering
effects, it is difficult to say exactly what the original
surfaces were like. However, in the majority of the fragments the two flat surfaces differ from one another in
that one often appears to have set up in air, while the
other appears to have last set up in contact with a solid
surface of some sort. The latter sometimes combines
an orange peel effect superimposed over microscopic
cordiness that stands up in shallow relief. Most of the
cords are straight, but some are concentrically curved.
It is possible that the surface effects described above
were produced by the sudden chilling of an inflated
gather of cordy glass being blown against a flat surface
(but see Ch 27.1 above, where Cramp suggests this is in
the annealing process). This would also be consistent
with the presence of the disk-shaped bubbles. There is
a lot more to be learned about how flat glass was made
during the first thousand years of our era, and that
entire subject should be approached with a fresh mind.
144
Appendix 27.2.2 Sample descriptions

All glass samples are window fragments unless otherwise noted. The fragments are generally quite thin for window
glass somewhat thinner than most medieval window glasses. They show light to moderate weathering and contain
small, sphericalised seeds. J, W and L indicate glasses used for calculating the Jarrow glass, Wearmouth glass, and
Low-lime glass compositions respectively. The remainder of samples are Miscellaneous. M denotes a single mixedalkali glass.
Glass samples
Glasses from Jarrow
L
J
L
J
J
J
J
Sample Cat no
Finds Code
2450
2453
2454
2456
2457
2461
2462
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
1282
1146
242
1092/4
1225/6
421
954
73
73
69
73
73
73
73
L 2465 514
JA 73
2466 746
JA 73
2467
2468
2469
2470
W 2474
961/2
544
730
817
191
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
73
73
73
73
69
2476
JA 70
2477 1065
JA 73
2479 737
2481 320
JA 73
JA 73
2482
JA 73
2483 1037
JA 73
2484 1142/3 JA 73
3049 376
JA 73
3050 975
JA 73
W 3054 188
JA 67
Description
Context
Trench
VW 4
Bluish aqua
2023
7305
UZ 386c
Pale bluish aqua
2018
7305
XT b
Bluish aqua
4439/98 69024
UZ 372b, d Greenish aqua
2018
7305
UZ 431
Greenish aqua
2018
7305
UZ 53e
Greenish aqua
2018
7305
UZ 333c
Greenish aqua
2018
7305
with thin red opaque
internal streaks or swirls
UZ 64aj
Pale greenish aqua 2018
7305
UZ 233a
7305
UZ 335 b, c Emerald green
2018
7305
UZ 81
Amber
2018
7305
UZ 219b
Amber
2018
7305
UZ 275
Amber
2018
7305
EW
Pale flat
3032
6904
turquoise blue
BX
Vessel: curved wall 3568
7004
fragment. Pale flat
blue glass, unweathered
UZ 366e
Bright turquoise
2018
7305
blue
UZ 225
Bright blue
2018
7305
SA 1
Dark blue. Possibly 2649
7301
a vessel fragment?
UZ 18?
7305
with red opaque
UZ 159
Greenish or bluish 2018
7305
with red opaque
striations throughout
UZ 384a, b Colourless with red 2018
7305
opaque striations
throughout
UZ 18
Ruby; ruby flashing 2018
7305
over greenish aqua base glass
UZ 341
Dichroic glass. Thin 2018
7305
flat-glass fragment,
or possibly a vessel
fragment. Bluish turbid
streaks by reflected light,
orangey amber by transmission
PB
Greenish aqua
683
6703
W 3056 GlV 42 JA 76 UZ 387
Vessel: curved wall 2018

fragment. Pale flat
blue, weathering scum
7305
Interpretation
Conphase
Deposit over Building D

Accumulation over floor of Building D
Sink in Building B, room Biii
Accumulation over floor of Building D
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
L Sax
ML Sax
Saxon
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
Ditto
ML Sax
Ditto
ML Sax
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ground surface (over Building B)
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
ML Sax
Med 2
Cloister ground surface
EPM
Accumulation over floor of Building D ML Sax

Ditto
Med 1 garden soil
ML Sax
Med 1
Ditto
ML Sax
Ditto
ML Sax
Ditto
ML Sax
Ditto
ML Sax
Ground surface/area over soakaway,

Saxon
Building A
27: WINDOW GLASS
145
Glasses from Wearmouth
W
L
W
W
W
W
W
M
Sample Cat no
Finds Code
Description
2486
2487
2488
2489
3051
3052
3053
3055
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
Pale aqua
500
Bluish aqua
1376
Pale flat blue
605
Yellowish amber
1789
Colourless
1457
Pale blue
1457
Dark blue
Vessel: wall
404
fragment. Bright blue,
little or no weathering
288
128
248
210
182
183
74
64
71
66
64
64
71
JH
LZ a
HT
SZ
YZ a
YZ b
HV
Context
Trench
Interpretation
Conphase
7401
6403
7101
6603
6403
6403
Bedding for cobbles

Surface above mortar mixer
Timber slot for floor joist
Cemetery level
Deposit within pit 1377
Deposit within pit 1377
Saxon?
L Sax
EPM
Saxon
LS/EM
LS/EM
7104
Pit/large posthole
EPM
Lead-isotope samples
Glasses
Pb-1113
Pb-1131
Pb-1154
Pb-1155
Pb-2080
Pb-2081
Same
Same
Same
Same
Same
Same
as
as
as
as
as
as
nos 3050 and 2485

no. 2476
no. 2474
no. 3053
no. 2462
no. 2477
Metallic leads
Pb-945
Pb-946
Pb-947
Pb-948
Pb-949
MK 67 GE
MK 64 TP
JA 75 KG
JA 69 YM
JA 73 TW
Lead trimming left over from cutting a large sheet of lead

Large, twisted piece of lead sheet
Strip of lead, possibly caming
Thick strip of roofing lead
Lead fitting
Appendix 27.2.3. Lead isotope analyses

Isotope analyses of lead extracted from ancient artefacts can often be used to identify mining regions
where the lead could or could not have originated.
This, in turn, provides evidence for learning more
about where the artefacts themselves might have been
made. The method relies on comparisons among data
for groups of artefacts and on comparisons of artefact
data with data for galena ores. Its many ramifications
and its applications to ancient glasses have been discussed in the literature (Brill 1970a; 1976; Barnes et al
1986; Brill et al 1993). Two particular caveats to be
kept in mind when working with lead isotope data are
the overlapping and mixing effects. Leads from widely
separated mining regions may sometimes have very
similar isotope ratios (the overlapping effect); and if
leads from different sources are recycled and melted
down together, the resulting isotope ratios will be
somewhere between those of the starting leads (the
mixing effect).
Lead isotope analyses were run on eleven samples
from Jarrow and Wearmouth. These included five
pieces of metallic lead and six glasses. The analyses
were performed by I Lynus Barnes and Emile Joel of
the National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST) in Gaithersburg, Maryland, in the 1980s. The
results, which vary over a moderate but significant
range, are reported in Table 27.2.7 and plotted in
Figure 27.2.8. The eleven leads from the monasteries
appear to fall into two separate isotopic groups, but
2087
1471
1198
3405
2010
6701
6403
7502
6901
7305
L Sax
Sax/Med 1
Med 1
Sax
LS/EM
they are not particularly tight groups. The data suggest that the leads in each of these groups could have
had common geographical origins, although for the
moment those origins remain ambiguous.
First, the data for the metallic leads were compared
with data for several dozen other samples from various
locations in the British Isles. The additional leads,
analysed for reasons unrelated to the Jarrow and
Wearmouth research, were mainly a combination of
data published by Rohl (1996) and our own data from
NIST. The samples represent galena ores, inscribed
Roman pigs, and incidental lead artefacts found in
Britain. The latter included, among others, four pieces
of caming from Coventry and Canterbury cathedrals,
Roman bronze coins minted in Britain, and miscellaneous small finds.
Unfortunately, the analyses were run at different laboratories and some measurements are quite old and
should therefore be approached with some caution.
Nevertheless, the isotope ratios of all five of the metallic
leads from Jarrow and Wearmouth are not very different
from those of some galena ores from various geological
occurrences in the northern Pennines. Among these are
a few ores collected within about 3545 miles
(5672km) of the monasteries, for example, from the
well-known mines in Alston Moor, Weardale, and
Teesdale (Raistrick and Jennings 1965). In fact, there is
so much variability in the data reported for the ores
within these regions that it is difficult to draw firm conclusions when trying to match them with artefacts.
146
Table 27.2.7 Isotope ratios of Jarrow and Wearmouth leads

Lead isotope no.
Chemical analysis no.
Description
Pb-945
Pb-946
Pb-947
Pb-948
Pb-949
Pb-1113
Pb-1131
Pb-1154
Pb-1155
Pb-2080
Pb-2081
Pb-49*
Pb-250*
Pb-251*
Pb-252*
Pb-253*
3050
2476
2474
3053
2462
2477
Lead trimming
Lead sheet
Lead caming
Lead roofing
Lead clip
Dichroic glass
Vessel glass
Window glass
Window glass
Window glass
Window glass
Roman pig
Coventry
Coventry
Canterbury
Canterbury
Pb/206Pb
207
0.84856
0.84916
0.84645
0.84953
0.84598
0.84837
0.85023
0.84622
0.84519
0.84871
0.84670
0.84537
0.84811
0.84717
0.84708
0.84667
208
Pb/206Pb
2.0874
2.0886
2.0844
2.0898
2.0832
2.0863
2.0926
2.0877
2.0860
2.0885
2.0872
2.0867
2.0873
2.0863
2.0866
2.0857
Pb/206Pb
204
0.054323
0.054370
0.054176
0.054355
0.054129
0.054301
0.054240
0.054041
0.053918
0.054282
0.054089
0.053878
0.054084
0.053927
0.053940
0.053980
Analyses by I L Barnes and E C Joel performed at the National Institute of Science and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD
*Data corrected in 1992
Fig 27.2.8 Lead isotope data for six glasses and five metals from Jarrow and Wearmouth. R Brill
This variability may be partly because the ores
analysed came from deposits of varying depths some
of which, incidentally, might not have been accessible
to early miners. It is also true that there is in general
considerable overlapping among galenas occurring
throughout Britain, so it is equally possible that the
metallic leads from the two monasteries could have
come from certain deposits elsewhere. The Mendip
Hills and Derbyshire, for example, are possibilities.
For that matter, this isotopic type of lead is so common

that any agreement with the British ores may be fortuitous, as we suspect there are continental sources of
lead that might overlap this same isotopic range.
Despite these reservations, it is reasonable to note that
the lead isotope data appear, tentatively, to be consistent with the hypothesis that these metallic leads
including at least one piece of caming were mined
not far away from the monasteries. To put it more
27: WINDOW GLASS
cautiously, the findings do not disprove the hypothesis

that the metallic leads were mined in the region (see
also Ch 26.6 above).
One artefact with an archaeological provenance not
far from Jarrow is a Roman lead pig found at Hayshaw
Moor near Pateley Bridge, some 60 miles (96km)
south-west of Jarrow (Brill and Wampler 1967). Its isotope ratios are a good match for those of two of the
Jarrow metals, Pb-947 and 949.
Turning to the glasses, previous chemical analyses
of early dark blue glasses coloured with cobalt alone
show that the cobalt is often accompanied by about
0.10.5% lead oxide. Because other colours of glass
from the same sources usually do not contain lead, it
seems logical that lead isotope analyses can offer clues
as to the mining regions where the cobalt colourant
might or might not have originated. At present, we
have completed lead-isotope analyses (most unpublished) of about forty samples of dark blue glasses of
pre-Roman, Roman, Byzantine and medieval origins.
A rather wide isotopic variability exists among those
leads, but some patterns seem to be emerging.
One must be careful, however, since blue glasses sometimes contain both copper and cobalt as colourants, so
that the lead might have been introduced from two different sources. That, in fact, could apply to the
Wearmouth blue glasses.
Samples Pb-1154 and Pb-1155 (the same as nos
2472 and 3053) are dark blue window glass samples of
the Wearmouth Glass chemical type. These, it will be
recalled, also match the chemical compositions of
some of the soda DBTs discussed above. Interestingly,
the lead-isotope ratios of these glasses are also quite
similar to those of the lead in soda DBTs from 12thcentury windows at Chartres and York, in a 12thcentury French window now in Bryn Athyn,
Pennsylvania, and in a mosaic tessera of the 7th8th
century excavated on Torcello. (The tessera is unusual
in that this Torcello mosaic is among the few Venetian
glasses that we have found to contain antimony.)
Consequently, we have in hand two independent
types of technological evidence: one relating to the
natron-based tradition of glass-making in terms of
chemical formulations and batch materials, the other
relating to the geographical source of a cobalt plus copper colourant. Both pieces of evidence link together six
glasses from what appear at first glance to be somewhat
disparate sources. Unless this is only by coincidence,
these observations are well worth keeping in mind as
lead isotope analyses of soda DBTs continue. It might
be added that Pb-2081 (the same as no. 2477 of the
Jarrow Glass chemical type) might also fit in with these
glasses, except that it does not contain cobalt and has
only a low level of antimony.
The lead in the vessel glass Pb-1131 (sample no.
2476) is isotopically different from the other glasses
from the monasteries. This is like the blue vessel glass
from Wearmouth that has the unusually high MgO
content. It is coloured with cobalt only, and we suspect
147
that its isotope ratios are characteristic of the deposits

that yielded that cobalt. The lead happens to be isotopically similar to some metallic leads from an early
Christian context at Trier. However, the two samples
from Jarrow and Wearmouth derive from early postmedieval contexts and so may be of rather later date
than the rest of the assemblage.
In a way, it is puzzling that the leads in the other
five glasses resemble the leads in the five metallic samples as closely as they do. If the glasses were of Italian
or Middle Eastern origin, and the metallic leads were
smelted from British ores, then their similarity would
appear to be coincidental and would have to be attributed to overlapping.
It will by now have become apparent that as useful
as lead isotope data are, their interpretation is sometimes anything but straightforward. In this case, that is
due in large part to the fact that the isotopic type of lead
involved is so common that overlapping is to be expected. Nevertheless, our analyses are continuing and it is
possible that one day the accumulated data may shed
further light on the origin of the Jarrow and Wearmouth
glasses. With this in mind, it would be desirable to
analyse (or re-analyse) additional samples of both glasses and metals from the two monasteries, along with
selected samples of ores and artefacts from other sites,
particularly the Roman lead pig mentioned above.
27.3 The origins of the Jarrow glass

by Ian C Freestone and Michael J Hughes
Introduction
The compositions of the glass from Jarrow and
Wearmouth have been presented and discussed in
detail by Robert Brill elsewhere in this volume. The
aim of the present report is to discuss the origins of the
glass material itself, in the light of recent advances in
the understanding of the system of production and distribution of glass in the Near East and Mediterranean
areas in the first millennium AD. The question of the
origin of the Jarrow glass can be considered as an element of a much broader question: following the withdrawal of Rome from north-western Europe, and prior
to the development of the forest glass industries of the
later medieval period, how did glass-workers procure
their glass?
Brill notes that the Jarrow and Wearmouth glasses
are of the low-magnesia, low-potash variety. Such
glasses are likely to have been produced from a mixture
of natron and lime-bearing sand (see Brill 1988;
Freestone and Gorin-Rosen 1999). Along with the vast
majority of British early medieval glass, they were
therefore manufactured in the Roman tradition. The
origin of post-Roman, natron-based, glass has been
discussed by a number of authors (Ch 27.2, Brill; see
Jackson 1996 for an overview) and reduces to three
possibilities:
148
1. The glass represents recycled old glass, mainly

Roman.
2. The glass was freshly made in the region, using
imported natron but local sand.
3. The glass represents freshly imported raw glass from
the Near East, where glass-making in the Roman tradition continued until the middle of the 9th century.
Combinations of any of these three processes are, of
course, possible and indeed very likely.
This report discusses these possibilities in the light
of chemical analysis and in particular additional trace
element analysis of some Jarrow glasses, and by comparison with some of the major glass production
groups of the first millennium AD, which are currently
becoming apparent.
Compositional analysis
Ten samples of glass from Jarrow were selected to complement the assemblage already analysed by Brill. As
the aim was to investigate the origins of the glass material, translucent, weakly coloured blue-green and olivegreen glasses were selected, which had not been
deliberately modified by the addition of colourant elements.
The samples were analysed for major and minor
components using X-ray microanalysis in the scanning
electron microscope (Freestone et al 2000, for details).
Trace elements were analysed by ICP-MS at CARE,
Imperial College, University of London under the
supervision of Dr J G Williams (Freestone et al 2000).
Sb, Sn, Cu, Pb were analysed by ICP-AES by M J
Hughes at The Natural History Museum, using
aliquots of the solutions prepared for ICP-MS analysis.
Results are presented in Tables 27.3.1 and 27.3.2.
One sample of window glass (6828-1R, Table
27.3.1) was a high-magnesia, high-potash soda-lime-silica glass. It also contains high phosphate and strontium
(Tables 27.3.127.3.2) and is clearly a plant ash glass.
This accounts for the particularly noticeable weathering
on this particular sample, as plant ash glass as commonly formulated typically corrodes more readily than
natron-based glasses (Freestone 2001). Plant ash glass
did not become common until after the middle of the
9th century AD. Prior to the 9th century, some glass of
this general type is found in Anglo-Saxon vessels of the
6th7th centuries (Freestone et al forthcoming) but
there it forms a well-defined group that does not match
this particular glass from Jarrow. For the purpose of this
report, this particular glass sample is considered an outlier or oddity and is considered no further.
Turning to the remaining glasses, it is observed that
all are low-magnesia, low-potash soda-lime-silica glasses. The major components vary within relatively narrow
limits, although iron oxide varies significantly, from
0.31.6%. Manganese oxide is present in amounts ranging between 0.20.6%, and is generally considered to be
a deliberate addition in this concentration range
(Henderson 1985). Elements usually associated with

colouration, such as Sb, Sn, Cu and Pb are present in
some cases but are very variable in concentration.
In general terms at least, the major and minor element data are consistent with those of Brill (this volume) and the two sets of analyses are combined for the
discussion below. Brill points out that several of the
samples are outliers in compositional terms and they
are not considered here, specifically nos 2481, 2476
(both have very high lime) and 3055 (very high potash).
The recycling question

There is abundant evidence for the reuse of Roman
glass in early medieval glass technology, particularly as
a source of colour (eg Freestone 1992; Callmer and
Henderson 1991; Wedepohl et al 1997). The possibility that early medieval glass-making in northern Europe
was largely dependent upon a gradually diminishing
and degrading reservoir of cullet, ultimately derived
from the prodigious industries of the 1st to 4th centuries, therefore clearly merits consideration.
Iron and titanium oxides
Sanderson et al (1984) observed that early medieval
glass differs from Roman glass in that it has higher iron
and titanium oxide contents. The present assemblage is
no exception, with FeO typically in the range 0.61.7%,
relative to mean values of around 0.5% in weakly
coloured Roman glass (eg Jackson et al 1991). It might
be inferred that such a difference in composition would
preclude the possibility that the Jarrow glass represented old Roman cullet. This need not necessarily be the
case, however, as the iron content of glass may be
expected to have been increased with each cycle of
reuse, due to the incorporation of contaminants, such
as iron scale, from blowpipe and pontil scars, and corrosion of the melting pot. Thus the higher iron contents
of the glasses could themselves be the result of a recycling process. In addition, it has recently become apparent that, from the 4th century, a type of glass known as
HIMT (high iron, manganese and titanium oxides;
Freestone 1994) was widely distributed. It has been
shown to have been traded as unformed chunks (Foy et
al 2000a; 2000b) and was used for vessels and windows
in both the Near East and Europe, for example in 4thcentury London (Freestone et al 2002; Freestone and
Shepherd in preparation). The incorporation of recycled HIMT glass from late Roman times might, therefore, account for the elevated iron and titanium oxides
in the Jarrow glass assemblage.
Colourant and opacifying components
It has been observed that, although the glasses analysed
for this report were apparently not deliberately
coloured, they have significant levels of elements such
as antimony, copper, lead and tin, normally associated
JA66
JA73
JA69
JA73
JA73
JA76
JA69
JA73
JA73
JA69
6828-1-R
6828-2-W
6828-3-Y
6828-4-L
6828-5-N
6828-6-Q
6828-7-T
6828-8-X
6828-9-K
6828-10-W
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
v pl blue
v pl blue
v pl blue
v pl bluegrn
v pl blue
v pl blue
olive green
v pl blue
v pl bluegrn
v pl bluegrn
Colour
0.11
<0.1
<0.1
0.13
<0.1
0.20
0.16
0.13
0.13
69.6
67.9
68.0
68.3
68.1
70.2
70.2
69.0
TiO2
66.4
SiO2
2.38
2.56
2.50
2.50
3.23
2.94
2.72
2.99
1.50
Al2O3
0.36
0.65
0.83
0.33
1.55
0.80
0.76
1.05
0.43
FeO
0.41
0.50
0.42
0.55
0.32
0.21
0.26
0.24
bd
MnO
CaO
0.65
0.76
0.97
0.69
0.86
0.81
0.78
0.82
7.5
6.8
6.9
8.1
7.1
7.9
7.3
7.4
5.20 11.7
MgO
16.5
16.8
16.9
17.2
15.1
16.0
16.1
15.2
8.3
Na2O
0.47
0.80
1.23
0.61
1.16
0.88
0.97
0.82
4.12
K2O
<0.1
0.18
0.14
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
1.37
P2O5
1.01
0.84
0.78
1.07
0.50
0.70
0.74
0.68
0.61
Cl
JA66
JA73
JA69
JA73
JA73
JA76
JA69
JA73
JA73
JA69
6828-1-R
6828-2-W
6828-3-Y
6828-4-L
6828-5-N
6828-6-Q
6828-7-T
6828-8-X
6828-9-K
6828-10-W
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
tr
v pl blue
v pl blue
v pl blue
v pl bluegrn
v pl blue
v pl blue
olive green
v pl blue
v pl bluegrn
v pl bluegrn
Colour
23
38
31
38
38
35
55
35
38
28
Cr
9
30
8
28
50
6
24
13
11
24
Co
27
852
16
>1000
>1000
15
>1000
>1000
>1000
>1000
Cu
32
70
24
79
92
21
334
122
119
239
Zn
Sr
11 >1000
16
426
10
401
13
409
24
424
10
479
24
392
15
464
16
451
17
451
Rb
4
7
7
7
7
8
7
7
7
7
67
61
50
57
71
52
65
63
61
57
Zr
0.7
2.7
0.9
10.5
2.7
0.3
8.7
11.9
8.3
11.3
Ag
137
273
227
272
297
265
282
267
265
308
Ba
Determined by inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry at CARE, Imperial College under the supervision of Dr J G Williams
For details see Freestone et al (2000)
VA 20
VP 7 (2190)
WM
(3029)
UF 22 (2016)
FR 2 (982)
EW
WH
UR 1 (2011)
WP
Find no.
Analysis no.
Table 27.3.2 Analysis of glass by ICP-MS (ppm)
tr = translucent, v pl = very pale, grn= green
5
7
8
7
9
7
9
7
8
8
La
10
13
13
13
14
13
15
13
13
13
Ce
0.25
0.40
0.36
0.29
0.22
0.32
0.24
0.29
0.35
SO3
Oxide components and chlorine by energy dispersive X-ray analysis in the scanning electron microscope. For details see Freestone et al (2000)
Precision and accuracy for components above 5% absolute believed better than 5% relative, above 2% better than 10% relative
Sb, Cu, Pb and Sn determined by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry
VA 20
VP 7 (2190)
WM
(3029)
UF 22 (2016)
FR 2 (982)
EW
WH
UR 1 (2011)
WP
Find no.
Analysis no.
Table 27.3.1 Analysis of glass by SEM-EDXA and ICP-AES (wt %)

Cu
Pb
Sn
1.1
1.8
2.0
1.8
2.1
2.0
2.0
1.9
1.9
1.9
Pr
4
8
9
8
6
8
8
6
8
6
Nd
924
>1000
18
>1000
>1000
11
>1000
>1000
>1000
>1000
Pb
1.3
1.1
1.0
1.2
1.2
1.0
1.7
1.1
1.3
1.5
Th
bd
0.01
0.12
bd
0.15
0.78
0.3
0.07
<0.03 <0.01 <0.02 <0.03
0.27
0.19
0.48
0.07
0.43
0.14
0.38
0.05
<0.03 <0.01 <0.02 <0.03
0.4
0.11
0.21
0.04
0.14
0.26
0.11
0.03
0.16
0.28
0.15
0.07
0.23
1.03
0.53
0.15
Sb
27: WINDOW GLASS

149
150
Fig 27.3.1 Concentrations of transition metals associated with colourants in selected glasses. A. From the glass-making
furnaces at Bet Eliezer, Hadera, Israel. B. Weakly coloured glass from Jarrow. I Freestone/M Hughes
with colouration and opacification technologies. The
presence of unintentional but significant levels of these
colourant elements is likely to reflect the incorporation
of some coloured glass cullet, as part of the recycling
process (eg Jackson 1996). Turning to the trace element compositions (Table 27.3.2), it is noted other
elements associated with colouration, for example
cobalt, zinc and silver are also elevated in some glasses
relative to others.
Figure 27.3.1A shows the concentrations of a range

of transition metals, usually associated with colouration, in glass from the 7th8th-century glass-making
furnaces at Bet Eliezer, Israel (Freestone et al 2000;
Gorin-Rosen 1995). The Bet Eliezer glass is unlikely
to contain any recycled material, as fresh glass was
being made there from sand and natron. Thus the concentrations in Figure 27.3.1A provide an indication of
the levels of transition metals likely to be naturally
27: WINDOW GLASS
present in glass-making sand. The elemental concentrations define a relatively smooth curve, without
inflections, with values typically below 30 ppm (parts
per million). It is observed that the concentration of
zinc in the glass is greater than the concentrations of
the other elements, and this reflects the relative abundances of these elements in the earths upper crust
(Taylor and McLennan 1985). In contrast, it is clear
that the Jarrow glasses fall into two groups (Fig
27.3.1B). Two of the samples have concentrations of
the transition metals at or below about 20 ppm and
define a curve without inflections, similar to that of the
Bet Eliezer glasses. These glasses are unlikely to contain a high proportion of recycled material. The
remaining samples have contents of transition metals
up to three orders of magnitude higher, and define a
pronounced M shape in the graph. Lead and copper
are very much higher than zinc. The elevated concentrations of transition metals in these samples and the
marked departure shown from the relative natural
abundances indicate that they have been contaminated
by glass colourants. They are therefore likely to contain
significant amounts of recycled material.
Elevated concentrations of transition metals could,
of course, have been produced by melting colourless
glasses in pots that had previously been used to melt
coloured glasses. However, it is questionable if all of
the colourants would have been elevated together,
under such circumstances. For example, a yellow glass
might have contributed elevated lead, a green glass elevated copper and a blue glass elevated cobalt. The fact
151
that all elements are elevated (Fig 27.3.1B; Table

27.3.1) supports the recycling and mixing hypothesis.
Relationship to Roman compositions
Given that antimony, an element characteristic of
many Roman opaque and colourless glasses, is elevated in the Jarrow assemblage, a component of Roman
cullet is strongly implied. However, the major element
compositions suggest that, while a proportion of the
composition might be composed of old Roman material, this is unlikely to have been dominant. For example, Figure 27.3.2 compares the lime and alumina
contents of the glasses from Jarrow with those of over
400 Roman vessel and window glasses from the 1st to
3rd centuries, taken from the literature (Velde and
Gendron 1980; Velde and Sennequier 1985; Heyworth
et al 1990; Mortimer and Baxter 1996; Jackson 1994;
Mirti et al 1993). The lime and alumina contents of the
glasses are useful comparators of source, as they reflect
the compositions of the sands used to make the glasses (Freestone et al 2000). It is clear that, while there is
some overlap, the Jarrow glasses are strongly displaced
towards higher lime and alumina contents than typical
Roman glasses. Similarly, Figure 27.3.3, which is discussed in detail below, shows that the lime and alumina contents of the Jarrow glasses are typically
somewhat higher than 4th century HIMT glass. Thus
it appears that while the Jarrow glasses contain an element of old recycled material, they are not predominantly composed of old Roman glass.
Fig 27.3.2 Lime and alumina contents of glass from Jarrow compared with those of Roman vessel glasses from England,
France and Italy (see text). I Freestone/M Hughes
152
Regional production versus traded glass

It has long been considered a possibility that early
medieval glass was made in northern Europe, although
the absence of a naturally occurring source of soda has
been acknowledged to be a problem (Hunter and
Sanderson 1982). In order to produce glass north of
the Alps, natron would have had to be imported from
Egypt. It is questionable if a material of such relatively
limited utility, which also posed some difficulties in
transport due to its solubility in water, would have
been a profitable commodity. As noted by Hunter and
Sanderson (1982) the notion of continual transport
and trade of natron half-way across Europe to the
Rhineland glasshouses and probably beyond is one
which presupposes an extraordinary retention of tradition and an unrealistic disregard for barbarian disruptions and the effects of the rise of Islam in the
Mediterranean. Coupled with the very limited evidence for glass-making, as opposed to glass-working,
for example in Britain, in the early medieval
(Heyworth 1992) and Roman periods (Price and Cool
1991), this renders local production of glass unlikely.
The lack of evidence for glass-making north of the
Alps may be contrasted with the abundance of evidence for raw glass production and trade in the south
and east. Recent work has revealed a complex of seventeen furnaces at Bet Eliezer, near Hadera in Israel,
each of which appears to have melted a slab of glass of
equivalent size to that found at Beth Shearim and
weighing about 8 tonnes (Gorin-Rosen 1995; 2000;
Freestone and Gorin-Rosen 1999). The probable date
of this production was in the late 7th to 8th centuries.
The remains of industries that specialised in the
production of glass from its raw materials have also

been reported from Egypt (Nenna et al 1997; 2000).
Widespread distribution of raw glass chunks, from
shipwrecks (Foy et al 2000a; 2000b) and workshops
(Weinberg 1988; Freestone 1994; Mirti et al 2000;
Gorin-Rosen 2000) indicates that the products of these
primary glass-making centres were widely distributed.
At any time, the number of glass-making centres
appears to have been small, but these supplied a very
large number of workshops that specialised in the fabrication of vessels or windows.
The analysis of compositional data has revealed the
existence of at least five primary glass making centres
in the mid to late first millennium AD, and the compositions of the glasses each produced are shown in
Figure 27.3.3. Sources of data are discussed by
Freestone et al (2000; 2002). Of particular significance
to the present discussion are:
1. the Bet Eliezer furnaces, in production in the
7th8th centuries,
2. the Levantine I group, produced at Apollonia,
Israel, and probably elsewhere on the SyroPalestinian coast in the 4th7th centuries,
3. the HIMT group, produced from the 4th century
on (Freestone et al 2002), and
4. the group tentatively assigned to the Wadi Natrun
which, based upon the work of Gratuze and
Barrandon (1990), was produced until the 7th
century.
The Egypt II group (Fig 27.3.3) appears to be characteristic of the 8th9th centuries and is not of concern
here. There are likely to have been other centres of
Fig 27.3.3 Lime and alumina contents of major compositional groups of natron glass from the midlate first millennium AD,
with analysed Jarrow glass. I Freestone/M Hughes
27: WINDOW GLASS
glass production during this period. However, on the

basis of our current understanding, these do not
appear to have been major suppliers on an international scale, although they may have been of provincial
importance.
If the glass from Jarrow is compared with the contemporary production of the south, there is a striking
similarity (Fig 27.3.3). While the Jarrow glass is displaced from most 1st to 3rd century Roman compositions (Fig 27.3.2), the bulk of it overlaps with the
Levantine and HIMT groups. Furthermore, a group of
four Low-lime glasses, as defined by Brill (this volume),
is displaced towards the Wadi Natrun group, and
shows some overlap with it. Thus the Jarrow glasses
show similarities to the glass compositions characteristic of the 7th century in the eastern Mediterranean. It
would be a remarkable coincidence if glass made from
local sands in north-western Europe at this time had
compositional characteristics so similar to the glass
made contemporaneously in the south and east. Given
the evidence that glasses of these compositions were
widely traded in the 4th7th centuries (Foy et al 2000a;
2000b; Freestone et al 2002), it seems probable that a
substantial proportion of the glass used at Jarrow was
composed of material that ultimately originated in the
furnaces of the Levant and adjacent regions.
The Jarrow glasses do not, however, precisely
match the southern compositions. Figure 27.3.4 compares the glasses of the HIMT group and the two
Levantine groups with those of Jarrow (neglecting the
low lime group) in terms of Al2O3 and FeO. The FeO
values of the Jarrow glasses lie between those of the
production groups. This may in part reflect workshop
153
contamination by iron scale and so on, as discussed

above. However, it is also likely to reflect mixing of different types of glass due to recycling, a phenomenon
also reflected in those trace and minor elements associated with colouration of the glasses (see above). The
two Jarrow glasses (6828-3, 6, Tables 27.3.127.3.2,
Fig 27.3.1) that have colourant element concentrations
suggesting a limited history of recycling have low FeO
contents, at 0.30.4 %, which are also characteristic of
pristine Levantine glass. Figure 27.3.5 shows compositional profiles for selected trace elements in these two
glasses, normalised to the values of the average continental crust (see Freestone et al 2000). Also shown are
the mean compositions for chunk and vessel glass from
Apollonia, Israel (Freestone et al 2000). Error bars
show the typical 15% relative standard deviation on the
mean values for the Apollonia vessel glasses. The very
close similarity does not prove that the glasses are related, as many more analyses and detailed statistical
analysis would be required to do this, but it is suggestive, and supports the view that they originated in the
same region.
The way north

It appears that a number of different glass groups may
be discerned at Jarrow and tentatively related to production groups from the south and east:
(i) The bulk of the glasses examined here are compositionally similar to the HIMT, Levantine I and Bet
Eliezer groups, and lie in the area overlapping these
groups in the lime versus alumina plot, Figure 27.3.3.
Fig 27.3.4 Comparison of iron oxide and alumina contents of Jarrow glasses with those of the HIMT group and the two
main Levantine groups. I Freestone/M Hughes
154
Fig 27.3.5 Trace elements in selected glasses from Jarrow compared with those in chunk and vessel glasses from Apollonia,
Israel. I Freestone/M Hughes
These glasses correspond more or less to the typical
Jarrow glass group of Brill (this volume). They have
elevated transition metal/colourant oxides. Some are
clearly closer than others to specific glass groups. They
have undergone recycling, and thus include an element
of old Roman glass, as well as some inter-group mixing
(Fig 27.3.4).
(ii) A subgroup of the above, without elevated transition metal oxides is close to the Levantine I group, and
has probably undergone less recycling (Fig 27.3.5).
(iii) The low lime group recognised by Brill shows
affinities to the Wadi Natrun production. These
glasses may also contain elevated transition metals
(Brill, this volume) and have been mixed with old cullet, probably as part of a recycling process. This has
shifted their compositions slightly away from the production groups, as seen in Figure 27.3.3.
(iv) There are also a number of glasses that have been
neglected in the preceding analysis, including several
high lime natron-type glasses and plant ash glasses,
which represent other glass making centres, which have
not yet been characterised.
As might be expected, the compositional structure
of the Jarrow assemblage does not correspond to a single campaign of melting a range of vessel cullet,
obtained via a single source. If it did so, then the compositions would be much more homogeneous due to
mixing, and it would not be possible to discern affinities to the various production groups, or to distinguish
a small group of virtually pristine glass. Instead there is
evidence for a series of melting campaigns, some of
which were distinguished from the others by significantly different glass compositions.
A number of the glasses, for example those with low

transition metals, as well as the low lime group, are
particularly similar to their postulated parental production groups. It is unlikely that they have been
through a large number of cycles of reuse, as the
parental elemental signatures would have been lost
owing to mixing of glasses from a range of sources.
Indeed, it is quite plausible that these glasses were
mixed with other glass compositions for the first time
during the melting campaigns that produced the windows at Jarrow. If so, it is likely that they were transported as vessel cullet or raw chunks from the south
(the Mediterranean or the Near East), without intermediate remelting. Other glasses, such as the typical
Jarrow compositions with admixed colourant materials, may have passed through a series of intermediate
recycling stages, and may have been imported via more
immediate continental sources. However, a more
direct route from the south cannot be ruled out, as
7th-century glasses from, for example, the Crypta
Balbi in Rome (Mirti et al 2000), and 9th-century
glasses from San Vincenzo, Molise, Italy (Freestone
and Henderson, pers comm) show similar impurity
patterns, characteristic of recycling.
Conclusion
This discussion has demonstrated how a detailed consideration of the elemental compositions of the Jarrow
glasses, coupled with an improved understanding of
the production and distribution of raw glass, may help
to constrain models for the origins and supply of glass
to the site. The glass used at Jarrow appears ultimately
to have been derived from the Mediterranean and Near
East. It arrived in Britain in the form of vessel cullet
and, possibly, raw chunks produced in Levantine tank
furnaces. Some of the glass is very likely to have gone
27: WINDOW GLASS
through a number of cycles of remelting and reuse

before it was used at Jarrow, perhaps elsewhere in the
north, or in Italy.
While the outcome has proved encouraging, it
should be regarded as provisional at the present stage.
Our understanding of the origins of the compositional
variation within ancient glass, particularly at the trace
element level, remains weak, and the analysed population is statistically poor. The model that has emerged,
however, is consistent with a large amount of information that is currently emerging on post-Roman glass
production, and provides a pointer towards further
work.
27.4 Medieval window glass

by Ardle Mac Mahon and C Pamela Graves
A large quantity of glass fragments of various sorts
were found at both Wearmouth and Jarrow that were in
dissimilar stages of decay and dated to various phases
of the medieval period. Many of the fragments were
too insignificant to warrant a complete and detailed
catalogue for this report but are listed in archive. Only
the painted glass on which some form of pattern was
discernible is catalogued and illustrated below (Figs
27.4.127.4.2). The vast majority of the early to middle medieval glass fragments are small and completely
opaque through devitrification or corrosion while in
the soil. Those that are discernible were plain, with no
painted decoration and only scientific analysis will be
able to determine if they were coloured. Some decorated and painted pieces of glass were present and
these are discussed more fully below. The glass fragments from the later medieval or early post-medieval
period were larger, thinner and plain, being tinted
green and blue, and show no signs of being painted;
they are not discussed in detail here.
There is no unambiguous indication of the exact
origin of the window glass on either site but there
seems to be clear evidence for some kind of glass
manipulation at Wearmouth. This could be from the
construction of windows or even their destruction.
There is evidence of the two forms of glass production
common to the Middle Ages among these fragments.
By far the largest number of fragments show evidence
of fire-rounded edges and this indicates the practice of
the cylinder or muff method of flat glass manufacture. The evidence of the alternative crown or spun
technique is suggested by a single piece of glass that
was found among a large number of glass fragments
with fire-rounded edges in context 127 (MK 74 EC)
and this has a circular formed edge that has been folded over. Both techniques were probably used side by
side during this period and its use depended on the
source from which the glass came (Harden 1961, 55;
Charleston 1984a, 389).
Many of the early to middle medieval glass fragments from both sites have grozed edges for leading
and may have come from a more peripheral area of an
155
in situ window. This supposition is perhaps reinforced

by the existence of background diaper and border patterns, or fields of grisaille and fragments of glass fillet
that may have been decorative tracery filling. Three
forms of grisaille seem to be represented with the presence of curling stems that may have had trefoil heads,
roses and oak leafs (GlWM2, 1011, 19; Figs
27.4.127.4.2). If the windows show a tendency
towards a natural treatment of foliage, such windows
could possibly have contained a small pictorial panel.
The survival of the glass pieces might be explained in
two ways: either that these fragments were the parts of
windows that survived the smashing of figural representations and any central iconographic images, or it is
possible that these were parts of the window that were
considered less attractive and were dumped rather than
being salvaged for sale or reuse. It is known that the
religious houses suffered severely during the dissolution and windows were destroyed or allowed to decay;
occasionally glass was removed for incorporation into
other buildings (Marks 1986, 211).
By far the largest concentration of glass from
Wearmouth was a dump found within and around a
latrine and may have been associated with the dissolution of the monastery and the subsequent reuse of the
buildings. The earliest context, 127 (MK 74 EC), contained one fragment of red glass, 15 fragments of
green, 52 opaque, 78 blue and 1159 clear brownish
opaque glass at the time of excavation, as well as eight
pieces of painted glass (GLWM1118). This context
has been interpreted as the last phase of monastic
occupation; the glass found was very fragmentary and
from more than one period. The assortment of different types of glass from various periods is also reflected
in the pottery from the same context, which dates from
the 13th to the 16th century. Pottery of a similar time
span was found in context 135 (MK 74 GA) that contained just under 250 fragments of glass. In context
142 (MK 74 GT), some 70 fragments of glass and pottery from the 14th to 15th centuries were found.
Around 50 pieces of glass and pottery dated to the
15th to 16th century were discovered in context 129
(MK 74 FB). These three contexts (129, 135 and
142), as well as 127, represent the accumulated
deposits within the latrine pit.
A large number of the glass fragments from these
contexts showed evidence of fire-rounded edges and
some of these were even grozed. This may indicate that
inexpensive glass was being used and that the shaping
of the glass and subsequent installation was taking
place on site. The quantity of off-cuts and rejects
would suggest that the pit was a dump from the later
fenestration of the windows. The mixing of glass fragments from earlier periods with late medieval/early
modern glass may reflect a late medieval refenestration
of the monastic buildings or the early modern fenestration of the house built on the former monastic site.
Furthermore the presence of the earlier painted glass
with the later glass may indicate that the glaziers were
156
Fig 27.4.1 Painted medieval window glass from Wearmouth (GlVM115). Scale 1:1. AMacM
27: WINDOW GLASS
157
Fig 27.4.2 Painted medieval window glass from Wearmouth (GlVM1624) and Jarrow (GlVM2530). Scale 1:1.
AMacM
158
Fig 27.4.3 Wearmouth: distribution of medieval window glass (from medieval and early post-medieval contexts, blue) and
painted medieval glass (red, from contexts of all dates) in red. AMacM
choosing which glass they would re-use in the windows
from the old panes a common practice for this period. This supposition is perhaps supported by the survival of glass surrounded by lead cames on both sites
(see Ch 26.6, lead cames Pb93 and 100101; and context 5675, JA 65 ZC); a number of contexts on both
sites contained window leads in the same deposits as
glass.
The great majority of the medieval glass from
Wearmouth was concentrated in and around the
latrine pit. In contrast, the glass from Jarrow comes
from very much smaller deposits and there is less mixing of periods.
A variety of decorative elements are represented.

Rinceaux/diaper patterns were used at Wearmouth
(GlWM5). Partial depictions of a leaf, fleur-de-lis and
a trefoil (GlWM2526, 30) are present at Jarrow, and
here, as at Wearmouth, can be interpreted as
possible border pieces. One of the fragments may have
been an architectural design element and this could
have been part of an architectural canopy (GlWM27).
Indications of architectural design can also be seen at
Wearmouth (GlWM14, GlWM20). It was common in
the 14th century to place a single figure under an
architectural canopy that took up a large portion of the
window and the space above and below was filled
27: WINDOW GLASS
159
Fig 27.4.4 Jarrow: distribution of medieval window glass (from medieval and early post-medieval contexts, blue) and painted medieval glass (red, from contexts of all periods). AMacM
mainly with grisaille (Rackham 1936, 37). There are
two fragments that may point to the existence of some
form of figurative design in the windows (GlWM67).
Both seem to show drapery and GlWM7 may depict Vfold drapery, a technique common in the 12th century.
Although some medieval window glass was represented in deposits at Jarrow Slake only one of the painted
fragments had a discernible pattern: it depicts trefoils
on a cross-hatched ground (GlWM30).
The distribution of window glass found in medieval
contexts at Wearmouth seems to imply that the buildings around the cloister had glazed windows (Fig
27.4.3). This may also have been the case for Jarrow,
but all that can be said with relative certainty is that the
glass is concentrated around the southern part of the
east range (Fig 27.4.4). The distribution of painted
glass is also interesting. At Wearmouth the cloister
buildings may have had decorated window glass but
the association is stronger for the southern range (Fig
27.4.3). Given the limited number of painted fragments found at Jarrow all that can be said is that some
windows were painted but their approximate location
is unknown (Fig 27.4.4).
It is doubtful that there is any prospect of reconstructing the original design of the painted windows on
either site, as the glass fragments are so few in number,
160
small in size and there is no recognisable leading pattern. Nor is it possible to tell if the window designs
belonged to any distinctive style or to any particular
school. We cannot tell if a single decorative scheme was
used or if they were composed of individual elements
although this is probably more likely as few institutions
were sufficiently wealthy to support an entire scheme.
Individual members of the Benedictine monastic community at Great Malvern seem to have paid for their
own glass (Marks 1993, 45). The use of grisaille on
white glass was partly economic and was popular in the
less wealthy religious institutions as it reduced the
need for coloured glass, which had to be imported
from the continent. However, aesthetic and practical
considerations are also important. For instance
coloured window glass would permit less light to
emphasise artistic elements and details within the
building (Marks 1993, 127). The use of grisaille may
have been in compliance with a directive. An ordinance
of 1134, for example, stated that windows of the
Cistercian order were to be glazed with white glass only
and were not to contain figures or crosses (Rackham
1936, 34; Woodforde 1954, 5). Furthermore, there
may have been an insufficient number of glass-painters
to produce the more delicate kind of decoration, and
windows in this period were more numerous and
increasing in size. However, the main reason for the
use of a simple form of grisaille would have been
expense and both cells were impoverished (see Vol 1,
Chapter 4).
The windows on both sites comprised mostly white
glass that was partly decorated with stylised foliage
designs coiling in rinceaux and leaded into more or less
complicated patterns. Based on the lack of firm
evidence for figures it is possible that a non-figurative
decorative scheme was used to decorate the windows.
The painted fragments that do remain, although
simple, indicate that the techniques used were common to those found elsewhere in Britain and the continent. This suggests that their creators were drawing
upon a well-established artistic and technical tradition.
The early to mid-medieval glass found on both sites
was an important part of the architectural framework
of the sites and cannot be fully understood in isolation
from the buildings that framed them, but these
few scraps bear little relation to what must once have
existed.
The size and composition of the later glass deposits
at Wearmouth allow a greater scope for interpretation
based upon a similar deposit noted at the Orchard
Street excavation in Newcastle upon Tyne (Graves
1983, 11823). While smaller groups of fragments
could have accidentally found their way to the site in a
glaziers piece box, given the character of the deposits,
it may be suggested that the contexts containing the
window glass represent the refuse from the refenestration of the buildings, although this cannot be stated
with certainty.
Wearmouth (Figs 27.4.127.4.2)

GlWM1 Fragment of opaque window glass with a green
core. Naturalistic grisaille decoration and a small
part of a stem can be seen.
C14th
L 20 W 16 T 3mm
Context: 432 Med MK 71 MH 7104
GlWM2 Two fragments of opaque glass with a green core
and two grozed edges. The upper portion of oak
leaf grisaille is depicted.
Late C13thearly C14th
L 43 W 42 T 4mm
Context: 143 Med 1 MK 74 HE 7403
core and two grozed edges. Painted with a partial
depiction of a leaf. Yellow staining can be seen.
C14th
L 34 W 23 T 4mm
Context: 1843 Med 2 MK 66 DX 6602
GlWM4 Fragment depicting part of what might be stem
motifs.
Late C1315th
L 23 W 22 T 3mm
Context: 135 Med 2 MK 74 GA 7403
GlWM5 Two joining fragments of opaque window glass
with a pale green core. Rinceaux design which possibly represents an architectural element.
C14th
L 43 W 20 T 1.5mm
Context: 329 Med 2 MK 71 KI 7103
GlWM6 Possible depiction of drapery belonging to a figure
that could be a saint, biblical or historical individual.
The fragment could be as early as the 12th century,
judging by the V-fold technique of the folds.
C12th
L 28 W 17 T 3mm
Context: 163 Med 2/EPM MK 74 EY 7402
GlWM7 Fragment that shows what may be drapery or even
foliage.
L 17 W 14 T 3.5mm
C1315th
GlWM8 Fragment with part of an unknown painted depiction.
C14th?
L 13 W 12 T 3mm
GlWM9 Fragment with part of an unknown painted depiction.
C14th?
L 13 W 9 T 3mm
GlWM10 Glass fragment that shows what is most likely to be
stamens from some form of flower or foliage motif.
C14th
L 16 W 14 T 3mm
GlWM11 Fragment of window glass that has two possible
grozed edges. The stem and the base of an oak leaf
or rose grisaille on a plain background is visible.
Late C1415th
L 54 W 21 T 2mm
Context: 127 Med 2 MK 74 EC 7403
27: WINDOW GLASS
GlWM12 Fragment with two grozed edges and the depiction

of a possible stem junction. Yellow staining is also
evident. Fig 27.4.1.
Late C1415th
L 45 W 42 T 3mm
GlWM13 Fragment with one curved grozed edge. It is
stained and has cross-hatched paint work.
L 22 W 20 T 1.5mm
GlWM14 Fragment of glass depicting what might be an
architectural element.
C15th
L 37 W 24 T 2.5mm
Context: 127 L Med MK 74 EC 7403
GlWM15 Painted edge of a quarry with two grozed edges
that depicts part of what might be stem motifs.
Late C1415th
L 57 W 21 T 4.5mm
GlWM16 Fragment with one grozed edge that depicts what
may be segments of several stem motifs.
Late C1415th
L 57 W 14 T 4mm
GlWM17 Fragment of glass with one grozed edge and
depicting a segment of stem.
C15th
L 41 W 11 T 3mm
GlWM18 Fragment of glass depicting a segment of stem.
C15th
L 26 W 15 T 2.5mm
GlWM19 Three joining fragments of opaque window glass
with a green core. There is a single curved grozed
edge. A possible portion of rose grisaille or rose
quarry can be seen.
C14th
L 35 W 26 T 3mm
Context: 238 Med 2/EPM MK 74 DR 7401
GlWM20 Fragment of opaque window glass with two grozed
edges. A design bordered with three parallel lines
is visible.
C14th
L 46 W 41 T 3mm
Context: 1962 EPM MK 60 AK 6001
core and two grozed edges. A quatrefoil grisaille
design can be seen standing proud of the glass.
C14th
L 36 W 26 T 2.5mm
Context: 231 EPM MK 74 CO 7401
GlWM22 Fragment of opaque glass with two grozed edges
and naturalistic grisaille showing a possible stem
segment.
161
C14th?
L 25 W 19 T 2mm
Context: 645 LPM MK 71 LQ 7101
GlWM23 Fragment of opaque glass with one grozed edge
and naturalistic grisaille showing a possible stem
segment.
C14th
L 27 W 16 T 2mm
GlWM24 Fragment of opaque window glass with a pale
green core. The remains of two parallel lines can
be seen joining another line.
C14th?
L 35 W 24 T 2.5mm
Context: 595 LPM MK 71 DT 7101
Jarrow (Fig 27.4.2)

GlWM25 Fragment of opaque window glass with one grozed
edge. Part of a leaf coming off a stem from grisaille
can be seen as well as a border line along the
grozed edge.
C1415th
L 49 W 28 T 4mm
Context: 2579 Med 1b? JA 73 OR 7302
GlWM26 Fragment of opaque window glass with one possibly grozed edge. Painted with a partial depiction of
a fleur-de-lis.
C14th
L 24 W 17 T 3mm
Context: 4025 Med 2 JA 70 JP 7006
GlWM27 Large fragment of opaque window glass that has a
green core and yellow stain on the back. It has two
grozed edges and depicts part of an architectural
design that may have been part of a gable or
canopy.
C14th
L 57 W 47 T 4mm
Context: 4306 EPM JA 70 NH 7002
GlWM28 Fragments of very thin and heavily iridescent
window glass with a transparent core. Painted with
what may have been part of a roundel.
C1415th
L 47 W 40 T 1.5mm
Context: 1523 LPM JA 71 II 7105
core. Part of a stem is discernible.
C14th
L 27 W 22 T 4mm
Context: U/S
GlWM30 Fragment of opaque medieval glass with grisaille
depicting trefoils and cross-hatched ground.
L 63 W 34 T 4.5mm
Context: Layer 4 LPM JS 73 LC 101 Area IVW
Sculptured stone
28 The Anglo-Saxon sculpture
by Rosemary Cramp, with geological identifications by David Schofield
28.1 Introduction
could have been derived from the robbing of Roman

sites. Therefore, it is at least possible that the initial
works carried out by the Gaulish builders utilised
newly quarried stone and that subsequent work by the
communitys own builders utilised Roman ruins. This
change possibly took place at about the same time as
the building of the Wearmouth porch, since although
its fabric is mainly limestone, the major openings are of
sandstone and there is evidence in its walling of some
brooch-tooled Roman stones.
The tooling on some of the finer and more unweathered pieces, particularly at Wearmouth, is very precise
and there is evidence for the use of marking-out lines,
chisels with several widths of blades, claw chisels,
punches and points (see Fig 28.1.1 and Cramp 1984,
pl 260). The unweathered surfaces of many of the
excavated pieces of early sculptures, eg AS310, is so
smooth and almost polished that it must have been finished with an abrasive, and on some, such as AS3,
traces of limewash still adhere. There is considerable
evidence that the sculptures were normally painted on
a white lime background, and that the most enduring
traces of paint are black and red (Cramp 1984, 23;
1986b, 102; Cramp and Cronyn 1990), although other
more fugitive colours such as green or blue could have
once existed (Cather et al 1990, xivxv). The survival of
painted surfaces is particularly good on the fragments
of balusters and strips, discussed below, which are of
Hartlepool and Roker Dolomite (Cramp 1984, fig 5),
and this surfacing can be quite thick (see Ch 26.2).
Both Wearmouth and Jarrow are rich in pre-Conquest

sculptures, some of which were recovered from the fabric of the churches during the 18th and 19th-century
rebuildings, others are casual finds from the sites
around the churches, and yet others were discovered
during the excavations. Nearly all of the material listed
below has already been published in the Corpus of
Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture 1 (Cramp 1984, 10634,
pls 90107, 11025) and this review attempts only to
refocus and update the discussion. The more precise
dates that are assigned to this material are derived from
Cramp (1984). The major pieces that were known
before the excavations and which put the more fragmentary excavated evidence into context are illustrated
and described, but for their full bibliographical references, the CASS Volume I (Cramp 1984) should be
consulted. There are, despite some similarities, significant differences between the styles of the sculptures
surviving from the two sites, which the additional
excavated evidence underlines.
Stone source and finish

At Wearmouth, the stone used in the building of the
early church and porch and the earliest monastic buildings is Hartlepool and Roker Dolomite: a permian
limestone that shapes easily and takes a smooth surface
finish. This stone is also used for both early architectural and funerary sculpture at Wearmouth, although
there are large blocks of sandstone which have been
used for quoining. This sandstone sometimes bears the
marks of lewis holes and, like the Roman altar reused
as a door jamb (AS1), or the piece used as a foundation in Wall F (AS2), were probably retrieved from a
nearby Roman site (see Vol 1, Ch 26.1). It is also noteworthy that the tower at Wearmouth, which is of a later
date than the porch (see Vol 1, Ch 26), is also built of
local sandstone. At Jarrow, the walling of the churches
and the monastic buildings, as well as all of the architectural and funerary sculpture, is of sandstone. Most
of it is apparently local, and some of it is clearly reused
Roman material, like the huge stones used for the
foundations of the north wall of Building D (Vol 1, Ch
16). As well as the yellowish local sandstone there are
some pieces carved in red sandstone, such as AS27.
This implies that at least two quarries, or sources of
stone were used during the late 7th to early 8th
century. Alternatively the Hartlepool and Roker quarries may only have been used for the first stages of
Wearmouths history and thereafter both Wearmouth
and Jarrow used local sandstones, much of which
Architectural sculpture from Wearmouth

Nature and layout
It is apparent from the surviving sculptural decoration
on the west facade of the porch of St Peters church at
Wearmouth (see Vol 1, Fig 5.3), and from the loose
sculpture now displayed in the church (see Cramp
1984, 2327), that the Gaulish builders introduced a
tradition of highly decorated surface ornament on their
buildings in the form of string courses, friezes, panels,
decorated door jambs, baluster framing for openings,
and relief figure sculpture. It is not easy to parallel
these features in situ in western European buildings of
a comparable date, although the vestiges of such decorated surfaces are to be found where Near Eastern
influences have been perceived, at sites such as the
Jouarre mausoleum, France, and the Baptistry and the
hypogeum of Mellebaude at Poitiers (Duval et al 1991,
22830, fig 228.1). The elaborate decoration and division of wall surfaces occurs as early as the 5th century
162
28: THE ANGLO-SAXON SCULPTURE
163
Fig 28.1.1 Fragments from Wearmouth, showing tool marks: a. broad-bladed chisel. b. medium-bladed chisel. c. narrowbladed chisel with fine claw marks. d. Multiple fine grooves ?claw chisel. e. Hollow for tip of lathe in centre of baluster shaft.
f. Marking-out line for strip work. g. Paint on a plaster base on baluster. h. Corner stone plastered and painted white on both
faces. TM
164
in the Near East and survives in an unbroken tradition

into the High Middle Ages to find its most elaborate
expression in churches such as Aghtamar (Der
Nersessian 1965). Although the Wearmouth strip
work, like the decorated string course on the west face
of the porch (see AS16 and Cramp 1984, pl 117) is of
importance, as a precursor for the more substantial
decoration which is popular in later Anglo-Saxon
architecture, it may have been an isolated phenomenon
in 7th-century Northumbria. One might also consider,
in the light of the Insular features which are particularly prominent at Wearmouth (see AS110 and 13) that
the Germanic tradition of the decoration of timber
buildings with panels and carved pillars (Karkov 1991,
39 ) might also have been an influence.
A similar fusion of Germanic wood-working traditions and Roman technology can be perceived in the
lathe-turned balusters (Figs 28.3.128.3.4) which
occur in profusion on both sites, and especially at
Wearmouth have a wide variety of profiles, and dimensions which vary in diameter from 155 to 265mm (see
Figs 28.3.328.3.4) also Cramp 1984, 1289 and figs
68). The form in stone derives from late Roman tradition, and examples that may have framed openings
have been discovered in France at such sites as
Nouaill, or Poitiers (Fig 28.3.6), but lathe-turned
wooden furniture has also been found in Germanic
graves (Werner 1964, figs 67). Most of the
Wearmouth balusters may have been used to flank
openings in the manner of the porch entry into the
church (Fig 28.3.1) and some may have formed part of
furniture. However, there are none which form groupings of identical heights and profiles like the large
balusters from Jarrow (Figs 28.3.2 and 28.3.4), which
may have formed an enclosure around the altar. If the
Wearmouth ones were so used, they might have been
built up into small columns with changing profiles.
Free-standing lathe-turned balusters of the types
found at the twin monastery are so far rare in AngloSaxon England at such an early date, although turned
shafts with similar profiles have been found at
Greatham (Cramp 1984, ill 381), Hart (Cramp 1984,
ills 41920) and Whitby (Lang 2001, ills 10845).
As well as the sculpture surviving within, and from
excavated areas near to the church, similar fragments
were found elsewhere on the Wearmouth site that
could have related to other structures. Most pieces
were concentrated in the centre of the medieval cloister, in the filling and to the east of the shaft (structure
1377). This was because that central area had been
used in the post-Conquest period for dressing AngloSaxon building stone for reuse, although why, apart
from filling the shaft, it was not fully cleared away
when the operation was complete is inexplicable. That
area yielded a small pseudo-Ionic capital, AS8, of a
type similar to continental examples (see Cramp
1986a, 133, and below) and since the imposts
elsewhere at Wearmouth are plain and chamfered,
this might be part of a furnishing rather than an
architectural piece. There is also some stucco, and

these exotic fragments give a tantalising hint of what
may have been lost.
Many of the contexts which produced the balusters
also yielded permian limestone strips (Fig 28.3.5)
which had been cut away from their backing. Because
of the wear pattern on one face it could be deduced that
they were set on the exterior of a building, and their
short lengths may indicate that they served to outline
openings. The corridor-like structure of Building B is a
possible candidate. However, if they were an interior
feature the red-striped plaster, which also occurred in
association with them, could have reinforced the panel
effect of the wall decoration, since it seems to have been
stopped against a deep feature (see Ch 26.2).
The only other Roman feature among the relief
carvings is, because of its ravaged state, not possible to
discuss in detail. This is the large-scale human figure
that once was set into the gable to the entrance porch
of St Peters (AS17 and Vol 1, Fig 5.2). This had been
prefabricated on four blocks and was noted by the
masons during the 1866 restorations as having been
inserted into the wall (Milburn and Milburn 1931,
68). This need not necessarily mean that it was later in
date than the walling if it had been carved elsewhere
and then inserted, for instance and the prefabricated
form is paralleled in other monuments from Jarrow
such as the dedication stone of the church or the cross
slab (MS18). Not enough survives to know whether
the figure might have been of Christ or the patron saint
of the church, St Peter. If the latter, it would be the
earliest English example to illustrate the edict that the
patron saint should be depicted on a church. In terms
of its monumental scale and positioning it is, in all
events, unique for this period in Anglo-Saxon architecture (see also Bailey 1996a, 34).
Furnishings
Although much which would have provided the distinctive decor of the interior of the buildings was doubtless
of perishable materials, some vestiges of the stone furnishings survive: AS10 could have been part of a closure screen surrounding an altar, while the animal
headed terminal AS11 has been identified as part of a
large stone seat. Perhaps the most remarkable features,
however, are the lion armrests AS12a and b, which have
been identified as one arm of a chair and a bench-end
for the synthronon (Clapham 1950). In their threedimensional form and realistic detail they are entirely
Roman in conception, and unique in Anglo-Saxon
sculpture, providing a striking contrast with the more
anonymous animal, AS11. Their possible symbolic
meanings are discussed in the conclusion below.
The seal-like animal-headed terminal (AS11) discovered during excavation built into a post-medieval wall, at
first sight reminds one of prokrossoi found in later
churches such as Deerhurst (Webster and Backhouse
1991, fig 27), or the animal head set in the wall above
the Escomb sundial (Cramp 1984, ill 277). However, in

view of the similar head from Lastingham, and manuscript depictions of chairs with comparable terminals,
this piece seems most convincingly interpreted as part of
a large chair (Cramp 1984, 130; Lang 1991, 1723).
Some of the limestone balusters, together with the
slab with Insular decoration (AS10) from Wearmouth,
could have formed part of a chancel enclosure, as could
the seventeen balusters of the same height from Jarrow
(Cramp 1984, 1201, pls 1036, and Fig 28.3.2).
However, from the archaeological evidence it has not
been possible to determine a convincing location for
such an enclosure within the plan of either church.
Apart from the balusters, the decorations of the
entrance jambs of the porch at Wearmouth (AS13), and
the small excavated fragments of strip work and
plaques, together with a possible closure screen (AS10),
are markedly Insular in taste. The interlaced animals on
AS10 and AS13 can be paralleled in metalwork and
manuscripts (see catalogue below) while the fragments
of strip work (AS37), decorated with a distinctive fine
line, tightly packed interlace, with common patterns of
knot-work, have been compared with interlace patterns
in The Book of Durrow and with Pictish sculpture particularly at Meigle, Perthshire (Adcock 1974, 735).
Certainly the small scale and delicacy of the ornament
is comparable with Insular metalwork and manuscript
art. This sculpture from Wearmouth includes, then,
some outstanding pieces in a purely late antique tradition and some in which the architectural forms have
been ornamented with indigenous patterns.
Architectural sculpture from Jarrow

Distribution
There is no surviving decoration on the Eastern
Church (now the chancel) at Jarrow. However, a considerable body of sculpture was discovered in the
process of taking down the walls of the Western
Church, during the 1782 and 18656 rebuildings (see
Vol 1, Ch 13), and it is a reasonable assumption that
most of this material was directly associated with that
building, the basilica. Hutchinson noted, however,
carving on the (now demolished) entrance porch
(Hutchinson 1787, 596), and this could have been part
of the original scheme (see below). There is no reason
to suppose that the wall surfaces at Jarrow were not as
highly decorated as those at Wearmouth church, and
not only the church but other major stone buildings
were similarly adorned. Sculptured wall panels and
furnishings (AS2732 and 34) were found in the
destruction layers of the monastic buildings (Building
A), and some discussion of the distribution of this
material is necessary to understand the possible relationship between the decoration of the architecture in
the church and other monastic buildings.
It seems possible that the pieces recovered from
the church walls had first been utilised as building
165
stones in the medieval reconstruction of the church.

Two pieces were first recorded as set into the upper
storeys of the tower (MS1718) and several fragments
were reused as building stones in the medieval monastic buildings. The Norman rebuilders recycled stones
for several monastic buildings, and seem to have
removed a cemetery surface to the east and south of
Building B (Vol 1, Ch 16) MS1516 and 21 were
found reused in that area. MS15, a small fragment
with baluster edging, is closely similar to one that was
found in the taking down of the nave walls. Similarly,
one arm of MS21, a cross-head found in the excavations, bears a close resemblance to a boss surrounded
by zigzags which was taken from the nave walls, and
this too has a baluster edging (Cramp 1984, ill 499).
AS37 was found lying on the south side of the
church during the building of the school in the 19th
century, while its companion piece, AS38, was retrieved
from the nave walls in 1865. (The difficult question
regarding the original position of the dedication stone is
discussed in Volume 1, Chapter 13 and Appendix A1.)
One cannot be certain that all the fragments said to have
been taken from the church walls in 1782 or 1866 were
originally derived from the church. Indeed, the excavations have demonstrated that Building A was also decorated with sculpture, fragments of which, AS34-6, are
stylistically similar to AS37, the inhabited vine scroll
frieze from the church. Nevertheless it seems reasonable
to suppose that most of the sculptures taken from the
church walls once formed part of the decoration of the
church, and that this could have included both funerary
and liturgical elements.
Another monument that may have come from the
interior of the church is a cross-bearing slab, MS18,
which was originally in two parts. I originally considered that the head of this slab was part of a Roman
stone, MS18 (Cramp 1984, 11213), but this does not
seem to be an exact fit and indeed the earliest drawn
record (see Fig 28.4.4) pairs the base of the cross with
a different stone; the relationship therefore remains
reasonable but not proven. It appears to have been set
into a socket (which would disguise the rough area at
the base) and against a wall. Inscriptions that must
have been set in walls are known from Whitby (Lang
2001, ill 1061), and some of the inscribed cross-heads
from the same site, which are plain except for the
inscription, may also have been interior features.
Similarly, the Herebericht slab from Wearmouth (MS2)
is also presumed to have been set against a wall. The
unusual inscription on MS18, however, commemorating not a deceased person but the saving sign of the
cross, could indicate that it was originally set into a
wall close by an altar dedicated to the Holy Cross.
Form and ornament
The sculptures from Jarrow are uniformly carved in
high relief and in a confident sculptural manner.
Moreover there is little indication of the taste for
166
Insular ornament as found at Wearmouth. It is as if a

deliberate attempt were made to move to Late Antique
motifs in this second foundation. The pieces with
balustrade ornament have been discussed elsewhere as
an example of the classicising taste of the community
(Cramp 1986a, 1313). The important point is that
there does appear to be a coherent scheme of ornament common to both architectural and funerary
sculpture which uses the balustrade motif (see Fig
28.2.10), and this mirrors also the three-dimensional
balusters that may have once formed a chancel barrier
(Cramp 1984, 25).
Seventeen complete and eight partial balusters survive at Jarrow, the complete examples each measuring
310mm in diameter and 730mm in height (see Ch
28.3 below, Fig 28.3.2). This conformity contrasts
with the situation at Wearmouth, where the shafts are
carved to very varied formulae and the largest are
215mm in diameter and 855mm in height (Cramp
1984, 1201, 1289, figs 610; see Figs 28.3.1 and
28.3.3iiii). Friezes and imposts which are similarly
decorated with balustrade ornament are extant from
Hexham (Cramp 1984, ills 97395), and these also are
decorated in the same deep Roman manner of carving which is very different from much of the architectural detail from Wearmouth. This type of ornament
may well then have copied Roman ornamental monuments in the region, but like the free-standing balusters
could have been congenial because it reflected woodworking forms (Cramp 1984, 245).
Another group of sculptures is distinguished by the
use of interlace and plant scrolls as decorative motifs,
but are still carved in the deep Roman manner. Plant
scrolls are a unifying motif at Jarrow and are found on
deep friezes which may have come from the church, as
well as on the top of a cross found near the river
(MS26) and the elaborate columnar feature excavated
from the floor of Building A (AS27).
This last piece is very important, since the floor of
the building was laid after it had been set up, and
Building A is unlikely to have been constructed much
later than c 700. The birds head (AS34) and the panel
of petalled cut circle ornament (AS32), as well as the
cabled strip (AS33) all indicate how elaborately decorated the interior of that building must have been. The
cut circle decoration on AS32 is widely used on the
continent and North Africa and is especially characteristic of Visigothic Gaul and Spain; it is found in
Northumbria also at Ripon, Hexham, Ledsham and
Simonburn (Cramp 1984, 118; Bailey 1992, 313;
Bailey 1996a, 313, fig 13).
It is obvious from the early documentary accounts
that improvements were made and embellishments
were added to the churches, and it is possible that the
deep friezes of inhabited plant scrolls, AS37 and 38
(which are paralleled on a cross fragment discovered by
the river, MS26), and in the fragments discovered in
Building A, AS32 and AS346, could have been part
of a different decorative scheme from the pieces which
carry baluster ornament. It seems possible then that

this group of architectural pieces could have carried a
more deeply devotional message than the balustrade
group (see conclusion below). They need not be very
different in date, however, since the column base
(AS25), as noted above, was an original fitment in
Building A (see Vol 1, Ch 16). All of this plant ornament and interlace is carved in the same deep confident manner as the balustrades, and the inhabited
scrolls have been considered closely comparable in
style with the famous crosses from Bewcastle and
Ruthwell (Cramp 1965a).
The only figural ornament which survives from
Jarrow stone sculpture is, however, on a miniature
scale (AS30) and although such hunting scenes have a
long tradition in classical and Early Christian art, this
could have a symbolic significance here. The figures of
hunters occur on the Ruthwell cross-head (Cassidy
1992, pl 12) and both could represent the human battle between good and evil. In considering where the
deep friezes may have been used in the church, perhaps
one should note in relation to the date of the potential
side porticus (see Vol 1, Ch 13) that there was only limited scope for embellishment or the provision of multiple shrines and altars within the church before such an
addition.
In summary, then, the architectural sculpture at
Wearmouth reflects more indigenous taste which
occurs also in other media, such as metalwork and
manuscripts, in Britain and Gaul, whereas Jarrow
reflects more the late antique Roman taste as it survives in this context, a propensity shared with Hexham.
The decorative sculpture from Building A is particularly important as it constitutes the only such sculpture
from a domestic building of that date in the British
Isles.
Funerary and monumental sculpture

The fragment of a tiny name-stone, with a runic and
latinate inscription (MS1), from the cemetery area at
Wearmouth, is a unique survival of a type that is otherwise found in foundations of the Irish church such as
Lindisfarne, Hartlepool, and Billingham (Cramp 1984,
pls 199200, 84.18). Significantly the square-ended
cross shape engraved on it is the one that distinguishes
other funerary slabs from the twin monastery, all of
which have similarly shaped crosses in high relief. The
most complete and impressive is the so called
Herebericht slab (MS2) found in the 19th-century porch
excavations at Wearmouth. Fragments of four others
survive from Jarrow (Cramp 1984, pls 934, 96), two of
which (MS14 and MS16) were found during the site
excavations, as were other fragments of inscriptions
from grave slabs. The latter were found in reused positions to the south of the Jarrow churches, where they
could have been displaced from the monastic cemetery
(see Vol 1, Ch 15). Sadly, neither site yielded a grave
cover in situ, save possibly for the late grave cover from
St Peters Church (MS3). The carefully cut capitals of

the inscriptions from the early monuments from the
sites are eloquent testimony to the literacy and
Romanitas of the community (Higgitt 1979).
The Jarrow inscriptions have been discussed at
length by John Higgitt, who distinguishes three main
groups (Higgitt 1979, 3604). The first group consists
only of the church dedication stone (Vol 1, Appendix
A1 and Fig A1). The second group includes the devotional text on MS2, the funerary inscription MS14,
and the helmgyt stone from Building D, MS13,
together with MS2. The letter forms on all of these
have some resemblance to the dedication stone and
could have been carved soon afterwards. The third
group consists of two fragmentary memorial inscriptions, MS17 and MS19, and the Wearmouth namestone, MS1. All of these pieces are so unweathered that
they might originally have been placed indoors rather
than outside. This last group Higgitt would see as having absorbed some of the characteristics of Insular display scripts but as being no later in date than the era of
the Lindisfarne Gospels, ie c 700. It is interesting,
however, that both of the group three Jarrow inscribed
slabs are decorated on the edges with rows of rod-like
ornament which is repeated on some of the architectural fragments, MS3739. These in their turn seem to
be copying the Roman balustrade ornament on what
are possibly cornices, friezes and imposts (AS3941
and 43) and could be part of the decoration of the earliest church.
At Jarrow also early forms of free-standing crosses
are found: two with vine-scrolls (MS22 and MS25;
Cramp 1984, 107) and others with a head simulating
metal forms (MS20 and MS21 see below and Figs
28.4.3 and 28.4.4), as are very similar examples from
Hexham and Northallerton (Bailey 1996a, 41, fig 6b).
Fragments have also been found of plain shafts (MS23
and MS24), which occur in profusion at Whitby (Lang
2001, ills 897915) but only sporadically on other
monastic sites.
Other crosses testify to the use of the graveyards for
important burials in the later Saxon period: from
Wearmouth the so called Tidfirth stone (MS8) has
been dated to the 10th century on art historical
grounds, although its runic inscription is uninformative (Page 1973, 143); Jarrow (MS22 and MS27)
shows possible links between the sculptural traditions
at this site and the Chester-le-Street community of the
late 9th/early 10th century (Adcock 1974, 294300,
3212; Cramp 1984, 1078).
It is perhaps surprising that among the many fragments which have survived from the sites there is no
evidence for elaborate shrines from either Jarrow or
Wearmouth, since it is recorded that many important
people were buried inside and outside the churches.
Obviously a great deal has been lost and the fragments
of what could be plain shrines/tombs, Wearmouth
MS11 and MS12 could once have been part of complex monuments. But it is important to note that some
167
surviving stones, MS3, MS22 and MS27, indicate that

there were significant burials on the site at least as late
as the late 9th/early 10th centuries.
Conclusion
These sites have not yielded as many funerary monuments as Whitby, for example, but those that have been
discovered are remarkable for their coherence, and the
use of the same style and motifs in both architectural,
furnishing and funerary monuments is noteworthy.
This must surely imply site workshops, and perhaps
the Wearmouth sandstone pieces in bold relief, such as
MS4 and MS6 could imply that the same workshops
were employed for both sites once Jarrow was founded.
Finally, how much is it possible to say concerning
the contribution made by the sculptures on these two
sites to the devotional and liturgical life of their communities. Anyone who approached the church at
Wearmouth would have been struck by both familiar
and unfamiliar. Entrances to buildings, whether in the
Germanic or late antique world, were especially
emphasised and protected lest evil powers should enter
through them. Kitzinger saw, surely correctly, the reptilian creatures that flanked the opening into the porch
in this way (Kitzinger 1993, 46 and see AS13 below).
The frieze of animals above (AS16), although now so
worn, are of a quite different type and may be compared with animals on terracotta bricks in Gaul
(Cramp 1984, 127 and pl 117). In the same way the
figure in the gable (AS17) would have appeared unusual, but possibly not intimidating. The familiar and the
unfamiliar could have drawn converts into the church,
and the translation of old themes and images into new
meanings could have been as potent a factor in conversion as was the similar practice in poetry. Once
inside, painted sculpture could have served as much
for devotional foci as the icons on boards which the
founder hung in the church (see Vol 1, Ch 6).
Moreover, the animals on the furnishings such as the
lions (AS12) could also have been given a Christian
significance since the image of the lion could be identified with Christ in the early medieval period
(Neuman de Vegvar 1997, 1726).
At Jarrow, as stated above, there is less evidence for
insular taste, but, as Kitzinger pointed out, Christian
symbols of protection could also be placed at the
entrance to churches, and here one wonders whether
the carving which Hutchinson saw on the north jamb
of the porch at Jarrow and which he strangely describes
as a figure of a crozier staff, stripped from one of
the ancient tombs (Hutchinson 1787, 596) may not
have been an original piece in situ. Certainly the vinescrolls which are found on the panels from the interior
(AS37, AS38) as well as on the crosses (MS25 and
MS26) have an obvious eucharistic significance,
and the struggling animals attacking the True Vine,
but hunted by the human figure (AS38) could well be
seen as a devotional focus as well as a sermon in stone.
168
The particular emphasis on vine-scroll patterns at

Jarrow as well as the devotion to the cross as the sign
of Christs redemption of the world (MS18) are particularly noteworthy, and set alongside the austere
Roman taste of the balustrade ornament, potently
evoke the spirit of the early Christian world.
28.2 Architectural sculpture

Wearmouth
AS1
AS2
AS3
Door jamb reshaped from a Roman altar in carboniferous sandstone (Fig 28.2.1). Large dressed
block with remains of double bordered recessed
plaque on one broad face, rebate on the narrow face.
The area where there might have been an inscription
has been hacked away and the face is heavily burnt.
This piece was found in a pit with a considerable
quantity of Anglo-Saxon walling debris (Vol 1, Fig
10.8), and, like the rest of the large sandstone blocks,
could have come from a nearby Roman site.
Roman altars such as this may represent a votive
gift by an individual to the gods or a particular deity.
They could bear a written dedication in Latin, relief
carving or both (Henig 1984, 14, 12931). Often the
relief decoration is very simple and non-informative
of its dedication, such as a sacrificial knife or a
wreath. Altars with various dedications have been
found at South Shields RIB 10525, 10578,
Chester-le-Street RIB 10438, Lanchester RIB
10724, 1076, 107880, 108290 and Ebchester
RIB 10991100, 11025. Since the area that would
ordinarily bear a dedication has been destroyed it is
impossible to determine if one ever existed: it is quite
common to find votive altars without any dedication
or carved depiction. In these cases it is probable that
the altars were multifunctional and consecrated to
miscellaneous deities (Green 1976, 48). It is impossible to tell whether the dedication area has been
destroyed because of its content (possibly in advance
of reuse) or merely in the course of re-dressing the
block. (A Mac Mahon, pers comm)
H 950 W 360 T 230mm
Roman, reshaped in the Anglo-Saxon period
1433 LS/EM MK 64 XG 6403
St Peters Church, Monkwearmouth
Block of dressed stone. Possibly the upper part or
cornice of a Roman altar decorated with band, bead
and scotia moulding and two flat faces in the lower
dado (A Mac Mahon, pers comm). Compare AS1.
Found as part of reused masonry in Wall F. Not illus
L 530 W 400 T 360mm
Roman/Anglo-Saxon
Context: 980 Saxon MK 69 JB 6902
Fragment of decorative strip, carved on one face.
Hartlepool and Roker Dolomite Fig 28.2.1
Discovered immediately to the south of the AngloSaxon porch. In the centre are one complete and one
partial roundel of encircled pattern F interlace set in
a panel between two roll mouldings. The outer borders are flat and chamfered back on one side and the
other side is curved. The decoration is very sharp and
unweathered and this piece seems to have been part
of an interior feature, possibly the jamb of an opening. It seems to be part of a suite of decoration that
AS4
AS5
AS6
AS7
includes AS47 as well as a closure slab AS10 from

the existing stone collection in the church (Cramp
1984, no. 9, 126). Encircled pattern F is a rare pattern but is found for example in the Book of Durrow
fol 85v, and Adcock has compared these pieces with
Pictish work (Adcock 1974, 69 and pl 7A) and in her
reconstruction drawing has joined it to AS4, but there
are some difficulties with this (see below).
H 120 W 180 T 180mm
Late C7th
1933 Saxon MK 66 OU 6605
References: Wilson and Hurst 1967, 264; Adcock
1974, 6971, pl 7a; Cramp 1984, 131, no, 17, pl
124.681
Fragment of decorative strip work, Hartlepool and
Roker Dolomite. Fig 28.2.1. One face is decorated
with encircled pattern F interlace and a roll moulding on one edge. An adjacent face is cut at an angle
and dressed smooth. Adcock has reconstructed this
as part of AS3 (see Fig 28.2.2), but, although it is so
closely similar that it must be part of the same
scheme, the clean cut which looks original may either
mean that the strip was prefabricated in lengths or
that it was cut to fit against a diagonal feature.
L 75 W 55 T 40mm
C7th
1595 EPM MK 66 LN 6601
References: Adcock 1974, 6971, pl 7a; Cramp
1984, 131, no. 19, pl 124.683
Fragment. Carved stone with a fragment of interlace
on one narrow face, and smoothly chamfered on the
adjacent broad face. Hartlepool and Roker
Dolomite. Possibly part of AS3. Fig 28.2.1.
H 65 W 105 T 50mm
C7th
1555 Med 1 MK 66 SG 3 6601
Sunderland Museum, SLDM 43-1973/107
References: Adcock 1974, 70, pl 7b; Cramp 1984,
1312, no. 20, pl 124.6867
Fragment of Hartlepool and Roker Dolomite, possibly part of a decorative strip work, with interlace bordered by a curved flat-band moulding and with a
recessed broken flange. The carved face is blackened; possibly deliberate pigmentation. In style of
carving this belongs to the same suite as AS37. Fig
28.2.1.
H 43 W 43 T 25mm
C7th
1430 LS/EM MK 64 XB 6403
Sunderland Museum, SLDM 43-1973/111 (G17211)
References: Cramp 1965a, 3; Adcock 1974, 71, pl
7c; Cramp 1984, 131, no. 18, pl 124.682
Fragment of Hartlepool and Roker dolomite, decorated on one face which is cut at two levels. Fig
28.2.2. The upper face is surrounded on two sides by
a wide flat frame and on the other curved side by a
narrow roll moulding. These enclose two registers of
interlace separated by a plain triangle that on the left
is simple pattern E, on the right more bungled. The
stone and style of carving are identical with AS36
(see Introduction above). By projecting the two
curves Adcock (1974, pl 8) has constructed an
elaborate cruciform design with a diamond-shaped
centre. Fig 28.2.2.
. "" .
169
.,,,,, ..
...,,~
.. '"
Fig 28.2.1 Anglo-Saxon architectural sculpture from Wearmouth. TM
... ,,,,,
170
Fig 28.2.2 Anglo-Saxon architectural sculpture from Wearmouth. G Adcock, TM
AS8
AS9
AS10
H 56 W 85 T 65mm
C7th
1558 Med 1 MK 66 ST 6601
References: Adcock 1974, 712, pl 8; Cramp 1984,
132, no. 21, pl 124.6779
Part of a capital in four joining fragments of
Hartlepool and Roker Dolomite. Fig 28.2.2. It is
carved on one face with a relief spiral, the rest of the
faces being smoothly dressed. It was found with broken baluster shaft fragments in the medieval reconstruction. In the light of the stone type used and the
accompanying debris it would seem to fit best an
Anglo-Saxon context. This is so far a unique form
from Anglo-Saxon England, but it is possible that the
carver was copying classical Ionic prototypes and
similar capitals have been found at Torino (Novelli
1974, taf) and at Fulda Cathedral (where it is dated
between 791 and 802, Stiegemann and Wemhoff
1999, 2, VIII.35, 549). The Wearmouth capital is,
however, very small and could possibly have been
part of a small structure such as a shrine, baldachino
or the frame of a small opening.
H 120 W 165 T 90mm
C7-8th
1540 Med 1 MK 66 MT 6601
1549 Med 1 MK 66 PF 6601
1555 Med 1 MK 66 SG 1, 2 6601
References: Cramp 1969, pl 4a; Cramp 1984, 1267,
no. 10a, pl 110.6013; Cramp 1986a, 133, pl VIII
End fragment of Hartlepool and Roker Dolomite
strip, two faces dressed smooth with traces of overpaint, one face is deeply incised with two parallel
lines. Found in a clearance deposit. Compare plain
strip work (AS47) below. Fig 28.2.2.
H 60 W 44 T 23mm
C7-8th
1610 Saxon? MK 66 URa 6601
(G17642)
Reference: Cramp 1984, 133, no. 27, pl 125.693
Incomplete panel of Hartlepool and Roker Dolomite
limestone. Fig 28.2.2. Part of what must have been a
corner of an elaborately decorated piece and was
possibly part of a closure screen or box shrine. The
internal zone seems to have been subdivided but only
the peripheral decorative pattern survives. This
seems to be a densely packed interlace. The strands
are fine and sharply cut by a small chisel. The surrounding outer decorated relief is bordered on both
sides by a fine triple moulding. In the top right hand
corner is a depiction of a ribbon animal whose body
tapers to a point and extends into a thin tail, which
loops around its body and through the long sling-like
beak that clasps the body. Below this are two registers of encircled pattern F. The fragment is finally
bordered with a wide flat-band moulding recessed
from the carved surface. The arrangement of the
design is not dissimilar to a carpet page from manuscripts such as those seen in the Book of Durrow (fol
85v). The fragment reflects the Insular taste that is
noted on other decorative pieces found on the site
such as AS37 and the door jambs AS13.
L 270 W 240 T 65mm
Late C8early C9th
AS11
AS12
171
Selected references: Boyle 1886, 51; Adcock 1974,

669, pl 6ab, fig 18a; Cramp 1984, 126, no. 9, pl
121.656; Bailey 1992, 33, pl 2
Animal-head terminal in yellow sandstone. Fig 28.2.3.
This was found in the foundations of a 19th-century
wall set on the foundations of the medieval and Saxon
Wall F. This three-dimensional terminal is broken off
below the neck but is otherwise relatively undamaged
save for mortar on one face. The creature something
between a mammal and a reptile has a squared-off
snout, a slit mouth outlined by folds, and lentoid eyes.
The neck has a deeply carved collar rising to a point
under the jaw, and there is a shallow roll moulding at
the top of the head. This is one of the very few threedimensional Anglo-Saxon carvings and might be considered as having been set in a wall like a corbel or
prokrossos. It seems, however, meant to be seen upright
with the markings of the collar and the top of the head
visible. A similar head from Lastingham, Yorkshire,
has been convincingly linked with the arm of a chair
with the same decoration as on the head of the beast
(Lang 1991, 1723, ill 614, 617) and it seems most
likely that this was the function also of the Wearmouth
piece. This piece has been compared with the depictions of chairs in early Insular manuscripts such as
Durham B.II.30 fol 81v (Cramp 1984, 130).
H 300 W 310 T 180mm
C8th
Context: 982 Modern MK 69 AN 6901
References: Bruce-Mitford 1969, 24, pl 19a; Cramp
1984, 130, no. 16, pl 124.673-6; Lang 1991, 1723;
Webster and Backhouse 1991, 151, no. 111
Two pieces of furniture carved with lions of mediumgrained yellow sandstone. Fig 28.2.4. The first block
(AS12a) has been carved on one of the broad and
one of the narrow sides with a lion. The figure is
framed by two columns that are decorated with capitals and bases. The feline is depicted crouching in an
uneasy posture. Its hindquarters are deeply curved
and are haunched against the left column. The lions
tail is turned over its back and takes up a third of the
upper zone of the relief. Its front legs are braced and
the paws are clawed but much of this detail has been
lost. The head of the lion is bent to its left under the
projecting ledge to support the seat above.
The second block (AS12b) also depicts a lion on
one broad and one narrow face. This depiction is in
very high relief and the animals two back haunches
are almost carved free of the stone. It has a thick tail
but much of its detail has been lost. The lion is
shown with its front legs braced on a ledge and the
claws on its front paws are realistically rendered. Its
head, which has pointed ears and oval eyes, is turned
towards its right, braced against the seat.
Furniture supported by lions is a well-known
antique form. These stones have been compared to
the stone thrones from the church of St Emmeram at
Regensburg (Braun 1948, 81011; Clapham 1950).
They cannot have been part of the same item of furniture as they are both left-hand sections but may
have been part of a suite in which AS12a was the
central chair and AS12b was one of the bench
ends. The symbolic significance of the lion is discussed in the introduction above.
172
"
"
""""
Fig 28.2.3 Anglo-Saxon architectural sculpture from Wearmouth. TM
.on"
AS13
AS14
a. L 420 W 600 T 215mm; b. L 380 W 570 T

215mm
Late C7th
Selected references: Boyle 1886, 51, pl 6; Clapham
1950; Cramp 1984, 12930, no. 15, pl
1223.66372.
Pair of door jambs in coarse-grained massive red/yellow sandstone. Fig 28.2.3. The decoration on both
jambs is identical and is carved through uninterruptedly on the face of two stones that are set into the fabric in an upright and flat technique. On the upper
stone the necks of two reptilian creatures whose
heads curve inwards, while their jaws interlace symmetrically on the lower portion of the stone. The eyes
of the creatures are small, incised and almondshaped and their beak-like jaws are formed like two
long slings (those of the northern jambs are the better preserved). On the lower stone the ribbon-like
bodies follow the outer edges of the stone, loop
inwards at the base, cross in the centre and intertwine
with each other until they reach the top of the stone.
The tails of the creatures then separate and curve out
to the edges of the stone in fishtail terminals.
The creatures bear a superficial resemblance, in
their sling-like beaks, to those found on manuscripts
such as Durham A.II.17, fol 3r and Wearmouth (10)
but have a longer ancestry in Germanic metalwork.
Within the regional context similar head types occur
in Northumbrian metalwork such as a foil from
Bamburgh (Bailey 1992, fig 4b) and a mould from
Hartlepool (Cramp and Daniels 1987). However,
the compositions and tails of the creatures are quite
different and in this they are more reminiscent of the
twisted reptiles found on Aquitanian buckles (berg
1947, fig 22.1). Kitzinger has suggested that their
presence flanking the entrance can be seen as
apotropaic as part of a long tradition in the Early
Christian and early medieval world in which
entrances and other openings in buildings were considered most especially in need of protection lest evil
forces enter through them. He concludes that these
creatures therefore could be credited with the power
to prevent evil spirits from entering the sacred space
and compares them with the decorated threshold of
the Hypoge des Dunes at Poitiers (Kitzinger 1993,
56; see also Fig 28.3.6). It is possible also that door
openings of secular wooden buildings were similarly
decorated (Karkov 1991, 3940) in which case these
serpentine creatures would be familiar but demonstrably controlled and displayed in Christian service,
thus forming a transition from the indigenous vernacular to the more exotic iconography of the paintings inside the church (see Introduction).
Late C7th
H 535 W 247 T 230mm
Selected references: Longstaffe 1858, 945; Anon
18628a, figs 12; Bruce-Mitford 1969, 234, and
fig; Cramp 1984, 1255, no. 8, pl 11215.61217;
Bailey 1992, 36, fig 2; Bailey 1996a, 389.
Two crosses carved in high relief of Hartlepool and
Roker Dolomite. Fig 28.2.5. The arms of the crosses taper sharply towards a large round centre. The
upper and horizontal arms of each touch the edge of
AS15
173
the stone while the lower is attached to a narrow

stem. As the second cross seems to be properly
embedded in the west gable wall of the nave (see Vol
1, Fig 6.7) it may be part of the 7th-century church
rather than an insertion marking the consecration of
the 11th-century tower. The stones are clearly a pair
and may perhaps be regarded as consecration or dedication crosses, but whether this was for the original
church or for the later rebuilt tower is uncertain.
They are unique to the Northumbrian series by the
lower stems which support the cross but the splayed
rounded arms, E6, and large circular centre are
found elsewhere in Northumbria, for example at
Heddon-on-the-Wall, Warden and Woodhorn, where
they have been assigned to an early 11th to 12thcentury date. An early date for the crosses is therefore problematical as this style of cross with tapered
arms and large centre are found on cross-heads
which are demonstrably post-Conquest, such as at St
Helens, Kelloe, Co Durham. However, crosses of
identical shape occur in the faade of the baptistry at
Poitiers (Hubert et al 1969, pl 48) and it may be that
this was a type introduced to Wearmouth by the
Gaulish builders.
Late C711th
a. H 365 W 300 T 155mm; b. H 370 W 410mm T
(built in).
References: Colgrave 194453, 188; Taylor and
Taylor 1965, fig 204; Cramp 1984, 1334, nos 289,
pl 1167.619-20
Part of a panel frieze in medium-grained, massive
pale yellow sandstone. Fig 28.2.4. The fact that there
seem to be the beginnings of two recessed panels on
either side of the frame implies that this was not part
of a cross but of a wall panel. Only one face is carved.
Framed by a neat flat-band moulding are two figures
in deep relief. The one on the left is backed against
the frame and the one on the right is advancing away
from the frame. Between the figures is a sword,
falling bent and useless. It has a short guard, round
grip and pommel with a rounded top and triangular
base. The sword may have fallen from the hand of
the figure on the left. He raises a shield in his left
hand and has his right arm extended. The man on
the right appears to be thrusting with a spear under
the shield of his opponent. Both of the figures wear
knee-length tunics that have wide collars.
Narrative scenes with figures in secular dress, like
this, occur before the full impact of Scandinavian art
when such figures become more common, and this
may be compared with the pair from Bishophill, York
(Lang 1991, 834, ill 216). The style of carving is
unlike anything else from Wearmouth but is competent and lively. The dress cannot be used for close
dating but the sword and pommel is like that from
Fetter Lane, London (Wilson 1964, pl 24; Petersen
1919, type L), which can be dated to the 9th century.
The scene could be part of a frieze depicting contemporary or near contemporary events or could be
an early example in Anglo-Saxon art of clothing biblical stories in contemporary costume.
H 229 W 343 T 280mm
C9th
174
..
'" "" ,
Fig 28.2.4 Anglo-Saxon furniture and wall panel. TM
Fig 28.2.5 Anglo-Saxon sculpture from faade of St Peters church. TM
175
176
AS16
AS17
AS18
AS19
Selected references: Boyle 1886, 51, pl 6; Boyle

1892, 544; Hodges 1905, 234; Cramp 1984, 125,
no. 7, pl 111.60911.
String-course/frieze in medium-grained yellow sandstone. Fig 28.2.5. Before 1966 was in position in the
west face of the entrance porch of St Peters Church
(see Vol 1, Fig 5.4). The detail is almost weathered
away, and little could be seen in the 19th century
when it was drawn (Cramp 1984, figs 624 and 625).
It appears, however,that the frieze was framed and
subdivided by cable mouldings, and each panel then
included a single or double form, some of which
could be running animals of a quite naturalistic type.
The closest parallel to this type of bold single animal
is to be found on friezes and imposts from Hexham
(Cramp 1984, ills 100712) and they are perhaps
ultimately derived from Gaulish types (see above,
introduction).
H 240 L 130 T 23.5
C7th
Selected references: Longstaffe 1858, 945; Brown
1925, 1256; Gilbert 1964, 756, fig 4; Taylor and
Taylor 1965, 401; Cramp 1984, 1278.
Human figure carved in sandstone on four stones, in
situ in the west face of the gable of the original porch
of St Peters Church (Vol 1, Fig 5.2). The figure has
been deliberately cut off its base but a shadow of its
body remains and part of the head. Fig 28.2.5.
Although it has not proved possible to measure the
figure closely, it was about 2.10m in height (see Vol
1, Fig 5.10) and therefore life size, and carved in high
relief, as the surviving evidence for the head makes
clear. It is, therefore, of great importance for the history of Northumbrian sculpture, if it is contemporary with a porch which was standing by AD 685 (see
Vol 1, Ch 6). Whether the figure represented Christ
or the patron of the church, St Peter, is impossible to
say from the little that survives.
C7th
Selected references: Longstaffe 1858, 945; Brown
1895, 251, fig 15; Taylor and Taylor 1965, 1112,
51; Coatsworth 1979, I, 18, 230, II, 701, pl 166;
Cramp 1984, 127.
Carved corner of Hartlepool and Roker Dolomite
architectural fragment, with a grooved moulding.
Recut. Dense white covering applied directly to the
surface of the sandstone, overpainted with red.
Traces of fine mortar covering the surface of the primary paint. Not illus.
H 110 W 75 T 35mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2052 LPM MK 67 DG 6701
Fragment of yellow micaceous sandstone. Part of the
carved face of a large-scale carving. Only part of one
carved face survives and there is no hint of the original shape of the piece: all that survives is a heavy roll
moulding and part of two plain faces. The piece is
damaged but the original tooling was with a chisel,
and it could be part of a mid-Saxon architectural
carving. Not illus.
L 167 W 115 T 43mm
Saxon
AS20
AS21
AS22
AS23
AS24
AS25
AS26
1614 L Sax MK 66 VX 6601

Sunderland Museum
Curving piece of sandstone relief ornament, possibly
strand of interlace. Not illus.
L 31 W 14 T 7mm
Anglo-Saxon
1573 L Sax MK 66 WT 6601
Sunderland Museum
Part of a block of red sandstone, two faces plastered
with a pink plaster base and white painted surface.
There were two subsequent layers of paint. This is a
good example of the plastering and painting of
stonework at Wearmouth. Fig 28.1.1.
L 110 W 80 T 40mm
Anglo-Saxon
1578 L Sax MK 66 YB 6601
Fragment of sandstone with one worked edge, the
adjacent face partially covered with plaster. Not illus.
L 108 W 71 T 18mm
Anglo-Saxon
1574 L Sax MK 66 YP 6601
Corner fragment with rounded edge. Blackened all
over, plastered face. Part of a piece of furniture or
architectural ornament. Not illus.
L 60 W 65 T 21mm
Anglo-Saxon
1654 L Sax MK 62 FT 6201
Carved piece of coarse red sandstone with the rollmoulded edge of architectural feature. Punch outline
and smoothly finished. Not illus.
L 65 W 40 T 17mm
Anglo-Saxon
1551 L Sax MK 66 SA 6601
Stone. Fragment of worked stone. Burnt on one surface. Limestone. Not illus.
L 45 W 45 T 23mm
Anglo-Saxon?
1434 LS/EM MK 64 XS 6403
(G17211)
Fragment of Hartlepool and Roker Dolomite with a
triangular-shaped depression on one edge. Not illus.
L 230 W 215 T 90mm
Anglo-Saxon?
1934 Med MK 66 OV 6605
Jarrow
AS27
Columnar feature, either a structural column or furniture, possibly the base of a lectern. Figs 28.2.6
and 28.2.7. Sandstone/Millstone Grit, burnt red
where it was above ground and yellowish below the
floor. The context and function of this piece are discussed in Vol 1, Chapter 16. Many pieces of plain red
sandstone were found on the floor of Building A surrounding the stump of the shaft, some with angled
faces, but it was not possible to fit them all into the
reconstruction. The piece consists of a base, which
was embedded in a pit, wedged in with stones and
partly covered by the opus signinum floor of Building
A, and a (reconstructed) octagonal shaft carved with
panels of interlace and plant scrolls above ground.
The base is roughly shaped with wedge-shaped lifting holes at the bottom and is finished in an octagonal form at the top.
177
Fig 28.2.6 Reconstructed column AS27 from Jarrow. TM

The carved shaft is divided into eight panels by
prominent mouldings in the form of semi-cylindrical
columns on decorative bases, which enclose alternating plant and interlace motifs. It is possible that two
of the panels, H and D, showed continuous plant
scrolls, and the others alternating plant forms and
runs of interlace. The leaf forms are closely paralleled in other Jarrow sculpture (see MS25) and also
at Hexham (see introduction above and Cramp
1984, 116).
The idea of a shaft decorated with plant scrolls
may have come from a knowledge of late antique
shafts decorated with vine-scrolls (see Esperandieu
1908, cat 1284, 1289, 1310), which could have
been encountered during Benedicts or Ceolfrids
continental travels (see introduction) and could

indeed have contributed to the romanitas they
admired as well as including the potent Christian
symbol of the vine. However, the addition of interlace and the breaking of the flow of ornament into
short lengths is an Insular trait. Parallels with a later
version of such a carved shaft at Melsonby,
Yorkshire, have been cited (Cramp 1984, 116), and
here also it is difficult to know whether the piece is a
reading desk or a column shaft.
H 1330 Diam 340mm base circumference 1.30m
Late C7early C8th
Context: in situ in floor of Building A and 396
LS/EM JA 65 AEZa 6502
JARBW 1995.41
178
....
Fig 28.2.7 Fragments of AS27 before reconstruction. TM
~.
AS28
30
AS28
AS29
AS30
AS31
AS32
AS33
AS34
References: Cramp 1969, 45, 49; Adcock 1974,

1368, pls 389; Cramp 1978, 5, pl 1, 1; Cramp
1984, 11517, no. 22, pls 99101.52735; Bailey
1996a, 31.
The following sandstone fragments of relief moulding are probably part of AS27, since they all came
from the same context and were found in close proximity to the base.
H 172 W 50 T 27mm
H 41 W 34 T 15mm
H 61 W 22 T 10mm
Context: 396 LS/EM JA 65 AEZb 6502
Corner fragment of red sandstone with two smoothly dressed faces, one curving and one flat chamfer.
Possibly part of AS25 and if so this strengthens the
idea of a reading desk. Not illus.
Saxon?
H 185 W 160 T 85mm
Context: 5630 Modern JA 65 AJS 6502
Eight fragments of ornamental siltstone panel, edged
with cable moulding inside fine roll mouldings in high
relief. The centre of the panel has petal ornament
formed from intersecting circles. Fig 28.2.8. The
fragments have been reconstructed in various ways to
form rectangular and triangular panels. The latest
reconstruction by Alison Stooshnov has separated out
one piece with a slightly curving edge and moulding
of a different orientation from the rest into one panel
and the other pieces into another, each panel being
about 195200mm square. The decoration, with
interlinked petals forming cut circles, is commonly
found on sculpture elsewhere in Northumbria (see
introduction) with especially close parallels at
Hexham and Ripon (Cramp 1974c, pl xxiiia/b).
These pieces are, however, clearly part of the classical ornament of Building A. The singularity of outline of the frame may be to fit a specific wall space.
Late C7early C8th
Context: 292 LS/EM JA 65 ZJ, YC, AAQ 6507
Context: 269 Med 12 JA65 AGE 6507
References: Wilson and Hurst 1966, 170; Cramp
1965a, 3; Cramp 1984, 118, no. 24ah, pl 102.543;
Bailey 1996b, 323, fig 13
Sandstone corner fragment with cable design found
in robber trench of west wall of the Norman east
range. Fig 28.2.10. This piece has been carved on
the upper surface and the sides and therefore could
be a base or part of a grave slab. The heavy cable is,
however, unlike other Saxon carvings found on this
site.
Possibly Roman rather than Anglo-Saxon?
H 165 W 152 T 70mm
Uncertain
Context: 1437 Med 1 JA 71 QX 7106
JARBW 1995.10
Reference: Cramp 1984, 1212, no. 33, pl
107.5823, 5878.
Two sandstone fragments, possibly of architectural
panel. Fig 28.2.9. Fragment of relief carving of birds
head and possibly a piece of interlace. This could
have been cut from a relief panel such as AS38.
H 40 W 50 T 10mm
Late C7early C8th
Context: 5728 LS/EM JA 65 AANa 6507
Drawing 723 + Photo
AS35
AS36
AS37
AS38
179
JARBW 1995.227
References: Cramp 1965a, 3; Wilson and Hurst
1966, 170; Bruce-Mitford 1967b, 818, pl XLc;
Cramp 1967b, 9, no. 7; Cramp 1969, pl IXc; Cramp
1984, 115, no. 21a, pl 97.523
Two sandstone fragments, possibly of architectural
panel. Compare AS34 and AS36. One fragment is
possibly a plant strand. Not illus.
H 8 W 50 T 7mm
Late C7early C8th
Context: 5728 LS/EM JA 65 AANb 6507
References: Cramp 1965a, 3; Wilson and Hurst
1966, 170; Cramp 1969, pl IXc; Cramp 1984, 115,
no. 21b, pl 97.523
Small sandstone fragment of relief carving. Interlace?
See also AS34 and AS35. Not illus.
L 20 W 7 T 5mm
Saxon?
Context: 293 Med 1 JA 65 ADK 6507
Part of a sandstone frieze. Fig 28.2.9. Found on the
south side of the church when building the school.
Framed at the top with a flat band moulding and at
the bottom by a deep roughly dressed plinth, a tangled tree scroll encloses two naturalistic thrush-like
birds, the one on the right is headless, the one on the
left is engaged in pecking at the fruit. Below them
enmeshed in the lower volutes is the scaly tail of what
may be a biped such as is also seen in AS36 and this
has been used to support the suggestion that both are
part of the same scheme (G Adcock, pers comm).
This piece is carved in the same deep bold style as
the hunter frieze AS38, as well as AS27, reading
desk; compare also AS34, birds head and the top of
the cross shaft MS26. For discussion see below and
Cramp 1984, 114).
H 419 W 292 D
Late C7early C8th
St Pauls Church, Jarrow
Selected references: Longstaffe 1858, 80; Stuart
1867, 225, pl. lxxii 2; Cramp 1984, no. 19, 114, pl
98.526
Part of a sandstone frieze. Fig 28.2.9. Supposedly
found in 1865 when the 18th-century nave was taken
down. The top of the piece is cut away but at the
base there is a wide triple moulding. The panel is
filled with a deeply cut jungly plant scroll with berry
bunches and exotic leaf-flowers, and in the top left
hand corner is the snout and gripping paws of a beast
who is gnawing at the branches. Its scaly tail is
entwined in the branches at the bottom left. Facing
it, with his left arm outstretched and right arm
raised, is a male figure dressed in a short kirtle with
a flying fold over his shoulder. By his left foot is the
head of another person, facing in the opposite direction and lying down. Both figures have short bobbed
hair and lightly incised features.
Scenes such as this are remotely derived from
classical hunting scenes, but this could have a
Christian significance as the contest of mankind with
the forces of evil. Such an interpretation is implied
by the form of the animal, which is not like anything
from a classical hunting scene, but is very like the
creatures battling with other animals and humans
at the base of the Rothbury cross in what seems to
be a depiction of hell (Cramp 1984, ills 12234).
180
"
...._-..,
Fig 28.2.8 Panel fragments from Jarrow and possible reconstruction. TM, KM
......,
Fig 28.2.9 Friezes with inhabited scrolls from Jarrow. TM
181
182
.. """
..,,"
Fig 28.2.10 Architectural fragments from Jarrow. TM
... ''''''
AS39
AS40
AS41
AS42
AS43
AS44
If the bird panel with the writhing serpentine creatures below is part of the same scheme, then one
could have an upper level of serene creatures nourishing themselves on the True Vine and below the
human battle with the malign forces gnawing at the
roots. The figure at the base is either part of another
scene on another plane, or is perhaps to be seen as
dead, overcome in the battle. Compare the compositions in the Franks Casket.
H 280 W 388 D
Selected references: Longstaffe 1858, 80; Stuart
1867, 225, pl lxxii 2; Cramp 1984, 115, no. 20, pl
98.525
Part of a medium-grained yellow sandstone frieze
decorated with closely packed baluster ornament.
Fig 28.2.10.
H 220 W 912mm D 120mm
Late C7mid C8th
Part of a sandstone frieze decorated with baluster
ornament. Fig 28.2.10.
H 283 W 310 T 114mm
Late C7early C8th
Context: 3129 LS/EM JA 69 RI 6901
JARBW 1995.17
Part of a sandstone frieze decorated with baluster
ornament reused as a gravestone north of the chancel, and the top recut. Fig 28.2.10.
H 387 W 293 T 126mm
Late C7early C8th
Context: 2203 Modern JA 75 LE 7501
JARBW 1995.18
Reference: Cramp 1984, 120, no. 28, pl 102.5446,
549
Fragment of finely dressed sandstone strip work,
with one side and back covered with fine white mortar. The carved face has a central cable enclosed
between one broad flat band and a narrow chamfered band. Traces of a backing for paint. Fig
28.2.10.
L 70 W 75 T 75mm
C78th
Context: 256 EPMLPM JA 65 WD 6507
Part of impost or slab? These sandstone fragments
were found among building rubble to the north of
the workshops. Fig 28.2.10. These reworked fragments with balustrade ornament may be compared
with the more substantial and unworn sections of
balustrade friezes which existed in the church collection (see Cramp 1984, 11819) which may have
formed part of a baldachino around an altar. These all
form part of a suite of furnishings (see introduction).
H 90 W 195 T 204mm
Late C7early C8th
Context: 4748 Saxon JA 76 GQ 1 7604
JARBW 1995.2
Reference: Cramp 1984, 120, no. 29, pls 101.5389,
541; 103.550
Impost? Medium-grained yellow sandstone. Both
long faces are carved with groups of balusters and
blank panels, framed in a flat band moulding.
183
Fig 28.2.10. The short sides and the top are damaged, but the base is dressed smooth. Compare the
decoration on MS21.
Late C7thearly C8th
H 125 W 254 D 267mm
Reference: Cramp 1984, 121, no. 32, pl 106, 57880
AS45 Fragment of medium-grained yellow sandstone that
was originally built into the west wall of the north
porch. Only one face is visible: it has a raised central
band that is flanked by two rows of deeply cut zigzags and it is framed by a single roll moulding. Despite
its resemblance to MS21 (CASS 8 and 9), the lack of
any tapering implies an architectural fragment rather
than a cross fragment. Fig 28.2.10.
Late C7early C8th
L 110 W 180 T 100mm
AS46 Rounded stone fragment of course-grained sandstone, possibly from a column. Not illus.
Diam 90mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 5449 Saxon JA 65 ALE 6510
AS47 Fragment of column in carboniferous sandstone,
possibly reused after breakage, worn and smooth finish but traces of mortar. Possibly Saxon since found
with other fragments of Saxon stone and building
debris. Not illus.
Diam 70mm
Saxon?
Context: 402 LPM JA 65 AGC 6502
AS 48 Window-head carved from a single sandstone
block, noted by Tom Middlemass loose in
Monkwearmouth church, being used for a Nativity.
The back face has been roughly tooled and the front
face may have been split off because it is very thin in
relation to other window-heads. Fig 28.2.11.
H 330 W 640 D 140mm
Anglo-Saxon?
St Pauls Church, Monkwearmouth
AS49 Window-head carved from a single sandstone block.
Discovered with the walling collapse on the floor of
Building D (see Vol 1, Fig 16.63). This is quite
roughly carved and one broad face is picked. Fig
28.2.11.
H 305 W 560 D 215 Diam of opening c 320mm
Anglo-Saxon, C8?
Context: 2018 ML Saxon JA 73 VG 7304
AS50 Part of a window-head carved from a single
sandstone block. It is roughly tooled on the sides and
one face and was discovered in the same context as
AS49 over the floor of Building D, and could be the
other face of the same window or part of another.
there is a slight chamfer on the taller narrow edge.
This is the same type as nos 48 and 49, and one of a
larger form occurs in situ in the upper storey of St
Peters porch (Cramp 1984, 128 and ill 626). Fig
28.2.11.
H 340 W 290mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2018 M-L Saxon JA 73 VG 7304
AS 51 Part of a composite window head. Fig 28.2.11. It is
very finely tooled on all sides except one broad face
which is roughly picked. This piece was discovered in
184
..-
Fig 28.2.11 Window heads from Jarrow. TM
disturbed clay and burnt debris at the east end of

Building A but sufficiently near to the west end of
Building B to raise uncertainty as to which building
it could have come from. The context a pit or posthole contained Anglo-Saxon building debris such
as opus signinum and plaster but also a piece of
medieval pottery. There is therefore a possibility that
this is a romanesque piece. Its carving is, however,
not inconsistent with the finer Anglo-Saxon architectural carving in Building A and its form with the windows in the west wall of St Peters, Monkwearmouth
(Vol 1, Figs 5.7 and 5.8).
H 144 W 410260 D 135mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 669 Med 2? JA 67 JO 6703
28.3 Balusters and plain strip work

Balusters (Figs 28.3.128.3.4)
by Rosemary Cramp and Ardle Mac Mahon
Although the collection of whole or fragmentary balusters from Wearmouth and Jarrow is one of the most
substantial that exists for the period of the 7th to 9th
centuries in Britain and the rest of Europe, there is a
marked difference in the distributions and forms from
both sites. They have been catalogued in Cramp 1984,
1201, 1289, and in the site archive.
At Wearmouth pairs of balusters are still in situ,
flanking the open portal of the church porch (Fig
28.3.1a and b), and two of a similar size and form were
found in the 19th-century excavations under the porch
floor (Fig 28.3.1c). In the interior of the church, pairs
of smaller balusters were found flanking the church
windows (Cramp 1984, ills 6278). Smaller and more
fragmentary balusters, of unknown provenance, also
existed in the collection at St Peters Church before the
excavations produced a further 134 pieces
(AS52icxxxiv, see Figs 28.3.1, 28.3.3; a full listing
exists in archive). Many of these were found with fragments of strip work (AS54) and decorated friezes (see
above).
The Wearmouth balusters are formed from
Hartlepool and Roker Dolomite and many have holes
at each end and circular marks from lathe-turning. The
soft nature of the limestone allows for close and
sharply profiled grooving and a wide variety of profiles
can be seen among the balusters (see Figs 28.3.3; for
further discussion and illustrations see Cramp 1984,
235). The heights of the balusters vary from 70 to
855mm and their diameters from 130 to 255mm.
Some shafts were cut away at the back, possibly to be
mounted against a wall and others were pointed at the
back as if to fit into a groove or corner. Some, if not all,
of the Wearmouth balusters were coloured: forty-six
show traces of red paint, three show traces of red paint
with patches of white, and one has traces of a white
fresco base. H Barker of the British Museum analysed
the colouration of two of these balusters in 1965 and
his findings are included below. Many of the balusters
185
may have functioned as baluster columns or balustercolonnettes in a subordinate position, decorating the
flanks of doorways or windows. Others could have
formed part of furniture. The absence of sets of balusters of a similar height such as occur at Jarrow would
seem to preclude their use in a series to support a rail
or coping. Whatever their use, the numbers found at
Wearmouth indicate that they were a common architectural feature there and were associated with the
early phases of building.
At Jarrow only one baluster fragment was found
during the excavations, near the riverside in Jarrow
Slake, Area V (AS53z, not illus). Twenty-five other
balusters were found during the church restorations of
the 18th and 19th centuries. These were all of sandstone and are boldly carved with more rounded outlines than the Wearmouth examples. There are 17
complete balusters, each measuring 310mm in diameter and 730mm in height (Figs 28.3.2 and 28.3.4). It
seems likely therefore that these balusters formed part
of a single architectural feature at Jarrow: it is possible
that the shafts stood in a series and formed an enclosure or a balustrade, perhaps in the same area where
the friezes and imposts with baluster ornament were
employed (AS4041, 4344 above). If the Wearmouth
balusters had a similar use, then they would have to
have been placed in a series of graduating columns.
Unfortunately, the evidence does not permit us to
reconstruct the probable location of the balusters in
either church. The great diversity and smaller scale of
the Wearmouth balusters may indicate that they had a
variety of decorative functions across the site.
The Romans were adept at using the lathe to produce items of wooden furniture such as legs for beds
and stools (Mols 1999, 96) and the lathe-turning of
stone furniture was a skill known to the RomanoBritish. For example two lathe-turned table-tops (of
about 426 and 530mm in diameter) and a couch leg
230mm long (diameter 47mm) of Kimmeridge shale
were found in the town of Silchester (eg Liversidge
1969, 159, 168). Lathe-turned wooden furniture was
also well known among the Germanic peoples on the
continent in the 6th century, as the finds from the
princes grave from Cologne illustrate (Werner 1964;
Cramp 1984, 245), and the skill could have been
transferred to stone in Britain as it was on the continent. Nevertheless, the most likely explanation of the
balusters from these sites is that such stone colonnettes
were introduced by the Gaulish builders who came to
Wearmouth in 674. A few examples are extant in
France, for example from Nouaill and the hypogeum
at Poitiers (see Fig 28.3.6); these tend to have the narrow banding of the Wearmouth type. The
Wearmouth/Jarrow builders, however, exercised considerable ingenuity and imagination in varying the
designs, a feature which would have been even more
striking if they were painted in different colours. The
only colours which clearly survive now are red and
black.
186
Fig 28.3.1 Balusters from Wearmouth, in porch and from the church. TM
Fig 28.3.2 Specimens of baluster shafts from Jarrow. TM
187
188
Fig 28.3.3 Types of baluster shaft from Wearmouth (ixii). YB
Fig 28.3.4 Types of baluster shaft from Wearmouth (xiiixvi) and Jarrow (iiii). YB
189
190
Fig 28.3.5 Limestone strips from Wearmouth (AS54). Scale 1:4. AMacM
191
Fig 28.3.6 a. Lathe-turned column of 5th-century date from Nouaill, France; b. Column at Hypoge des Dunes, Poitiers. RC
Analysis of colouration found on balusters
by H. Baker
The pigmentation on two fragments of stone balusters

of Anglo-Saxon character from Wearmouth have been
examined with the following results:
1. AS52vi (not illus) The red pigment is an impure
iron oxide which overlays in some areas a white lime
wash (calcium carbonate). No organic binder could
be detected, and the presence of the lime was suggests the use of the true fresco technique.
2. AS52lxxxiv (not illus) The black pigment is organic, ie of the same nature as a carbon black.
However, it is not possible to say from chemical
tests whether the colouring is deliberate or the
result of accidental fire blackening.
Plain strip work from Wearmouth (AS54)

by Ardle Mac Mahon
Among the excavated balusters found in the area of the
cloister were many sections of finely dressed limestone
strips (AS54), which seem to form part of a coherent
decorative scheme. The original catalogue and line
profiles of the strips were compiled by Lucy Daines,
and this catalogue and discussion is based on her work.
David Schofield identified the stone type as Hartlepool
and Roker Oolitic Dolomite. Two-hundred-and-one
fragments were recorded over the site but only those
retaining a full profile are illustrated (Fig 28.3.5) and
listed below. They vary greatly in length and depth,
which may indicate that they were originally mouldings

that were broken off a dressed stone surface. There
were no corner fragments. What may be considered as
complete sections of the strip-work have three dressed
faces, or four for the end pieces. The majority of the
pieces have only two dressed faces, and can be considered to be split sections.
The shortest recorded length was 35mm (AS54/12)
and the greatest was 196mm (MK 64 WR 1) and at
least eight of the fragments joined to another piece.
The total length of the surviving fragments is about
5.35m. The widths of the strips vary from about 29 to
74mm and it is interesting to note that on average they
seem to graduate in units of about 5mm. Fourteen
pieces may be considered to be end pieces (for example MK 66 TV 1 and AS54/18) indicating either that a
great deal has been lost, or that the strips formed short
decorative features. Some of the pieces tapered slightly, while one seems to be curved. AS54/26 tapers by
about two degrees on both sides and AS54/15 by about
one degree.
Four of the strips have fine incised lines carved
parallel to the edge of one of the faces, such as
AS54/15 and AS54/18 (see Fig 28.1.1f); these appear
to be the marking lines for the level of dressing of the
face. Evidence of a white coating was noted on many
of the fragments as well as red paint, with MK 64 UW
3 and MK 66 WE 7 providing evidence of both. A considerable number of the strips show signs of flame
blackening (see discussion of pigments on balusters,
above).
192
The opposing dressed sides were carved at different

angles (see below). Measurements were taken from a
hypothetical horizontal line, parallel to the upper face,
at the base of each profile. In many cases one of the
dressed sides and the upper face were worn and the
other dressed side was unworn. This may be due to differential weathering, perhaps indicating that the strips
were set in a horizontal rather than a vertical position.
In all cases the sides that were most worn had the
steepest slope. It is apparent that these strips were part
of a coherent decorative scheme and may have formed
a horizontal projecting band or bands on the faade of
a structure, and as they were found with fragments of
balusters and plaster, they could also have served to
outline and emphasise architectural features such as
doors or windows. These strips and baluster shafts
were discovered as part of the Anglo-Saxon building
debris in the centre of the site (Cramp 1969, 36, fig
24.1).
The use of such strip work is one of the defining
characteristics of later Anglo-Saxon architecture and
its occurrence has been fully analysed by Taylor under

the heading of string courses and pilaster strips
(Taylor 1978, 90238). Although he notes that the earliest surviving decorated and chamfered string courses
are to be found at Wearmouth (Taylor 1978, 913), he
concludes that the plain string courses and interior
pilasters from Repton crypt (mid 8th century), are the
earliest of the type with which we are concerned here.
Since the Wearmouth strips are not in situ, they could
possibly date to one of the later building campaigns, in
for example the 8th century. They are, however, much
narrower than examples from elsewhere, and show the
same carving techniques and are of the same stone as
the balusters and other early architectural features,
which could mean that they date to the earliest building phases in the late 7th to early 8th centuries. In this
case they may have formed a link between the decoration of Roman facades such as Meonstoke (King and
Potter 1990) and later faades such as Barton-uponHumber or Earls Barton (see Taylor 1978, figs 698 and
706).
AS54
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
MK 66 UR 2
MK 66 ZL 1
MK 66 UU 2
MK 64 OK 1
MK 64 YN 3
MK 64 XR 1
MK 66 AAB
MK 66 RJ 1
MK 64 XA 1
MK 64 XZ 1
MK 64 YN 4
MK 66 QQ 7
MK 66 UR 3
MK 66 VX 1
MK 66 WU 1
MK 64 OK 2
MK 64 YR 2
MK 66 WE 2
MK 66 WE 5
MK 66 WG 2
MK 64 QA 1
MK 66 TK 5
MK 64 UW 1
MK 66 XE 1
MK 66 YB 1
MK 64 TQ 1
MK 64 XJ 1
MK 66 XF 1
MK 64 SZ 1
MK 66 SG 7
MK 64 TX 1
Context
Trench
Conphase
1610
1567
1560
1386
1449
1436
1627
1558
1429
1441
1449
1608
1610
1614
1616
1386
1452
1558
1558
1569
1474
1558
1411
1549
1578
1400
1504
1549
1401
1555
1472
6601
6601
6601
6403
6403
6403
6601
6601
6403
6403
6403
6601
6601
6601
6601
6403
6403
6601
6601
6601
6403
6601
6403
6601
6601
6403
6403
6601
6403
6601
6403
Saxon?
L Sax?
Saxon
Med
LS/EM
L Sax
Med 1
LS/EM
LS/EM
L Sax
Saxon?
L Sax
Saxon
Med
LS/EM
Med 1
Med 1
Saxon
LS/EM
Med 1
LS/EM
LPM
L Sax
LS/EM
LS/EM
LPM
LS/EM
Med 1
E Sax
W (mm)
29
35
37
39
40
41
41
43
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
46
46
46
46
46
47
49
50
50
50
51
51
58
59
60
74
L (mm)
45
36
59
90
50
113
79
73
76
83
43
35
82
39
161
66
112
107
53
75
126
79
90
80
94
72
87
77
90
65
96
Slope Min
70
73?
70?
75?
75?
70?
70?
65?
75?
73?
60?
68?
75?
70?
70?
70?
73?
70?
70?
65?
70?
65?
70?
75?
75?
65?
70?
60?
80?
70?
70?
Max
75?
74?
80?
75?
80?
75?
75?
73?
75?
78?
70?
69?
78?
75?
70?
75?
80?
72?
75?
85?
80?
80?
75?
75?
80?
75?
75?
75?
80?
75?
75?
28.4 Funerary and monumental

sculpture
(a) Upper two quadrants:

HIC||INSE
PUL||CRO
REQV||IESCIT
Wearmouth
MS1
MS2
Grave-marker. An incomplete inscribed name-stone

in fine-grained red calcareous siltstone. Fig 28.4.1.
Discovered in the area of the Anglo-Saxon cemetery,
but in a secondary position among Anglo-Saxon and
medieval building debris there is mortar on both
faces. The fragment is delicately incised with a fine
tool and all faces of the stone are finished to a polished surface. The decorated face is edged by a fine
double-grooved moulding. Centrally placed is a
square-ended cross of which the left horizontal arm,
and part of the centre and lower vertical shaft survive.
Part of a runic inscription eo= survives in the upper
quadrant and a Latin inscription AID= or ALD= in
the lower quadrant. Both scripts are seriffed.
Although in layout this tiny stone conforms to the
type of name-stone found at Lindisfarne and
Hartlepool (Cramp 1984, pls 845, 199201), it is
much smaller. The layout of the names with the runic
inscription below the Latin is also found at
Lindisfarne, although at Hartlepool the runes, where
they occur, are in the lower quadrant. According to
Page (1999, 1401) a stone bearing two distinct name
elements ...differentiated by the use of different
scripts may record the two people most concerned
with a memorial, the one commemorated and the one
who put it up. On the other hand, members of religious communities could change their secular names,
and this may be the two names of one individual. The
square-ended cross form is the style most favoured by
the Wearmouth/Jarrow carvers (see Introduction),
and, like Jarrow MS20, the stud in the centre of the
arm may be a skeuomorph of a metal cross. This is a
type also found in the carpet pages of Hiberno-Saxon
manuscripts such as the Lindisfarne Gospels (fol 2v).
This piece is a significant example of the Insular influence to be found in early Wearmouth sculptures.
H 100 W 57 T 15mm
C78th
Context: 682a Med MK 61 CG 6104
SLDM 205-1969
Selected references: Wilson and Hurst 19623, 315;
Cramp 1964; Cramp 1965a, 4; Okasha 1971, 101, pl
91; Page 1973, 22, 25, 34, 104, 136, 143, 217, pl 11;
Higgitt 1979, 360, 3634, pl 66a; Cramp 1984,
1234, no. 4, pl 110.600; Page 1999, 1401 and fig
44.
Grave-marker or cover with cross in relief in medium-grained, yellow sandstone. Fig 28.4.1. Found
during excavations in September 1866, face downwards below ground, above coffin in west porch.
Only one face is carved. One side is edged by a roll
moulding inset from a flat edge. At the top are the
remains of two curling features. Set centrally on the
slab is a standing cross, type A3, in high relief. It is
outlined by a raised flat-band moulding and has a
block base. The horizontal arms push into the edge
moulding, which steps out around them. In the
quadrants of the cross is a Latin inscription in AngloSaxon capitals that reads:
193
(b) Lower two quadrants:

COR||PORE
HERE||BERI
CHT||PRB
HIC IN SEPULCRO REQUIESCIT CORPORE
HEREBERICHT PR(ES)B(YTER)
(Here in the tomb rests Herebericht the priest in the body)
MS3
MS4
The two lowest lines of lettering are smaller and

more carelessly laid out than the rest of the inscription. They also include a different form of E. On
careful inspection of the stone it is clear that the surface below the last two lines has been rubbed down,
so that one should accept Brownes suggestion that
the stone has been reused (Browne 1886b, 30).
Bailey has suggested that the features at the top
are the beaks of birds (Bailey 1992). As such the
stone represents a mixture of Insular and Latinate
traditions. This type of cross with square-ended arms
is much favoured on slabs at Wearmouth and Jarrow
and it is also on the name-stone from Wearmouth.
However, this piece is by far the most assured and
confident relief slab carving that has survived. It
seems to represent a significant stage in the development of the relief slab and the free-armed crosses.
H 1040 W 530 T 180mm
Late C8th
St Peters Church, Wearmouth
Selected references: Anon 18628a, fig 6; Hbner
1876, 71 no. 197 and fig; Browne 18848, 1114, pl
2, 3; Levison 1943, 121, pl 3a, 1; Okasha 1971, 101,
pl 92; Higgitt 1979, 3601, 3635, pls 62b, 63;
Cramp 1984, 124, no. 5, pl 110.604.
Grave-cover of massive yellow sandstone. Nearly
complete, broken at one end and chipped at the other.
Fig 28.4.1. Found covering an empty grave in rescue
excavations under the chancel floor (see Vol 1, Ch 6).
The slab is edged with a wavering grooved moulding,
the surface of the stone is smoothly dressed and there
is a small cross, type A1, in relief at the upper end,
which when found was towards the west, or head end
of the grave (see Vol 1, Fig 6.8). This slab has few
diagnostic features, the cross type is simple and
although large-scale covers are more common in the
10th/11th century they do occur earlier; compare
Hexham 16 (Cramp 1984, ill 970). In an earlier publication (Cramp 1984, 154, ill 797), this piece was
dated to the 11th century, but in the light of the context, and the fact that the later grave covers tend to be
more regularly shaped and tapering (see Everson and
Stocker 1999, ills 4002), this may well be earlier.
L 1320 W 420 D 90100mm
C10th
Context: 522 L Sax 7001
Reference: Cramp 1984, no. 30, 1534, ill 152.797
Fragment of cross-arm of micaceous yellow sandstone found in excavation. Fig 28.4.1. The carved
face is edged by a flat band moulding, partly overlaid
194
... ","
""""
Fig 28.4.1 Funerary and monumental sculpture from Wearmouth. TM
MS5
MS6
MS7
by the remains of a multi-petalled rosette, with a

small attached boss filling the corner of the arm. The
surviving portion of the edge is plain. The carving is
deep and confident in the mode of some of the
Jarrow carvings (see Cramp 1984, pl 107) but the
flower in the cross arm is unique in its type. It is possible that this was a monument carved only on one
face to stand against a wall.
H 100 W 130 T 55mm
C8th
Context: 969 LS/EM MK 69 IA 6902
SLDM 43-1973/104 (G17248)
Fragment of cross-shaft or slab that may have been a
gravestone in Hartlepool and Roker Dolomite. Fig
28.4.1. An edge fragment with only one carved face
surviving in a meander pattern with incised cable
border and outer roll moulding. The face is slightly
curved. The edge is plain but carefully dressed.
Meander patterns and incised ornamentation is
more usual in later Saxon carvings but this is a competent piece.
L 180 W 110 T 60mm
C9th
Context: U/S MK 59 DH 5900
SLDM 43-1973/106 (G17643)
Fragment of roll moulding in yellow sandstone. Part
of the rolled edge and upper surface of either a cross
or a grave slab found within pit 1377. Not illus.
L 39 W 30 T 35mm
Early C8th
Context: 1437 LS/EM MK 64 XT 6403
Top of a shaft or an impost in Hartlepool and Roker
Dolomite. Fig 28.4.1. A panel of deeply cut interlace
within a broad flat-band moulding; it is composed of
pattern D with outside strands terminating in elongated pointed loops. A triangle of loose pellets fills
the hole-points between the strands at the end of the
pattern, and there is one other pellet in the centre of
the composition. Part of a wide flat-band moulding
survives on another face. On the left there is a fine
zigzag pattern with a pellet in each V of the pattern
that may turn the corner. There is possible interlace
in the centre. The other faces are broken away and
plain.
The zigzag with pellet filling can be a Roman
motif but the pellets are repeated on two faces. Fine
zigzag patterns can occur in early work (eg Jarrow
MS21). The interlace type on the unworn face is
unlike the others at Wearmouth, both in pattern type
and the method of cutting the strands. It may be
compared with such Yorkshire pieces as the
Lastingham cross-head and Cundall/Aldborough
(Lang 2001, 937). If it is an impost, then it may be
compared with the pair of imposts from Ripon
(Cramp 1974c, 120 pl 11D). The slight taper on this
piece caused Adcock to suggest that it was the upper
portion of a cross-shaft (Adcock 1974, 1423).
However, it remains uncertain whether this piece is
the remains of an architectural fragment or a crossshaft.
L 190 W 315 T 250mm
C8th
195
Selected references: Boyle 1886, 51 pl 5; Browne

1886a, 9, pl 1,4; Boyle 1892, 544; Colgrave
194453, 193; Colgrave and Cramp 1965, 25 pl facing 19; Adcock 1974, 1423 pl 45a; Cramp 1984,
1245, no. 6, pl. 111.6058
MS8 Lower part of a grave-marker in micaceous sandstone,
in two joining pieces. Fig 28.4.2. Said by Hodges
(1905, 213) to have been found at a great depth in
1834 about 6m from the south side of the church and
within an area of what was called The Manor House.
The surviving stone is trapezoidal in shape and edged
by a wide flat-band moulding. The surface of one
broad face is roughly finished with a pecked surface,
save for the area around and above a runic inscription.
The face is divided by the inscription, which is surrounded by an incised outline, and reads: tidfir a
masculine personal name. Above is an enigmatic
design in relief: a roughly shaped loop between two
uprights. Below, two figures in profile face each other
and grasp a small rectangular panel with a sunken
centre in their hands. They have small heads and
knee-length straight garments. The figure on the right
is slightly wider and seems to wear a skirt. The one on
the left could be wearing breeches or a skirt. Below
the panel is a standing cross. The two narrow faces
have two irregular punch-incised lines. The broader
face is outlined by two broad flat bands that curve
slightly. A figure, facing right, is shown in movement.
It has grotesquely elongated arms and it is impossible
to see how the figure is dressed. The background is
pecked as on the other face. A rectangular area
attached to the frame has been left uncarved at the
higher level of the frame above the head of the figure.
This shape of stone is found at Bothal,
Northumberland, where the figure type is similar, as
is the technique of grooving and picking the outline.
This is the simplest form of memorial stone, in which
solely the name of the deceased appears a type of
memorial that spans the period from the 7th to the
11th century (Page 1973, 1423). However, the
method of carving, the figure type and the cross
shape all betray a late date. This seems to be the latest solely runic inscription in the area.
L 310 W 122190 T 65mm
Early C10th
British Museum 1880.3-13.1
Selected references: Raine 1864, xxxix-xl and fig.;
Anon 1865; Hodges 1905, 213, pl facing 214; Page
1973, 104, 136, fig 26; Cramp 1984, 123, no. 3, pl
107.5925
MS9 Yellow sandstone fragment with cable moulding and
flat chamfered edging. Possibly part of a slab or cross
found in the cemetery earth. Fig 28.4.1.
L 70 W 53 T 25mm
C89th
Context: 1672 Saxon MK 62 IE 6201
SLDM 43-1973/108 (G17641)
MS10 Part of a boss with interlace in the centre and a
deeply grooved edging. Fig 28.4.2. This yellow sandstone fragment was found in the area of the AngloSaxon cemetery but in a layer much disturbed by
post-Conquest activity. It could be part of the boss of
a cross-head and such deep bosses are common in
cross-heads of the C89th centuries.
196
....
,,"(1
... ,,""
..... ".
Fig 28.4.2 Inscribed grave marker and monumental fragments from Wearmouth; inscribed stones from Jarrow. TM, KM
H 60 W 80 T 40 mm
C89th
Context: 1881 Med MK 66 LV 6 6602
SLDM 43-1973/110 (G17227)
MS11 Carved corner fragment of medium-grained reddened sandstone, with three worked faces edged by a
roll moulding. Fig 28.4.2. One face is bisected by a
deep, rounded moulding and was possibly part of a
stone shrine (cf MS12) or grave-marker. The context
seems to be a rebuilding phase within the AngloSaxon period. The red colour may be the result of
fire since this deposit contained much charcoal.
H 50 W 105 T 90mm
C89th
Context: 1609 L Sax MK 66 SF 1 6601
SLDM 43-1973/93 (G17232)
MS12 Corner fragment of reddened sandstone that is
edged on three sides with a roll moulding Fig 28.4.2.
The angle of one face is splayed, so that this is possibly part of a stone shrine (cf MS11) rather than the
arm of a cross. This fragment came from a childs
grave that had disturbed an earlier adult burial and
the piece may have marked the earlier burial.
Possibly part of MS11.
H 90 W 105 T 90mm
C89th?
Context: 1752 Saxon MK 66 VQ 6603
SLDM 43-1973/92 (G17231)
MS14
Jarrow
MS13 Inscribed sandstone building stone (HELMGYT).
Fig 28.4.2. This stone was found among the collapsed walling of the north wall of Building D. It is a
normal building block with one smoothed face on
which is a well-centred inscription hELmGYT with
the h and m in uncial characters and the other letters
in capitals. This mixture of letterform is not uncommon in Anglo-Saxon inscriptions and Higgitt (1979,
360) has specifically compared it with the
Herebericht stone from Wearmouth, MS2 and
MS14 from Jarrow. Single words on individual building stones have also been found at Workington
(Bailey and Cramp 1988, 157, ill 600) and at
Coldingham (Okasha 1989, 825), so that the form
is not unique. It is usually assumed that these
inscriptions represent a personal name.
There are some difficulties however in interpreting
this piece. The spelling of the second element GYT
could be a variant of GYTH and the name GYTHHELM is recorded among the list of priests in the
Liber Vitae of the Lindisfarne community and so is a
Northumbrian name (Sweet 1885, 157). As a second
element, however, GYTH/GYD is a feminine suffix
although GYT as a personal element is not recorded
(Okasha 1983, 95). Although there is some evidence
for a lay presence in Building D (see Ch 31.2,
AG12, silver garter hooks) and even one object
which might be a feminine accessory (Ch 31.5,
WB21, bag ring) these objects seem to relate to the
9th century while the stone, if it was an integral part
of the wall, was earlier. This is an inscription that was
MS15
MS16
MS17
197
clearly meant to be seen, but as a single feminine

name, its function is unclear. Although the form
does not exist as a recorded common noun, each element is frequently found as a common noun. HELM
means covering, protection or helmet, GYT a shower of rain, storm etc. It is just possible that this word
could mean protection against storm which could
describe an hospitium.
H 153 W 203 T 272mm
C8th
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 US 7305
JARBW 1995.142
References: Higgitt 1979, 3601, 363, pl 64B;
Okasha 1983, 945; Cramp 1984, 114, no. 18, pl
97.522
Lower part of inscribed sandstone grave marker. Fig
28.4.2. This piece was set upright in the medieval
cemetery. The carved face is edged by a wide flat
band moulding that continues over the edges to the
plain sides. These and the back are dressed smooth.
In the centre is the base of a relief cross with squared
projections on the stem. This same type is found on
MS16 and MS18. On either side of a cross shaft is an
inscription in capitals DIV - R []. The letters to the
right of the stem may have been erased, perhaps
when it was reused. It is uncertain whether this is
part of a Latin or Old English inscription, and it is
too fragmentary to attempt a reconstruction of the
inscription although the form conforms to that of
other Jarrow monuments.
H 240 W 320 T 105mm
Late C7early C8th
Context: 4899 Med JA 70 JG 7001
JARBW 1995.3
References: Higgitt 1979, pl 64; Okasha, 1983, 93;
Cramp 1984, 110, no. 12, pl 94.5069
Fragment of inscribed sandstone grave marker. Fig
28.4.3. Found in a rubbish deposit. Roll moulding
on surviving edge and a baluster pattern on the side.
Traces of a base coat of white gesso and red and yellow paint. The surviving inscription IN in seriffed
capitals is of the same type as MS17. It is possible
that this is part of the same slab (Higgitt 1979, 361),
or a companion piece.
H 115 W 95 T 45mm
Late C7early C8th
Context: 1501 Modern JA 71 CG 7105
JARBW 1995.12
References: Higgitt 1979, 3614, pl 65B; Okasha
1983, 94; Cramp 1984, 11012, no. 13, pl
94.51013
Fragment of sandstone grave marker. Fig 28.4.3.
Found reused as part of the post-medieval paving of
the cloister. One arm and part of the centre of a cross
with squared terminals, of the type typical of the
early Jarrow slabs.
H 160 W 100 T 52mm
C78th
Context: 2969 EPM JA 69 DL b 6901
JARBW 1995.4
Part of a sandstone grave marker. Fig 28.4.3. Found
in 1782 while taking down the walls of the church.
The face of the slab is edged with a neat roll moulding
and contains part of an inscription in seriffed capitals:
198
.,
..
"""
....
~.
" '(
l~
. -;..01:
..... ,
....,"
Fig 28.4.3 Inscribed and cross-marked grave markers from Jarrow. TM, KM
BERCHTI:
E]DVERI:
C]CRUCEM.
The first two lines have been considered the genitive case of two personal names dependent on the
word crucem, but it cannot be assumed that this is a
typical memorial formula. The baluster edging
demonstrates that this is the top of the slab. This is
so similar in form and lettering to MS15 that it could
be part of the same monument. Since its discovery in
the 18th century it has been extensively commented
upon (see Cramp 1984, 112).
C78th
H 197 W 216 T 95mm
Museum of Antiquities, Newcastle upon Tyne
1956.222.A
Selected references: Brand 1789, 64; Stuart 1867,
65, pl cxvi, 3; Hbner 1876, 72, no. 200 and fig;
Okasha 1971, 86; Cramp 1984, 112, no. 14, pl
95.5147
MS18 Base of a cross slab first recorded in 1769 built in
jamb of window near west door of church, later built
into the church porch, now set in the nave of St
Pauls Church. Fig 28.4.3. The surviving edge of this
piece is finished with a heavy cable moulding, and in
the centre of the carved face is the stem of a cross
and the lower squared off arm. The cross, which is
outlined by a heavy roll moulding, is set on a plain
rough plinth. The upper arms of the cross are missing but what could be the horizontal arms are separately carved on the edge of a reused Roman
inscription (MS19). On either side of the cross is an
inscription in mixed uncial and capital letters:
INHO - CSIGULA - RINOVI - TAR[E]DITUR - MUNDOThis has been most convincingly restored as In
hoc singulari signo vita redditur mundo, In this unique
sign life is returned to the world. This inscription
has been much commented upon (for a full bibliography see Cramp 1984, 113), but this is clearly not a
normal memorial and may indeed reflect in its wording Constantines dream of the cross before his conversion. This would be typical of the learned classical
reminiscences of Wearmouth/Jarrow. The cross has
been constructed from several pieces, at least one of
which (no. 7) was much deeper. This slab then could
have been cemented into a wall like the dedication
slab (see Appendix A1), and may indeed have been
set over an altar in a chapel dedicated to the Holy
Cross (see Vol 1, Ch 13).
H 864 W 530 D 240mm
C78th
Selected references: Brand 1789, 624; Hbner
1876, 72 and fig; Levison 1943; Okasha 1971, 867,
pl 63; Higgitt 1979, 3601, 3634, pl 62A; Cramp
1984, 11213, no. 16a, ill 96.520
MS19 Horizontal arms of a cross carved on the edge of a
Roman inscription (RIB 1051; see also Appendix A,
Fig A1.2). Part of the heavy cable edge moulding
199
survives on the right enclosing the horizontal arms of

a square-ended cross with raised outline mouldings.
This piece is so like MS18 in the style of carving of
the cross and edging of the slab that it is plausibly
part of the same monument and a replica has been
mounted as such in the church. There is, however, a
slight discrepancy in width between the two pieces
which it is difficult to bridge. For discussion see
above. Fig 28.4.3.
H 140 W 585 T 550mm
C78th
1851.11
Selected references: Brand 1789, 624; Hbner
1876, 72 and fig; Levison 1943; Okasha 1971, 867,
pl 63; Higgitt 1979, 3601, 3634, pl 62A; Cramp
1984, 11213, no. 16b, ill 96.519
MS20 Part of a sandstone grave marker. Fig 28.4.3. Found
in 1865 when the nave built in 1783 was taken down.
On the rectangular block is a cross, encircled above
by a broad band, which has been carved in deep
relief. The square-ended arms are outlined with fine
roll mouldings and in the centre of each arm is a
rosette-like feature with a dot in the centre. The
cross is conceived in terms of metalwork with studs
fixing it to a background. When first discovered this
piece was seen as part of MS18, as recorded in a
drawing in the collection of the Society of
Antiquaries (see Fig 28.4.4) but there is no obvious
relationship.
H 550 W 580 T 165mm
C8th
1956.216A
Selected references: Stuart 1867, 445, 65, pl cxv;
Collingwood 1927, 15, fig 19; Cramp 1984, 110, no.
10, pl 94.505.
MS21 Fragment of a cross-arm, sandstone. Fig 28.4.4.
Found in the East Range of the medieval monastery,
built into the revetment of a drain. Possibly part of
the same cross-head as CASS no. 8 (Cramp 1984,
109, pl 96, 499). The wedge-shaped arm is possibly
the left horizontal arm of a cross since it is decorated
with balusters and plain panels underneath one
curve, which would most reasonably be seen from
below. The back of the arm is dressed but left uncarved. The main decorated face is deeply and delicately carved. The outer moulding that curves in the
centre encloses a zigzag outline and a flat splayed
plate. The ornament is clearly modelled on metalwork techniques and is similar to a cross-head from
Northallerton, Yorkshire (see Lang 2001, ill 6723).
The centre of the cross could well be the fragment
originally cemented into the church porch, which has
a similar zigzag ornament surrounding a deep central
cavity which could have held a precious stone or glass
stud, thus emphasising the metalwork likeness. See
Fig 28.4.4 for reconstruction. This piece is important in the Jarrow series because the baluster ornament on the underside of the arm is paralleled in
architectural elements such as AF3739 and AF41
as well as other funerary monuments and thus seems
to be part of a suite of ornament. The fact that the
back of the cross-head is uncarved may mean that it
stood inside against a wall, as has been postulated for
200
Fig 28.4.4 Reconstruction of MS20 and 18. Possible reconstruction of MS21 as part of a cross-head. TM, YB
some Whitby plain crosses (Lang 1991, 25). The
narrow strip of similar zigzag pattern AS42 might
have decorated the same wall.
H 160 W 240 T 115mm
C8th
Context: 1255 Med 2 JA 71 JY 7106
Drawing 758
JARBW 1995.1
References: Cramp 1974c, 136, pl 22; Cramp 1984,
109, no. 9, pl 93.4978; Bailey 1996a, 41
MS22 Incomplete cross-shaft in two pieces, sandstone. Fig
28.4.5. Found in paved base or foundations of later
medieval oven in the East Range and recut for reuse
on both narrow faces. One broad face has the
remains of three panels of interlace, and on one narrow face part of two panels of interlace survive. The
other broad face is divided between a panel of plant
scroll and one of interlace. The plant scroll is too
worn to reconstruct in detail, but the interlace patterns, in particular that below the plant scroll, have
been seen as closely similar to work at Chester-leStreet, Durham, and other centres connected with
the Community of St Cuthbert (Adcock 1974, 294;
Cramp 1984, 108). A closely similar piece was
originally built into the north wall of the tower from
which it was taken in the 1866 restorations. It is now
very eroded but plaster casts made in 1866 demonstrate its earlier state (see MS24). That carving
seems to be rather more assured than MS22 but has
the same slab-like section and some of the same
repertoire of interlace. Both are clearly from the
same workshop and could represent the work of the
monastery at the time of its evacuation or just afterwards. The likeness to Chester-le-Street patterns
could indicate a link between the two sites or indeed
that a Jarrow carver found a home with the community there (see Vol 1, Ch 4).
H 815 W 365 T 135mm
Late C9early C10th
Context: 3420 Med 2 JA 70 AFY 7008
}is
201
2<4 (1 I)
Fig 28.4.5 Cross-shaft MS22 from Jarrow, all faces; cross-shaft MS24 from Jarrow in present condition (broad face) and
early drawing and cast of sides. TM
202
..,""~
. ,,'"
...
""~
Fig 28.4.6 Part of shaft MS23 from Jarrow, all faces; cross-shaft MS25 from Jarrow, front, side and back; top of cross-shaft
MS26, front, side and back, fragment MS27. TM, YB

References: Adcock 1974, 294300, pl 1412,
143AB; Coatsworth 1981, 17; Cramp 1984, 108,
no. 4, pl 92.48790
MS23 Fragment of oblong sandstone shaft. Fig 28.4.6.
This is most probably the centre of a cross shaft with
plain faces edged by roll mouldings. Such plain
crosses, sometimes with memorial inscriptions have
been found at other ecclesiastical sites such as
Hexham and Whitby (Lang 2001, ills 897914).
Since this was found in the accumulation of debris
on the floor of Building D it may have been in the
process of construction or indeed of reconstruction.
H 210 W 195 T 159mm
C810th
Context: 2018 ML Sax A 73 VA 2 7305
JARBW 1995.9
MS24 Incomplete cross-shaft in medium-grained yellow
sandstone originally built into the north wall of the
church tower. Fig 28.4.5. The broad face of the
stone is framed by a double roll-moulding. There are
three panels of interlace which are undivided by horizontal mouldings. Only one whole unit of interlace
pattern F survives but there were at least two whole
pairs of units, with the lower joined to the upper by
a concentric edge break. In the second zone there are
three paired units of complete pattern C with median-incised strands; upper terminals, simple pattern
E; lower, short bar terminals. The third panel is
composed of ten-strand plain plait. On one of the
narrow faces there are the damaged remains of a
continuous pattern of nine registers of simple pattern
E, and on the other, two and a half registers of the
same pattern. Although this piece is very worn, it has
been assigned by Adcock (1974, 294) to the same
workshop as MS1. It provides a link between Jarrow
MS22, Chester-le-Street and the Tees valley group
of Anglo-Scandinavian sculpture.
L 755 W 390410 T c 130mm
Early C10th
Selected references: Raine 1854, xxviii; Stuart 1867,
445, 65, pl cxvi.4; Adcock 1974, 294300, pl 140,
143cd; Cramp 1984, 1078, no. 3, pl 91.4826
MS25 Part of a sandstone cross shaft. Fig 28.4.6. Found
before 1899, outside the churchyard south-west of
church. One broad and one narrow face survives, the
other faces have been recut for reuse. On the broad
face is a linked scroll with rosette type berry bunches
203
and loose berries filling the intersections of the

volutes; on the narrow face is a plant trail with split
stems and large curling veined leaves. The surviving
ornament on this piece is very crisp and the details of
the plant forms are clearer than on AS27, reading
desk, with which it is linked stylistically. This type of
plant scroll is also paralleled in the north-west of
England (Cramp 1984, 107).
H 260 W 242 D 152165mm
C8th
Durham Cathedral Collections
Selected references: Haverfield and Greenwell 1899,
no. XIII, 70 and fig; Cramp 1984, 1067, no. 1, pl
90.4747
MS26 Part of the top of a cross-shaft. Fig 28.4.6. Found in
October 1936, c 300m south-east of the church, near
the north abutment of the Old Don Bridge, during
excavations for sand on the site of the Old Bridge Inn
(Rose 19356). One corner of the double flat band
moulding survives enclosing a tangled plant scroll on
which two tiny squirrel-like creatures are crouched.
The creatures tails are coiled back and they are
engaged in eating the fruit. On the other partially surviving face, part of a plant scroll with large-veined
leaves survives enclosed in a double moulding. This is
an important piece: its discovery near to the Don
crossing could be significant, since this would seem to
be the entry to the southern part of the site, and the
perimeter of an ecclesiastical site is a favoured location for crosses in both Ireland and Iona. The style of
the inhabited scroll is closely similar to Bewcastle,
Cumberland (Bailey and Cramp 1988, ills 91,
11215), and Edlingham, Northumberland. More
significantly the same motif is found on decorative
friezes from inside the church (AF37 and AF38), thus
linking together the funerary and architectural sculptures on the site (see introduction).
H 210 W 285 D (incomplete) 80mm.
Late C8th
Selected references: Rose 19356, Cramp 1965b,
10, pl 8; Cramp 1984, 107, no. 2, pl 90.47881
MS27 Fragment of a sandstone gravestone or cross of the
same type as MS23 and from the same context. Fig
28.4.6.
H 60 W 61 T 34mm
Saxon
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ c 7305
Drawings 189, 852
JARBW 1995.103
29 The medieval carved stone

29.1 Medieval architectural fragments
Jarrow
One of the bases (AF12) is double, and the most

plausible context for it is as part of Aldwins cloister
arcade, at least the East Range of which (if not all four)
would almost certainly have been complete by 1083.
No example of a double capital corresponding to this
base has survived. Some of the single capitals and
bases might also have belonged in this context; cloister
arcades with alternating single and double columns are
a well-attested Romanesque type, a later 12th-century
example surviving in situ at Christ Church, Canterbury
(Fernie 2000, fig 150). It should be noted, however,
that the diameters of the shafts which the double base
would have supported are not significantly greater than
those implied by the surviving single bases, whereas at
Canterbury the latter are broader so as to provide a
support of uniform thickness to the walling above.
The comparatively secure dating of the Aldwinian
assemblage to the second half of the 1070s or early
1080s makes it of more than local interest, being the
earliest dated examples of such bases and capitals in
the north of England. No certainly dated example of a
cubical capital is known in a pre-Conquest context,
although features closely comparable to the profiles of
the bulbous bases occur (serving, however, as capitals),
in what is probably a mid 11th-century context at
Great Paxton in Huntingdonshire. While it is possible
that these architectural forms were the work of West
Country masons brought to the north-east by Aldwin
from the area of Evesham, his home monastery, the
difficulty is that nothing comparable survives in that
area to confirm the connection. On the other hand, the
fact that these forms are characteristic of contemporary buildings in Lotharingia suggests that they may
represent the work of masons trained in that area.
However, it is impossible to determine if they were
already present in late Anglo-Saxon England or were
specifically recruited by Bishop Walcher of Durham
(himself a native of that area), and an active supporter
of the Aldwinian mission until his death in 1080 (see
Cambridge 1994, 14952; Thurlby 2003, 131).
by Eric Cambridge
Introduction
The post-Conquest architectural fragments recovered
from Jarrow divide into three main groups: those
which can be associated with the refoundation of the
monastery by Aldwin, c 107583; those which are
probably Romanesque in style but which cannot plausibly be associated with the Aldwinian refoundation
(late 11th or 12th centuries); and those which can be
associated with the period during which the site was
occupied as a cell of Durham Priory (early 13th to
early 16th centuries). Of these only the Aldwinian period fragments warrant a more general discussion.
The Aldwinian period assemblage
The only direct evidence for associating these pieces with
the period of Aldwin is their resemblance to the surviving in situ architectural detail on the monastic buildings
that were erected in his time. In particular, the form of
the bulbous bases and cubical capitals of the nook-shafts
on the east face of the doorway at the north end of the
west cloister wall (Vol 1, Fig 19.4) closely resemble a
number of ex situ capitals and bases. The original contexts for most of them are not precisely determinable,
since they were discovered either in the church demolition or in the Ministry of Works consolidation of the
buildings only a few were discovered during the current excavations; in particular it is often not possible to
ascertain whether or not they were intended to be freestanding. This was clearly not the case with two of the
bases (AF78), which have been squared off to fit into an
angle, but the fact that others were not does not necessarily rule out such a context. It is equally possible that
the fact that the lunettes of some of the capitals are more
distinctly indicated on some faces than on others may
imply that some faces were never intended to be seen.
The capitals and bases which show any evidence of
not having been free-standing most probably formed
parts of doorways like the surviving one in the west
range. To judge from pre-demolition representations
(Vol 1, Fig 12.4), there may have been two examples in
the now demolished East Range as well as one partly
surviving example in the South Range, which must
originally have had one order of nook-shafts, presumably removed at the time of its later medieval blocking
(Vol 1, Fig 19.7). The chapter house doorway in the
east range is depicted (as one would expect) as having
been larger and more elaborate than the others and it
is possible that the triple bulbous base (AF13) might
have been associated with its arch.
Other Romanesque fragments

A number of pieces of plain shaft (AF1938) are in
themselves undatable, but it is worth noting that the
diameters of most of them would fit the shaft diameters implied by the sockets of the surviving capitals and
bases, and so may well belong with the Aldwinian
material discussed above. On the other hand, the shaft
with spiraliform grooving (AF18) is more likely to be
later. A voussoir with a form of pellet or billet moulding is likewise not precisely datable enough to enable
one to associate it positively with the Aldwinian assemblage, although billet ornament does occur on the
204
29: THE MEDIEVAL CARVED STONE
imposts of the refectory doorway in the south range, as

well as on a window in the north face of the church
tower.
The corbel in the shape of a horses head (AF1, Fig
29.1.1; see also Vol 1, Fig 20.16) might, to judge from
Fig 29.1.1 Horse head corbel (AF1) from Jarrow. KM, TM
205
its tooling, be as early as Aldwins time. However, the

form as such would more comfortably fit a 12thcentury context, and the parallels are more likely to be
French than Lotharingian, the likely origin of the other
Aldwinian forms.
206
Later medieval fragments

The only feature in this rather diverse collection complete enough to warrant individual comment are the
pieces of a small two-light square-headed window
(AF39; see also Vol 1, Fig 20.8). The form of the tracery, with chamfer cusps and rounded trefoiled flanking
elements, suggests an early to mid 14th-century date,
and the small scale suggests a context in one of the
chambers of the cell. While the documentation of work
on the domestic accommodation at Jarrow is frequently sketchy, the comparative evidence (both architectural and documentary) from the other Durham cells
suggests that periodic adaptation occurred throughout
the late Middle Ages. Most, if not all, of the fragments
of this period are probably derived from such a context
(see Cambridge 1992, chapter 6).
Note: The catalogue below deals only with the
stones currently in store at Bedes World Museum.
AF5
AF6
Corbel (Fig 29.1.1)

AF1
Sandstone corbel in the form of a horses head. The

fine tooling and details of this piece are only partially obscured by the mortar which is derived from its
reuse: it has prominent oval eyes and deeply marked
mouth and ears. It is the only corbel from the site
and was discovered in a levelling deposit of rubble
which marked a new phase in room ER6 (see Vol 1,
Fig 20.16). The rubble could have been from a
demolished building on this site or even brought in
from elsewhere. (RC)
C11th?12th?
H 240 W 128 D 193mm
Context: 1086 Med 2 JA 75 DJ 7504
JARBW 1995.321
Capitals (Fig 29.1.2)

AF2
AF3
AF4
Complete Romanesque cubical cushion capital.

Very good condition. Plain lunettes on each face that
are defined by a change in plane. Very fine tooling on
upper surface. The collar is pronounced and chipped
round lower edge. Socket depth 15mm.
Late C11th
H 245 W 285 D 285 Diam of shaft 160mm
Context: 3120 Med 1b JA 69 TV 6901
JARBW 1995.272B
Reference: Cambridge 1977, 21 no. 4 pl II
Very good condition. Plain lunettes on each face
filled with rough diagonal tooling. The collar is very
pronounced but part of it has been destroyed. Socket
depth about 20mm.
Late C11th
JARBW 1995.272A
Reference: Cambridge 1977, 22 no. 7 pl III
Romanesque cubical cushion capital broken in half.
One complete face with plain lunettes filled with
rough diagonal tooling. The collar is pronounced but
damaged with a socket depth of about 15mm. Not
illus.
Late C11th
H 250 W 280 D (surviving) 200 Diam of shaft

160mm
JARBW 1995.322
Reference: Cambridge 1977, 22 no. 6
Worn. Plain lunettes on each face with rough diagonal tooling. The collar is very shallow, which may
have been intentional or the result of wear. A socket
is not discernible and may not have existed.
Late C11th
JARBW 1998.7809
Reference: Cambridge 1977, 22 no. 5
Very good condition. Plain lunettes on each face to
accommodate the transition from square to the circular collar and column beneath. The lunettes are
filled with rough diagonal tooling on three of the
faces, although this is very faint on one side. The collar is pronounced with a socket depth of about
10mm.
Late C11th
JARBW 1995.272C
Reference: Cambridge 1977, 201, no. 1
Bases (Fig 29.1.3)

AF7
Bulbous column base with square plinth. Poor condition; the majority of the plinth, beneath the bulbous component, has been damaged. The base must
have been bonded against a wall, and was not freestanding, as the bulb runs out against a square section. There is little trace of a collar and no socket can
be seen. Not illus.
Late C11th
H 155 W280 Diam of shaft 130mm
Context: 3119 LPM JA 69 VB 6903
JARBW 1995.322
Reference: Cambridge 1977, 234, no. 11 pl VII
AF8
Bulbous column base with square plinth. Poor condition and there is damage to the collar and plinth.
The bulbous section is flat on one side and the collar
ends in spurs suggesting that it was not free-standing. The measurement of the plinth is not square.
Some mortar survives in the socket.
Late C11th
JARBW 1995.322
Reference: Cambridge 1977, 24, no. 12, pl IX
AF9
Bulbous column base with square plinth. Poor condition and half of the base is destroyed. The collar is
very pronounced but has been damaged.
Late C11th
H 235 W 280 D (Surviving) 210 Diam of shaft 155mm
JARBW 1995.322
Reference: Cambridge 1977, 24, no. 14, pl VIII
AF10 Part of a bulbous column base with a deep squared
plinth, flattened on one side. The top has been damaged so that there is no trace of a collar or socket.
Found in foundation of buttress of wall of secondary
east cloister walk.
Late C11th
H 195 W 270 D 225mm
Context: 4045 Med 2 JA 70 YV 7006
JAR BW 1995.322
207
Fig 29.1.2 Examples of 11th-century capitals from Jarrow. DC, TM

AF11 Bulbous column base with square plinth. Poor condition; the plinth is slightly damaged on the corners.
There does not seem to have been a socket.
Late C11th
H 190 W 285 D 285mm
JARBW 1998.7844
Reference: Cambridge 1977, 24, no. 15
AF12 Double bulbous column base with square plinth.
Poor condition and only a small section of the collar
survives. Not illus.
Late C11th
H 240 W 280 D 280 Diam of shafts 160mm
JARBW 1998.7803
Reference: Cambridge 1977, 24, no. 16, pl X
AF13 Triple-shaped bulbous base with squared plinth.
Good condition. It is unclear if this base was intended to support three separate en dlit column shafts or
a triple-shafted pier. In the case of the former the
diameter of the two smaller shafts would have been
about 120mm and the larger central shaft of 150mm.
Slightly projecting spurs can be noted between the

re-entrant angles between the larger and two smaller
collar areas.
H 265 W490 D 440mm
JARBW
Reference: Cambridge 1977, 23, no. 10, pls VVI
Columns (Fig 29.1.4)

AF14 Octagonal column shaft that has a hollow on the top
that is 90mm in diameter with sooting and may have
been reused as a lamp. (Equals SV17, Ch 34.1.)
C1213th
H 190 W 160mm
Context: 1635 Med 2 JA 71 NX 7105
JARBW 1995.329
Reference: Wessels 1987, 101, no. 3, fig 3.
AF15 Octagonal column shaft with a hollow on top. Not
illus.
H 250 W 165mm
C1213th
208
.,-
.......,
."-
..
.,." ,
Fig 29.1.3 Examples of 11th-century bases from Jarrow. DC,TM
AF IS (0 ..)
AF
l~
(0,,)
M 19 (01.)
Fig 29.1.4 Examples of column shafts from Jarrow (AF14 reused as a cresset). DC, TM
209
210
AF16
AF17
AF18
AF19
AF20
AF21
AF22
AF23
AF24
AF25
AF26
AF27
AF28
AF29
Context: 5121 Med 2 JA 71 PR 7105

JARBW 1995.325
Octagonal column shaft. Not illus.
H 270 W 160mm
C1213th
Context: 5079 EPM JA 71 NS 7105
JARBW 1995.320 and 1998.7847
Octagonal column shaft. Signs of burning. Not illus.
C1213th
H 210 W 180mm
Context: Layer 64 PM JS 73 QE 302 Area IV
JARBW 1998.7730
Spiraliform column shaft. Shallow hollow cut out of
the back possibly to place against a wall.
C1213th
H 315 W 160mm
JARBW 1998.7743
Plain column shaft fragment of red sandstone. Burnt
and split in half.
H 160 Diam 160mm
Plain column shaft fragment.
H 175 Diam 160mm
Context: 3812 LPM JA 70 FH 7003
Plain column shaft fragment with moulding or pointed ridge on circumference for fitting into an angle.
Not illus.
H 140 Diam 270mm
Context: 4973 SaxonMed 1 JA 70 XV 7001
JARBW 1998.7737
Plain column shaft fragment. Roughly shaped and in
two joining pieces. Not illus.
H 220 Diam 145mm
Context: 3238 Med? JA 69 QP 6902
Fragment of a smooth worn column, broken on interior and four sides. Fine-grained sandstone. Not
illus.
H 50 Diam 70mm
Context: 230 Med 1 JA 67 JS 6701
Fragment of column or wide roll moulding, slightly
curved. Not illus.
L 100 Diam 4060mm
Context: 4035 Med 1b JA 70 JI a 7006
Plain column shaft fragment. Mortar can be seen on
the base. Not illus.
H 110 Diam 140mm
Context: 3085 Med 2 JA 69 HU 6902
Column fragments? Either the top or the bottom of
a pillar with base attached (250 125 200mm) but
incomplete. Not illus.
H 270 W 140 T 195mm
Context: 4045 Med 2 JA 70 YV 7006
Drawing 200
Plain column shaft fragment. Burnt on dressed faces.
Not illus.
H 250 Diam 280mm
Context: 5633 Med 2? JA 65 AKZ 6502
Plain engaged column fragment or heavy moulding.
Weathered and burnt on the dressed face. Not illus.
H 75 Diam 60mm
Context: 21 Saxon 2 JA 66 6601
Plain column shaft fragment. Not illus.
L 160 Diam 150mm
Context: 3391 EPM JA 70 AED 7008
JARBW 1998.7785
AF30 Wedge-shaped plain column shaft fragment with a

dressed base. Recut. Not illus.
H 77 Diam 67mm
Context: 3166 LPM JA 69 FS 6901
AF31 Plain column shaft fragment. Worn and smooth finish with traces of mortar. Possibly the engaged column from a niche as one side of the shaft has been
squared. Not illus.
H 70 Diam 70mm
Context: 402 LPM JA 65 AGC 6502
AF32 Plain column shaft fragment. Not illus.
H 85 Diam 160mm
Context: 1012 U/S JA 78 AC 7804
H 255 Diam 170mm
JARBW 1995.775
H 290 Diam 160mm
JARBW 1998.7850
AF35 Plain column shaft fragment cut in a diagonal. Not
illus.
H 270 Diam 145mm
JARBW 1998.7741
H 220 Diam 160mm
JARBW 1998.7753
H 240 Diam 175mm
JARBW 1998.7754
AF38 Engaged plain column shaft fragment. Cut on one
side and part of the engagement is present. Not illus.
H 325 Diam 130mm
Context: Layer 64 PM JS 73 QE 304 Area IV
JARBW 1998.7760
Windows (Fig 29.1.5)

AF39 Window-head, two-light window (9 pieces reconstructed). One pointed trefoil and two semi-circular
openings.
C14th
H 965 W 520 T 140mm
Context: 2954 LPM JA 69 DN 6903
JARBW 1995.324
AF40 Window-head? with two cusps and a moulding
35mm wide.
L 310 W 190 T 140mm
JARBW 1995.326
AF41 Fragment of a mullion? Worn with grooved edge
moulding. Not illus.
L 200 W 115 T 80mm
Context: 198 Med 2 JA 67 MU 6701
AF42 Window-head with tooling on the side faces and
back. Not illus.
L 410 W 185 T 135mm
Context: 669 Med 2? JA 67 JO 6703
AF43 Section of a window mullion or transom with a deep
slot on the upper surface. Not illus.
H 115 W 224 T 90mm
Med 2
Context: 661 EPM JA 67 HK 6703
JARBW 1998.7814
AF44 Section of window mullion or transom. Rectangular
chase appears to be secondary. Sandstone. Not illus.
Med 2
H 100 W 230 T 110mm
...
., ,
Fig 29.1.5 Medieval window fragments from Jarrow (AF39, AF40). TM, DC
211
212
AF45
AF46
AF47
AF48
AF49
Context: 661 EPM JA 67 HK 661 6703

JARBW 1995.781
Angular piece of stone with a carved recess on top.
Part of the central section of a window tracery. Not
illus.
H 250 W 135 T 150mm
Context: 254 EPM? JA 67 HF a 6701
JARBW 1995.327
Window head with a flat top and two chamfered
arms. Split on the back and dressed on other faces.
Not illus.
L 330 W 80 T 100mm
Context: 2246 PM/LPM JA 75 FW 7501
Complete yellow sandstone window moulding with a
chamfer around it. Probably recut in the medieval
period. Square opening to the rear 390mm wide and
the opening to the front has a diameter of 195mm.
Not illus.
L 670 W 320 D 285mm
Context: JA 75?
JARBW 1998.7859
Window-head. Not illus.
L 290 W 290 T 230mm
Context: JS 20
JARBW 1998.7733
Octagonal window mullion with two glazing grooves
15mm wide. Not illus.
L 460 W 145mm
JARBW 1998.7745
Other fragments (Fig 29.1.6)

AF50 Possible part of an octagonal chimney.
H 120 W 345 T 90mm
Context: 1190 Med 2 JA 75 FV 1 7502
AF51 Broken fragment of string-course with traces of billet
ornament? Not illus.
Late C11 or early C12
H 100 W 270 T 180mm
Context: 3145 LS/EM JA 69 QV 6901
AF52 Fragment of roll-moulding from arch. Traces of
paint. Not illus.
L 90 T 42 Diam 55mm
Context: 903 Med 2 JA 76 AN 7603
AF53 Possible socket or collar stone with four smoothly
dressed faces.
H 150 W 75 T 60mm
Context: 970 Med 2 JA 76 CK b 7604
AF54 Three possible parts of an octagonal chimney. Not
illus.
H 155 W 335 T 130mm
Context: 254 EPM? JA 67 HF b 6701
AF55 Piece of yellow sandstone, possibly the corner of a
trough or sink. Not illus.
Fig 29.1.6 Part of octagonal chimney from Jarrow

(AF50). YB
H 750 L 500 B 518mm

Context: 1501 Modern JA 71 CE 7104
AF56 Section of a moulding with a label stop of a dog-likeanimal head. Not illus.
H 171 Diam 320mm
C13th?
JARBW 1998.7799
Wearmouth
by Rosemary Cramp
AF57 Bases of the south respond of the chancel arch at
Wearmouth. Fig 29.1.7, and detail. The slight differences in profile between these bases and those at
Jarrow has been discussed by Cambridge (1977,
367, figs 2224) who concludes that this may be
because they are part of a respond rather than an
angle-shaft. The most plausible context for them
seems to be as part of the Aldwinian restoration.
Late C11th
AF58 A base for an engaged column similar to the base
surviving in the chancel arch. This is badly damaged
at one side and much of the flat pediment is missing.
Fig 29.1.7.
Diam across top 330 W 220 T 250mm
Late C11th
In the north aisle of St Peters Church
AF59 Scalloped capital, possibly from a six-sided column.
This may be an individual survival of the 13th
century. Fig 29.1.7.
H 280 Diam of top 180mm Diam of base 150mm
Built into the wall of the vestibule, St Peters Church
AF60 Fragment of a window head with partial cusping and
glazing groove. This was recovered from the area
around the latrine in the South Range. Fig 29.1.7.
H 300 greatest W 224 D 96mm
Context: 137 MK 74 GC Med 2 7403
AF61 Part of a slab in yellowish sandstone broken on all
but part of one side. It depicts the crouching figure
of a dragon-like creature, winged and with a scaly
tail, which terminates in a small reptilian head. The
dragons teeth are clamped round a staff-like object
that may be a spear, which has pushed him back
against the side of the frame, and the small reptilian
creature bites another shaft. Fig 29.1.7.
The creature with two heads has been identified as
an amphisbaena, a creature regarded in medieval
bestiaries as evil and a symbolic representation of the
devil, and this creature has been interpreted in that
way (Wilkinson 19291932, 89). The amphisbaena, whose origin was in classical literature, was in the
Middle Ages linked with the dragon of Revelations
XII.7, against whom St Michael fought. The fact
that this beast is apparently looking upwards may
imply that the scene originally was one that included
Michael a theme very popular on tympana of the
11th century onwards. This indeed may once have
been part of a tympanum.
L c 500 H 460mm
C12th?
St Peters Church, set in the wall of the display.
213
AF57
AF -7
AF 8
AF59
AF6 1
Fig 29.1.7 Eleventh century bases, 13th-century capital and dragon panel from Wearmouth. DC, YB, KJ
AF60
214
MSM!
Fig 29.2.1 Effigies of a monk (MSM1) and a knight (MSM2) from Wearmouth. DC, KJ
29.2 Medieval funerary sculpture

by Rosemary Cramp
Wearmouth
Within St Peters Church there is a significant collection of grave covers, and two damaged monumental
effigies. The grave covers were initially recorded by
Charles Hodges in 1884 and have been subsequently
reviewed by Mrs D R Fyson, and discussed most
recently by Peter Ryder who has dated them authoritatively (Ryder 1985). They are not, therefore, published
again here. There is an interesting date range in these
monuments: the two earliest, Ryder 8 and 9, have been
dated to the late 11thearly 12th century; Ryder 1 to
the first half of the 12th century; Ryder 10 and 12, mid
to late 12th century; Ryder 3, 5 and 8, late 12th to
early 13th century; Ryder 6 and 7, late 13th to early
14th century; Ryder 14, early 14th century; and Ryder
13 14th or 15th century. These stones therefore indicate that the ground around the church was being used
for the burial of important people from just after
Aldwin and his community left until almost the end of
the life of the cell.
Some of these stones may have commemorated the
Hilton family, whose chantry chapel was to the north
of the chancel (see Vol 1, Ch 6), as was the muchdefaced effigy of a knight (MSM2) which has been
dated to the 14th century and the unusual effigy of an
ecclesiastic (MSM1).
MSM1 Effigy of an ecclesiastic. Fig 29.2.1. The figure,
cemented into a plinth (possibly Victorian), which
stands now at the west end of the nave, is very badly
damaged and blackened. The figure and base are
carved from a single micaceous block of sandstone
and there are extensive traces of paint. The figure lies
supine with arms bent and hands clasped together in
prayer. His head is resting on a rectangular cushion,
which is indented with the weight of his head. The
features of his face are almost obliterated, but from
the side view, the shape of his ear and his close-cut
tonsure are visible, and there is a faint mark of the
circular tonsure on top of his head. He appears to be
clean shaven. He is robed in a cloak-like garment
with a high collar round the neck, with alb and a chasuble below which falls in deep V-shaped folds. A
maniple hangs from his left arm. (The base of the lid
and figure are broken off.)
Raine noted that a well-carved effigy of a monk
was in his day standing up to its knees in the ground
against the outside of the tower, and added that it
was not long ago ejected from its original position in
the chancel (Raine 1854, xxxiv). There seems some
doubt, however, as to its original location, and
indeed who the effigy represented, as has been discussed in Vol 1, Ch 11, in relation to the burial places
of the Durham monks. Certainly an effigy of this
quality must have been for one of the masters of
Wearmouth, and an ex-prior such as Galfrid de
Burden d. c 1322 is a possible candidate.
215
C14th
Overall L 1.46m W 250 mm at head, 220 mm at feet
D at shoulder 130mm. Cushion 460mm 280mm.
St Peters Church, in the north aisle west end.
Reference: Hunter Blair 1929, 48.
MSM2 Marble knight effigy and canopied tomb. Fig 29.2.1.
The canopy is older than the figure, probably from
the tomb of an earlier member of the Hilton family,
but from the armorials of Hilton and Vipont may
have been adapted later. The effigy is in sandstone,
probably copying contemporary effigies in alabaster.
The head rests on a cushion, which seems to have
been supported by praying angels on each side
although only the hands of one survive. He is clothed
in armour, with basinet and camail, and a tight jupon
covers the body armour and plate mail covers his
arms. His hands in gauntlets are clasped in prayer on
his chest. His sheathed sword and dagger are on his
left side attached to an elaborate belt decorated with
alternate medallions of flowers and quatrefoils. The
belt is buckled on the right side ending in a tab with
an ornamental roundel. The feet of the figure were,
according to local tradition, cut off by churchwardens at some unknown date in order to fit the
canopy. The figure has been identified by HunterBlair (1929, 27) simply as Knight of the Hilton
Family c 138090, but it has been suggested also in
the church records that this is Baron William, builder
of Hilton castle, who died in 1435.
L of present figure 1.10m D at base 150 W at base
380mm
St Peters Church, on the north side of the chancel
between the chancel and the old Hilton chantry.
Reference: Hunter-Blair 1929, 278.
Jarrow
MSM3 The most enigmatic piece of medieval sculpture from
Jarrow is a slab with elaborate plant-scroll ornament
(Fig 29.2.2) and is now in housed in the Museum of
Antiquaries, Newcastle. This piece was originally
identified as part of a cross-shaft (Hodgson
190611a, pl opp 186) but is now identified as a coffin or shrine cover. Such an outstanding 12thcentury monument at Jarrow prompts questions
about its function and context; the significance of the
piece is discussed below by both Jeffrey West and
Eric Cambridge.
L 1.04m H 150185 W 230240 T (decorated face)
165230mm
Newcastle: Society of Antiquaries Museum
1956.219A
Stylistic analysis and dating

by Jeffrey West
The slab was recovered from the nave walls of the

church during its demolition in 1865 (Stuart 1867, 65,
pl CXVc; Savage 1900, 47 and fig 7). The stone has
been cut down its length as is evidenced by the rough,
diagonal tooling of the thick side of the slab and the
cutting of the ornament along the flat area of the top.
One end retains its original surface, but the other has
been broken away even though the surface of the stone
216
Fig 29.2.2 Coped coffin cover from Jarrow (MSM3). (Museum of Antiquities of the University and Society of Antiquaries
of Newcastle upon Tyne)
at the corner suggests that the length of the thin side
gives the original overall dimension. The back of the
slab retains its original surface and is featureless.
The upper surfaces are decorated with a running
floral and foliate scroll: that on the coped (sloping) side
comprises a smooth, rounded stem of five volutes
formed by side shoots, the junctions of which are
marked by double ridged bindings and which subdivide into three terminals; one forming the main floral
or foliate motif, the other two terminating in half-palmettes or lobate and voluted ends. On the inner and
outer margins these foliate terminals are alternately
looped over or under the main stem of the scroll. The
principal motifs may be described (from the broken
end) as: (a) a caliciform, capped half-palmette, the
cap formed by a raised, rounded and curving band on
the back of the motif opposite the scalloped margin of
the mouth; (b) an ovoid berry cluster or pine-cone set
within a single, broad oval leaf with deep veining and a
scalloped margin with two deep eyelets; (c) a caliciform profile leaf in the manner of a clasping leaf which
partly sheaths the scroll stem, some evidence of veining on the outer leaves; (d) a six-petalled flower set
within a ?tri-lobed calyx; (e) a trefoil flower comprising
two half-palmettes and a possible round berry cluster
on a single stalk. The ornament of the remaining part
of the flat ridge of the stone comprises a running leaf
scroll terminating (at the top) in a single palmette
enclosed within a heart-shaped field formed by the
existing scroll and the remaining fragment of a second
scroll originally running parallel to it: part of a twostranded clasp originally holding both scrolls closes the
inner end of the enclosed field. Two single, pierced
rounded beads are set between the scrolls at the upper
end.
The reuse of the slab as building material effectively removes any possibility of establishing its original
location, although it may be assumed that it was taken
from somewhere in the church or the monastic area.
While there is no intrinsic evidence to show when the
stone was cut down to its present size, the original

width may be presumed to be approximately double
the existing measurement, since the slab was, in all
probability, from a coped grave or coffin cover. The
ornament of the coped side of the slab is distinctive
and, in its local context, highly unusual. In terms of its
overall composition, the form and termination of the
volutes, the use of ridged bindings and the form and
detail of the principal motifs indicate a date in the 12th
century. The fact that the stems are devoid of any form
of striation or beading suggests a date around the middle or second half of the century. Peter Lasko considered the stone to date between 1130 and 1160 (P
Lasko, pers comm, recorded at the Museum of
Antiquities, Newcastle upon Tyne). In general terms,
the form of the leafage and the manner in which its
margins are cut have some affinity with the ornament
of manuscripts produced at Durham under Bishop
Hugh of Le Puiset (11531195). However, the floral
and foliate terminals within the volutes are not comparable with those of the great Bible that he commissioned c 11701180. This disparity may suggest an
earlier date for the Jarrow carving. Comparable carved
ornaments, still less on coped stone coffin lids, have yet
to be identified in the region.
On the basis of the evidence available, the stone
may be identified as a coped grave or coffin lid of the
mid-12th, or third quarter of the 12th century. Yet it is
because it originated in Jarrow and because of the
dependence of Jarrow on Durham during this period
that it is necessary to consider the possibility that the
stone was in some way connected with Bede (see
Cambridge below). It is important to emphasise that
there is no evidence to support a proposal that this
artefact distinctive though it undoubtedly is formed
part of a larger ensemble. The reason for raising this
question rests on four factors: the very high quality of
the ornament which is without local parallel, the supposed date of the artefact during the episcopate of a
notable bishop who was a distinguished patron,
the fact that Bedes bones, which had been stolen in

1020 by Alfred Westou, rested with the bones of St
Cuthbert at Durham and, finally, that according to the
record in Symeons History of Durham, Hugh of Le
Puiset constructed at Durham an enormous shrine
(feretrum nimis speciosum) of the purest gold and silver
and decorated with precious stones for the bones of
Bede, and other saints (Arnold 1882, 889).
If these factors provide a context for the erection of
a cenotaph or other memorial to Bede at Jarrow, it
must be stressed that there is no evidence on which to
base such a proposal nor to associate this carved stone
fragment with it.
The context of the Jarrow slab
by Eric Cambridge
This slab is one of the most remarkable pieces of late

Romanesque carving in the north-east. Yet it is puzzling that such a fine piece should have come from this
site, especially since it dates from a period that is so
obscure in the history of the site (see Vol 1, Ch 4).
What was its original function? And who commissioned it? It surely cannot have marked the grave of a
monk. What the mortuary practices of the monks of
Durham were in the 12th century we do not know, but
they can hardly have involved memorials of such elaboration. It seems equally difficult to see the piece as the
result of the patronage of a layman of high status, as
one might have supposed had it been found elsewhere.
The greater part of the estates within Jarrow parish
(and, indeed, the whole south bank of the Tyne estuary) were firmly in the grip of the church of Durham
after the Norman Conquest, so this is not an area in
which one would expect to find secular patrons of sufficient wealth and importance to commission such a
splendid object.
Given the difficulties of establishing a likely funerary context, ecclesiastical or lay, for the slab, it may be
worth putting forward another possible interpretation.
Might the stone be seen as commemorative rather than
funerary, and might it have been associated with the
cult of Bede? As Bedes relics had only been removed
217
to Durham in the generation before the Conquest

(Symeon, HDE, III, 7 (Arnold 1882, 859)), it seems
not unlikely that his traditional burial place would still
have been known in the 12th century. Moreover, it is
possible that his cult might have been undergoing a
revival of interest in the latter part of that century,
since it was Bishop Hugh of Le Puiset who placed his
relics in a new shrine in Durham Cathedral (Symeon,
HDE, Continuatio Altera (Arnold 1882, 168; Bailey
2001, 176)), We also know that, at much the same
period, interest in the former resting places of St
Cuthberts relics had caused the monks to mark two of
them, the site of the shrine in the Anglo-Saxon cathedral at Durham, and the saints original burial place in
the priory church on Holy Island, by erecting cenotaphs (Reginald, libellus, 31, 46, 49; Raine 1835; see
further Cambridge 1983, 91, 93). Seen from this perspective, it seems not impossible that Bedes burialplace was similarly marked. If so, the unexpected
elaboration of the Jarrow slab might be explained if it
could be thought of as part of such a cenotaph. Against
this conjecture must be weighed the lack of references
to such a cenotaph (and, indeed, to the cult of Bede at
Jarrow) in 12th-century and later Durham sources
alike. Yet this argument from silence may not be so
telling as it may at first seem; the Cuthbertine cenotaphs mentioned above are mentioned surprisingly
infrequently in Durham sources. More disconcerting,
perhaps, is Lelands failure to mention it (as he surely
would had it been pointed out to him) when describing his visit to Jarrow. On the other hand, he was
shown Bedes oratory by the monks, which at least
indicates that Bedes cult was still alive in some form in
Jarrow at the end of the Middle Ages, and may even
provide the original context in which the Jarrow slab
was displayed (Leland 1715, IV, 42; idem, 1709, II,
118). It has been suggested by Richard Morris (pers
comm) that the traditional site of Bedes cell or original grave might have served as a magnet for someone
of means who wished to be buried in a propitious
place. The hypothesis that we have in the Jarrow slab
part of a late 12th-century cenotaph of Bede can,
therefore, only be advanced with extreme caution.
Portable objects: the personal and domestic domain

30 The numismatic evidence
30.1 Roman coins
Wearmouth
by Richard Brickstock
Nu1
Two Roman coins were found while excavating the

early cemetery levels at Wearmouth. Both (Nu1, Nu2)
are 4th-century AD bronze issues of types very common on virtually all Roman sites occupied during the
period, and also common as casual or stray finds both
in this region and elsewhere.
The two coins recovered from Wearmouth almost
certainly fall into the latter category, and cannot reasonably be taken as supporting evidence for Roman settlement at Wearmouth or nearby. Dobsons suggestion
(of a chain of signalling stations on the Durham coast
matching the string of late 4th-century structures on
the Yorkshire coast; Dobson 1970a, 197) is intriguing
and logical but, to gain credence, requires the recovery
of a very significantly larger assemblage of Roman artefacts. To put the present finds in perspective, each of
the known Yorkshire signal stations has yielded several
dozen coins, while more major settlements, such as
South Shields, Wallsend and Newcastle, invariably
yield many hundreds or even thousands.
No coins were found during the excavations at
Jarrow, but several have been found in or near the
churchyard in the past (see Vol 1, Ch 3). The coin
types recovered from Jarrow are slightly more unusual
than the Wearmouth finds, and therefore merit some
comment. Bronze coinage of Nero (Nu4) is far from
uncommon (it, and Claudian copies were still in circulation in the AD 70s when the north east was taken into
the Roman province), but coinage of the Year of the
Four Emperors (AD 69, here represented by Nu5, a
coin of Vitellius) is almost unknown. Coins of Nero
and of the Flavians appear in numbers in the assemblages of the nearby forts South Shields, Wallsend
and Newcastle but only in the latter does one (presumably residual) coin of Galba or perhaps Vitellius
appear.
A fair amount of Severan coinage (as Nu3) appears
in the fort assemblages of Hadrians Wall and its hinterland, perhaps not surprisingly in view of the scale of
Severus activities in the north. This particular type
(RIC 265) has also been recorded at South Shields:
there is one example in the Museum collection (Casey
1979, 77) and a counterfeit is included in the 1988
excavation finds (Hodgson et al forthcoming).
The archaeological significance of the Jarrow finds is
discussed above (Vol 1, Ch 3), where the evidence for
the (commonly conjectured) Roman origins of both
Jarrow and Wearmouth is reviewed. Here it is only necessary to echo my comment on the Wearmouth assemblage that the almost complete lack of coin finds
militates strongly against such a suggestion.
Nu2
Helena, AD 33740. Not illus.

Obverse: FL IVL HELENAE AVG
Reverse: PAX PVBLICA
Diam 12mm Mint: probably Trier Condition: slightly worn/slightly worn
Context: 1145 Saxon MK 61 DJ b 6102
References: RIC vol 8 Trier 63, LRBC 1 112
Constantine I, AD 3305. Fig 30.1.1.
Obverse: CONSTANTINVS MAX AVG (or sim)
Reverse: GLORIA EXERCITVS 2 standards
Diam 20mm Mint: unknown Condition: slightly
worn/slightly worn
Context: 1678 Saxon or earlier MK 62 FC 6201
References: RIC vol 7 Trier 518, LRBC 1 48
Fig 30.1.1 Roman coins from Wearmouth and Jarrow

(Nu2Nu3). Scale 1:1. TM
Jarrow
Nu3
Nu4
Nu5
218
Septimius Severus, AD 20210, AR denarius. Fig

30.1.1.
Obverse: SEVERVS PIVS AVG Head laureate, right
Reverse: FVNDATOR PACIS Severus, veiled,
standing left, holding branch and rod
Diam: 19mm Mint: Rome Condition: worn/worn
Reference: RIC 265
Found c 1921 in the salt grass, about 400yds
(366m) west of the church, by Mr R Worley.
Nero, c AD 66, bronze as. Not illus.
Obverse:
Reverse:
Diam: unknown Mint: Lugdunum Condition:
unknown
Found on waste land near Bedes monastery (Petch
1925, 1718, where it is described as a recent find;
Anon 19234, 286).
Aulus Vitellius, AprilDecember AD 69, AR denarius. Not illus.
Obverse: A VITELLIVS GERMANICVS AVG
[AVG in error for IMP?]
Reverse: CONCORDIA PR Concord seated, holding wreath and cornucopia
Diam: unknown Mint: Rome Condition: unknown
Reference: RIC (2nd edn) 66
30: THE NUMISMATIC EVIDENCE
Found near the south-west angle of the cemetery in

1812 (Petch 1925, 1718; Surtees 1820, 689;
Mackenzie and Ross 1834, 3). The original description comes from Hodgson (1840, 230), who says it
was found a little to the west of the churchyard
embedded in mortar in the heart of a ruinous wall.
30.2 Northumbrian coins

by E J E Pirie
Some general points of discussion relating to the
coinage from the two sites are presented here at
the outset, while particular comments relating to individual coins are set out below in the catalogue.
Although Wearmouth is the earlier foundation, it is
interesting that it is the later and more northern settlement at Jarrow which has produced sceattas of the 8th
century.
The record of the sceattas known from Jarrow cannot be completed without reference to the coin of
Alchred (76574), which was recovered from the
churchyard in about 1850 (Booth 1984, Alchred 6;
Pirie 1986, no. 23). This may be said to fill the gap
which exists in the sequence evinced by the three
Northumbrian specimens of Eadberht and Aethelred I
(Nu1214). Of these, Nu13 and Nu14, together with
the two southern coins (of Rigolds series U and L; see
Archibald below, Nu2728), were recovered from
excavations along the Jarrow waterfront.
The Northumbrian coinage in silver began with
coins for Aldfrith (c 685705), then lapsed until striking was resumed in the reign of Eadberht. The two
southern sceattas (Nu2728) belong, in time of issue,
to the period during which the northern kingdom had
no coins of its own which may explain why they were
then acceptable currency in the area. Although they
may well have continued in circulation long enough to
overlap the appearance of Eadberhts money, there is
some evidence to suggest that once Northumbria again
had its own coinage, alien issues were squeezed out.
The coin-list from Fishergate, York (as yet unpublished), shows a very clear separation of these early
issues. The discovery, so far at only a few sites, of contemporary Carolingian coins with stycas, may be the
exception that proves this point at a later stage.
The range of stycas from Jarrow is broadly comparable with that from Wearmouth. Recoveries from each
site represent both stages of Phase I and at least the
earlier years of Phase II, though they differ in that
while Wearmouth has coins from the last part of
Eanreds reign (Nu910), Jarrow so far has none.
Although there are still many uncertainties concerning the exact sequence of official issues for
Aethelred II, particularly in Group A, the use of motif
on coins of Group C serves to identify a specimen from
Jarrow (Nu20) as an issue of the kings second reign.
Wearmouth alone has examples of the prolific, irregular, unauthorised issues that may represent, there, the
period of Aethelreds reign.
219
At a time, now, when many hundreds of styca-dies

have already been recorded, it is a pleasure to note that
further excavation material continues to provide detail of
additional examples. It is also particularly satisfactory to
note that, among specimens so few in number, the
Group A issues of Phase II are represented by two or
three coins (Nu8, 18 and 19), for evidence still accumulating from Carlisle and Whithorn tends to support the
view, originally based on analysis of the Hexham hoard
of 1832 (but not yet fully published), that such coins
emanated from north of the River Tees. It is necessary to
qualify or correct a published reference to a coin of the
usurper, Reduulf, from Building D at Jarrow (Cramp
1976c, 239). If the specimen in question is to be equated with that recorded in the present list as Nu21, the earlier identification of the coin cannot now be sustained.
Yet the coin of Aethelred II (Nu19) certainly provides
this building with evidence of nearly the same date.
The absence from the sites of any of the ecclesiastical
coinage that was in circulation during the period c
83755 (Phase II) may excite remark. More noticeable,
perhaps, is the absence of coins of Osberht who succeeded Aethelred II about 849 or 850. This factor may be no
more than the result of both sites having been excavated
only in part; such coins may well have been lost at Jarrow
and Wearmouth. Yet distribution of Osberhts coinage is
now being monitored, for its absence in certain areas of
Northumbria may come to be thought significant.
It could be said that a real lack of such late issues at
Wearmouth and Jarrow might be explained by various
circumstances, either separately or in combination.
First, the communities at each site were in decline, and
the use of money, even in their lay areas, was limited.
Second, Osberhts coins may have been struck on a
comparatively small scale and for a short period only,
before the official Northumbrian coinage itself collapsed in a chaotic market that was flooded by irregular issues. If the older coins continued to circulate for
a while, it would be possible, in theory at least, for
some places to have remained inhabited after 850,
without showing evidence of the last stycas.
In the north-west, both Carlisle (at the Cathedral
excavations) and Whithorn (Pirie 1997, 343) include
specimens of Osberhts issues in their coin-lists. In the
north-east, Bamburgh (1971: see Pirie 1986, no. 87)
has produced a coin of Archbishop Uulfhere of York,
who is usually associated with Osberht, although there
is some reason to argue that his issues belong as may
many of the irregulars to the last part of Aethelreds
total reign. Yet, like Wearmouth and Jarrow, Whitby has
no representation of the last reign in its present coinlist: recent analysis of the Northumbrian material from
the early excavations has overturned some previous
attributions (see Pirie 2000, no. 152, for a summary
listing). Excavations at Whitby Abbey, from 1993 to
1995, recovered no further specimens for the register.
One cannot help but wonder if monastic sites such
as Whitby, Jarrow, and Wearmouth went into decline
in the middle of the 9th century not just because of
220
2nd die: XHERRED (the D, barred through the

back), round central cross
Wt: 1.059g (16.3gr), some corrosion on 2nd die;
die-axis: 270..
The coin exhibits little sign of circulation-wear. The
surfaces now show faint traces of silver, so that the
coin may be seen as an example of the condition,
already observed on specimens from Thwing in East
Yorkshire (Pirie forthcoming a), and from Whithorn
(Pirie 1997, 332). This is recognised as the result of
corrosion having removed copper from the original
surface of the coin, but having left the tiny granules
of silver with which that copper had been alloyed.
The dies are the same as those of BMC
Northumbria 817, which comes from the Hexham
hoard, recovered in 1832; a further die-duplicate is
known from the Blunt collection now in the
Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge.
Herred, together with Daegberct, Eaduini and
Hearduulf, struck officially for Eanred towards the
end of Phase I. These double-reverses, in the name
of Herred, form part of a cluster of irregular coins
which focuses especially on this moneyer but
includes further such combinations that pair Herred
dies with others naming Eaduini and an even earlier
moneyer, Huaetred.
Context: 1656 Med 1 MK 62 MJ 6201
Reference: Booth 1997, no. 609.
such political upheaval or uncertainty as is implied or

attested by the existence of a very large number of
irregular coins, but more particularly because they suffered in the aftermath of some coup in the north-east
an alarm which led to the deposit, at Hexham, of the
large coin-hoard. That cache is, so far, the only major
Northumbrian hoard recovered from that area, and the
only one whose coins attest concealment shortly before
Osberhts accession.
Note: In the lists which follow, both series (sceattas
and stycas) are ordered according to the schemes proposed in Coins of the Kingdom of Northumbria, c 700867
(Pirie 1996). As often as possible, the individual dies
are related to those of specimens known elsewhere, particularly in the Yorkshire Collections which are recorded in the volume named above (CKN). References to
publications in other works are cited, where appropriate, for individual coins. Apart from those, it is apposite
to record that all the material has been included in an
inventory of finds of Northumbrian coins (Pirie 2000),
with the following site entries: 57 Jarrow (sceattas);
173 Wearmouth; 174 Jarrow (stycas).
The coins were weighed in grams (g), on an electric
balance (Mettler P161); the equivalent weights in
grains (gr) have been derived from conversion tables.
Wearmouth
Sceattas
No specimens have yet been recovered during excavations at this site.
Stycas: Phase Ia, c 790830: issues in silver of
fluctuating fineness
Nu6
Eanred, c 810-41; moneyer: Eaduini. Fig 30.2.1.

Obv: EANREDREX (the first and third E, rounded;
the A, unbarred; each R, in the form of an unbarred
A), round central pellet in an annulet of pellets
Rev: +EADVINI (the A, unbarred), round central
pellet in an annulet of pellets
Wt: 0.985g (15.2gr); die-axis: 300.
The coin exhibits only slight signs of wear. It forms
part of what must have been a fairly prolific issue
made during the final years of the phase, before
Eaduini and some other moneyers began to strike in
copper alloy. Neither die can so far be matched on
other specimens; they are similar to, but not the same
as, those of BMC Northumbria 99.
Context: 2343 Saxon MK 61 CP 6103
Stycas: Phase Ib, c 83035: first issues in

copper alloy
Nu7
Stycas: Phase II, c 83755: later issues in copper

alloy
Group A
Nu8
Irregular issue: c 843/4 or later: nonsense dies, both

retrograde. Fig 30.2.1.
1st die: +EVDED, round pellet (possibly, five pellets
of the Passion cross)
2nd die: +EVDLIVV, round central cross
Wt: 1.004g (15.4gr), some accretion on both dies;
die-axis: 270.
It is difficult to judge how far corrosion, rather than
circulation, has been responsible for the slight blurring of the legends. The dies seem to have been
roughly cut and the fabric of the coin itself must have
been poor to start with. The dies have been recognised as those of CKN 1874 (whose first die is shared
with 1873). Those coins are worn specimens registered among a number of irregulars which, some
years ago, could not clearly be assigned to any definite context. It is the nodose style of lettering, more
obvious on this coin from Wearmouth than on the
example in York, which should now determine attribution of the issue to the small, but steadily growing,
clusters of irregulars known within this whole group.
Most of these as yet defy any attempt to date them
with some degree of precision, although a few essay
the name of Aethelred.
Context: 1190 LS/EM MK 62 IB 6201
Reference: Booth 1997, no. 624 there, unprovenanced.
Temp. Eanred; irregular issue: a double-reverse

naming the moneyer, Herred. Fig 30.2.1.
Group B
1st die: XHERRED (the D, barred through the

back), round central cross
No specimen from this division of the coinage was

recovered during the excavations.
221
N.,
N,"
N,"
Fig 30.2.1 Northumbrian coins from Wearmouth (Nu611) and Jarrow (Nu12Nu21). Scale 1:1. TM
222
Group C
Nu9
Eanred, c 81041; moneyer: Monne. Fig 30.2.1.

Obv: [+]EANRE[DREX] (the A, unbarred), round
central cross
Rev: illegible
Wt: 0.822g (12.6gr), corroded; die-axis uncertain.
Although both dies are obscured and distorted by
corrosion, enough detail remains for the obverse to
be identified and recognised as one known to have
been used by Monne (see CKN 623), within section
Ci of the whole group.
Context: 2146 Med 2 MK 67 GG 6702
Nu10 Eanred, c 81041; moneyer: Uulfred. Fig 30.2.1.
Obv: +EANREDREX (the N, reversed), round central cross
Rev: +VVLF[RE]D, round central cross
Wt: Not recorded; considerable accretion; die-axis:
180.
Although the specimen still bears a quantity of compacted corrosion products, which may be responsible
for wear on the legends, it is possible to identify both
king and moneyer. The obverse is the same as that of
CKN 1345, within section Cii of the whole group.
The reverse can be recognised as one hitherto
unrecorded for the moneyer in this reign.
Context: 1784 Saxon MK 66 JQ 6603
Group D
Nu11 Irregular issue: c 843/4 or later: nonsense dies. Fig
30.2.1.
1st die: +E[DIII]OIIII, retrograde, round central cross
2nd die: +VIDIIVID, round central rosette of pellets
Wt: 0.734g (11.3gr), chipped; die-axis: 0.
The coin is now chipped and worn, its surfaces pitted with corrosion. The exact identification is difficult to determine with certainty; there are two
possibilities. In the first instance, the first die may be
the same as that which is common to CKN 18213:
these coins form part of one of the small clusters of
issues assigned to section Di until such time as there
is evidence of linking between them and the main
complex of die-linked issues which forms the section
Dii; the second die appears to be that used for CKN
1819. Perhaps this Wearmouth specimen attests a
hitherto unrecorded combination of known dies.
In the second instance, the first die may be the
same as that which is common to CKN 20912 within Dii and, within the section as a whole, within that
element (of nonsense legends) known as Background
II. The second die is certainly an additional one for
this part of the record; if it were correctly identified
as the one used for CKN 1819, it would draw into
the chain both that and CKN 1820.
Context: 895 Saxon MK 61 DO 6101
Jarrow
Sceattas (Rigold 1977, series Y): struck in silver
Nu12 Eadberht, c 73758. Pirie, Class Bi. Fig 30.2.1.
Obv: EOTBEREhTVS (the O, square; the S, in
form of inverted L), round central cross.
Judging by the state of the legend on the obverse,

the coin suffered very little wear in circulation, and
must have been lost while still fairly new. The specimen has already been recorded by Rigold and
Metcalf (1977, 41 and pl III, 52), and by Booth
(1984) as B3, within his Class B.
Rev: stylised stag, to left
Wt: 0.706g (10.85gr); die-axis: 0..
JARBW 1995.180
Nu13 Eadberht, c 73758. Pirie, Class Bi. Fig 30.2.1.
Obv: EOTBEREhTVS (the O, square; the S, in form
of inverted L), round central pellet from which radiate three short curves
Rev: stylised stag, to left
Wt: 0.491g (7.6gr); die-axis: c 45.
The coin, which is very worn especially on the
obverse, was earlier attributed to Alchred (c 76574),
but this identification can hardly stand, if only
because coins showing the beast facing left are not
yet known for that king. Reattribution, to Eadberht,
brings recognition that the date of issue was marginally earlier than once believed. Yet, estimation of the
date of loss could well be placed at about 78590,
towards the end of the period during which
Northumbrian sceattas are likely to have remained
current. Although it is now difficult to judge just how
much the wear is due to contemporary circulation
and how much to later corrosion, the specimen could
have been in use for some considerable time.
Booth (1984) omitted the coin from his corpus,
yet its dies can be matched with those of the specimens which he listed as C4 and C5, within his Class
C. These same coins are also catalogued as CKN 14
(York Minster: Pirie and Archibald 1995, 527, no. 2)
and CKN 14a (itself the coin also published as Pirie
et al 1986, no. 10). Two further examples are known
in the museum at Whitby; both these were also omitted by Booth, and only one was recognised in time
for inclusion in the first inventory (Pirie 1986, no.
18, and plate, on p 89, no. 2).
Context: Layer 68 Med 2 JS 76 CP 529 Area V
JARBW 1995.182
Nu14 Aethelred I (first reign, c 77479/80) and Archbishop
Eanbald I, jointly; struck c 77880. Fig 30.2.1.
Obv: AEDILR+ED (the A, unbarred), round central
cross
Rev: +EANBALD (the N and B, both reversed) retrograde, round central pellet in a circle of pellets
Wt: 0.986g (15.3gr); die-axis: 300.
The coin exhibits some signs of wear, or corrosion
damage, on both dies. It has already been illustrated
(Pirie 1986, 89, no. 5). It has also been recorded by
Booth (1987, no. 55) as if Eanbald were a moneyer
producing stycas for Aethelred I during the latters
second reign (c 79096). In this, he followed the
example of Robertson (1961) who identified a similar coin (1961, no. 178) as having been struck for
Aethelred II by a moneyer, Eanbald with the proviso that it could be seen as an issue for Archbishop
Eanbald II by a moneyer, Aethelred.
Since the first tentative suggestion (Pirie 1984,
212) that such specimens on which were recorded
the names of Aethelred and Eanbald, without any

indication of title for either man should be accepted as joint issues, in the currency of sceattas, for king
and archbishop (in the manner of those known for
Eadberht and Ecgberht, and for Alchred and
Ecgberht), evidence in support of such an interpretation has been accumulating steadily. Stewarts
paper (1991) reinstates a hitherto discredited attribution of a coin to Aetheluald and Ecgberht, jointly,
during 75965 and thereby lengthens the roll of
those known to observe the practice. Apart from this,
the recovery, in 1986, at the Whithorn excavations
(Pirie 1997, 336) of another specimen naming
Aethelred and Eanbald affords us the first real evidence that the latter was archbishop, for the legend
on the die follows the name with the initial A. Now,
indeed, the circumstance of the other coins recovered from the Jarrow waterfront undoubtedly being
sceattas may serve to confirm this specimens identity as a sceat rather than a styca.
It may be appropriate to record that another
example, struck from the same dies as this from
Jarrow, was recovered in 1988 from excavations at
Carlisle Cathedral (report forthcoming).
Context: Layer 94 Med 1 JS 76 JK 557 (=JA 76 AL
1) Area V
JARBW 1995.183
Stycas: Phase Ia, c 790830: issues in silver of

fluctuating fineness
Nu15 Aethelred I: second reign, c 79096; moneyer:
Ceolbald. Fig 30.2.1.
Obv: +AEDILRED, round central cross contained
within a square
Rev: +CEOLBAED, round central boss within an
annulet of pellets
Wt: Not recorded, slight accretion; die-axis: 90..
The coin shows comparatively little sign of circulation-wear, and may have been lost while still quite
new. It has been illustrated before (Pirie 1986, 89,
no. 6) and recorded by Booth (1987, no. 24).
Context: 1218 Saxon-Norman or Med 1 JA 75 MU
1 7504
JARBW 1995.189
Reference: Booth 1997, omitted.
Nu16 Eanred, c 81041; moneyer: Eaduini. Fig 30.2.1.
Obv: EANR+EDREX (the first and third E, rounded; each R, in form of unbarred A), round central
pellet in annulet of pellets
Rev: +EADVINI (the A, unbarred), round central
pellet-in-annulet
Wt: 1.012g (15.6gr); die-axis: 270.
The wear on the coin appears to have been caused by
corrosion rather than by circulation. Although many
coins with lettering in the same style are known for
this moneyer, neither die can yet be matched with
those on other specimens. What seems to have been
a fairly prolific issue may be seen to belong to the last
years of Phase Ia, for Eaduini is known to have
worked also in Phase Ib.
JARBW 1995.185
223
Stycas: Phase Ib, c 83035: first issues in

copper alloy
Nu17 Irregular issue, reflecting the names of Archbishop
Eanbald II and his moneyer, Eaduulf. Fig 30.2.1.
Obv: EAN+BAD (the N, reversed), retrograde,
round central pellet-in-annulet
Rev: +EADVVLF, round central pellet-in-annulet
Wt: 0.694g (10.7gr), slight accretion; die-axis: 180.
The coin shows comparatively little sign of circulation-wear. The obverse die is the same as one recorded at York, which also names Eaduulf; Jarrow seems
to provide the first evidence of this reverse die, which
has not been recognised on any other coin, and is
cited as a footnote to CKN 118. The specimen has
already been illustrated (Pirie 1986, 89, no. 10).
Context: 96 LS/EM JA 63 FM 6302
JARBW 1995.184
Stycas: Phase II, c 83755: later issues in

copper alloy
Group A
Nu18 Aethelred II: total reign, c 84149/50; moneyer:
Leofdegn. Fig 30.2.1.
Obv: +EDLREDRE, round central cross
Rev: +LEOFDEGN (the G, in form of J; the N,
reversed), round central cross
Wt: 1.215g (18.7gr); die-axis: 315.
The surface of the coin has been pitted by small spots
of corrosion. Judging by the clarity of the legends, the
specimen can hardly have been in circulation for very
long before it was lost. The dies (which have wire-line,
rather than the normal pellet, borders) are the same as
those of CKN 212; it should be noted that the reverse
is also used for CKN 218. Both these coins fall within
section Ai of Aethelreds issues in this group.
Context: 2376 Med 2 JA 75 JX 88 7505
JARBW 1995.186
Nu19 Aethelred II: total reign, c 84149/50; moneyer:
Fordred. Fig 30.2.1.
Obv: +EDFLREDRE (the first D, barred in front)
round central Passion cross composed of five pellets
Rev: +FQOQRQDRED, round central cross; extra
pellets in field
Wt: 0.863g (13.3gr); die-axis: 270.
Although the coin has been cleaned, it seems possible to judge, from the remaining clarity of detail, that
the specimen cannot have been in circulation for
long before it was lost. This coin is cited in CKN as
a footnote to 307, for it has the same obverse as that
specimen and another reverse; the latter die is used
again for both CKN 308 and CKN 309, which have
further obverses. All such die-combinations fall within section Aii of Aethelreds coinage in this group.
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ 91a 7305
JARBW 1995.187
Group B
No specimen from this division of the coinage has been
recovered during these excavations.
224
Group C
Nu20 Aethelred II: second reign, c 843/4-49/50; moneyer:
Fordred. (Fig 30.2.1.)
Obv: +EDILREDRE, retrograde, round central
cross; all the letters are reversed, and the L overlaps
the I.
Rev: +EORDRED, round central rosette of pellets
Wt: 0.867g (13.4gr); die-axis: 255.
The coin appears to have suffered, on the reverse,
from the effects of corrosion, but the clarity of the
obverse detail indicates that the time between striking and loss may have been fairly brief. The dies are
the same as those of CKN 1708, which falls within
section Ciii of this group, where legends for
Aethelred have the peculiarity of the overlapping IL
(which must often be read as LI) and some, if not all,
letters reversed. It is the use of the rosette motif which
has determined attribution to the kings second
reign. In Ciii, however, there is a further distinction
to be made: coins with legends such as these, whose
die-cutting follows the practice of heading letters
towards the edge of the flan, must have been struck
in the period immediately following Reduulfs brief
usurpation, c 843/4, for issues which attest reverse
die-links with the subsequent coinage for Osberht
were produced with lettering heading towards the
centre of the flan.
Context: 1007 M Sax JA 78 EF 3 7804
JARBW 1995.188
Group D
No specimens from this part of the coinage (the irregular issues which reflect the work of Group C) were
recovered during these excavations.
Uncertain issue
Nu21 This specimen chipped, worn, and corroded is no
longer in a condition in which any single letter, or
sequence of letters, can afford an indication of identity. Fig 30.2.1.
Wt: 0.641g (9.8gr); die-axis: uncertain
JARBW 1996.3734
One further item (JA 76 HV 14, context 992, Saxon,
JARBW 1996.3739), weight 1.121g (17.3gr), is even
more of an enigma than Nu21 above. Heavily corroded, it must now be regarded as beyond identification and is possibly not even a coin at all and is,
therefore, without any evidential value for its context.
30.3 Southern and later coins

by Marion M Archibald
The coin list from Wearmouth is too short for a discussion on the same lines as that from Jarrow (below).
Representatives of the medieval issues are entirely
absent, the earliest coin being a half-groat of the latest
portrait issues of Henry VII struck between 1501
and 1509 (Nu22), unusual as a site find. The early
17th-century coppers tell the same story as those from

Jarrow, the doit (Nu25) probably also brought from
Scotland rather than arriving direct from the
Netherlands.
In contrast, medieval coins from nonNorthumbrian sources form a significant proportion of
the coin list from Jarrow, the earliest types going back
to the 8th century. As always, the presence or absence
of coins of different periods in the coin-list is dependent upon the functions of the particular parts of the
site and buildings excavated as well as of its wealth and
status as a whole. The areas of the site where coins
were being handled most intensively may have been
within the investigated area at one time and not at
another, so that a simple comparison of the coin statistics may not present a true picture of the continuing or
changing status, prosperity and connections of the site
as a whole. What follows simply compares the Jarrow
coin list with what is normal.
Southumbrian sceattas are to be expected in a
major Northumbrian monastic site. The absence of
Southumbrian sceattas of the Primary Series is not
necessarily significant, and need not suggest any
change in relations with the south. Southern Primary
sceattas are much rarer than Secondary ones, and,
with only two of the latter, a Primary sceat could not
statistically be expected. There is no significance in the
absence of continental sceattas in such a low total.
Fine silver Anglo-Saxon pennies from the late 8th
century are generally much rarer than sceattas as site
finds. The absence of any other silver coins dating
before the mid-11th-century penny of Edward the
Confessor (Nu29) is thus quite normal on a coin list,
although the odd Southumbrian (or indeed
Carolingian coin in the 9th century) would not have
been unexpected from a high status site. The local
issues of the 9th century are discussed by Elizabeth
Pirie (Ch 30.2 above). The lack of Norman issues is
again predictable as these are usually even rarer than
late Saxon coins as excavation finds, although a representative from the early period of Stephen around
1140 would have been the most likely. The short-lived
Cross and Crosslets coinage of Henry II, 115880, is
also missing, but this too is not unusual.
There are four representatives of the Short Cross
coinage, 11801247, including one continental imitation, and three of the Long Cross Type, 124779. With
the latter should be counted the penny of Alexander III
(Nu38), as Scottish coins of this period were of the
same standard as the English and circulated freely with
them in England. The increase in site finds from this
period is found throughout the country and reflects a
general rise in prosperity and in coin production, and
so need not denote any changes particular to this site.
What is rather unusual is that only two of these eight
coins are cut-halfpence (Nu34 and 36), as submultiples are generally a higher proportion of excavation finds. Numbers are again small but this may suggest that, in general, it was sums in round numbers of
225
Fig 30.3.1 Southern and later coins from Wearmouth (Nu2226) . Scale 1:1. TM
pennies that were being handled here rather than the
proceeds of small-scale transactions involving the lower
denominations.
The two pennies deposited in the early sterling period from 1279 to c 1350 fit the normal pattern, the continental coin of English type (Nu39) being an illegal
but normal part of the circulating medium. The
absence of any representatives from the very large and
long-lived issues of Edward III, including the large output of pennies from the northern ecclesiastical mints at
York and Durham, is unexpected and may indicate a
change in the status and role of the site. A downturn in
coin numbers in the 15th and early 16th centuries on
sites is widespread throughout the country, generally
paralleled by a high presence of tokens. The ratio of
just one token (Nu41, or possibly two if the uncertain
Nu48 was another) to one coin (a groat of Edward IV,
Nu42) here is rather low although once again the total
is too small to draw firm conclusions.
After the local issues of the 9th century, Jarrows
northern location had little effect on the type of coin
circulating there during the rest of the medieval period
(unless the high proportion of Scottish and continental coins in the pre-1351 phase is a hint of this), but in
the early 17th century the local bias is marked in the
presence of five Scottish copper coins but only one
English farthing token.
In more southerly English sites the copper currency is composed largely of local traders and regal farthing tokens. An appreciable proportion of the copper
of all types in circulation was counterfeit, but the condition of some of the finds here makes it difficult to
come to a conclusion about their status.
In conclusion the coin list of Southumbrian issues
from Jarrow is short, much shorter than that from the
comparable Northumbrian site of Whitby both in its
earlier 8th-century phase (Rigold and Metcalf 1984,
265) and later. The proportional representations of
coins of different periods among the Jarrow finds are,
with a few minor differences noted above, broadly similar to those of English sites generally.
Note: In the following catalogue, reference is made

to a number of standard publications, as follows:
Mayhew (Mayhew 1983); North I (North 1994);
North II (North 1991); Peck (Peck 1964); Stewart
(Stewart 1967); Thompson (Thompson 1956).
Wearmouth
Nu22 Half-groat of Henry VII, Profile issue initial mark
martlet, 15019. York Archbishop Bainbridge, from
December 1508. Fig 30.3.1.
Wt: 1.311g (20.2gr)
This coin is a little corroded but unclipped and in
almost uncirculated condition. As half-groats by this
period circulated freely and became worn more rapidly than previously, a coin in such good condition was
probably lost shortly after it was struck, say by c 1510.
A later deposition as usual cannot be ruled out, but
an absolute terminus is provided by the introduction
of the base-silver issue in 1544 after which the earlier
fine-silver issues rapidly disappeared.
Context: 238 Med 2 MK 74 DO 7401
Reference: North II, no. 1751
Nu23 Scotland, Charles I, turner, Third Issue, fine style.
This type was issued in 1642, 44 and 50. Fig 30.3.1.
Wt: not recorded
This coin is corroded but appears to have been fairly
worn before it was lost. The duration of such coins in
circulation is difficult to estimate (see Nu41). This
coin was probably deposited in the late 1650s.
Context: 364 LPM MK 71 EO 7104
Reference: Stewart no. 239
Nu24 Scotland, Charles I, turner, Third Issue, fine style.
This type was issued in 1642, 44 and 50. Fig 30.3.1.
Wt: not recorded
Comments as for Nu23, except that this coin was
slightly less worn when lost, although this need not
necessarily be chronologically significant. It was
probably deposited in the 1650s.
Context: 549 LPM MK 71 JZ 7102
Nu25 Netherlands, West Friesland, 1 doit, 1627. Fig
30.3.1.
Wt: not recorded
226
This coin is corroded but appears to have been fairly worn when lost. It was probably deposited around
the same time as the previous two coins, or possibly
a little earlier.
Context: 351 LPM MK 71 BS 2 7104
Nu26 Halfpenny of George I, Second Issue, 171924, date
illegible. Fig 30.3.1.
Wt: not recorded
This coin is heavily worn and is in the condition of
coins of this date current at the end of the 18th
century, before they were superseded by the Boulton
issues of 1799 and later.
Context: 530 LPM MK 71 DC 7102
Nu30
Jarrow
Nu27 Sceatta. Series L related, BMC type 34. Possibly
London, c 72040. Fig 30.3.2.
Obv: [ ]NIA. Profile bust to right, cross in front of
face.
Rev: Celtic cross with a rosette of pellets in each
angle.
Wt: 0.999g (15.4gr), corroded
Details are obscured by the corrosion. A late coin of
the London-inscribed series was present in the Middle
Harling hoard (BNJ 1985, 15), so a deposit date of up
to c 760 is possible. The Celtic cross with rosettes
types are discussed by Metcalf (1994, 42632).
Context: Layer 29 EPMLPM JS 76 ID 437 Area
VI
JARBW 1995.181
Reference: North I, no. 76.
Nu28 Sceatta. Series U, BMC 23b. Possibly Mercia,
c 71525. Fig 30.3.2.
Obv: Standing figure facing, head to right, holding
two long crosses, feet on a curved line, possibly
denoting a boat.
Rev: Fantastic bird to right, pecking at berries on a
branch.
Wt: 0.806g (12.5gr)
On some coins the feature on which the figure stands
is composed of two curved lines joined at the ends
(eg BMC 111), which supports its interpretation as a
boat. No die identity has yet been found for either
obverse or reverse in this fairly prolific type. Coins of
this type made of better silver than later issues probably disappeared before the end of the sceatta period, so this coin was probably deposited before, at the
latest, c 740. This extensive type is discussed by
Metcalf (1994, 55269), and the Jarrow coin is illustrated by line drawings, where it is shown with head
profile to the left, and classified with coins of Type
23c.
Context: Layer 96 Med 1 JS 76 JM 558 (= JA 76 AM
1) Area V
JARBW 1995.179
Reference: North I, no. 83
Nu29 Fragment of a penny of Edward the Confessor,
Hammer Cross type. Bedford mint, moneyer Sigod,
c 105965. Fig 30.3.2.
Obv: [+EA]DPAR[RD RE]
Rev: +[SIGOD ON B]EDEFO
Wt: 0.431g (6.6gr)
This coin is from the same dies as Lockett I Sale,
Glendining 25.x.1955, lot 834. The large hoards
Nu31
Nu32
Nu33
Nu34
buried on the eve of the Norman Conquest eg

Chancton, Sussex (Thompson no. 81) include significant numbers of coins of earlier types, so this coin
could have been deposited at any time up to 1066.
This is an effective terminus as the first type of
William I quickly superseded the Anglo-Saxon coins.
Context: 413 LS/EM JA 65 AJA 6503
JARBW 1995.190
Penny of Short Cross type, class Ib. Henry II,
Northampton, moneyer Willelm, mid-1180s. Fig
30.3.2.
Rev: WILLELM. ON. NOR
Wt: 1.034g (15.9gr)
This coin shows little wear and is not clipped. It was
almost certainly deposited before the reform of
1205.
Context: 702 LPM JA 67 DS 6701
JARBW 1995.191
Penny of Short Cross type. Uncertain king, London,
moneyer uncertain, before 1218. Fig 30.3.2.
Rev: [ ]N. LVNDE
Wt: 0.959g (14.8gr)
This coin is bent and corroded, but does not appear
to have been very worn when lost. It could have been
deposited at any time until the Short Cross type was
superseded by the Long Cross in 1247.
Context: 519 LPM JA 78 DD 7802
JARBW 1996.3741
Penny of Short Cross type, class VI. John, London,
moneyer Ilger, 120017/18. Fig 30.3.2.
Rev: +ILGER. ON. LVN. (Note: there is a pellet
after LVN.)
Wt: 1.183g (18.2gr)
Details of the effigy and the letters on which the subclass are identified are illegible here. The coin is
twisted and cracked, and shows some wear. It could
have been deposited at any time until the Short
Cross type was superseded by the Long Cross in
1247.
Context: 582 Med 2? JA 78 GY 3 7802
JARBW 1996.3742
Continental imitation of a penny of Short Cross
type, folded in half, mint and moneyer illegible, produced some time between c 1190 and 1247. Fig
30.3.2.
Rev: not visible.
Wt: 1.142g (17.6gr)
The folding of the coin may have been done deliberately when it was recognised as an imitation and
withdrawn from currency.
Context: 981 Med 1a JA 76 FE 1 7604
JARBW 1995.192
Cut halfpenny of Long Cross type, class IIIb. Henry
III, Norwich, moneyer Iacob, c 124950. Fig 30.3.2.
Rev: +IAC[ ]ORW
Wt: 0.822g (12.6gr)
This coin is a little worn. It could have been deposited at any time until the Long Cross type was superseded by the sterling issue in 1279.
Context: 3243 Med 1 JA 69 YB 6901
JARBW 1996.3711
227
Fig 30.3.2 Southern and later coins from Jarrow (Nu2748). Scale 1:1. TM
Nu35 Penny of Long Cross type, class Va. Henry III,
London, moneyer Henri, 12512. Fig 30.3.2.
Rev: +hEN / RIO / NLV / NDN
Wt: 1.046g (16.2gr)
This coin is fairly worn so probably had been in circulation for some time before it was lost. It was probably deposited c 126579, but could have got into
abnormally worn condition earlier.
Context: Layer 16 EPM JS 73 NS 130 Area IV W
JARBW 1995.193

Nu36 Cut halfpenny of Long Cross type, class III. Henry
III, Northampton or Norwich, moneyer uncertain.
Fig 30.3.2.
Rev: [ ].N[ ]
Wt: 0.559g (8.6gr)
This coin is double struck which makes details difficult to decipher. It is in two fragments recently stuck
together. The letter N preceded by a pellet is visible,
so this must be the initial letter of the mint name.
228
Nu41
Nu42
Nu43
Nu44
Nu45
Nu46
At present it is not possible to suggest a narrower

bracket for the loss of this coin than the currency of
the type itself, 124779.
Context: 1556 Med 2 JA 71 IK 7105
JARBW 1995.198
Reference: North II, no. 1583
Jetton, Tournai series, 15th century. Fig 30.3.2.
Wt: 3.759g (58.1gr) Diam: 29mm
The jetton is very corroded, and on the obverse the
legend is illegible. Little is visible of the obverse
design but it is certainly not the usual shield of
France type, nor is it recognisable as one of the standard decorative types. It appears to be an ermine
with a banner with three ermine tails, suggesting an
issue for Brittany. Such a type has not been traced in
the reference works, but is cognate to a known type
with the leopard of England with leopard banner as
on the first gold leopard of Edward III. The reverse
is a stock Tournai cross fleury type.
Context: 3996 LPM JA 70 EQ 7006
JARBW 1996.3719
James VI/I, farthing, Lennox round type 3b, initial
mark flower. The Lennox pieces were issued
161425. Fig 30.3.2.
Wt: 0.270g (4.2gr)
This is an official piece. It was probably deposited
within the issue period or shortly afterwards.
Context: 5788 EPM JA 65 AZ 6507
JARBW 1996. 3702
Reference: Peck no. 56
Scotland. James VI/I or Charles I, turner. Fig 30.3.2.
Wt: 2.091g (32.2gr)
This coin is very corroded and legends and other distinguishing details are illegible.
Context: 5729 EPM JA 65 ABD 6507
JARBW 1996.3703
Reference: Stewart no. 217 or 235
Scotland. Charles I, turner, Third Issue, fine style.
This type issued in 1642, 44 and 50. Fig 30.3.2.
Wt: 1.708g (26.4gr)
This coin is corroded and a little worn. These issues
circulated more rapidly than the higher denominations and silver, but their metal was more resistant to
wear, so their deposition date is more difficult to estimate, but probably sometime before 1660.
Context: 1225 LPM JA 71 BP 7106
JARBW 1996.3729
Scotland. Charles I, turner, Third Issue, crude style.
This type was issued 1642, 44 and 50. For currency,
see Nu44. Fig 30.3.2.
Wt: 2.817g (43.5gr)
Context: 2346 EPM JA 78 HY 7801
JARBW 1996.3740
Scotland. Charles II, bawbee, Second Coinage,
Second Issue, 1678(?). Fig 30.3.2.
Wt: 6.179g (95.34gr)
The coin is corroded but the denomination was
issued only in the years 1677, 8 and 9; the last digit
is faintly visible and seems to be an 8.
Context: 6076 EPM JA 69 NG 6902
JARBW 1996.3712
Nu47 Copper Disc. Coin? Possibly a Scottish turner. Not

illus.
Wt: not recorded
Context: 2832 LPM JA 78 JL 7803
Nu48 Folded disc with floral design on the visible face
resembling a Tudor rose enclosed in a circle. Possibly
a medieval or early modern jetton. Not examined by
writer. Fig 30.3.2.
Wt: not recorded Diam 1213mm
Context: Layer 65 EPM JS 73 PE 215 Area IV
30.4 Coin weight

by Barrie J Cook
Nu49 Coin weight. Small square copper-alloy panel, both
faces decorated. The obverse design is contained
within a circle: a central shield is surrounded by four
smaller shields, one containing a cross. The reverse
bears a hand between the letters I and M, above
which are two tiny circles and other possible marks,
again enclosed within a circle. Fig 30.4.1.
This is intended to weigh the gold gulden of the
Rhineland electors of the 15th and early 16th centuries.
These gulden were issued to common standards established in a series of monetary conventions, and formed
the principal high value coinage of south-western
Germany as well as being familiar far beyond. The
obverse design reflects a common one used on the
Rhineland issues, with the central shield indicating the
particular issuing ruler (Cologne, the Palatinate etc),
and the others the rest of the principal rulers adhering
to the convention. In this case, the shields are not easy
to make out, but do not seen to reflect any particular
known issue: the coin weight is reflecting the gulden
generically, as their weight standard did not change
(always about 2.6g), so an exact correlation with a particular convention was not required. As is indicated by
the symbol of an upright right hand, the weight itself
was made in Antwerp, the principal centre for coin
weight production, probably as part of a set of weights
for the most commonly encountered foreign gold coins.
The letters I M are known on other Antwerp weights,
and probably indicate the manufacturers. However,
while some initials on such weights can be matched to
known manufacturers, this is not one of them. The
weight was made in the 16th century, probably in the
middle decades. The weight itself could have continued
to be useful long after it was produced, but is unlikely
to have functioned into the 17th century, by which time
old gulden would be rare items. A deposit date of the
mid to late 16th century can be suggested.
L 14 W 14 T 1.5mm Wt: 2.6g (40.04gr)
C16th
Context: 1289 EPM? MK 64 FB 6401
Fig 30.4.1 Coin weight (Nu49). Scale 2:1.TM
31 Personal possessions and domestic items
31.1 Gold thread from Wearmouth

AU1
Several fragments of narrow gold foil were recovered

near the displaced skull of skeleton MK 60/4 immediately to the south of St Peters Church. Fig 31.1.1.
This part of the site had been much disturbed by
later building and the intrusions of road services but
is one of the areas in which female burials have been
identified (see Vol 1, Ch 8, cemetery and Fig 8.19).
The thread would indicate the high status of the burial, as Crowfoot has remarked in relation to gold
threads found in graves on the Ccontinent and in
Anglo-Saxon England (Crowfoot and Chadwick
Hawkes 1967, 646; Crowfoot 1990, 4712).
Although gold thread was used to enhance the garments of both men and women, by far the most common gold woven ornament found in female graves is
the brocaded filet worn on the head (Webster and
Backhouse 1991, 889, no. 67a). A position for the
gold threads attached to the skull, as in this burial, is
commonplace for many high-status female burials in
England and on the continent (Crowfoot and
Chadwick Hawkes 1967, 6672). Spiralled, as
opposed to flat, gold thread only started to be used
by the late 7th century, and so this burial does not
antedate the monastic occupation of the site, and
confirms the impression that a position near the
church could have been occupied by important
females, whether lay or religious, during the late 7th
to 9th centuries. (RC)
Context: 1988 Saxon/Med MK 60 EJ 6004
Examination and analysis of the gold foil

by Jennifer Jones and Phil Clogg
Nine fragments of spirally twisted gold foil were examined. The pieces are very short, varying in length from
337mm. All the fragments appear to have originally
formed part of threads with a core of fibre around
which the foil was twisted, for use in weaving or as
applied embroidery (Crowfoot and Chadwick Hawkes
1967). Microscopic examination established that no
thread now remains inside the foil, but the shape of the
spiral twist has been retained.
Strips of gold for use in thread making were produced from sheets of metal beaten to the desired thickness, and then cut into narrow strips. The fragments
examined vary in width between 0.20.5mm, but are
around 0.4mm over most of their length. They are
approximately 0.05mm thick. There are no corrosion
products evident on the surface of the gold foil, and the
metal appears homogeneous throughout its thickness.
A fragment was analysed using Energy Dispersive
X-ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) to determine the alloy.
The analysis was of the surface and this, together with
the small sample size, means that the results can be
considered as being semi-quantitative only. The metal
Fig 31.1.1 Gold foil thread from Wearmouth. Photo: J

Jones
229
230
is mainly gold (97.2%), with a little silver (1.24%),

lead (0.45%) and copper (1.19%) also detected. Gold
with less than two per cent of copper is considered to
be most probably natural gold rather than an alloy
(Tylecote 1990).
31.2 Copper alloy and silver

by Rosemary Cramp, John Cherry and
Pamela Lowther
Introduction
This miscellaneous group of objects has been grouped
according to functional types where these are possible
to identify (irrespective of metal), and by likely object
date, and are otherwise ordered as elsewhere in this
publication (see Introduction). The principal authors
of this section are John Cherry (JC) and Rosemary
Cramp (RC); Pamela Lowther (PL) has written selected items and edited the catalogue. Seamus Ross
reported on the stick pins (below). Leslie Webster
(LW) helpfully identified or provided parallels for several items. Caroline Dudley (CD) provided a helpful
catalogue of items discovered before 1971 as part of a
post-graduate diploma (Dudley 1971), a copy of which
may be consulted at the Department of Archaeology,
University of Durham.
Within the corpus of copper alloy, the few Roman
items such as the trumpet brooch (CA1) may have
been brought to the sites as scrap for use in the metalworking that undoubtedly took place in the postRoman phases. There are no examples of fine
metalwork surviving from these two ecclesiastical sites,
and little which distinguishes the artefacts from those
from secular sites. In the Anglo-Saxon period, however, it is noteworthy that there are very few examples of
dress accessories, which is a marked contrast with the
medieval period. The few pre-Conquest buckles are of
iron (see Ch 31.6 below, Fe149150), and these may
have been part of the belts of monastic dress, but other
dress fastenings could perhaps be from secular dress,
as seems to be supported by their site distributions.
For example, two hooked tags from Wearmouth
(CA3031) came from graves, the four triangular
hooked tags from Jarrow, two of which were silver,
came from the area of Building D (AG12 and CA36)
and the riverside (CA37), as did the strap-end (CA35),
while the later plain strap-end (CA33) derived from
the workshop area on the upper terrace. In all of these
areas lay presence might have been expected in the
middle to late Anglo-Saxon period. The six stick pins
(P16) were more widely distributed on the site
although the elaborate cuboid-facet-head pin (P1) and
the crutch-headed pins (P3-4) all came from the same
workshop areas.
In the medieval phases there was a wider range of
buckles, buttons and some finger rings, but nothing of
exceptional quality, although the clasp (CA94), which
has been tentatively identified as a vestment clasp, is
unusual, as is the enigmatic oval ring mount with animal heads (CA87). The only personal possession of
especial note is the thimble from Wearmouth
(CA120), which, unless it is intrusive, is a very early
example.
The styli, of which CA1256 are examples, provide
limited evidence for literacy in the Anglo-Saxon period. Other tools for marking can be found in lead
objects, Pb6 representing a more unusual type. The
broad-bladed tweezers (CA116) could be a page holder/turner. In the post-Conquest period the styli are of
a different type and are considered in the bone report
(Riddler below, WB3538) and iron report (Goodall
below, Fe128), but there are two medieval book clasps
from Wearmouth (CA127 and CA128) and one from
Jarrow (CA129).
The knives and other tools from the pre-Conquest
period are, on the whole, common types, but notable
among them are the very fine small tools of Middle
Saxon date (CA131 and CA132) found on the workshop floor of Building D.
Dress accessories
Brooches (Fig 31.2.1)
CA1
CA2
CA3
Head and bow and part of the pin attachment of a

trumpet brooch or trumpet-headed brooch, with
traces of raised decoration around bow joint, and two
incised parallel lines across top of head. (JC, RC, LW)
L 26 W 11 T 7mm
C1st2nd AD
Context: 3301 L Sax JA 69 TB 6904
JARBW 1995.93
Three conjoining fragments of ring decorated with
groups of incised lines, possibly part of a ring
brooch. (RC)
L 25 T 2.5mm
Anglo-Saxon
Part of ring brooch of circular section. (RC)
Diam 25 T 3mm
C1416th
Context: 850 LPM JA 67 KR 6701
Fig 31.2.1 Brooches. Scale 1:1. YB
31: PERSONAL POSSESSIONS AND DOMESTIC ITEMS
Buckles (Figs 31.2.231.2.3)

CA4
CA5
CA6
Buckle with narrow oval loop, plain tongue and complete attached plate held by two rivets. The plate is
divided into three panels by four incised grooves. A
portion of the strap survives. (JC, RC)
Total L 35 Plate L 30 W 22 T 8mm
C1112th
Context: 1135 Norman JA 75 LR 4 7504
JARBW 1995.308
Complete buckle with oval loop, tongue and buckle
plate. The plate, which is attached by two rivets, is
decorated with engraved lines and tooling along the
edge. The tongue is moulded near the tip. (JC)
L 32 W 22 T 9.25mm
C1314th
Context: 1744 Med 1 MK 66 JP 6603
SLDM 43-1973/56-1
Buckle with near D-shaped loop, split in the centre,
and plain, round ended plates fastened by a rivet.
(RC)
Plate L 32 W 11 T 0.5mm; Loop L 18 W 11 T 2mm
Fig 31.2.2 Buckles. Scale 1:1. YB
CA7
CA8
CA9
231
C1314th
Context: 2645 Med 1 JA 73 RO 7302
JARBW 1995.86
?Buckle plate, broken in two across fold, two rivet
holes survive. The plate is ornamented with parallel
engraved lines along the edges. Since there is no clear
opening for a buckle tongue it is possible that this is
part of a folding strap clasp (see Egan and Pritchard
1991, fig 77). (JC, RC)
L 17 W 11 T 1mm
C13th
Context: 1703 u/s MK 62 BP 6201
Buckle with circular-sectioned kidney-shaped loop,
ends butted together. The complete rectangular
buckle plate is joined with two iron rivets, and decorated with two incised lines on each side parallel to
the edge. From grave 70/35. (JC, RC)
Loop L 15 W 15 T 4mm; Plate L 21 W 11 T 5mm
C14th
Context: 4916 Med JA 70 PK 7001
D-shaped loop of small buckle, semi-circular section.
(JC)
232
L 17 W 13 T 3mm
C1415th
Context: 78 LPM JA 63 CK 6302
CA10 D-shaped strap loop with projection in centre of flat
side (cf Egan and Pritchard 1991, 230, no. 1231, fig
145). (RC)
L 19 W 15 T 3mm
Medieval
Context: 2609 Med 2 JA 73 QK 7303
CA11 Buckle plate, with three rivet holes, bent over at one
end. (JC)
L 29 W 8 T 1mm
C1315th
Context: 1889 Med 1? MK 66 NV 6602
CA12 Buckle plate. Thin copper alloy strip, torn at both
ends. There are two lines of incised wavy decoration
along the long edges of the plate and forming a V at
the folded end, its apex at a rivet hole. The folded
end is recessed for the buckle frame and has a central
slot for the tongue. (RC)
L 36 W 17 T 0.3mm
Medieval
Fig 31.2.3 Buckles. Scale 1:1. YB
Context: Layer 18 Med2/EPM JS 76 HS 442 Area

VI
JARBW 1995.288
CA13 Buckle plate or strap-end. Sheet bronze plate outlined with raised wavy line on three sides, broken
along fourth side. Two rivet holes and possibly a
third perforation on the broken edge. (RC)
L 17 W 14 T 0.5mm
Medieval
Context: 2410 LPM JA 73 CQb 7302
CA14 Buckle plate. Rectangular sheet folded at one end
and pierced by one rivet hole. Engraved zigzag decoration along three edges. (RC)
L 25 W 15 T 1mm
C14th?
Context: 3582 Med 2 JA 70 FJ 7004
CA15 Small dress buckle with rectangular loop and pointed tongue, bent. (JC, LW)
L 16 W 14 T 2mm
C1415th
Context: 2809 Med 2 JA 78 HM 1 7803
JARBW 1995.307
CA16 Part of a buckle plate. Rectangular fragment with

inset corners and central rectangular perforation
along rounded end. (RC)
L 18 W 11.5 T 0.5mm
Medieval
Context: 678 EPM MK 61 AS 6104
CA17 Part of a rounded buckle loop.
Diam 4 W 20mm
1315th (JC)
Context: 149 PMed JA 63 GS 6302
CA18 Sub-rectangular or D-shaped cast buckle loop with
engraved lines on the thicker part of the loop, in two
conjoining fragments. (RC)
L 29 W 25 T 4mm
Late medieval?
Context: 5653 Modern JA 65 AC 6504
CA19 A pair of ring buckles in mint condition, with swivel
tongues. There is a moulding bearing parallel
grooves near the top of each tongue. From a
medieval grave inside the church, disturbed by workmen in 1987.
Such brooches are often found in pairs in
graves. Similar buckles were found in the excavations
at Cathedral Green, Winchester (Hinton 1990b,
524, no. 1245) and at Wells (Rodwell 2001, 520
and fig 512, nos 12); at St Oswalds, Gloucester,
two late medieval skeletons each had a pair of
ring buckles on the pelvic bones (Heighway
and Bryant 1999, 134 and fig 3.13, nos 2023). (RC,
JC)
Diam 4752 T 6mm
C1415th
Context: U/S (Med?) MK 87 160 a and b 8602
CA20 Buckle frame. Near-circular loop, with roller and offset bar; complete pin (cf Hinton 1990b, 51719, no.
1170). (JC)
L 17 W 21 T 3-6mm
C1314th
Context: Layer 66 EPM JS 73 PX 277 Area IVE
JARBW 1998.7749
CA21 D-shaped buckle frame with pronged centre (cf
Hinton 1990b, 517, no. 1159; Margeson 1993, fig
14, no. 143). (RC)
L 19 W 15 T 1mm
C14th
Context: Layer 66 EPM JS 73 PX 275 Area IV
CA22 Part of a large flat cast buckle. (RC)
W 35 T 2.5mm
Medieval
Context: 2560 Med 2 JA 73 NA 7302
JARBW 1995.309
CA23 Part of a rectangular buckle, possibly of the double
type, with traces of tinning. See Egan and Pritchard
1991, 85, figs 3444 and 346. (RC)
L 25 W 18 T 4mm
Late medieval
Context: 2978 Med 2 JA 69 CD 6905
CA24 Double-looped buckle with pointed ends and slight
moulding at the junction of the loops. Flat, Dshaped section. Cast, filed smooth in places (cf Egan
and Pritchard 1991, no. 386). (RC)
L 43 W 28 T 1.5mm
C1516th
Context: 822 EPM MK 66 LK 6604
SLDM 43-1973/28 (H6519)
233
CA25 Part of a cast sub-rectangular buckle loop with

grooved decoration on the longer side. See also
CA23. (RC)
L 32 W 20 T 47mm
C16/17th
Context: 1190 Med 2 JA 75 FV 7 7502
CA26 Buckle plate fragment plus eight small sheet fragments. (RC)
L 28 W 17 T 0.70mm
C16/17th
Context: 1190 Med 2 JA 75 FV a, b 7502
CA27 Buckle tongue.
L 25 W 5 T 2mm
Later medieval
Context: 3665 Med 2 JA 70 AAO 7007
JARBW 1995.305
CA28 Buckle tongue fragment. Not illus. (RC)
L 12 W 2 T 1mm
Medieval
Context: 2807 Med 2 JA 78 HG 1 7803
CA29 Two conjoining fragments of a pointed object.
Possibly a buckle tongue. Not illus. (RC)
L 24 W 6 T 4mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 4898 Med JA 70 UB 7001
Strap-ends and hooked tags (Fig 31.2.4)

CA30 Garment hook/hooked tag with roughly circular
head, a small collar and a hooked shank. There is a
central piercing. Such hooks seem to be fashionable
throughout the Anglo-Saxon period. (See Rogers
1993, 135960, fig 660). This derives from grave
67/7. (RC)
L 25 W 9 T 2mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2084 Saxon MK 67 GO 6701
CA31 Part of garment hook/hooked tag, broken in two
pieces, from grave of Sk 67/14. cf CA30. Not illus.
(RC)
L 19 W 1.75 T 1mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2095 Saxon MK 67 HK 6701
CA32 Part of a tag end with pendant plant ornament and
the beginning of a panel of incised ornament. (cf
Peers and Radford 1943, fig 11.14). (RC)
L 14 W 15 T 1mm
C9th
JARBW 1995.97
CA33 Strap-end in two parts, fixed by two small rivets at
the wider end. One half has been slightly facetted by
beating from behind a V-shaped incision and central
line. The other half has a V-shaped incision applied
from the front. (RC)
L 38 W 13 T 4mm
C9th
Context: 634 L Sax? JA 71 LU 7103
CA34 Split strap-end with broken terminal. Two tongue
plates of bronze, the upper one slightly domed. Stuck
or welded tag three-quarter length, one end open to
allow strap between plates, both flattened and secured
by a single rivet in end (cf Addyman and Hill 1969,
fig 27, 1 and 2; Hinton 1990a, 5002). (JC, RC)
234
Fig 31.2.4 Strap ends and hooked tags. Scale 1:1. YB

L 21.5 Diam 1.5 3mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 648 M Sax? JA 67 RD 6704
JARBW 1995.312
CA35 Narrow split tag end, with double mouldings and
rounded tip (cf Hinton 1990a, 502, fig 126, nos
10689; Rogers 1993, fig 652, no. 5318). (RC)
L 34 W 3.5 T 2mm
C912th
Context: 2810 Med 2 JA 78 EX 3 7803
JARBW 1995.92
AG1 Triangular hooked fastening of very thin silver. The
wider end of the tag is scalloped with a pointed centre and ends and is pierced by two holes; the narrow
end is hooked. Such tags are common in the 8th and
9th centuries, but not more closely datable than 7th
to 10th (cf Hinton 1990a, 54751, fig 148; Webster
and Backhouse 1991, 99, no. 69q). The fragility of
such pieces could indicate that they were bag fastenings. (RC)
L 26 W 10 T 0.2mm
Mid Saxon
AG2 Small triangular silver hooked tag pierced with two
holes for suspension at the wider end and hooked at
the narrower. cf CA36. (RC)
L 18 W 11 T 0.8mm
Mid Saxon
Context: 2017 L Sax JA 73 UG 12 7305
JARBW 1995.95
CA36 Triangular hooked clasp with rivet hole. Bag or
garter clasp. (RC)
L 25 W 12 T 1.5mm
CA37
CA38
CA39
CA40
Mid Saxon
Context: 919 LS/EM JA 76 CF 1 7603
Triangular hooked tag. There is slight moulding
along the wide end, echoing the position of the two
rivet holes. The tag is decorated with a line of circles
down the centre, flanked by two further circles. There
is faint linear and dot decoration along the edges (cf
Hinton 1990c, 5501, fig 148, no. 1419). (JC)
C10th?
L 21 W 19 T 0.5mm
Context: Layer 41 Med 2 JS 76 GO 326 Area IVN
Strap fitting with two iron rivets. The eye of the clip
is rounded and slightly worn. Where the shank meets
the eye is an incised and facetted line. The rivet nearest to the end is larger than the other and it appears
that this fastening could have been rivetted on to a
thick material. Compare an iron fitting from York
(Rogers 1993, fig 653, no. 5052). (RC)
L 21 W 8 Max T 5mm
C8th
JARBW 1995.77
Strap-end formed of two plain strips joined together
by three rivets. (JC)
L 22 W 9 T 4mm
C1516th
Context: 135 Med 2 MK 74 GA 2 7403
Strap-end with swivel terminal, formed of two copper alloy plates joined by two rivets, with side strips.
Remains of leather inside and traces of lead-tin solder (cf Egan and Pritchard 1991, 1367, fig 89).
(RC)
L 30 W 13 T 6mm
235
Fig 31.2.5 Lace tags. Scale 1:1. YB

C14th?
Context: 135 Med 2 MK 74 GA 1 7403
CA41 Thin folded bronze sheet with one rivet hole, possibly part of a strap-end. Not illus. (JC)
L 14 W 10 T 0.25mm
C1415th
Context: 1386 Med MK 64 QS 6403
CA42 Decorative strap-end with three pierced circular projections around an oval panel decorated in the centre
with a floral motif surrounded by a beaded border.
The rectangular attachment loop is broken. (RC)
L 40 W 22 T 1.5mm
C16th
Context: 4822 Modern JA 63 AD 1 6301
CA43 Small eyelet.
L 8 W 6 T 1mm
Anglo-Saxon
Lace tags (Fig 31.2.5)

CA44 Lace tag. The object is flattened with the ends
pressed into the middle. Found in between cobbles
of Anglo-Saxon path. (RC)
L 26 W 3 T 2mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 636 Saxon MK 71 MJ 7101
CA45 Lace tag. Not illus.
L 38 Diam 2mm
Early medieval
Context: 250 Med MK 74 ER 7401
CA46 Lace tag.
L 20 Diam 2mm
Medieval
Context: 104 LS/EM? JA 63 EV 6302
JARBW 1995.290a
L 25 Diam 2.5mm
Medieval
Context: 140 Med 2 MK 74 GK 1 7403
CA48 Rolled, tapering lace tag. (JC, LW)

L 26 Diam 2mm
Medieval
Context: 2037 Med 1b JA 73 EZ 7304
JARBW 1995.290b
L 25 Diam 3mm
Early medieval
Context: 134 Med 2 MK 74 FT 7403
CA50 Two lace tags. Not illus.
L 23 W 3 T 2.5mm
L 14 W 2.75 T 2.5mm
Medieval
Context: 127 Med 2 MK 74 EC 10, 11 7403
CA51 Incomplete lace tag, flat type. Not illus. (RC)
L 17 W 3 T 2mm
Medieval
Context: 624 Med MK 71 JG 7101
CA52 Six lace tags.
L 28 Diam 23mm; L 24 Diam 3mm; L 23 Diam
2mm; L 23 Diam 1mm; L 21 Diam 2mm; L 15
Diam 12.5mm
Medieval/late medieval?
Context: 116 EPM MK 74 CV 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 14 7403
CA53 Lace tag, tubular, rolled. Now broken. Not illus.
L 27 Diam 3mm
Medieval?
Context: 125 Med 2/EPM MK 74 DV 2 7403
CA54 Two lace tags. Not illus.
L 27 Diam 2mm; L 17 Diam 3mm
Late medieval
Context: 163 Med 2/EPM MK 74 DC 1, 2 7402
CA55 Lace tag, folded. Not illus.
L 20 Diam 12mm
Late medieval
Context: 2058 Med 2/EPM MK 67 EL 4 6701
L 35 W 3 T 2.5mm
Late medieval
Context: 120 Med 2/EPM MK 74 FW 1 7403
236
CA57 Lace tag, rolled and slightly tapering with traces of

fibre in wider end. Not illus. (CD)
L 27 Diam 2.5mm
Late medieval
Context: 1327 EPM MK 64 OG 6404
CA58 Lace tag with traces of lace inside.
L 25 W 3 T 2mm
Medieval?
Context: 1668 EPM MK 62 BY 6201
CA59 Narrow, oblong strip with edges bent in towards
middle at one end. Part of a lace tag?
L 18 W 3 T 2mm
Medieval
Context: 1538 EPM MK 66 OE 6601
CA60 Lace tag, broken, tubular section, traces of leather.
Found in a disturbed grave. (RC)
L 24 Diam 2mm
Medieval
Context: 2041 EPM MK 67 BB 6702
CA61 Complete long lace tag with overlapping seam. (JC)
L 54 Diam 3mm
Late medieval?
Context: 918 EPM MK 69 ES 1 6901
CA62 Long, tapering lace tag.
L 34 Diam 2mm
Late medieval
Context: 1169 EPM JA 75 BN a 7502
CA63 Lace tag.
L 30 Diam 2mm
Late medieval or early post-medieval
Context: 1179 EPM JA 75 DK b 7502
CA64 Two lace tags.
Each L 29 Diam 2mm
Medieval?
Context: 2345 EPM JA 78 HT 7801
JARBW 1995.190c
CA65 Lace tag, with overlapping edges and a hole at one
end. (JC)
L 21 Diam 1mm
Late medieval
Context: 2061 EPM MK 67 CX 1 6701
CA66 Lace tag? Simple open tube, tapering, torn at narrower end, wider end flattened. Not illus. (RC)
L 61 Diam 49mm
Late medieval?
Context: 310 LPM JA 66 BF 6601
CA67 Lace tag. Sheet of bronze bent into tube, slightly
tapering to one end, with long edges bent into
tongue and groove join. (RC)
L 27 Diam 23mm
Late medieval
Context: 300 LPM JA 66 DH 6601
CA68 Large lace tag. Not illus. (RC)
L 42 Diam 2mm
Late medieval
Context: 300 LPM JA 66 CR 6601
CA69 Rolled lace tag. (RC)
L 30 Diam 3mm
Medieval/early post-medieval
Context: 2476 LPM JA 73 EQ a 7302
CA70 Lace tag, decorated with cross-hatching.
L20 W4 T 1mm
Late medieval/early post-medieval?
Context: 5245 Modern JA 67 BH 6702
Pins
Stick pins (Fig 31.2.6)
by Seamus Ross
P1
Pin with cuboid-facet-head; ring-and-dot decoration

on all facets. The shaft joins the head without a collar and is round; the point of the pin is lost and it is
badly corroded.
L 45 Head H 6 L 7 W 7 Shaft diam 2mm
MidLate Anglo-Saxon
JARBW 1995.91
Roman stratigraphic sequences later than the second

half of the 3rd century often include cuboid-facetheaded pins (Crummy 1983, 223). They were made
in a variety of materials: bone, copper alloy and jet.
Giles Clarke published a number from the burials in
the Lankhills cemetery, all from contexts which he
thought suggested dates between the middle and late
4th century (see Clarke 1979, 316, type B). The comparative similarity of the late Roman examples and the
middle Saxon cuboid-facet-headed pins has lead to the
suggestion that there was some continuity in manufacture. These claims, as I have argued elsewhere, are tenuous at best (Ross 1991, chapter 2).
Facet-headed pins appear to have had a broad geographic distribution during the middle and late AngloSaxon periods. A cross-section of sites which have
produced them includes: Brandon (Carr 1985, figs
13.3, 13.4), Canterbury (Ross 1995: CAT Marlowe IIa
SF471, CAT Marlowe SF484, CAT Marlowe IV SF
1104, CAT Marlowe IV SF1469), Ipswich (Ross forthcoming), Sedgeford (K Wade, pers comm, KW GCC
30.1), Southampton (Addyman and Hill 1969, figs
25.5, 6, 7, 8; Wilthew 1984), Whitby (Peers and
Radford 1943, fig 14) and York (Waterman 1959, figs
11.12, 25.2). There is also the example of the facetheaded pin from the Trewhiddle hoard, but this excessively large pin head (19mm cuboid) does little more
than help us to establish facet-headed pins were used in
the late 9th century, but see Wilson 1964, 1823. There
are a number from the excavations at Whitby (British
Museum M&ME Whitby 299305, undecorated, and
British Museum M&ME Whitby 306322, decorated)
and these are thought to belong to the period of the
Anglo-Saxon monastery, AD 657867. The pins from
other sites came from stratigraphic contexts dating to
the middle and late Saxon periods. At Canterbury, for
example, cuboid-facet-headed pins came from contexts
dating between AD 650700 (CAT MIV SF 1104) to
those belonging between AD 14001550 (CAT MIV SF
471). The earlier date of the former pin can be confirmed by comparisons with finds from Ipswich and
Southampton (ie SOU 31-1562), while in the latter
case it seems likely that the pin was residual. The latest
periods during which they are common seems to be the
early 12th century. A cuboid-facet-headed pin with fairly close head dimensions to this pin from Jarrow came
from the excavations in York (Mainman and Rogers
237
Fig 31.2.6 Large or stick pins, rivet-headed pins and other pins. Scale 1:1. YB
2000, cat no. 10450). It has a 6mm cuboid head and
ring-and-dot decoration on the four main facets. This,
together with a second pin which proved to be Roman,
came from the phases of the post and wattle buildings
at Coppergate, which date between AD 930975.
Another copper-alloy parallel with a 6 6 6mm
faceted head was recovered from Market Weighton,
North Humberside (Hull Museums 138.1980.5).
P2
P3
Ring-headed pin with faceted head, the ring and tip

of shank missing. The faceted head has dot decoration on the facets closest to the shank. The cast
shank is decorated with deeply grooved baluster and
incised ornament.
L 54 Head W 9 Diam 4.5mm
C12th13th?
Context: 704 LPM JA 67 CT a 6701
Pin with rectangular head, commonly referred to as a
crutch-headed pin. The two main faces are decorated
with dot ornament, three dots on each face. Each of
the two end faces of the head has a depression set into
them; the top of the pin is undecorated. The shaft
joins the pin without a collar, it is round in section,
plain tapering and undecorated. The pin was cast and
the decoration was punched on after casting.
L 116 Head H 3 L 7 W 5 Shaft diam 4mm
P4
C1012th
Pin with rectangular head, commonly referred to as
a crutch-headed pin. The head of the pin is undecorated and each of the two end faces has a depression
in its centre. The shaft joins the pin-head without a
collar, is round in section, plain tapering and undecorated. The pin was cast, and is now bent.
L 107 H of head 3 L 6 W 5 Shaft diam 3mm
C1012th
Context: 2826 Med 1 JA 78 IQ 1 7803
JARBW 1995.94
Both P3 and P4 could be paralleled by crutchheaded pins without attached rings (ie Dublin
E71:9196; Dublin E43:692), but the depressions on
the end faces of these pin-heads indicate that they at
one time had a swivel ring, now lost, attached to their
heads. These two examples are from the 19621972
Dublin excavations discussed by C ORahilly (1975,
1317). I have examined numerous other unpublished
examples from later excavations in Dublin led by Dr
Patrick Wallace.
Crutch-headed pins, without exception, had the
same basic type of ring head. The two Jarrow examples, in common with most other crutch-headed pins,
238
originally had a D-shaped or stirrup ring. Knowledge

of the precise type of ring and the size of its arc would
help us to narrow the date range and to identify closer
parallels. Without the ring we can only offer broad
comparisons. Fanning, who has done extensive
research into the class of ringed pins on Irish soil
(1969; 1970; 1975) and more recently investigated
those coming from sites in Scotland (1983a) and the
Isle of Man (1983b), has argued that this pin type was
used primarily during the 11th and 12th centuries. His
survey of these pins in Ireland has led him to conclude
that, there is no firm evidence from any Irish site for a
pre-late 10th/11th century context for the stirrupringed crutch-headed form (Fanning 1983a, 329).
Three possible parallels for the pins from Jarrow are
known from Ballinderry 1 (Hencken 1936, 152, fig
21B, 157, fig 26H, items 13 and 14, 221). These pins
which like the Jarrow pins have lost their rings come
from either 11th- or 12th-century contexts. This is evidently the same date range for the contexts of finds of
similar pins from the Dublin excavations in High
Street and Winetavern Street (Fanning 1983a, 329). A
plain ringed crutch-headed pin from High Street
(E71:3095) from a 12th-century context is one published parallel (Fanning 1994, Dublin 1973, 26, item
24).
There are parallels from Insular sites as well.
Fanning, in his study of the Scottish ringed pins, identified five examples which had not yet lost their ring
(1983a, 340, nos 4145) and five examples in which
the rings did not survive (1983a, 3412, nos 5458; in
addition, nos 60 and 61 may have been ringed but the
evidence was scanty). Three of these examples (one
complete and two incomplete) were recovered by
Hamilton at Jarlshof (1956, 1278, 60.1 and 60.2,
items 2313). These, Hamilton argued, were of a 9thcentury date. This dating has been disputed. GrahamCampbell, relying on the excellent stratigraphic
sequence available at Udal, was able to argue successfully that the crutch-headed stick pin from Udal excavations came from an 11th-century context (1974,
201, pls 1b, 1c). This allowed him to re-evaluate the
dating of the Jarlshof examples and assign them to a
later date range. The two examples from Jarrow now
give further Insular confirmation for Fannings and
Graham-Campbells later dating of this group. The
pottery from the context in which P3 was recovered
spans the 12th to mid-14th centuries; P4 comes from
a context indicating deposition between the 10th and
13th century.
The context of the Jarrow crutch-headed pins suggest that it would be prudent to reassess a pin recovered during excavation in St Augustines Abbey,
Canterbury, and published by Radford in 1940. This
copper alloy pin has a crutch head decorated with three
dots on each of the two faces. Each of the two end
faces have small depressions set into them. These hold
the pivot pins of the D-shaped ring. The D-shaped
ring has a ridge running along its outer edge and is
decorated with vertical incised lines. The pin (excluding the ring) is 95mm long, and it has a shaft diameter
of 3mm. The height of the head is 3mm, the width of
the head is 4mm, the length of the head is 7mm, the
thickness of the ring is 3mm and the diameter of the
ring is 10mm. The pin was found in an empty grave on
the site of the tower at the west end of the church
(Radford 1940, 506). Radford suggested that this pin
like the other finds he was discussing came from a preConquest context. He went so far as to argue that the
pin should be dated to the 7th century. He assigned the
pin to this century based on two implicit assumptions:
the supposed correctness of Armstrongs typology, and
an excessively narrow interpretation of Gocelins
description of Abbot Scotlands campaign to renovate
St Augustines Abbey. First, the line of argument followed by Armstrong in his Irish bronze pins of the
Christian Period leads inevitably to the conclusion
that these pins belong to an early Christian date
(19223, 78, pl XII.I). Armstrong, however, had no
dating evidence on which to base his conclusions and
his typological sequence runs exactly in reverse.
Reversing the sequence would have the effect of placing the pins with exaggerated D-shaped rings earlier
and the smaller D-shaped rings later. The second piece
of evidence which confused Radford was the historical
data. Peers and Clapham, in a report on the research
program at St Augustines Abbey, recounted Gocelins
story that, Abbot Scotland, when pulling down St
Marys Chapel, transferred the remains of those bishops and abbots who had been buried there to the western tower of the monastery, laying them before the
altar of St Mary there (Peers and Clapham 1927,
211).
The burials that were moved were reported to have
been those of 7th-century bishops and abbots. Based
upon the typological evidence as established by
Armstrong, and Radfords supposition that the burials
at the end of the church were all re-depositions of burials originally of an early date, he concluded that the pin
must also be assigned an early date. From the evidence
it was only safe to conclude that some of the burials
might have been of a 7th-century date and that this
area was in use as a burial ground at least until the 11th
century. Now that the date range of this type of pin has
been confirmed to 11th/13th century it is possible to
revise our understanding of the context of burials at
the western end of the church. First, they probably do
not all represent reburials of the 7th-century bishops
and abbots. In fact at least one of these burials was
probably considerably later. That is, it was the burial of
an individual who died and was buried at the earliest in
the 11th century. Comparative evidence from late
Anglo-Saxon and early Norman burials would indicate
that the inclusion of material objects was quite rare.
One of the rare burials which did include finds was the
burial of Archbishop Wulfstan of York. This included a
spatulated diamond-headed pin (figured in Armstrong
19223, XIII.4 [11]).
Since the context of the St Augustines Abbey pin

was not published in detail and the Jarrow pins are severed from any evidence of their context of use, it might
be unwise to argue about the function of these ringedpins too extensively. The few burials in which ringedpins have been recorded include those from Cronk
Moar and Ballateare (Fanning 1983b, 30), grave 1007
at Birka (Arbman 1940) and Kneep (Welander et al
1987, 170). At Kneep the evidence strongly points to
the use of the pin to secure the womens overcloak in
place. Ringed pins seem to be acceptable fasteners for
the clothing of both men and women. Petersen noted
this in his discussion of this group of pins in the
Norwegian Viking graves (1928), as did Vera Evison in
her investigation of the weaponed-burial at Sonning
(1969).
While no direct connection can be established
between the ridge-stirrup-ringed crutch-headed pins
from Canterbury and the Jarrow pins, the rarity of such
finds on both urban and monastic sites makes the finds
of particular interest.
P5
P6
Coil-headed pin with rectangular-sectioned ribbed

shaft, tip missing. Since it is uncertain how much of
the shank of this pin is missing, it is difficult to characterise, and if the ribbed shank is the major part of
that element, it might be an object with a different
function. (RC)
L 32 Head H 9 Shank 2 1mm
Medievalearly post-medieval?
Context: Layer 65 EPM JS 73 sf 182 Area IV
JARBW 1995.291
Small pin with silvered shaft and opaque pink glass
bead-head.
L 26 Bead diam 6 Shank diam 2mm
Context 258 EPMLPM JA 65 AK 6507
Glass-headed pins are known from late Roman

contexts. Clarke (1979, 316, figs 85.429, 89.332,
93.397) recovered them from his excavations at
Lankhills. They were also recovered during excavations
at Shakenoak (Harden 1971b, 106, item 152, fig
45.69). They do occasionally come from post-Roman
contexts but in these instances they may be residual.
There is certainly a green glass-headed pin known
from grave 34 at Chessel Down (Arnold 1982, 245,
fig 8; British Museum M&ME 67.7-29.134). A copper-alloy pin with a green-glass globular head came
from an undated context at the palace site at Cheddar
(Rahtz 1979, 280, item CA81, fig 94.181). There are
at least two glass bead-headed pins from West Stow
(West 1985, fig 277, 2, 3). The Jarrow pin has a pink
bead head; this is most unusual. The majority of the
bead-headed pins have green-glass heads, although
blue glass is not unknown. A range of Roman beadheaded types are represented in the finds from
Silchester in Reading Museum (03337a blue glass
bead-headed; 03337b blue glass loaf-headed; 03337c
green glass loaf-headed; 03337d green glass mushroom-head; 03337e green glass mushroom-head).
There is a possibility that this pin was made from a
239
7th-century bead, as such use of beads is not unknown

during this period. The function of these pins in
Anglo-Saxon contexts is difficult to discern. A pin with
an iron shank and a bead head comes from grave 157
at Dover (Buckland Cemetery; Evison 1987, 332, fig
61.3). This pin was found at the neck and could thus
have served to close a head-scarf below the chin.
Rivet-headed pins (Fig 31.2.6)
by Seamus Ross
See also tacks and rivets, CA188193.

P7
P8
P9
P10
P11
P12
Rivet-headed pin(?), undecorated, plain shaft,

incomplete. From cemetery.
L 19 Head 3 Shank 2mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2150 Saxon MK 67 GR 6702
TWMS
Rivet-headed pin, with short thick stem, undecorated. Found with Sk 61/24.
L 19 W 2.5 T 2mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2341 Saxon MK 61 EF 6103
TWMS
Rivet-headed pin(?), undecorated, two fragments,
found in grave of Sk 67/20. Not illus.
L 13 Diam 1.5mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2165 L Sax MK 67 JO 6702
TWMS
Rivet-headed pin(?), undecorated, in two fragments.
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 2131 EPM MK 67 DR 4 6702
TWMS
Silver pin with gilt head. Rivet-headed(?).
Undecorated plain shaft, incomplete.
L 15 Head 3 Diam 2mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2191 M Sax JA 73 VS 3 7304
JARBW 1999.11398
Part of a rivet-headed pin? Not illus.
L 4 Head W 2.5 Shank 2mm
Anglo-Saxon
These small objects with rivet-style heads might be

pins. There is certainly evidence from the late 7th
century for the use of small pins. A 44mm long wedgeheaded pin was recovered from grave 17a at Castle
Dyke (Humberside). There is also an earlier wellestablished group of spatulate-disc-headed pins predominantly from Kent, Suffolk, and the Upper
Thames Valley (Ross 1991, chapter 7). These latter
pins are represented among the pins from Evisons
excavations at Dover. But there are also other pins less
than 50mm long represented from these and other
excavations. There is, for instance, a pin from grave
100 (Evison 1987, fig 48-100.1) with a spatulate wedge
head. Other similar pins come from grave 138 (ibid, fig
57-138.2) and grave 160 (ibid, fig 62-160.1). An iron
nail-headed pin from grave 6 (ibid, fig 7-6.4) is a close
parallel to the Wearmouth and Jarrow examples.
240
There is also a group of nail-headed pins from sites in

Scotland, such as those from Buston Crannog
(Stevenson 1955, 284, figs 23). Stevenson and subsequently Laing (1973b; 1975a) thought these pins
reflected a continuous development of Roman types
in the post-Roman period; a suggestion which is now
considered questionable. But, the rivet-headed pins
from Jarrow are shorter than those in Anglo-Saxon
graves or on Scottish sites.
The recovery of P7P9 from contexts associated
with human bone has led us to postulate that these
pins might have been associated with shroud burials.
Unfortunately, the position of these pins relative to the
skeletons is not known. Shroud burials are certainly
known from early religious contexts in England: one
need only reflect for a moment on the instruction
Guthlac gave on his death-bed that his sister was to
wrap him in linen cloth which he had saved for the purpose. Fastening the shroud could have been done using
a small pin. However, these pins hardly seem long
enough to have served any functional role in securing
shrouds, but a well-wrapped shroud would not have
stressed the pin. On the other hand, shrouds could
have been fastened by other means, such as the rings
depicted in later medieval illustrations (R Morris, pers.
comm); these may have been made of a variety of
materials, including organic.
Miscellaneous pins (Fig 31.2.6)
P13
P14
P15
P16
P17
Large pin with lens-shaped head, formed from two

discs, split apart by corrosion. Hair pin, or for fastening clothes?
L 55 W 1.5 T 8mm
Medieval
Context: 2066 EPM MK 67 FM 6701
SLDM 43-1973/24
Large pin-head, much decayed, perhaps similar to
P13. From cemetery. Not illus.
L 9 W 11 T 10mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 852 L Sax MK 66 UX 6602
TWMS
Long iron pin with large spherical, ribbed silver
head. Bent near tip. From the cemetery earth, so
possibly from a disturbed Anglo-Saxon or medieval
burial.
L 61 T 1.5 Head diam 7mm
Anglo-Saxon or medieval?
Context: 4973 SaxonMed 1 JA 70 ABB 7001
JARBW 1999.11397
Hollow, tapering shank. Pin? (JC, LW)
L 40 Diam 2mm
Anglo-Saxon?
JARBW 1995.76
Crude pin formed from a length of wire, pointed at
one end, the other end flattened out to form a head.
From infant burial 66/58, possibly a shroud pin.
L 45 Head W 2.5 Shank 1.5mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 1570 L Sax MK 66 WH 6601
Wire pins (Fig 31.2.7)

Over 200 wire pins were recovered from the two sites,
most coming from post-medieval or modern contexts.
The present catalogue is restricted to hand-made pins
with twisted wire heads found in contexts up to the
start of the post-medieval period, plus a small sample
of illustrated examples from later deposits. Not all pins
were available for examination, so some of the catalogue entries are based on original records. A full listing of all pins, including machine-made pins, can be
found in the archive, together with a report by S Ross
on the post-medieval pins from Jarrow Slake.
Most of the pins in the catalogue are of the common hand-made type with a head made from a twist of
wire either glued or more or less tightly crimped onto
a wire shank (Caple 1991, Types AC). Wire pins of
this kind were used for a wide variety of purposes, such
as fastening head-dresses and clothing, or as shroud
pins. Such pins were in use throughout the medieval
and post-medieval periods, tending to become smaller
and thinner with time, before they were replaced by
one-piece machine-made pins from the earlier 19th
century (cf Caple 1991). A number of the pins have a
silvery appearance and seem to have been tinned.
The date at which wire pins were first introduced is
not established with any certainty. Although the technology for drawing wire was available from at least the
10th/11th centuries (S Ross, archive report), pins with
twisted wire heads only become common in stratified
deposits after the 14th century (Caple 1991, 242). As
on other sites, most early pins from Wearmouth and
Jarrow are cast (see above), but a few wire pins do occur
in contexts dated from Saxon to Medieval 1 (P1823).
Some caution is, however, necessary before accepting
these pins as necessarily contemporary with the context
in which they were found; due to their small size and
relative heaviness, pins are notoriously able to move
through archaeological deposits, particularly on longlived sites such as Wearmouth and Jarrow. The presence
of an apparently machine-made pin (P28) in a medieval
grave at Jarrow provides an example of the problem. On
the other hand, it has recently been argued on the
strength of the numbers found in post-Roman contexts
at Wroxeter together with the relative scarcity of
medieval and post-medieval finds in the same horizon
that wire pins might have originated as early as the later
Roman period (Barker et al 1997, 194).
From their size and form, it is likely that most of the
Jarrow and Wearmouth pins are late or post-medieval
types. Some however, seem likely to be earlier forms,
particularly the long pins, such as P22 and P27 with
flattened heads (both from medieval contexts), P26
and P29 with loosely wound heads (the former certainly and the latter possibly from later medieval
deposits), and P30a and P33a both with loosely
crimped spherical twisted wire heads. (PL)
P18
Fragment of pin shank. Not illus.

L 9 Shank 1.5mm
Context: 2168 Saxon MK 67 JY 6702
241
Fig 31.2.7 Wire pins. Scale 1:1. YB

P19
P20
P21
P22
P23
P24
P25
P26
P27
P28
Pin with globular head.

L 26 Head 1.5 Shank 1mm
Context: 616 LS/EM MK 71 GW 2 7101
Pin shank. Not illus.
L 35 Shank 1mm
Context: 3104 LS/EM MK 86 133 8602
Pin with globular head. Lost. Not illus.
Context: 5269 LS/EM JA 67 LQ 6703
Long pin with flattened head.
Context: 976 Med 1 JA 76 EJ 1 7604
JARBW 1995.311
Pin with spherical twisted wire head. Caple Type
B/C.
Context: 1111 Med 1? JA 75 GV 7504
Pin. Not illus.
L 22 Shank 1.25mm
Context: 121 Med 2 MK 74 DB 7403
Three pins. Not illus.
L 26 L 27 L 25, Head 2 Shanks 1mm
Context: 140 Med 2 MK 74 GK 2-4 7403
Pin with twisted wire head, shank bent. Caple Type A.
Context: 2384 Med 2 JA 75 CK 1 7505
JARBW 1995.311
Pin, with bent shank and oval, flattened head, slightly off-centre.
L 40 Head 3 Shank 0.5mm
Context: 2139 Med 2? JA 73 PF 4 7304
JARBW 1995.311
Pin, bent, with flattened head. Apparently a one-piece,
upset-headed pin of 19th-century machine-made type.
Intrusive in this context (burial 67/51, medieval?).

Context: 751 Med JA 67 PG 6701
Pin shank fragments were recovered from the following
medieval contexts at Jarrow. Not illus.
L 15 Diam 1mm. Context: 1191 Med 2 JA 75 GK
1 7502
L 15 Diam 0.5mm. Context: 2825 Med 1 JA 78 IP
7803
P29
Large pin with well-marked twisted wire head. Caple
Type A.
Context: 1731 Med 2/EPM MK 66 CP 6603
SLDM 43-1973/30
P30
Five pins: (a, b) Caple Type B, tinned or silvered?
(c) Caple Type C? (de) uncertain. Not illus.
a. L 56 Head 4 Shank 1.5mm; b. L 29 Head 1.5 Shank
0.75mm; c. L 16 Head 2 Shank 1mm; d. L 33 Head
1.25 Shank 0.75mm; e. L 13 Head 1.5 Shank 1mm
Context: 2058 Med 2/EPM MK 67 DC1; CP 2;
DD 3; DC 3a; EL 23 6701
TWMS 43-1973-13, 17, 18
P31
Fourteen pins: (af) 6 with spherical twisted wire
heads, Caple Type C. Not illus.
(gn) 8 uncertain type, globular head. Not illus.
a. L 26 Shank 1 Head 2mm; b. L 29 Shank 1 Head
2mm; c. L 27 Shank 1 Head 2mm; d. L 24 Shank 1
Head 2mm; e. L 22 Shank 1 Head 2mm; f. L 24
Shank 1 Head 2mm; g. L 21 Shank 1 Head 2mm;
h. L 30 Head 2 Shank 1mm; i. L 26 Head 2 Shank
1mm; j. L 25 Head 2 Shank 1mm; k. L 24 Head 2
Shank 1mm; l. L 25 Head 2 Shank 1mm; m. L 23
Head 2 Shank 1mm; n. L 14 Head 2 Shank 1mm
Context: 120 Med 2/EPM MK 74 EZ 1-7, MK 74
FW 2-8 7403
242
P32
Pin with twisted wire head. Not illus.

Context: 125 Med 2/EPM MK 74 DV 1 7403
Pin shank fragments were recovered from the following Med

2/EPM contexts at Wearmouth:
L 29 Diam 1mm; L 10 Diam 1mm. Context: 120
Med 2/EPM MK 74 EZ 8; FW 9 7403
Tinned? L 21 Diam 1mm; L 15 Diam 0.75mm; L 25
Shank 1mm; L 11 Diam 1mm. Context: 2058 Med
2/EPM MK 67 DC 3b; DT 6; EL 5, 12 6701
L 17 Diam 1mm. Context: 2075 Med 2/EPM MK
67 EV 13 6701
P33
Two pins: (a) Complete large pin with twisted wire
head. Caple Type B/C. (b) Pin with remains of twisted wire head, type uncertain.
a. L 56 Head 3.25 Shank 1.25mm; b. L 28 Head 2
Shank 1mm
Context: 116 EPM MK 74 CV 1, 2 7403
P34
Pin with twisted wire head. Tinned. Caple Type B/C.
Context: 1963 EPM MK 60 AO 6001
Drawing 5090
P35
Pin, in two pieces, with spherical twisted wire head.
CA73
CA74
CA75
CA76
CA77
Tinned? Caple Type B. Shank projects through

top of head.
P36
P37
P38
P39
P40
P41
P42
L >19 Head 1.5 Shank 1mm

Context: 1148 EPM MK 61 AH 6103
Drawing 5089
Pin with spherical twisted wire head. Caple Type C.
Context: 1761 LPM MK 66 BU 6603
TWMS 43-1973-16
Pin with spherical twisted wire head. Tinned? Caple
Type C.
Context: 1177 EPM JA 75 CU 1 7502
Drawing 032
Pin with spherical twisted wire head. Caple Type C.
L 26 Head 2 Shank 0.5mm
Context: 2415 EPM JA 73 CY a 7302
Pin, tip bent, with globular twisted wire head?
Context: 2830 EPM JA 78 KC 10 7803
Large bent pin with twisted wire head. Caple Type
A?
Context: 130 LPM MK 74 GE 1 7403
Pin with twisted wire head. Caple Type B?
Context: 2177 LPM MK 60 BC 6003
Large pin with twisted wire head. Caple Type B.
Context: 1186 LPM/Modern MK 62 HO 6201
CA78
CA79
CA80
CA81
CA82
Decorative studs and mounts (Fig 31.2.8)

CA83
CA71 Tiny fragment of lobed ornamental stud with rivet.
Possibly for leather decoration. (RC)
L 6 W 8.5 T 4mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 1684 Med 1 MK 62 HE 6201
CA72 Ornamental nail head/stud, a belt or book fitting,
from floor of Building B. Now lost. Not illus. (RC)
Diam 17 W 4mm
CA84
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 3229 Saxon JA 69 XA 1 6901
Five sheet fragments, the two largest embossed on one
surface with interlinked arcs. Pieces of a mount? (RC)
L 8 W 7 T 0.5mm; L 6 W 5 T 0.5mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2881 Saxon JA 76 HE 1 7602
Flat fragment with engraved and punched ornament.
Possibly a fitting. (RC)
L 24 W 21 T 1mm
Medieval?
Context: 916 LPM MK 69 EE 6903
Incomplete stud head.
Diam 10 H 8mm
Anglo-Saxon
JARBW 1999.11421
Domed stud with part of shank. (RC)
Diam 15 H 6 T 1mm
Anglo-Saxon
JARBW 1995.79
Domed stud with flattened top. (RC)
Diam 10 H 7 T 1mm
Anglo-Saxon
JARBW 1995.80
Domed, circular object with central hole. Belt
appliqu? (cf Hinton 1990e, fig 350). (RC)
Diam 10 H 5 T 0.5mm
C1112th
Context: 1121 Norman/Med 1 JA 75 JQ 2 7504
JARBW 1995.78
Domed stud, circular and hollow, no shank.
Probably from a belt. (RC)
Diam 12 H 4 T 0.5mm
Medieval
Context: 3047 Med 2 JA 69 HF 6903
JARBW 1998.7747
Domed stud head, circular and hollow, with trace of
shank for attachment. Probably from a belt, cf
CA81. (RC)
Diam 14 H 4mm
C14th?
Context: 4453 Med 2 JA 69 GB 6903
Domed head of stud. Shank of rivet has been hammered through top (cf Egan and Pritchard 1991,
1749, fig 112). (RC)
Diam 15 H 6mm
C1415th
Context: 3023 Med 2 JA 69 EL a 6903
Domed head of stud. (cf Groves 1990, 1111, fig
361).
Diam 15 T 3mm
Medieval?
Context: 3017 EPM JA 69 EF 6902
Domed-headed conical stud.
Diam 15 H 7mm
Context: 2856 Modern JA 76 BV b 7602
Domed stud with shank, possibly for furnishing?
(RC)
Diam 12 H 5mm
Context: 2130 EPM MK 67 DQ 6702
243
Fig 31.2.8 Decorative studs and mounts. Scale 1:1. YB

CA85 Domed stud with central shaft for attachment. (RC)
Diam 11 H 3mm
Context: 2118 Modern MK 67 BR 6702
CA86 Domed head of stud. Hole on top, probably to hold
rivet, for attachment to a belt or harness. Not illus.
(RC)
Diam 33 H 8mm
Medieval
Context: 4704 Med 2 JA 70 AFM a 7008
CA87 Oval ring mount with opposing inturned, stylised
animal heads. Two nicks on opposite sides of the
back of the frame would seem to suggest that it was
fitted to a cross-bar of some kind.
No convincing function can be suggested for this
piece, although similar objects are known: for example a gilded mount of later and more elaborate type
from Pottergate, Norwich, has been identified as a
possible casket mount. That piece, however, has rivet
holes whereas the Jarrow piece has no fixing holes on
top. (JC, RC, LW)
Overall W 37 Diam of ring 20 (ext) 14 (int) T 3mm
C1112th
Context: 2370 Med 2 JA 75 EG 7505
CA88 Part of a floral mount with lobed edges and one small
perforation. Decorative mount for clothing? (cf Egan
and Pritchard 1991, 18594). (JC, RC)
Diam 23 T 1mm
C1314th
Context: 1988 Med 1b JA 73 PW 13 7305
JARBW 1995.287
CA89 Enamelled quatrefoil pendant with traces of gilding.
This pendant in the form of a quatrefoil has as its
centre a sexafoil flower with four radiating leaves; it
is a pendant of Griffiths type VI, with red enamel in
the centre, and blue enamel as the main ground. The
pendant loop has broken off.
Two parallels were recently found in the Midlands.
One (Griffiths VI-25) brought to the Lincoln Museum
in 1985 remains in private possession. The other was
found at Blyth, Notts (Griffiths VI-25), and remains in
private possession. This has a sexafoil flower in the
centre and four radiating three-petalled leaves.
Another with a central sexafoil and four radiating
stylised three-leaved fronds was brought into Lincoln
Museum for identification in 1985. Lastly, a quatrefoil
pendant with a diamond-shaped centre with a leaf
within and four projecting fleurs-de-lis was found at
244
the deserted medieval village of Grindale between

Bridlington and Hunmanby, Yorks, and passed into
the trade in 1989 (N Griffiths, pers comm). (JC)
Diam 27 T 1mm
Late C14th
Context: 2492 EPM JA 73 GC 7302
CA90 Pendant ring, twisted, with two points broken. Not
illus. (RC)
Diam 1215 T 1.25mm
Later medieval?
Context: 116 EPM MK 74 CV 15 7403
CA91 Circular flat plate with tag and serrated edge, no
means of attachment. Tag or dangle? (JC, RC)
Diam 17 T 1mm
Later medieval
Context: 1642 EPM MK 62 CH 6201
CA92 Belt slide? (cf Egan and Pritchard 1991, fig 140), or
drop handle, possibly for a small drawer. (RC, JC)
L 36.5 W 13.5 T 4mm
Late medieval (C1617th?)
Buttons (Fig 31.2.9)

CA93 Flat copper alloy disc, bent over at the edges. Button
or stud.
Diam 15 T 0.5mm
C12th
JARBW 1995.82
CA94 Oval button, with green glass setting, and loop
behind, attached to decorative chain. Vestment clasp?
(cf Egan and Pritchard 1991, 274; and fig 178.). (RC)
L 15 W 12 T 6mm
Medieval?
Context: 2822 Med (dist) JA 78 HV 2 7803
CA95 Disc, decorated with a six-pointed floral or star pattern. Part of a cast button? (cf Egan and Pritchard
1991, 275, no. 1381). Not illus. (RC)
Diam 12mm
Medieval
Context: 3206 Med/EPM MK 86 sf 86 8603
Fig 31.2.9 Buttons. Scale 1:1. YB
CA96 Cast biconvex button with wire shank. (cf. Egan and
Pritchard 1991, no. 1377). (RC)
Diam 20 H 15mm
Medieval
Context: 658 LPM JA 67 FO 6703
JARBW 1999.11420
CA97 Domed head of stud or composite button (cf Groves
1990, 111011, fig 361). (RC)
Diam 15 H 5mm
Medieval?
Context: 2804 LPM JA 78 DN a 7803
CA98 Domed object with twelve perforations. Top of composite button? (cf Egan and Pritchard 1991, fig 179).
Diam 16 H 8 T 0.5mm
C15th?
Context: 4826 Med 12 JA 63 DT 6301
CA99 Hollow bronze button with convex surface, decorated
with radiating impressed lines. Hole in back where
shank pulled away. Probably a button rather than a belt
fitting (cf Egan and Pritchard 1991, 21719). (RC)
Diam 16 H 6 T 1mm
C15th?
Context: 1 Modern JA 65 EQ 6501
CA100 Part of composite button? Domed, with two concentric grooves around edge.
Diam 17 T 1.5mm
Late medieval?
Context: 2969 EPM JA 69 DK a 6901
CA101 Cast button with fine outer rim and ring of twisted
cable ornament in centre. (RC)
Diam 21 T 4mm
Later medieval?
Context: 1220 EPM JA 75 NC 7 7502
CA102 Gilded disc with slightly raised outer rim. Possible
traces of petal design?
Diam 16 Th 2mm
Later medieval?
Context: Layer 40 EPM/LPM JS 73 NX 136 Area
IV
JARBW 1995.286
CA103 Composite button with cast back plate and integral
loop. The back plate is folded over the gilded front
245
plate, which is decorated with an outer ring of

repouss beading and an inner circle of finer dots
encircling a central boss (cf Egan and Pritchard
1991, 179, no. 911, fig 113, and 276, no. 1403, fig
179). (RC)
Diam 27 T 9mm
Later medieval
Context: 203 LPM JA 67 HD 6701
CA104 Domed, bone-backed button with stamped wavy
pattern on a thin sheet of bronze, and attached
bronze loop on the back.
Although bone buttons have not been attested for
the medieval period (Egan and Pritchard 1991, 280),
the design on the sheet metal can be paralleled in
medieval buttons (ibid, 179, 1396). (RC)
L 34 W 34 T 10mm
Medieval/early post-medieval?
Context: 2058 Med 2/EPM MK 67 CP 1 6701
CA105 Button, cast, domed and wire shank. Not illus. (RC)
Diam 10 T 8mm
Later medieval or early post-medieval?
Context: 1169 EPM JA 75 BN c 7502
Finger rings (Fig 31.2.10)

CA106 Two incomplete rings, semi-circular in section.
Found together in a disturbed area of the cemetery,
possibly from a burial. (RC) (one illus)
1. Diam (ext) 21 (int) 19 W 4mm; 2. Diam (ext) 20
(int) 17.5 W 3mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 1213 Saxon/Med MK 64 KN 1 and 2
6402
SLDM 43-1973/35
CA107 Ring of rectangular section, decorated on the outside
with small punch marks. This is formed into a hoop
from soldered sheeting and is rough on the interior
(see Egan and Pritchard 1991, 3312, fig 217). (RC)
L 26 W 15 T 1mm
Anglo-Saxon/Early Medieval?
Context: 1738 LS/EM MK 66 FE 6603
SLDM 43-1973/26
CA108 Oval-sectioned finger ring.
L 23 W 19 T 1.5mm
Medieval
Context: 971 Med 1b JA 76 CO 3 7604
JARBW 1995.289c
CA109 Broken ring of circular section.
Diam 17 T 2mm
Medieval
JARBW 1995.289b
CA110 Finger ring decorated with rouletted triangles along
the edges. (RC)
Diam c 17.5 W of band 3 T 1mm
C15th
Context: 2 LPM JA 65 MW 6501
CA111 Plain finger ring, from disturbed cemetery. (RC)
Diam 18 W 2 T 1mm
Medieval?
Context: 2203 Modern JA 75 HN 7501
CA112 Strap-and-buckle finger ring with stamped design
between plain raised borders.
A comparable ring with an inscription is illustrated by Cherry (1981, 70, no. 146). This is in bronze
Fig 31.2.10 Finger rings. Scale 1:1. YB

and has the inscription Mater Dei Memanto Mei. It
is suggested that such rings may have been sold
rather like pilgrim badges to pilgrims at a shrine. The
British Museum example referred to here was found
at Stump Cross, Chesterford, Suffolk, before 1853
(AF 882; Dalton 696). There are four examples in
Dalton (1912), nos 696699 all in copper and
bronze. (JC)
Diam 1924 W 4 T 1.25mm
Late C1516th
Context: 2058 Med 2/EPM MK 67 DP 5 6701
SLDM 43-1973/29
CA113 Plain penannular ring of D-shaped section. Finger
ring? Not illus. (RC)
Diam 21 W 4 T 1.5mm
Later medieval
Context: 3090 Med 2b JA 69 LF b 6902
Other personal possessions (Fig 31.2.11)

CA114 Decorative mount: circular lobed head with four
rivet holes in the centre and elongated broken shank
with one rivet hole. From a casket, or possibly from
a book cover. (JC, RC, LW)
L 34 W of head 15 T 4mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2005 L Sax JA 73 TE 2 7305
JARBW 1995.83
246
Fig 31.2.11 Miscellaneous personal possessions; thimbles; needle. Scale 1:1. YB

AG3
Silver casket mount. The object, which is broken at

both ends, comprises a bar of D-shaped section with
central collar and pairs of incised lines above and
below. There is a rivet hole at the expanded base; at
the other terminal is an irregularly cut angle piece,
decorated with ring-and-dot ornament. (RC)
L 49 W (max) 14 Shaft 4 2mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: Layer 64 EPM JS 73 OS 312 Area IVE
CA115 Bent strip with irregular sides, possibly part of tweezers. Now lost. Not illus. (RC)
L 35 W 8 T 2mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 1784 Saxon MK 66 NX 6603
CA116 Short tweezers with broad blades, decorated with ringand-dot ornament, very badly corroded. Such tweezers
are also known from Whitby (Peers and Radford 1943,
fig. 13.5). Possibly a book or page holder/turner. See
also other items associated with literacy, below. (RC)
L 50 W 21 T 2.5mm
Midlate Anglo-Saxon
Context: 981 Med 1a JA 76 FE 2 7604
JARBW1995.99
AG4
Part of a silver spatula with one rounded end, the

other broken. The piece has a spoon-like terminal
with a central depression, and two protrusions on
either side of the neck between diagonally crossed
incisions. The back is flat and undecorated. The silver has become sulphide and there are patches of
corrosion. Possibly for mixing pigments or for personal use. (RC, LW)
L 65 W 8 T 2mm
C9th
Context: 1996 Med 1 JA 73 SO 4 7305
JARBW 1995.105
CA117 Bar for a purse frame. The circular sectioned bar is
relatively short and has no loops for attachment on
the underside of the bar, but shallow grooves next to
the terminals. The purse was suspended from a belt
by a wedge-shaped loop wider at the top than the
bottom which is pierced by a rectangular slot.
John Ward Perkins in the London Museum
Medieval Catalogue suggested that metal purse frames
do not appear before 1460 and did not become common until about 1480. He also suggests that the
short-barred frames may be later than those with
longer bars (London Museum 1940, 15871).

However, the discovery of a complete short-barred
purse frame during excavations at Netherton, Hants,
in a context dating from 12801356 (Fairbrother
1990, 429, and fig 9.14, no. 129) indicates that the
chronology suggested by Ward Perkins can no longer
be accepted and that the dating of purse frames
needs to be reconsidered. In the light of this I would
suggest a 14th- or 15th-century date for this purse
bar. (JC)
L 55 W 22 T 4mm
C1415th
CA118 Bent rod with cut marks. Possibly part of a purse
frame. (RC)
L 90 Diam 4mm
Late medieval
Context: 127 Med 2 MK 74 EC 9 7403
CA119 Ear scoop and nail cleaner, with twisted strip shank.
(Compare Margeson 1993, fig 32.)
L 66 W at terminal 6mm
C1415th?
Context: Layer 66 EPM JS 73 PX 198 Area IVE
JARBW 1995.285
247
impressed with a criss-cross pattern. From a postmedieval context which contained a good deal of
residual pottery dating from the 12th to 16th
centuries, so this might therefore be a late medieval
thimble. Not illus. (RC)
H 18 W 22 T 0.8mm
Late medievalearly post-medieval?
Context: 3016 EPM JA 69 FV a 6901
JARBW 1995.310b
AG5 Tall cylindrical object with domed head, in silver.
Decorated with fields filled with irregular incisions
and crossing and interlaced plain strands. There is a
broad plain band at the base, a narrower one below
the head. Thimble? The phasing of this piece could
indicate a date as late as the 17th century, in which
case it may be compared with those illustrated by
Holmes (1985, 136). On the other hand, it might be
the capping for a staff or cane. (RC)
H 30 Max diam 15mm
Context: 120 MK 74 EZ 9 Med 2/EPM 7403
CA124 Needle, bent, head and tip missing. Traces of an eye.
L 25 Diam 2mm
C1012th?
Context: 935 LS/EM JA 76 EM a 7603
Thimbles and needles (Fig 31.2.11)

CA120 Thimble, beehive-shaped with no carination and narrow plain border. Deeply punched dots, some now
worn right through the metal, arranged in a spiral.
Found in the cemetery earth: in this area the context seems to be sealed and contained only late
Anglo-Saxon material, although in other areas, the
layer was contaminated by medieval material. Unless
it is intrusive, the thimble should be at the latest 11th
century in date. The date at which metal thimbles
came into use in western Europe has been much discussed (see Holmes 1985, 1523). In form it is not
unlike a medieval thimble from Exeter (Allan 1984,
fig 194.211), but the Jarrow object is squatter and
more distorted in profile, and has clearly been well
used. (RC)
H 19 Diam 17 T 1.20mm
Late Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 2086 Med 1 MK 67 GC 1 6701
SLDM 43-1973/32
CA121 Conical thimble with uneven punching. There is a
marked distinction between the top and the sides.
Broad plain band at the base, cf Allan 1984, fig
194.215. From robber trench of cloister walk wall,
which means that this item should be pre-14th
century in date. (RC)
H 16 Diam 14 T 0.5mm
Medieval
Context: 393 Med 12 JA 67 JA 6704
JARBW 1995.310a
CA122 Fairly straight-sided thimble with domed top. The
sides are covered with spiral dots and there is a crisscross pattern on the top. Plain band at the base, with
a slight thickening at the rim. (RC)
Late medievalearly post-medieval?
H 15 Diam (base) 14 Diam (cap) 11mm
Context: 5332 EPM JA 65 HV a 6511
CA123 Broad conical thimble with incised line border and
uneven spiral of dots; carination at top, which is
Objects associated with literacy

Styli (Fig 31.2.12)
NB see also styli in iron (Fe128; 31.6 below) and
worked bone (WB3538; 31.5 below), lead objects
(Pb56; 31.8 below) and tweezers CA116.
CA125 Stylus with one pointed and one spatulate end from
the floor of Building B. Baluster moulding divides
the spatula from the shank, which is decorated with
faint incised lines.
This can be compared with examples from Whitby
and Barking (Webster and Backhouse 1991, 140),
but each instrument is slightly individual, compare
also Flixborough (ibid, 1001). (RC)
L 102 W of head 10 D 3mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 3347 L Saxon JA 69 VV 6902
JARBW 1995.222
Reference: Webster and Backhouse 1991, 140, no.
105d (i)
CA126 Stylus with broken tip, baluster ornament at the
junction of shaft and head, cf CA125 above, and
Brandon (Webster and Backhouse 1991, 86, no.
66t). (RC)
L 108 W 15 Diam 4mm
Mid Saxon
Context: 1201 Med 1b JA 75 KM 1 7502
JARBW 1995.223
Reference: Webster and Backhouse 1991, 140, no.
105d (ii)
Book clasps (Fig 31.2.12)

CA127 Hinged book-clasp or strap-end. The terminal,
which is cast, takes on the form of a stylised animal
head with an indented eye, swelling into a circle
pierced to hold the fastening peg for a thong.
248
Fig 31.2.12 Objects associated with literacy. Scale 1:1. YB

The base of the terminal is flat. The hinged plates are
concave at one end and pierced for a pair of rivets to
fasten onto a leather strap. The context in which this
piece was discovered was in the rubble associated
with the rebuilding in the post-Conquest period of
Anglo-Saxon Wall 3a. It could therefore possibly
belong to either a late pre-Conquest or early postConquest date.
The interpretation of this piece as a book-clasp
was suggested in 1960 in a personal communication
by David Wilson (cf Wilson 1961, 199217; see also
Pollard 1962). Similar artefacts have been published
since from other ecclesiastical sites such as St
Augustines, Canterbury (Henig 1988, 181, nos 10
and 11, fig 54), and Austin Friars, Leicester (Mellor
and Pearce 1981, 133, nos 25 and 26, fig 48). See
also Blockley et al 1995, fig 446, nos 512 and 513.
Some doubt has been expressed as to whether they
are dress or book fastenings, with a preference for
interpreting them as hinged strap-ends or buckles. In
view of the ecclesiastical nature of the sites on which
they most frequently occur, the book-clasp interpretation seems the most likely. Similar strap-ends have,
however, also been found in London from late
14thearly 15th-century deposits (Egan and
Pritchard 1991, 1545, fig 101). (RC)
L 41 W 10 T 5.5mm
C1214th
Context: 64 Med 1 MK 59 BT 5903
SLDM 204/69 (H6515)
CA128 a. Part of book clasp with hooked end, decorated
with incised zigzag along edge and in two crossing
bands, arranged hexagon fashion. Two rivets survive
(cf Allan 1984, fig 191.143; Biddle and Hinton

1990, 757, fig 215). For the form of ornament, see
the belt fittings from Norwich (Margeson 1993, fig
21, nos 247 and 254).
b. A fragment of bent strip with rivet at one end, the
other end torn away leaving a point; may be part of
the attachment for the clasp. Not illus. (RC)
a. L 52 W 32 T 1mm; b. L 32 W 10 T 0.5mm
C1516th
Context: 647 LPM MK 71 LZ 1, 2 7101
CA129 Part of a cast clasp with a hooked end. This is possibly a book clasp or page holder/turner. Its outer face
is edged with raised triangles, and the centre has
overlapping diamonds with quatrefoil indents. The
sunken background is cross-hatched. (RC)
L 24.5 W 15 T 1mm
Medieval
Context: 5912 Modern JA 66 AT 6601
Domestic or household items

Tools and other implements (Fig 31.2.13)
CA130 Awl with a squared-off tang for insertion into a
wooden handle. Circular-sectioned end with a sharpened point, bent. (RC)
L 133 W 5.5 T 4.5mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 1192 Med 1? MK 62 IO 6201
SLDM 43-1973/40
CA131 Small tool with square cross-section, tapering to a
point, perhaps for piercing leather or heavy cloth.
(RC)
CA132
CA133
CA134
CA135
249
L 19 W 2.5 T 2.5mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2021 L Sax JA 73 VU 7305
Small oval-sectioned tapering tool? (RC, LW)
L 28 Diam 3mm
Mid Saxon
JARBW 1995.75
Tool, possibly a drill, square sectioned at one end,
with spiral twist at other. (RC)
L 44 Section 3.5 3mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 2002 Norman? JA 73 TL 3 7305
JARBW 1995.74
Rod, square section. Part of manufacturing process?
This is from a workshop area and may be a half-finished piece (cf Lane and Campbell 2000, illus 4.60,
909 and 1114). (RC)
L 45 W 2 T 2mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 977 Norman JA 76 ES 14 7604
Hook, broken at both ends. Possibly a fish hook,
although no barb is present. Not illus. (RC)
L 13.5 W 2mm
Medieval?
Context: 704 LPM JA 67 CT b 6701
Keys and locks (Fig 31.2.14)

(see also Fe112123)
Fig 31.2.13 Tools and implements. Scale 1:1. YB
Fig 31.2.14 Keys and locks. Scale 1:1. YB
CA136 Part of a ring key. The ring is incomplete and the key
twisted.
L 25 W 17 T of ring 7mm
Mid Saxon
JARBW 1996.3370
250
CA137 Key for a mounted lock, with part of a ring bow and
hollow plain stem. (RC)
L 65 W 26 T 7.5mm
C11th
Context: 2004 L Sax JA 73 SS 6 7305
JARBW 1995.301
CA138 Ring with L-shaped loop or hook attached. Broken at
tip. Possible a ring key. (RC)
Diam 26 L of bar 20 T of bar 3mm
Medieval
Context: 1735 Med 2 JA 71 PU 7105
CA139 Two parts of barrel padlock bolt, joined. Single spine
with leaf spring attached with rivet to one face and
pierced lug on curve. Possibly post-Conquest,
because of the bronze working surface, which has
been tooled and rubbed, cf material from Goltho and
Barton Blount, but it could be late Anglo-Saxon; see
also Goodall 1990e, 10101011, fig 312. (JC, RC)
L 42 W 19 T 6mm
C1012th
Context: 2378 Med 1b JA 75 KK 1 7505
JARBW 1995.302
CA140 Part of a barrel padlock bolt, with pierced lug, cf
CA139. Not illus. (RC)
L 28 W 25mm
C13th
Context: 1201 Med 1b JA 75 KM a 7502
CA141 Part of a barrel padlock bolt, with pierced lug. (RC)
L 26 W 24 T 3mm
Late medieval
Context: 1256 Modern MK 64 AL 2 6401
Chain (Fig 31.2.15)

CA142 Chain in six links, composed of S-shaped links. Such
chains have a long life and are found in pagan AngloSaxon contexts as links for pins as well as throughout
the medieval period, cf Rogers 1993, figs 6634;
Margeson 1993, 1819. (RC)
L 47 Lops 5 13 T 1mm
C713th?
Context: 10 Med 1 MK 59 BU 5901
SLDM 43-1973/56
CA143 Chain, each loop made of three twists of spiral
wound wire (cf Egan and Pritchard 1991, 318, no.
1591, fig 210). (RC)
L 145 Diam of loops 4.5mm
C1617th
Context: 3663 Med 2EPM JA 70 AAZ 7007
Bells (Fig 31.2.15)

CA144 Complete rumbler bell cast in one with the loop.
Such bells can be used as decoration on harness, dog
collars, hawk jesses or clothing (see Egan and
Pritchard 1991, 3367). (RC)
L 23 W 21 T 0.5mm
C1314th
Context: 1653 Med 1 MK 62 FP 6201
SLDM 43-1973
CA145 Loop of rumbler bell. Not illus. (JC)
Diam 10mm
C1315th
Context: 1238 Med MK 64 SU 6402
Fig 31.2.15 Chains and bells. Scale 1:1. YB

CA146 Rumbler bell. Common medieval artefact, but see
Allan 1984, 140. (RC)
L 22 W 18 T 18mm
C1316th
Context: 1159 EPM MK 61 JF 6103
CA147 Rumbler bell, soldered together in two parts, with
iron pea. Attachment clip inserted through hole in
top. (cf Egan and Pritchard 1991, 339, no. 1645).
(RC)
L 21 W 18mm
C1213th
Context: 2378 Med 1b JA 75 KK a 7505
JARBW 1995.284
Vessels and domestic utensils (Fig 31.2.16)

CA148 Fragment, possibly from a vessel. Not illus. (RC)
L 29 W 23 T 15mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 1616 Saxon MK 66 WZ 6601
CA149 Curving fragment with squarish flanged rim, corroded. Vessel rim? Not illus. (RC)
L 22 W 13 T 5mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 1551 L Sax MK 66 SJ 6601
CA150 Part of a thick strap handle, possibly from a cauldron. (JC, LW)
L 36 W 18 T 7mm
C1112th
JARBW 1995.281b
CA151 Square-sectioned handle from a tripod cooking pot.
(JC, LW)
L 48 W 9 T 12mm
C1314th
Context: 1194 Med 1b JA 75 HV 1 7502
JARBW 1995.281a
CA152 Rectangular fragment, one very smooth surface. Part
of a vessel? Not illus. (RC)
251
Fig 31.2.16 Vessels and domestic utensils. Scale 1:2. YB
CA153
CA154
CA155
CA156
L 25.5 W 11 T 2mm
Medieval
Context: 1200 Med MK 64 FZ 2 6402
Vessel rim. (JC, LW)
L 43 W 24 T 2mm
Medieval?
Context: 2378 Med 1b JA 75 KK b 7505
JARBW 1995.282b
Part of rim of a thin-walled cast vessel (cf Biddle
1990, fig 293). (RC)
Ht 75 W 55 T 24mm
Medieval
Context: 3023 Med 2 JA 69 EL b 6903
JARBW 1995.72
Angled block of metal narrowing to a point and hollowed out inside, heavily corroded with soot on surface. Leg of cauldron. Not illus. (RC)
L 50 Wall T 3mm
Medieval
Context: 4704 Med 2 JA 70 AFM b 7008
Two fragments of the body of a thick-walled vessel.
(JC, LW)
3. 40 30 T 5mm; 4. 24 31 T 68mm
Medieval
Context: 2761 Med 2 JA 73 VB 3, 4 7303
JARBW 1995.262a, b
CA157 Fragment of vessel rim. Not illus.

L 29 W 18 T 5mm
Medieval
Context: 2058 EPM MK 67 EL 16 6701
CA158 Curved fragment, possibly from a vessel. Not illus.
L 31 W 18 T 4mm
Medieval
Context: 116 EPM MK 74 CV 16 7403
CA159 Side fragment of a bronze vessel. Not illus. (RC)
L 46 W 25 T 7mm
Medieval?
Context: 717 LPM MK 71 GL 7105
CA160 Part of body and slightly everted rim of a large vessel. (RC)
W 91 Ht 57 T 35mm
Medieval?
Context: Layer 3 EPM/LPM JS 76 AC 500 Area V
Drawn
JARBW 1995.282d
CA161 Fragment of vessel. Not illus. (RC)
L 33 W 33 T 3.5mm
Medieval?
Context: 115 LPM MK 74 CP 7403
CA162 Simple, slightly flared rim of a small vessel.
Diam c 120 Ht 26 T 2.5mm
Medieval?
252
Context: 373 LPM JA 66 AY 1 6601

CA163 Skillet rim or binding.
W 58 Ht 14 T 2mm
Medieval or early post-medieval?
Context: 374 LPM JA 66 DP 6601
CA164 Five fragments of curved strip, originally part of a
ring. Two overlapping pieces joined with rivet. Also
two flat pieces of strip, one with a trace of a rivet
hole, perhaps originally attached to one face of the
ring (45 12mm). Possibly a mount for a cylindrical
wooden box or drinking vessel. (RC)
Lengths 54, 30, 29, 20, 13 W 1213 T 0.5mm
C1314th
Context: 1199 Med 1 JA 75 KJ a, b 7502
CA165 Two strips riveted together, with two surviving flatheaded rivets 35mm apart. Binding for a wooden or
leather vessel? (RC)
L 100 W 9 T 5mm
Medieval or early post-medieval
Context: 1865 EPM MK 66 GO 6602
CA166 Fragment of cast plate, pierced with seven or eight
holes. Strainer? (RC)
23 18 T 2mm
Medieval
Context: 2059 EPM? JA 73 FN 7304
CA167 Lid for a spouted vessel. Slightly dished thin circular
plate with a pointed lip. Part of a rectangular strip is
riveted onto the top. The adjacent hinge attachment
has been torn off. (RC)
L 88 W 74 T 0.5mm
C1314th
CA168 Narrow tube, almost oval in section, white powder
on one end. Possibly the end of a funnel. Not illus.
(RC)
L 29 T 0.5 Diam 9mm
C1315th
Context: 1237 Med MK 64 SQ 2 6402
Rings of miscellaneous/domestic use (Fig 31.2.17)

CA169 Ring fragment of roughly circular section.
L 20 T 7 6mm
Anglo-Saxon
CA170 Ring with flat rectangular section. (RC)
Diam 17 W 23 T 2.5mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2857 ML Sax JA 76 CC 188 7602
CA171 Flat ring, rectangular in section.
Diam 15 W 3 T 1.5mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 656 L Sax JA 67 SB 6704
CA172 Ring, thicker at one side than the other. Possibly
from a ring-headed pin? (JC, LW)
Diam 19 Section 23mm
Anglo-Saxon
JARBW Sent to DoE
CA173 Ring fragment.
Diam 15 T 4.5mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 1845 Norman JA 73 VM 6 7305
JARBW 1995.289a
Fig 31.2.17 Rings of miscellaneous/domestic use. Scale

1:1. YB
CA174 Half a metal ring with flat section. Washer? Not illus.
(RC)
Diam 30 W 3 T 4mm
Anglo-Saxon or medieval
Context: 329 Med 2 MK 71 KI 7103
CA175 Ring. Possibly part of a ring brooch or chain fitting.
Not illus. (JC)
Diam 22 T 2mm
Medieval
Context: 329 Med 2 MK 71 JL 7103
CA176 Ring fragment. Not illus.
Diam 22 T 2.5mm
Medieval?
Context: 3109 Med? MK 86 159 8602
CA177 Ring with oval section. Possibly annular brooch or
link?
Diam 22.5 W2.5 T 1.5mm
Medieval
Context: 431 Med 2 JA 66 HS 6601
JARBW 1995.294
CA178 Ring, with sharply bevelled surfaces, cf CA180. (JC)
Diam 22 W 4 T 3mm
Medieval?
Context: 2178 EPM MK 60 BP 6003
SLDM 43-1973/48
CA179 Half of a ring, conceivably part of a brooch or buckle? Not illus. (RC)
Diam 25 W 4 T 3mm
Medieval?
Context: 1758 EPM JA 71 RC 7105
CA180 Ring, with flattened, sharply bevelled surfaces.
Closely resembles CA178 and may also be medieval.
Diam 27 W 5 T 4mm
Medieval?
Context: 2358 LPM JA 75 BJ c 7505
253
Other objects (Fig 31.2.18)

CA181 Curved and hollowed strip, broken at one end. Two
small projections near the unbroken end give it an
animal-like form. Possibly a mount for a small staff
or foot of bowl. (RC)
L 26.5 W 15 T 1mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 2166 L Sax MK 67 JP 6702
SLDM 43-1973/39 (H3008)
CA182 Fragment of a container or censer cover? Corner of
the base of a square or rectangular cast object, with
two cabled edges and sunken centre. This object
could have been a base or stand or part of the lid of
a container. Its heavy moulded edge is more reminiscent of Roman than Anglo-Saxon metalwork. Since
it was found in the Anglo-Saxon cemetery level it
could be Roman. (RC, JC)
L 33 W 25 T 13mm
Anglo-Saxon or Roman?
Context: 1672 Saxon MK 62 DD 6201
CA183 Heavy, curved fragment with thick, squared-off rim,
apparently leaded. Base for statue? (too small and
heavy for a vessel), possibly even a bell fragment.
From grave of Sk 66/55. (PL, RC)
L 50 W 23 T 15mm
Anglo-Saxon or Roman
Context: 1613 L Sax MK 66 VS 6601
Fig 31.2.18 Other objects. Scale 1:1. YB
Nails, tacks and rivets (Fig 31.2.19)

CA184 Nail. Not illus.
L 22 W (Head) 8 T 2.5mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 689 Saxon MK 61 EW 6102
CA185 Nail with rectangular head and curving square-sectioned shank. (RC)
L 33 W 6 T 2mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2875 Saxon or earlier JA 76 GG 7602
CA186 Nail with rectangular head and bent shank. Not illus.
(RC)
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 948 Saxon JA 76 GL 3 7603
CA187 Nail.
L 45 W 10 T 4mm
Medieval?
Context: 6021 LPM JA 70 ZB 7007
CA188 Complete tack with large oval head.
Head 11 22 Shank Diam 3 L 20mm
Later medieval or early post-medieval?
Context: 258 EPM JA 65 EH 6507
CA189 Head of rivet or pin, badly decayed. RC)
L 5 W 3 T 3mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2023 L Sax JA 73 VW 1 7305
CA190 Part of a rivet or possibly a bar mount?
L 8 Diam 2.5mm
Context: 2649 Med 1 JA 73 SA 4 7301
CA191 Small rivet with domed head.
L 10 D of head 5 Shank 2mm
Fig 31.2.19 Nails, tacks and rivets. Scale 1:1, except

CA189. YB
Context: 2381 Med 1b JA 75 ML 7505
CA192 Rivet.
L 13 W 5 T 3mm
Medieval?
Context: 2642 Med 1 JA 73 RJ 2 7302
CA193 Rivet. (NB see also rivet-headed pins, P7P12.)
L 12 Head 3 Diam 2.5mm
Medieval
254
Context: 2843 Med JA 78 KV 1 7803
Miscellaneous items of copper alloy
CA200
(Fig 31.2.20)
CA194 Sheet, in three fragments, now joined. One possible
rivet hole. (RC)
L 18 W 15 T 0.51mm
Context: 928 Norman/Med 1 JA 76 DC 5 7603
CA195 Sheet with rivet hole. In fill of grave 70/115. (RC)
L 52 W 43 T 0.5mm
Context: 4957 Med JA 70 TW 3 7001
CA196 Corner fragment of sheet, pierced by two rivet holes.
(RC)
L 28 W 22 T 0.3mm
Context: Layer 76 Med 1 JS 76 CX 532 Area V
CA197 Thin flat sheet, triangular off-cut. (RC)
L 18 W 11 T 0.5mm
Context: 248 Med 1 JA 67 PC 6701
CA198 Thin sheet fragment.
L 22 W 21 T 0.5mm
Context: 1201 Med 1b JA 75 KM b 7502
CA199 Bent sheet fragment with three rivet holes, one rivet
Fig 31.2.20 Miscellaneous items of copper alloy. Scale 1:1. YB
CA201
CA202
CA203
CA204
still in place. (JC, LW)

L 30 W 15 T 1mm
Context: 1195 Med 2 JA 75 HW 7502
Fragment of thin sheet. (RC)
L 26 W 20 T 1mm
Context: 1185 Med 2/EPM JA 75 EX 7502
Curving piece of wire. (JC, LW)
L 80 Diam 2mm
JARBW 1995.81
Bent wire, purpose unknown; terminals possibly
expanded. (RC)
L 75 Diam 1mm
Context: 1766 Med 2 MK 66 OD 6603
Coiled spring of drawn wire, cf Lambrick and Woods
1976, 216, fig 12, no. 21. (JC, LW)
L 48 Diam of coil 35 Diam of wire 2mm
C11/13th
Context: 2372 Med 2 JA 75 EY 183 7505
JARBW 1995.293
Bent length of rod or wire with circular cross-section.
(RC)
L 80 Diam 2mm
Context: 4886 Med JA 70 JY 7001
CA205 Hollow tube. Metal fitting for wooden container? cf

CA207. (RC)
L 24 T 0.7 Diam 6mm
Medieval?
Context: 1861 Med 1? MK 66 HG 1 6602
CA206 Thin bronze plate with two rivets backed with wood.
Metal fitting for wooden container? (RC)
L 18 W 14 T 0.3mm
Medieval?
Context: 1861 Med 1? MK 66 HG 2 6602
CA207 Narrow rolled tube with unsealed edges. Function
unknown, cf CA205. Not illus. (RC)
L 69 T 1.5 Diam 6.5mm
CA208 Part of tube/cylinder with wood inside. Small ferrule
or edge binding. (RC)
L 16 W 6 T 1mm
Medieval?
Context: 2380 EPM MK 61 BW 6104
CA209 Small attachment ring, with cast eye and hollow
socket. Tinned? (RC)
L 5 T 1.5 Diam 3mm
Medieval?
Context: 2415 EPM JA 73 CY b 7302
CA210 Fragment of bronze strip folded over at one end.
Traces of linear decoration parallel to edges. Not illus.
L 10 W 19 T 0.5mm
Context: 583 Med 2 JA 78 GI 7802
CA211 Rod. Possibly a handle? Not illus. (RC)
L 30 Diam 25mm
Context: 174 LPM MK 74 DL 7402
TWMS
CA212 Six flattened and twisted fragments of narrow bronze
tube? Not illus.
L 22 W 10 T 4mm; L 14.5 W 1.5 T 3mm; L 17.5
W 7 T 5mm; L 15 W 8 T 4mm; L 14.5 W 10.5 T
7.5mm; and L 15.5 W 8.5 T 6mm
Medieval
Context: 96 Med 2 MK 66 FY 16 6602
CA213 Narrow tube, rolled, with overlapping edges. Not
illus. (RC)
L 48 Diam 68mm
Medieval?
Context: 1538 EPM MK 66 OQ 6601
CA214 Piece of edging strip or binding, with curved section.
Not illus.
L 41 W 8 T 0.70mm
Context: 907 Med 1b JA 76 BL 1 7603
Sheet fragments
Small, unidentifiable fragments of copper alloy sheet or strip,
some perhaps offcuts, were found in the following contexts,
principally of the medieval period at Wearmouth, but spanning the Anglo-Saxon to later medieval periods at Jarrow.
Not illus.
CA215 Wearmouth
Context: 2212 LS/EM MK 74 HW 1, 2 7401 (2)
Context: 1643 Med 1 MK 62 CN 1, 2 and 3 6201 (3)
Context: 1200 Med MK 64 FZ 1, 2 6402
Context: 1237 Med MK 64 SQ 1 6402
Context: 163 Med 2/EPM MK 74 EB 7402
Context: 2058 Med 2/EPM MK 67 DD 4 6701
255
Context: 2058 Med 2/EPM MK 67 DT 3 6701

Context: 170 EPM MK 74 CY 7402
Context: 1830 EPM MK 66 DJ b 1-4 6602 (4)
CA216 Jarrow
Context: 292 LS/EM JA 65 AAQ 6507
Context: 915 SaxonLS/EM JA 76 BY 7603 (2)
Context: 179 Med 1 JA 65 QD 6509 (2)
Context: 2643 Med 1 JA 73 RK 2 7302
Context: 5760 Med 1? JA 65 AJQ 6507
Context: 1920 Med 12 JA 73 MS 7305 (3)
Context: 198 Med 2 JA 67 JH 6701
Context: 2372 Med 2 JA 75 EY 7505
Context: 997 Med 2 JA 78 AZ a, b 7805 (2)
Context: 970 Med 2 JA 76 CK 1 7604 (2)
Context: 2830 EPM JA 78 KC 9 7803
Amorphous fragments
Unidentifiable scraps of copper alloy were recovered from the
following contexts. Most were heavily corroded; some fragments recovered from the area of the Anglo-Saxon workshop
buildings at Jarrow (trenches 76023) may be evidence for
bronze working. A few pieces derived from graves. Not illus.
CA217 Wearmouth
Context: 347 L Sax MK 61 FG 6105
Context: 1573 L Sax MK 66 WJ 6601
Context: 1575 L Sax MK 66 YN 6601
Context: 1776 Med 1 MK 66 FC 6603
Context: 1811 Med 2 MK 60 CI 6002
Context: 1360 Med 2 MK 64 JN 6403
Context: 1873 Med 2? MK 66 KG 6602
Context: 475 Med MK 74 HX 1, 2, 3 7401
Context: 1358 EPM MK 64 HL 6403
Context: 925 EPM MK 69 GT 6903
CA218 Jarrow
Context: 4011 Saxon JA 70 AAU 7006
Context: 951 Saxon JA 76 HG 6, 9 7603
Context: 5618 Saxon? JA 65 AKL 6506
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ 362, 438 b 7305
Context: 938 L Sax JA 76 EV a 7603
Context: 939 L Sax JA 76 EZ 7603
Context: 2863 LS/EM JA 76 DK, DK 27, 127, 186 7602
Context: 778 LS/EM JA 65 GR 6509
Context: 180 LS/EM JA 65 GZ 6509
Context: 774 LS/EM? JA 65 YR 6509
Context: 1113 LS/EM JA 75 GX 2 7503
Context: 638 Norman JA 67 MA 6704
Context: 1214 Norman/Med 1 JA 75 MO 7502
Context: 2002 Med 1 JA 73 TL 3a 7305
Context: 5690 Med 1 JA 65 ALB 6504
Context: 2836 Med 1 JA 78 KA 1 7803
Context: 2642 Med 1 JA 73 RJ 1 7302
Context: 2916 Med 1b JA 76 DM 4 7605
Context: 431 Med 2 JA 66 HC 6601
Context: 3221 Med 2 JA 69 UZ 6904
Context: 3838 Med 2 JA 70 NF 7003
Context: 1771 Med 2 JA 71 RW a, b 7105
Context: 1279 Med 2a JA 71 NF 7106
256
Context: 1279 Med 2a JA 71 NR 1 7106

Context: 5681 Med 2? JA 65 AFM 6504
Context: 1828 Med 2/EPM JA 73 DL a 7305
31.3 Seals
(Fig 31.3.1)
by John Cherry
S1
Amber seal, pointed oval in shape with a pointed

projection at the top which is pierced for suspension.
In the centre there is a flying dove bearing a branch
in its beak. The legend around its edge reads +
SIGNUM CLEMENCE.DIE (Sign of the Mercy of
God). The back is plain although the edges of the
seal are slightly bevelled. The style of the lettering
suggests a date in the 13th century, probably the earlier half.
C13th
H 31 W 17 T 7.5mm
Context: 2381 Med 1b JA 75 ML 7505
JARBW 1995.245
The Jarrow amber seal is an unusual example of a seal

with a religious inscription that may have been used as a
personal, secret or counterseal. Such seals normally
have inscriptions relating to our Lord, the Agnus Dei, the
Virgin or the saints. One of the best collections of this
type of seal is in the British Museum (Tonnochy 1952,
nos 893935). However, apart from this, religious seals
with simple inscriptions have been little studied.
Amber is a fossilised resin product of the pine tree.
The principal European source was the Baltic where
the resin was deposited in the Eocene period in the
Tertiary era. Carried by glaciers to Poland and northeastern Germany it is often found on beaches, particularly on the south Baltic coast. For amber generally see
Grimaldi (1996), especially pages 1606 for the use of
amber in the medieval period. A very small quantity is
found on beaches on the east coast of England. Like jet,
which is also found on beaches and cliffs, it was often
used in the medieval period for rings, crosses, beads,
and seals. (For a discussion of the use of jet for religious
objects and seals see Cherry (1992) and (1980).) One
of the best studies of the provenance of amber found in
archaeological contexts is that undertaken by Henk
Kars (Kars and Wevers 1983, 6181) on the finds from
Dorestad. Here accumulations of amber fragments in
the excavated area, together with the presence of some
roughouts, suggest the presence of at least one workshop within the settlement. The Lbeck industry is discussed by Warnke (1934). Evidence for Viking amber
working was found in the 19th century in Clifford
Street, York, where rings of D-shaped section were
made (Tweddle 1986, 209). More recently, in excavations at Baynards Castle, London, evidence has been
found for the manufacture of amber beads in the 14th
and 15th centuries, probably for use in rosaries. The
location of the workshops is not known but may have
been in the vicinity of Paternoster Row near St Pauls.
There is a good discussion of the origins and working of
amber by Trusted (1985) and Mead (1977). Two early
amber paternosters of 13th-century date have been
found in Cork (Hurley 1990, 77, illus 4) and in

Waterford (Hurley and Scully 1997, 51823), Ireland;
the former example is in Cork Public Museum.
The flying dove with a branch refers to the dove
that Noah sent from the ark and which returned with
an olive branch, as the Flood began to subside
(Genesis viii, II). This was indeed a sign of the mercy
of God although those words do not occur in the
Vulgate. It may also be that the use of the word
Clemencie may reflect the original possession of the
seal or counter seal by a monk named Clement.
Alternatively it may have indicated that the wearer may
have hoped to profit spiritually from wearing this `sign
of Gods clemency next to his heart.
A comparable use of the inscription SIGNUM
CLEMENCIE DEI has been noted by Professor
Michael Clanchy on the wax seal attached to a charter
made in the 1150s which records Ralph de Gaugys
surrender of the church of Ellingham to Durham.
Ralph de Gaugy was an important landowner in
Northumberland, and his family had conducted a running battle with the monks of Durham over the church
of Ellingham. It may have been thought that the legend
on this seal was particularly appropriate to sealing the
peace between the family and the monks over these
disputes (Clanchy 1993, 242). The use of the scene
with the dove is not a usual one among religious seals.
A pointed seal with a dove occurs on the seal of Urban
Archdeacon of Llandaff (c 11901200; Williams 1982,
28, no. 60).
Two other amber seal matrices are known. The first
amber matrix to be discovered was found near St
Johns church in Perth. This is the seal of Alan, Canon
of Inchaffray in Perthshire (Paton 186870). It is
engraved with an eagle displaying its wings in the centre. The legend reads +SALANI CANONICI DE
INCHAF. Sir Noel Paton suggested that it might be
the private seal of Alan who subsequently became
Prior of Inchaffray in 1258, and this would certainly
accord with the date of the seal. There is an impression
of this seal in the Royal Museums of Scotland (NM
37), plus another amber seal (NM 35). This is again
pointed oval in shape, and pierced for suspension. The
central device is a fleur-de-lis. The legend is extremely
worn but has been read as GRACIA DEI SUM
QUOD SUM (By the grace of God I am what I am).
The second is an amber seal found in a stone coffin in
Old Malton Priory, Yorkshire. This pointed oval seal is
mounted in a plain rim of silver with a loop attachment
for suspension. The devices engraved in the centre are
a fish, tree, bird, and lion, and the legend reads:
+SCRI: SIGNUM FOS (?IOS) PISCIS AVIS LEO
which may be interpreted as meaning the seal of the
secret, belonging to John(?), a fish, a bird, a lion. The
seal was exhibited by the Reverend Dr Cox at the
Royal Archaeological Institute on 6 February 1890,
and is presumably the same seal that was given anony-
' _ _ _.,~~~_ _ _ l,"

~
Fig 31.3.1 Seals from Wearmouth and Jarrow (S1S3). Scale 2:1. TM, YB, KM
257
' ....
258
mously to the British Museum via Egan Mew in 1914

(Anon 1890; Tonnochy 1952, no. 759). It has been
dated to the 13th century on grounds of lettering.
All the finds of amber seal matrices are from the northeast of Britain, suggesting that they may have been
made from east coast amber.
Another amber seal matrix was recently found in
excavations in northern Germany at Steinbecker
Strasse 26, Greifswald, Meckleneburg-Vorpommern.
It was found in levels that may be dated to 125560,
and belonged to Ade of Bernham. The inscription
reads sigill ade de bernham. The seal shows the head
of the lady in the centre of a quatrefoil, against a
hatched background, which is itself pierced by two
small quatrefoils. The use of the locative surname suggests an English origin, although the area of northern
Germany in which it was found is much nearer the
source of amber. The seal is published by Schfer in
Archologie in Deutschland (1994), part 1, 467.
All these seals are pierced for suspension. This may
have been for ease of carrying but it may also have been
linked to the belief that amber had a prophylactic or
amuletic value. Amber was certainly used for amulets
in Roman Britain (Henig 1984b). In the 13th century
Albertus Magnus in his Book of Minerals describes it as
Stone of a yellow colour... which makes those that
wear it chaste. Experience shows that if burnt it drives
away serpents; and it helps pregnant women to an easy
birth. The better kind is formed from the juice that
runs out in the hot summer; the darker kind from the
juice of other seasons (Wyckoff 1967, 121).
S2
S3
Seal matrix in copper alloy, with suspension loop on

rear. Pointed oval in shape with kneeling figure in
centre and star above, within an architectural framework. The legend is difficult to read but begins
SCOLLECTORIS... It was the seal of a collector of
rents or dues belonging to a religious institution.
Monasteries and monastic cathedrals certainly had
collectors, see Edwards 1967, 2412.
L 40 W 26 T 2 T of loop 9mm
12501350?
Context: 120 Med2/EPM MK 74 DA 7403
Seal matrix in copper alloy with pierced handle. The
oval face was engraved with a merchants mark that
is not now decipherable.
H 28 Face 14 11.5mm
C1617th
Context: 5851 PM JA 66 SJ 6601
JARBW 1995.280
in the native tradition from the sites may be in a different category, namely personal possessions. The tiny
fragment in moulded dark blue glass from Wearmouth,
Ba1, was found with a burial, and augments the other
objects from the Roman period, such as coins and possibly vessels, found in the burial ground. Such undecorated bangles, although rare, are found also in Roman
contexts (Price 1988, 353). Ba2 is a type that is known
from the Roman period and could have been collected from a nearby Roman site. Its context is late, but
falls within an area of the Anglo-Saxon burial ground.
It is apparent, however, that despite the short period of
time (1st2nd centuries AD) when they were primarily produced, they were in circulation and apparently
copied in a simpler form some centuries later (see
Stevenson 19546, 213). The bangle from Barhobble
(Cormack 1995, fig 36), found after Stevenson had
completed his list, is clearly Roman, but, as with the
Wearmouth example, was found in a grave fill. Five
plain D-sectioned bangles such as Ba3 have been
found in Anglo-Saxon graves in southern England
(Evison 2000a, 49) and can be paralleled at Whitby
(Peers and Radford 1943, 73). It is possible that production continued on Irish sites such as Lagore but, on
the other hand, as suggested for Dunadd, it is equally
possible that they were collected as cullet (Lane and
Campbell 2000, 90). A very similar fragment to Ba2
found at Whithorn was interpreted as a possible
import for scrap (Price 1997, 294).
Ba1
Ba2
Ba3
Tiny fragment of dark blue moulded bangle with

longitudinal raised rib. Found in burial 61/30. Not
illus.
10 7 3mm
Roman or Anglo-Saxon?
Pale opaque turquoise blue bangle with a cord of
twisted darker blue as a capping. This seems to be a
variation of Kilbride-Jones type 2. A very similar
piece was found at Whithorn (Price 1997, 294).
28 8.5 7mm; int diam c 45mm
C1st2nd AD
Context: 4884 LPM JA 70 GQ 7001
JARBW 1995.171
Part of a pale green glass bangle of D-shaped section.
Such plain bangles may have continued to be made
after the Roman period (see Stevenson 195456,
21314).
31.4 Bangles, beads and glass

objects
by Rosemary Cramp
The glass bangles (Fig 31.4.1)
Although there are fragments of Roman glass vessels
from both Wearmouth and Jarrow that may have been
collected for remelting, the fragments of glass bangles
Fig 31.4.1 Glass bangles. Scale 1:1. YB
T 5 Diam (ext) 60 (int) 48mm

Roman or Anglo-Saxon
Context: Layer 11 LPM JS 76 AK Area V
Beads in glass and other materials

The glass beads from Jarrow came from three distinct
associations: from graves, or potentially from graves,
being found in disturbed levels in the cemetery areas;
from ground surfaces outside buildings; and from the
workshop areas, but the largest and earliest group
were from graves (see catalogue). Single beads, as well
as festoons of beads of different types, are a common
find in Germanic graves from the 5th to the end of the
7th centuries (Geake 1997, 435 and 138). Small
annular blue, pale green, or brownish beads, such as
B5, B14 and B15, represent a very common type.
These are also found in early Anglo-Saxon cemeteries
in the north such as Norton (Sherlock and Welch
1992, 447), where amber beads predominated but
translucent blue beads were common, and Sewerby,
where 63% of the 307 monochrome beads from the
cemetery were the simple annular type, and of these
80% were in translucent blue glass (Hirst 1985, 62
and fig 22). Unfortunately, the only blue annular bead
(B14) came from disturbed topsoil, although the tiny
colourless bead (B5) came from a burial. The other
small annular beads were found either on ground surfaces or, in the case of B12 and B13, in the disturbed
area over Building A. A similar opaque annular bead,
which was unpierced and possibly unfinished, came
from the workshop floor of Building D, and it is
assumed that these brownish opaque beads were a
later type, perhaps 9th century. Unfortunately the segmented beads (B17 and B18) a type which is also
found in early furnished graves were all from disturbed contexts.
The polychrome beads (B1B4) are an interesting
early collection. Polychrome beads such as these with
inlaid or applied swags, trails and millefiori insets have
a wide distribution in Europe and Scandinavia, particularly from graves of the 5th to 7th centuries, and can
be paralleled not only locally in Northumbria but in
major Scandinavian sites such as Helgo (Lundstrm
1981, 15 and figs 12/3779; 13/11982). B1, B2 and B4
are also closely paralleled in Northumbrian graves, for
example at Sewerby (Hirst 1985, fig 23, C2a and C3),
and are dated late 6th to early 7th centuries. These
finds may therefore indicate a transitional burial
ground at Jarrow, and it is interesting that a large polychrome bead was found at the monastic site of Dacre
in what seems to be a cemetery context (R Newman,
pers comm; Newman and Leach forthcoming; see Vol
1, Ch 15, cemetery report, and Vol 1, Ch 24).
Other glass beads from Jarrow may be of a later date
than the 7th century and could indicate that bead making took place on the site. A fragmented pale yellow
bead, B6, came from the workshop floor of Building D,
and although the discovery of a tessera (GlO18), like
259
the two from Whitby, is hardly very strong evidence for

glass-working, in Scandinavia and on the continent
tesserae are considered to be an important source of
the raw material for bead making. Nevertheless,
although only three were discovered at Helgo, tesserae
are usually found in some quantities in workshops
(hundreds at Ribe, 70 at Paderborn (Stiegemann and
Wemhoff 1999, 161, ill 61), 42 at Paviken). The tesserae have to be supported, however, by other evidence
such as crucibles, glass sherds, glass rods and unfinished or wasted beads, if on-site bead making is to be
proposed (Lundstrm 1981, 17 and fig 18). It is of
interest, therefore, that there are drips and residues
from both Wearmouth and Jarrow (Ch 35 below) and
Tites report on the glazed dish crucibles and their high
lead residues (Ch 35.2) suggests that the analyses are
not inconsistent with bead making as found in other
centres in the 9th/10th century. The tiny beads B11
and B6 were found on the workshop floor of Building
D.
The only bead wasters (B7) from the site were,
unfortunately, found in the fill of the robbed wall
trench of the Norman cloister (see Vol 1, Ch 19), and
this contained rubbish which could have been moved
from anywhere on the site. Nevertheless these polychrome beads appear to be an earlier type than the
9th/10th century, and their swagged decoration is similar to that of the decorative mounts found at
Wearmouth and discussed below. It is possible therefore that glass-working of this type had a long history
at Jarrow (see also Ch 27.1, window glass).
Although there is evidence for the import of jet as
raw material in the Jarrow workshop area (Ch 35
below), there is only a single finished bead in this material from Building D (B8), and a single large globular
bead (B20) possibly from a rosary from a later
medieval context, came from Wearmouth. Similarly
from medieval contexts is a small group of fossil beads
(B2328).
B1
B2
Half of a large annular bead, of rounded section

found with burial 71/42. The central core of opaque
white clay has been coated with irregular radial
bands of brown and yellow glass. Such large beads
could be found individually as belt fittings.
(Compare Guido 1978, 81.) Fig 31.4.2.
T 12 Diam 34 Hole 9mm
Iron Age or Roman
Context: 1460 Saxon JA 71 TZ 7106
JARBW 1995.205
Globular black glass bead with white crossing trails
enclosing red and white millefiori spoked eyes, found
with burial 69/14. Figs 31.4.2, 31.4.7.
Although such black globular beads with white
crossing trails are found in 5th-century contexts,
they continue through possibly to the 7th century
(Guido 1999, 256). Compare Frankish types of the
6th to 7th century (for example Stiegemann and
Wemhoff 1999, I, ill VI 36, p 353, from a 7thcentury womans grave (Soest); Geake 1997, 271, fig
4.7; Guido 1999, 26 and pl 2).
260
B3
B4
B5
B6
B7
B8
B9
B10
B11
H 15 Diam 18 Hole 5mm

C67th
Context: 3037 Saxon JA 69 WR 6901
JARBW 1995.201
Half of a barrel-shaped bead in transparent pale
green glass with irregular lattice of opaque yellow
trails marvered into the surface. Above burial
70/105? Figs 31.4.2, 31.4.7.
H 15 Diam 17 Hole 4mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 3595 L Sax? JA 70 KB 7004
JARBW 1995.202
Annular knobbed spoke bead in blackish glass with
white spiral trails. Found in the disturbed surface of
the cemetery. See Guido 1978, 60, and compare
Geake 1997, fig 4.8, p 111. Figs 31.4.2, 31.4.7.
Early Saxon
Context: 4898 Med JA 70 LE 7001
JARBW 1995.203
Tiny annular bead in opaque colourless glass. Found
with adult female burial 70/112. Fig 31.4.2.
T 3 Diam 4mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 4956 LS/EMMed JA 70 UN 7001
JARBW 1995.204
Globular bead in pale yellow/pearly cream glass, in
five pieces. The glass is very thin and fluted. This
bead was probably blown (cf Hirst 2000, fig 1, N1).
Fig 31.4.2.
L 7 Diam 5 Hole 2mm
C79th
Beads? Two waster beads or mounts. Pale turquoise
opaque glass with opaque red swags linked to a vertical strand. The beads are fused together and the
backs are flattened and covered with a fine pinkish
mortar, the decorated surface is also covered with
mortar patches. These appear to be beads because
they are pierced, but their appearance is closely similar to the decorative studs and mounts discussed
below. Figs 31.4.2, 31.4.7.
L 35 W 30 T 18mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 293 Med 1 JA 65 AFT 6507
Reference: Cramp 1968, 1819, fig 8
JARBW 1995.156
Annular black bead, probably of jet. Found in the
area of Building D. Fig 31.4.2.
Anglo-Saxon
JARBW 1995.207
Fragment of bright blue glass, possibly from a bead.
Not illus.
L 3 W 2mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 198 Med 2 JA 67 JM 6701
Fragment of green glass, possibly a bead. Not illus.
T 4 Diam 6mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 5271 Saxon JA 67 OW 6703
Small annular disc or unfinished bead, opaque buff
glass. Found in workshop flooring, Building D. Fig
31.4.2.
Fig 31.4.2 Beads. Scale 1:1. YB
B12
B13
B14
B15
T 2 Diam 4mm
Mid Saxon
JARBW 1995.208
Small annular unfinished bead, brownish opaque.
Glass? Not pierced. Fig 31.4.2.
T 4.5 Diam 6mm
Late Saxon or early medieval?
Context: 234 Med 1 JA 67 JN 5 6701
Small annular bead, brownish opaque (may not be
glass). Possibly from a grave. Fig 31.4.2.
T 2 Diam 6mm
Late Saxon or early medieval?
Context: 234 Med 1 JA 67 JN 2 6701
Small annular bead in dark blue glass from the topsoil. Not illus.
Diam 9mm
Context: 76 Modern JA 63 AH 6302
Annular opaque yellowish glass. Fig 31.4.2.
B16
B17
B18
B19
B20
B22

Anglo-Saxon?
Context: Layer 19 Med 2 JS 76 AS 501 Area V
JARBW 1995.209
Annular bead in green glass. Not illus.
Diam 9mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 83 LPM JA 63 DB 6302
Segmented, irregularly pierced, opaque buff glass.
Fig 31.4.2.
T 14 Diam 10 Hole c 2mm
Anglo-Saxon?
JARBW 1995.206
Segmented long bead, amber coloured and slightly
iridescent. Fig 31.4.2.
L 22 Diam 2mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 27 Modern JA 66 AK 6601
Tiny flat opaque red bead, probably coral. The context of this find, the redeposited clay underlying a
medieval floor level, was definitely early and unless
this tiny bead had been brought down a worm-hole
should be at least early medieval or even late Saxon
in date. Fig 31.4.2.
L 5.5 W 3 T 1.5mm
Med?
Context: 4003 Med 1 JA 70 YI 7006
Complete jet bead (reconstructed). Globular bead
with a slightly flattened top and a neatly drilled hole
2.5mm wide. The surface is highly polished. Fig
31.4.2.
Found in the destruction layer of the medieval
South Range buildings. This is a large bead and
could have served as a single terminal but is more
likely to have been from a rosary since it is derived
from a late medieval context. Similar beads 11mm in
diameter were found at the Dominican Priory,
Oxford, and have been interpreted as rosary beads
(see Lambrick and Woods 1976, 218, 44). The
source of the jet was probably Whitby in Yorkshire.
Ht 23 Diam 22mm Bevelled surround of hole 8mm
Two annular red glass beads, one whole and one
fragmentary (now in five pieces). Not illus.
Diam 3 Hole 0.75mm
Context: Layer 15 LPM JS 76 HP 420 Area VI
Fossil beads
Although a natural phenomenon, fossil crinoid stems
are often found in excavations, for example at the
Roman fort at South Shields (Allason-Jones and Miket
1984, nos 12.310), or Castle Hill, Dunbar (Perry
2000, 136, illus 99, 277). Some have a naturally hollow central column, others have had the central stem
bored out for use as beads. They have been collected
from Northumbrian beaches during all periods. Today
they are commonly known as St Cuthberts beads.
Six were found at Jarrow, in later medieval or postmedieval contexts.
B23
Light grey-brown almost opaque segment of a fossil.

It appears to have been cut to form a bead. Figs
B24
B25
B26
B27
B28
31.4.2, 31.4.7.
L 17 T 8 Diam 20mm
Med?
Context: 2758 Med 2 JA 73 UU 12 7301
Stone bead formed from fossil crinoid ossicle.
illus.
L 18 Diam 16 Hole 1mm
Context: 5845 LPM JA 66 UH 6601
JARBW 1997.4707
fully pierced. Not illus.
L 16 T 2 Diam 10mm
Context: 702 LPM JA 67 AG 6701
JARBW 1997.4708
pierced. Not illus.
L 7 Diam 13mm
Context: 2585 Med 2 JA 73 PN 7302
JARBW 1997.4709
pierced. Not illus.
L 13mm
Context: 2804 LPM JA 78 DM a 7803
JARBW 1997.4710
illus.
L 30 Diam 26 Hole 10mm
Context: 2804 LPM JA 78 DM b 7803
261
Not
Not
Not
Not
Not
Polychrome mounts and studs

Closely linked both in form of manufacture and in decoration to the polychrome beads are a group of planoconvex, rounded or oval, objects decorated with
marvered polychrome trails (Fig 31.4.3). All of these
glass objects are with one exception (GlO10) from
Wearmouth, and appear to have been constructed using
the classic Middle Eastern method for making beads
and narrow-necked vessels, whereby the glass is
moulded around a core, usually of clay or sand with
some organic filler, encasing a rod. This holds the piece
in shape, while the glass coating is applied either by dipping or winding and, when finished, trails of different
colours can be combed into festoons, zigzags, or feather
patterns and marvered into the surface. In the case of
the vessels the core is scraped out after firing, while in
the case of beads, the clay can be pierced to form the
suspension hole (Harden 1981, 245, pla xvxix).
The Wearmouth piece, GlO7, was formed in this
way and pierced, leaving some of the fine pinkish clay
around the hole but it is possible that it was not a bead,
since its top is broken and the hole could have been
covered at the top, leaving a perforation only on the flat
base, perhaps as an aid for fixing. Its construction is
like other pieces (GlO1, 3, 4, 6) in that the basic shape
is constructed with waste or monochrome glass then
encased in clear glass of a different colour into which
decorative trails and festoons are marvered. The broken stud, GlO3, demonstrates the construction very
clearly (Fig 31.4.8). It, like GlO2, 4, 6, and 7, has a flat
base with a roughened sandy terracotta coating which
may have been picked up in the firing.
262
it seems to be a waster. If it were not for the uneven base

and gross imperfections in the core this would have to
be considered as an import of Near Eastern origin.
Harden identified a small group of such items (Harden
1956b, 1546, fig 28 and pl XIX), one of which, from
Chichester (no. 3), is dark brown appearing black,
with opaque white marvered spiral trails running from
centre of base upward, combed into festoons on the
body (Harden 1956, 155), and is remarkably similar
to the Wearmouth piece. It is possible, then, that this
is an import, but the similarity of ornament on these
studs, phials, beads, and vessel GlV17, and even window glass (GlW MK no. 234), which are all decorated
with similar trails and swags, suggests that there could
have been experimentation on the site, possibly by itinerant glass-workers (see also Ch 35). The objects in
this group, however, are without close parallels on
other sites of this period, although the glass cameo and
oval glass cabochon from the monastic site at Whitby
are formally reminiscent (Evison 1991, 144, figs 107,
k and l; Evison 2000a, 84).
Fig 31.4.3 Polychrome mounts or studs. Scale 1:1. YB

A close parallel to GlO3 can be found in the spherical pieces of blue glass inlaid with white trails from
Birka (Arbman 1940, fig 147; Youngs 1989, fig 619),
which are identified as gaming pieces, and there are
similar Roman prototypes (Tait 1991, fig 71), but the
gaming pieces are markedly more spherical than GlO3,
and other functions could be suggested for the
Wearmouth objects. The elaborate oval stud, GlO2, is
clearly a decorative setting. With its precise feather patterning in two colours set into a deep translucent blue,
this object could take its place alongside cabochons or
semi-precious stones on some prestigious object as
suggested in the catalogue. GlO4, 5 and 7, could likewise have been decorative settings, and the blue and
white feather patterning of GlO4 is like the beads and
other objects found on Irish production sites and discussed most recently by Henderson (2000).
The large hollow object GlO6 is different again and
appears to be copying Middle Eastern phials in black
glass with trailed ornament, albeit unsuccessfully, since
GlO1 Two joining fragments of a large bead or mount. The

outer decorated surface has been built up on a layer
of opaque brownish glass then a layer of clear green.
The outer surface is a dark blue with white marvered
trails which form a festoon pattern. Figs 31.4.3,
31.4.8.
L 17 W 914 T 7mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 689 Saxon MK 61 DB 6104
GlO2 Oval domed mount with a rough terracotta base.
White and opaque yellow/greenish feather-patterned
trails are marvered into a dark blue domed shape with
the pattern radiating from the centre. This is the only
complete mount of this type from the site, but compare also GlO3 and GlO4. It could have decorated
some object such as a book cover, shrine or chalice. It
was discovered quite near to the church, and may well
have been discarded from the object it decorated as of
no intrinsic value. Figs 31.4.3 and 31.4.8.
L 35 W 15 T 12mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 347 Med 2 MK 61 FS 6105
References: Cramp 1967b, 10, no. 9
GlO3 Part of a stud or gaming piece. The shape is built up
on a mixed blue and white glass dome and has a
rough terracotta base. The outer skin of the dome
has been coated with deep blue glass with opaque
white concentric trails marvered into the surface.
Figs 31.4.3 and 31.4.8.
H 16 W 18 T 10mm
C79th
Context: 1669 Saxon MK 62 CY 6201
References: Cramp 1967b, 10, no. 10; Cramp
1970c, 1819, no. 1, figs 4, 5
GlO4 Part of a plano-convex object with a core of deep
blue glass and an outer surface of deep translucent
blue glass with neatly executed feather-patterned
trails in opaque white marvered into the surface. The
functions of this and similar pieces are discussed
above. Figs 31.4.3, 31.4.8.
L 23 W 16 T 11mm
GlO5
GlO6
GlO7
GlO8
GlO9
GlO10
C79th
Context: 1410 LS/EM MK 64 UH 6403
Very irregular fragment. Deep blue. White trails with
traces of green. Not illus.
L 14 W 6 T 4mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 1438 LS/EM MK 64 XX 6403
Part of a hollow curved object, possibly a gaming
piece or phial. The base of the object is rough and
uneven, except for a small portion of the finished flat
base, which is covered with a rough terracotta surface. The sides taper upward in a curve. The object
is crudely made and could be a waster. The inner
core is of a mixed opaque brownish glass. The outer
surface is a thick dark brown with two surviving trails
of opaque white zigzags and splash of opaque yellow
at the top. Figs 31.4.3 and 31.4.8.
H 26 T 511 Diam 30mm
C79th
Context: 1446 E Sax MK 64 YH 6403
References: Cramp 1967b, 13, no. 20; Cramp
1970c, 1819, no. 2, figs 6, 7
Part of a glass bead, whorl or mount. The centre has
been filled with terracotta and then pierced. There
are also traces of terracotta on the flat base. The
shape has been built up on a cone of mixed blue and
white glass 15mm in width at the base. This was then
covered with a layer of opaque white glass into which
had been marvered opaque blue and silver trails. The
top of the object is broken and it is possible that it
was once of a more domed shape and that the hole
was covered. Figs 31.4.3 and 31.4.8.
H 9 T 7mm Diam 19
C79th
Context: 2087 L Sax MK 67 GE 6701
References: Cramp 1970c, 1819, no. 4, figs 9, 10
Fragment of a glass mount or bead with a hollow
interior with terracotta traces. The inner shape is
constructed with clear pale green glass 3mm thick,
the outer with a dense blue reticular pattern.
Another fragment of a similar piece (GlO9) was
found very near to this and could be part of the same
object. Figs 31.4.7, 31.4.8.
L 12 W 10 T 5mm
C79th
Context: 1788 L Sax MK 66 SM 6603
Small fragment of a glass mount or bead. Traces of
terracotta on the base and interior. The interior
shape is built up of clear green glass 3mm thick, and
the outer surface is of dark blue reticular pattern.
This piece is most probably part of GlO8 but does
not join. Not illus.
L 6 W 10 T 5mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2066 EPM MK 67 EB 6701
Section of round glass mount. The core is green glass
with an outer coating of dark blue glass with fine
white marvered trails. Base flat with whitish coating.
Figa 31.4.3 and 31.4.8.
L 8.5 W 9 T 7mm
Anglo-Saxon
JARBW 1995.160
263
Millefiori and its manufacture

The discovery of complex settings in millefiori at
Wearmouth and five portions of different millefiori rods
at Jarrow two of which are rod types which are used
in the Wearmouth settings is of considerable importance, not only for the evidence it provides for working
and possible manufacture of millefiori canes at the joint
monastery, but also for the inter-relationships of the
two sites.
Millefiori working has a long history and has been
much discussed in relation both to its early manifestations in Asia Minor in the 15th13th centuries BC
(Harden 1969, 51) and to its Roman and post-Roman
manufacture and use in Great Britain and Ireland (see
particularly Bimson 1983, 92436, and for the
Dunmisk workshops; Henderson and Ivens 1992, fig
1:7, 910; Henderson 2000, fig 1). Bimson cited some
19th-century descriptions of the manufacture of millefiori which throw a clearer light on the formation of the
Wearmouth/Jarrow rods than the modern manufacturing processes, where the pulling of large complex rod
patterns invariably produces rods of round section.
According to the 19th century accounts, a gathering of
glass could be rammed into a mould of triangular,
square, or other cross-section and then pulled to form
the shape of the mould. Alternatively a gathering could
be squared with an iron or wooden battledore on the
marver to provide a rod of square cross-section.
Fig 31.4.4 Millefiori from Wearmouth and Jarrow. Scale

1:1. YB
264
Fig 31.4.5 The Witham hanging bowl (Society of Antiquaries Early Medieval Prints and Drawings, p.61a)
Bundles of such rods are then tied together and heated
gently until they cohere at one end; the bundle is then
untied and marvered into shape and heated again until
they fully cohere. The bundle of rods can then be
pulled out with tongs, on a table. When tongs are
employed, it is stretched out only a few feet, broken
off, reheated and pulled out a few feet again (Bimson
1983, 925).
All of the composite rods which make up the settings from Wearmouth have been heat fused, but so
gently that the lines of the individual composite rods
that make up the final patterns are clearly visible in
section (see Cramp 1970b, LIV, i and fig 2814). None
of the rods are encased in glass covering, as some rods
are elsewhere, for example on the Sutton Hoo hanging
bowls (Bimson 1983, figs 66972), or some of the
waste rods from Ireland (ORiordain 1942, fig 15).
The sharply defined white and blue triangular sections
of the composite rods in GlO12 and the Jarrow rod
GlO14, were probably produced by being drawn
through a mould, as Bimson suggested (Bimson 1983,
925), and the same may be true for the complex T-patterns on the second mount GlO11, which are a pattern
more often found in enamelling than millefiori glass.
The square elements in most of the composite rods
could, however, have been manually formed by two
people, one pulling with tongs and the other maintaining the shape with a pair of wooden battledores.
Certainly all of the surviving rods from Jarrow have
tong marks nipping the ends and fine lines on each
surface such as could have resulted from pulling on a
wooden table and shaping with a wooden former.
No in situ evidence was found for glass-working at
Wearmouth although stringers and drips of glass, as
well as glazed clay, occurred in disturbed contexts (see
Ch 35). At Jarrow, however, evidence for glass working
was found in two main areas of the site: on the gravel
floor to the south of Building A, and inside and around
Building D. In the former location a stump end of a
millefiori rod (GlO13) was found, and associated artefacts included a 9th-century coin (Nu17) and glazed
pottery as well as glass drips and fuel ash. The indents
265
Fig 31.4.6 Distribution of glass vessels, beads, bangles and millefiori at Wearmouth. AMacM
of a tool for gripping the rod were visible at the end of
the stump and it appeared to have been cut at the
square-sectioned end. This part of the rod had probably been abandoned during the process of pulling out
and cutting, as described above, since the pattern of
the St Andrews cross had distorted somewhat. The
other composite rod sections that were discovered in
Building D (GlO1417), had been pulled out much
further, and where the end of a rod survived, as in
GlO16 and 17, there were clear marks of the fine tongs
that had gripped them.
Other evidence for glass-working within and
around Building D is to be found in the dish crucibles
with high-lead glass embedded (see above, beads) and
a larger globular crucible with soda lime glass adhering. These are discussed elsewhere in the report (Ch
35, crucibles) but although the high-lead residues of
clear yellowish glass in the dish crucibles do not seem
to relate to the millefiori analyses (see Ch 35.2), the
glass on the globular crucible (found in the workshops
to the east of Building D) could do so.
Parallels to the millefiori rods occur in Ireland at
several sites, notably the ring forts of Lagore (Hencken
1950, 1247), and Garranes (ORiordain 1942,
77150) with which I compared them previously
(Cramp 1975a, 94, 96), but more recently glass rods
have been found at Armagh (Youngs 1989, ills pp 202
and 203), and also at Dunmisk (Henderson and Ivens
266
Fig 31.4.7 Colour photographs of beads and millefiori.

Beads B2, B7, B3, B4 and B23; millefiori settings
GlO11 and 12, millefiori rod GlO13. MF
Fig 31.4.8 Polychrome mounts GlO1GlO4, GlO6GlO8,

GlO10. MF
1992) where there is conclusive evidence for glass making as well as working. Some of the Irish sites have produced petalled or sunburst designs, but by far the
most common are cruciform patterns as at
Wearmouth/Jarrow. In Ireland, as in some of the
Sutton Hoo hanging bowls, sections of millefiori are
embedded in enamel (Bimson 1983, 9379; Youngs
1989, 203), but on the Sutton Hoo metalwork, slabs of
millefiori have been cut to fit independent settings in
the manner of Wearmouth GlO1112 (Bimson 1983,
92632). One cannot of course know what objects the
millefiori mounts from Wearmouth decorated, but in
form and decoration they are most closely paralleled in
the four external mounts from the now lost Witham
hanging bowl which dates to c 800 (see Fig 31.4.5).
This object is close in date to that assigned to the context in which the Jarrow rods were discovered. Given
the less substantial evidence from Whitby of the single
rod which could be for making a composite millefiori
rod, it is possible that the process was more widespread
on Anglo-Saxon sites than the isolated evidence from
Wearmouth/Jarrow suggests.
At Wearmouth, the vessels, mounts, and millefiori
settings (Fig 31.4.6; see also Ch 32.2.4, vessel glass)
are all distributed near to the church or in the pathways
immediately to the south of it, as though they had been
dropped from objects taken from the church. The two
millefiori mounts (GlO11 and 12), which could have
decorated a vessel or book-cover, could indicate that
the sacrarium to the south was in the position between
Walls V and VI (see Vol 1, Ch 16).
GlO11 A complete mount composed of nine composite
millefiori rods. The centre piece 4.5 5mm is an
opaque red cross with a translucent blue centre set in
a pale green opaque background. Extending the
cross shape into the background are four 4 5mm
chequered rectangles formed from eight translucent
blue and eight opaque pale green T-shapes. In each
corner of the mount is a rod 4 4mm formed of eight
translucent blue and eight opaque white T-shapes.
The fine T-shapes are an ambitious design and have
been distorted by the heat of fusing the rod elements
and in drawing them out. Figs 31.4.4, 31.4.7.
This is in fact the most ambitious piece of millefiori
from the two sites. All of these composite rods are
heat fused. To maintain their rectangular sections
they were probably pulled out on a board. The cross
design is of course an easy one to construct with rectangular rods, but in view of the interest which
Hiberno-Saxon artists showed in cross motifs both
overt and hidden (Stevenson 1982), this pattern is of
particular interest.
L 12 W 14 T 4mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2126 EPM MK 67 CZ 6702
SLDM 43-1973/81
References: Cramp 1970b, 3303, no. 1, pl LIV g, i,
fig 1b, c; Bimson 1983, 925, 927, fig 662a
GlO12 Millefiori setting. The piece is composed of nine
complete and four incomplete composite rods 4mm
square and 4mm deep. The rod designs are (a) a
GlO13
GlO14
GlO15
GlO16
GlO17
cross in opaque white with translucent blue centre

set in an opaque yellow background, (b) a composition of four rods of two opposed translucent blue and
two opposed opaque white triangles. The piece
seems to have been deliberately cut after it had been
composed, perhaps into two right-angled triangles.
The blue and white triangular patterns are also
found in a rod from the Jarrow workshop (GlO14).
Figs 31.4.4, 31.4.7.
L 17 W 13 T 4mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2134 Med MK 67 GZ 6702
SLDM 43-1973/82
References: Cramp 1970b, 3303, no. 2, pl LIV h, i,
fig 1 d, e, f; Bimson 1983, 925, 927
Millefiori rod. Round-ended stump, square in crosssection but slightly distorted. Opaque red St
Andrews cross with opaque white centre set against
a translucent dark blue background. Near the rounded end the sides are pinched in where the rod has
been held in a tool. Figs 31.4.4, 31.4.7.
L 30 W 10 T 10.5mm
Mid Saxon
Context: 96 LS/EM JA 63 FM 6302
JARBW 1995.161
References: Cramp 1967b, 13, no. 21; BruceMitford 1967b, 818, pl XLc; Bruce-Mitford 1969,
24, pl XIX.2; Cramp 1969, 52, pl IXb; Cramp
1970b, 330, fig 1a; Cramp 1975c, 96; Cramp 1980,
pl 12b; Bimson 1983, 925, 927
Millefiori rod composed of four composite rods 2mm
square, in alternating triangles of opaque white and
translucent blue glass. Two are damaged. Both ends
of the rod are cut. There is a bulge on one side. Fig
31.4.4.
L 18 W 3 T 3mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2649 Med 1 JA 73 SA 6 7301
JARBW 1995.164
References: Cramp 1975c, 96, fig 5a; Cramp 1980,
pl 12a, c
Millefiori rod composed of nine square rods forming
a Latin cross in translucent blue with opaque white
centre, set against an opaque red background. One
edge is jagged and projecting. Fig 31.4.4.
L 36 W 3.5 T 3.5mm
Anglo-Saxon
References: Cramp 1975c, 96, fig 5c; Cramp 1980,
pl 12a
Millefiori rod. Round-ended stump, bent, the pattern
distorted and irregular. Composed of four rods: one
white opaque rod and one green rod, a composite
rod of two triangles of translucent blue and opaque
white, and a rod originally of four triangles, two
green and two blue. Fig 31.4.4.
L 19 W 4.5 T 5mm
Anglo-Saxon
JARBW 1995.162a
References: Cramp 1975c, 96, fig 5b; Cramp 1980,
pl 12a
Millefiori rod. Blue and white. End flattened where
rod has been held for drawing out. Fig 31.4.4.
L 51 W 3.5 T 3.5mm
267
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2861 L Sax JA 76 CX 1 7602
JARBW 1995.162b
Other
GlO18 Tessera of opaque pale green glass. Fig. 31.4.4
11 11 9 mm
31.5 Objects and waste of bone

and antler
by Ian Riddler
Small groups of objects and waste material of antler,
bone, ivory and whalebone were recovered from both
Jarrow and Wearmouth, with the majority coming
from the former site. The objects include a dress fastener that may be of Roman date, but they are otherwise centred on the Anglo-Saxon and medieval
periods. The small assemblage of post-medieval items
from each site is limited to conventional object types,
most of which are relatively modern. They are not further considered here. In the catalogue, the artefacts are
arranged first by functional category, then by period.
The Middle Saxon objects include combs, a gaming
piece, a stamp, a spoon, a bag ring and an awl. The
combs are readily identifiable as Northumbrian and they
form an important regional assemblage (even if small
and fragmentary), comparable to those further to the
south at Flixborough, Riby, Thwing, Wharram Percy
and York. During the Middle Saxon period regional distinctions can be observed in comb assemblages and the
quantity of combs now known allows for some refinements to be made in their dating. It may be unwise to
make too much of the small assemblage here, but there
are no comb fragments of 7th-century date and the
earliest pieces belong to the 8th century, as would perhaps be expected. Broader influences on comb designs
come from Frisia and the North Sea littoral.
The remaining objects of this date can largely be
matched at other Middle Saxon sites. The gaming
piece (WB39) is a rare item but there is no reason to
suppose that any interest in board games waned during
the 8th and 9th centuries. The difference lies in the
absence of grave goods in burial contexts, and the
number of gaming pieces from Middle Saxon contexts
matches those from earlier settlements. The stamp
(WB24) is rare, and important for its design. It is
almost inconceivable that it was used on ceramics and
much more likely that its Hiberno-Saxon design was
used on manuscripts, impressing its motif either within codices, or on their covers. As such, it represents
one of the few items of bone or antler for which a
monastic interpretation can be offered. The design of
the stamp face recalls that on Hiberno-Saxon manuscripts, all of which emanate from a monastic milieu.
The spoon (WB31), in contrast, has no such overt
268
ecclesiastical connotations, although its function is a

little uncertain. Aside from their obvious and most
likely use as cutlery, some may have served to hold cosmetics or colourants, the latter either in powdered or
liquid form. The whalebone ring (WB21) is still more
mysterious, given that it is comparable in size, if not
material, to early Anglo-Saxon bag rings, which are
associated with women. The object is unparalleled in
Anglo-Saxon England where, in the absence of a whaling industry, the use of whalebone was opportunistic.
While the nature of the material opened up possibilities for figural carving, and it served as a reasonable
substitute for ivory, its use was not confined to monastic establishments, and it can be seen at a number of
coastal locations at this time, where the range of
objects produced in the material extends to mounts,
clamps, fishing floats and sword pommels.
Almost all of the late Saxon objects are combs, with
the exception of a perforated pig metapodial (WB43),
a common object type thought to have been used as a
musical toy or diversion. There is slight evidence for
textile manufacture in the later Anglo-Saxon period at
Jarrow, in the form of an unfinished pinbeater, a
spindlewhorl and a needle case. The pinbeater (WB28)
and spindlewhorl (WB29) are common in AngloSaxon contexts. The interpretation of the tubular
object (WB30) as a needle case effectively fills the gap
between those of the Viking period, and late medieval
examples. It is a relatively large example and it is possible that it held needles for sailing cloth, rather than
for domestic textiles.
Aside from the spoon, there are few objects of
household use and rather more are associated with
crafts or recreation. The enigmatic tubular object
(WB32) resembles a cruder version of furniture
mounts of Roman date, and that may well be its function. Although it resembles a mouthpiece for a frontblown instrument, it comes from a Norman context,
which is too early for most instruments of that type. It
can be compared with objects from other sites and particularly Winchester, where a similar object in wood
appears to be a chair rail.
Recreation is well represented and the gaming
pieces span the Anglo-Saxon and medieval periods.
While the early medieval discoidal counter (WB40)
would have been used for the game of Tabula, its smaller late medieval counterpart (WB41) resembles a
draughts piece and may, indeed, have been used for
that function. Games, both of skill and gambling,
occurred within ecclesiastical establishments, notwithstanding frequent protestations.
From the 12th century onwards, the range of commonplace objects produced in bone and antler became
restricted and the customary types are seen here, with
styli, a tuning peg and knife handles. The antler hammer head (WB27) is an unusual object, although it
does reflect the frequent use of bone and antler for
implements, and there are also examples of an awl
(WB23) and a possible burnisher (WB26) here.
The majority of the objects, up to those of the

medieval period, would have been made at Jarrow and
Wearmouth, the only possible exceptions being the
composite combs. Even these include the most common types, like the handled comb fragments and the
horn and bone composite comb, although the more
elaborate pieces of Middle Saxon date may possibly
have arrived here through mechanisms of trade or
exchange. Combs were certainly exchanged between
ecclesiastics during the Middle Saxon period, and both
Alcuin and others wrote to express their thanks at
receiving such gifts. The late Saxon and early medieval
objects are not composite items and it is only with the
late medieval, lathe-turned styli that there is any further possibility of the presence of bone or antler objects
which were not made in the immediate locality. While
many of the objects described here can be compared
with numerous examples from other sites, their changing form over time reflects developments in object
manufacture and indicates both opportunistic use of
materials and the general transition away from antler
and towards bone as a raw material.
Waste material (Fig 31.5.1)

Only a few pieces of worked bone and antler came
from either site, but even a small collection indicates
that these materials were actually being worked at both
sites. They show considerable variation in the choice of
material. There is one section of whalebone, alongside
antler offcuts and several fragments of worked bone.
The particular types of waste are generally similar to
those retrieved elsewhere in the Anglo-Saxon period.
Worked bone waste, in contrast to antler, is seen
only rarely in the early Anglo-Saxon period, but is
plentiful at Hamwic and occurs also at other Middle
Saxon sites, including Ipswich, London and York
(Leeds 1927, pl VII fig 2, xviii; Riddler et al forthcoming; Cowie et al 1988, 135; Rogers 1993, 12457;
Riddler forthcoming b). In certain cases its use can be
related to the production of handled combs, although
it was also adopted for a variety of other objects. The
two midshaft pieces from Jarrow indicate an interest in
flat, rectangular, sections of bone that may have been
intended for use as tooth segments for combs. In addition to the pieces catalogued here, Barbara Noddle
recorded a few instances of bone working among the
faunal remains from Jarrow, noting characteristic splinters of needle manufacture or the proximal metapodial
stump which remains after such activity (contexts 2007
(Late Saxon); 1769 (Medieval 2 disturbed); and 393
(Medieval 12).
WB1
A curved section of the end of a red deer antler tine,

which has been sawn laterally and some of the central cortile tissue has been removed.
This piece came from a late medieval context but it
is likely to have been discarded at an earlier date.
MacGregor has noted that antler was gradually supplanted by bone as a working medium during the
269
Fig 31.5.1 Bone and antler: waste material (WB16), hammer (WB27), spindlewhorl (WB29), and utilised bones
(WB4950). Scale 1:2. YB
WB2
WB3
medieval period (MacGregor 1990, 3667). Although

this tine could be medieval there must be a suspicion,
at least, that it goes back to an earlier period.
L c 81 W 25 T 22mm
Medieval or earlier?
A sub-rectangular block of cetacean bone tissue,
sawn at one end, with some traces of facetting by
knife.
Comparable sections of whalebone have been
recovered from early and Middle Saxon sites at
Botolphs (Steyning), Hamwic and Ipswich, and they
occur sporadically in deposits of a later date (Riddler
1990a, 262; 1998b; Bourdillon and Coy 1980, 114;
Riddler et al forthcoming; Riddler and Walton
Rogers forthcoming). Prummel has also noted the
occurrence of a few fragments of whalebone in
deposits at Dorestad (Prummel 1983, table 2). At
both Hamwic and Ipswich, whale forms an opportunist species whose waste forms less than 1% of
each worked bone assemblage, assessed either by
number or weight. In the absence of an Anglo-Saxon
or English medieval whaling industry, a similar situation can be envisaged for the monastic craftsmen of
Jarrow, the site lying beside a tidal river. A whalebone
ring is described below (WB21).
L 108 W 45 T 20mm
Context: 2947 LPM JA 69 JI 1 6903
JARBW 1999.10345
Red deer antler offcut, probably cut from a beam and
neatly separated into four parts.
The technique of working recalls that described by
Ulbricht for Haithabu, under which cylinders of
WB4
WB5
WB6
antler beam or tine were divided into marked quadrants (Ulbricht 1978, 2730 and Tafeln 11 and 16).
Antler waste is ubiquitous in Anglo-Saxon England
and it is usual to find some evidence of it at settlements of all types (Riddler 1996).
L 47 W 23 T 10mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 5330 LS/EM? JA 63 FS 6302
JARBW 1999.11375
Part of the midshaft of a cattle-sized long bone,
showing some evidence of modelling and smoothing
by knife along either edge and across the outer surface.
L 74 W 22 T 8mm
Context: 354 Modern JA 66 HP 6601
Bone midshaft. A sliced segment from the anterior
face of a cattle metacarpus, modified by knife.
L 114 W 41 T 6mm
Context: 318 LS/EM JA 66 PY 7802
JARBW 1995.125
Bone waste. A small fragment from the midshaft of a
cattle tibia, sawn laterally at either end.
H 8 Diam 25mm
Date unknown
Context: 2305 EPM JA 75 JO 7501
Dress accessories (Fig 31.5.2)

WB7
Belt fitting. A small, turned object of bone or antler

may be one of the earliest items in these materials to
have been recovered from either site. It comes from
a late medieval context and is relatively small in size.
270
It is characterised by the presence of a central

groove, with rounded mouldings to either side.
Similar objects are believed to have functioned as
fittings on leather belts and Bal notes that they have
come from contexts as late as the 11th century,
although those published in recent years have been of
early Roman date, and this is the likely date of this
object (Bal 1983, 2379 and pl XLI.7435;
Deschler-Erb 1998, 168 no. 3962).
L 19 W 6-9mm
Early Roman?
Combs (Fig 31.5.2)

WB8
Fragment of a single-sided composite comb. The

connecting plates and tooth segments are both made
from antler. Fourfive teeth per 10mm. The comb is
decorated by ring-and-dot motifs, arranged in pairs.
Saw-marks, in groups of three, have been cut across
the top of the tooth segments, which project slightly
above the back of the comb. The spacing of this decoration is independent of the widths of the tooth segments, but it does relate to the distribution of the
ring-and-dot motifs. As only a part of one connecting plate fragment survives from this comb and there
are no end segments, it is difficult to be certain of its
complete form. It is nonetheless clear that the surviving connecting plate possesses a noticeably shallow and broad cross-section.
In her discussion of combs from Birka, Ambrosiani
separated them into two basic groups, depending on
the height to breadth ratio of the connecting plates
(Ambrosiani 1981, 612). The Jarrow item has similar proportions to combs of her type A. Combs of this
type, with noticeably wide and thin connecting plates,
are only rarely found in Anglo-Saxon England and
there must be a suspicion that they are influenced by
developments within the North Sea littoral. As
Tempel has noted, combs with broad and shallow
connecting plates can be seen there from the late 8th
century onwards (Tempel 1979, 167).
Anglo-Saxon examples are largely limited to a
comb from an unstratified context at Walton, an
example of uncertain date from Canterbury and a
comb from Period 3 at Coppergate, York, of 9th or
early 10th-century date (Farley 1976, 21618 and fig
26.1; Blockley et al 1995, 1163 and fig 514.1173;
MacGregor et al 1999, fig 883.7526). As yet, there is
no unequivocal dating for this type of comb, but the
resemblance in form to continental types, which
begin to appear in the later 8th century, suggests that
they should not be earlier than that date.
Further characteristics of the Jarrow comb emphasis the originality of its design. The tooth segments
project slightly above the back of the comb and, following the definition of Roes, the comb should therefore be described as crested (Roes 1963, 212;
Riddler et al forthcoming). The projecting tooth segments are decorated by sets of transverse saw-marks.
Such decoration is rare, although it does occur on an
unusual single-sided composite comb from Walton
and it can also be seen across the top of the handled
comb from Cambois mentioned below, as well as on
several single-sided composite combs from Ipswich
WB9
and York (Farley 1976, fig 20; Riddler et al forthcoming; Rogers 1993, fig 682.5710 and 5723).
The height of the connecting plate of the Jarrow
comb at its midpoint exceeds the length of the comb
teeth. The proportions of the comb are consequently somewhat awkward and ungainly, and distinct
from the elegant continental examples of
Ambrosianis type A combs, or those of Tempels
Formengruppe 2 (Ambrosiani 1981, 62 and Abbn
25-7; Tempel 1969, 7984). Two combs with similarly awkward proportions and comparable decoration, probably made by the same person, come from
Loquard and from Fohr (Waller 1936, Abb 6; La
Baume 19523, Abb 25.5). Tempel has distinguished between well-made combs that were produced in large production centres, and their
less-proficient local derivatives (Tempel 1979, 1523). A similar model can be applied here and the
Jarrow comb can be seen as a local production, based
upon 8th or 9th-century examples familiar in the
North Sea littoral. An 8th to 9th-century date for the
Jarrow comb is appropriate.
L 56 W 37 T 6mm
Middle Saxon
Context: 2758 Med 2 JA 73 UU 6 and 18 7301
JARBW 1995.100 and 1999.11366
End segment of single-sided composite comb made
from antler. This end segment is characterised by its
sinuous, rounded back, which is echoed by the
curved graduation of the teeth, cut to four per
10mm. It is rivetted at some distance from its end,
suggesting that it belonged to a relatively elongated
single-sided composite comb.
There is some resemblance to several more elaborate end segments from combs retrieved from mid to
late 9th-century contexts at Flixborough, as well as
with those on a comb of an earlier, 7th or early 8thcentury, date from Cherry Hinton and a 9th-century
comb from York (M Foreman, pers comm; Speake
1989, fig 47; MacGregor et al 1999, fig 883.7527). A
comb from Wharram Percy, whose date has been disputed, has sinuous ends to the backs of its end segments, and they can be seen also on several combs of
Middle Saxon date from Ipswich and York
(MacGregor and Dickinson 1992, 54-6; Riddler et al
forthcoming; Rogers 1993, fig 679). All of this suggests that this end segment came from a single-sided
composite comb of 8th or 9th-century date.
L 29 W 28 T 3mm
Middle Saxon
Five tooth segments were recovered from the 1963 excavations at Jarrow (WB1215). All are single-sided and stem
from combs with four teeth per 10mm. When set together it
is evident that they represent a minimum of four combs and
only two (WB12a and b) originally belonged together. A
small connecting plate fragment (WB10) provides a further
indication of the type of combs from which these segments
have been dislocated. Another connecting plate fragment
(WB11) is the only fragment from a double-sided composite
comb to be recovered from the site. It has been burnt to a
black colour throughout and survives in two conjoining
pieces, which include the trace of one rivet. The fragment
shows no traces of decoration, final finishing or tooth-marks
and may be unfinished.
271
Fig 31.5.2 Bone and antler: belt fitting (WB7) and comb fragments (WB820). Scale 1:1. YB
WB10 A fragment of a connecting plate for a single-sided
composite comb. It is decorated by single ring-anddot motifs which are placed centrally. It has been
burnt and is now grey and white in colour.
L 16 W 13 T 2.5mm
Mid Saxon?
Context: 2023 L Sax JA 73 VW 20 7305
WB11 A burnt fragmentary section of an undecorated connecting plate for a double-sided composite comb,
made from antler.

L 37 W 15 T 5mm
Mid Saxon?
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ 386 & 445 7305
WB12 Two fragmentary antler tooth segments for a singlesided composite comb, with four teeth per 10mm. It
is rivetted through one segment, towards one edge.
Slight traces of wear.
a. L 12 W 37 T 2mm
b. L 8 W 37 T 2.5mm
272
Mid Saxon?
a. Context: 96 LS/EM JA 63 FM 1 6302
b. Context: 98 LS/EM JA 63 FW 6302
WB13 An incomplete antler tooth segment for a singlesided composite comb with fourfive teeth per
10mm. It is rivetted on one edge.
L 10 W 27 T 2mm
Mid Saxon?
Context: 96 LS/EM JA 63 FM 2 6302
WB14 An incomplete antler tooth segment for a singlesided composite comb, which has been rivetted
through its centre. There are four teeth per 10mm.
L 12 W 35 T 2.5mm
Mid Saxon?
Context: 96 LS/EM JA 63 FR 6302
WB15 A fragmentary bone or antler tooth segment for a
single-sided composite comb, which has been

rivetted through its centre. There are four teeth
per 10mm.
L 9.5 W 33 T 2mm
Mid Saxon?
Context: 153 LS/EM JA 63 HB 6302
WB16 Connecting plate fragment, from handled comb. This
small fragment is clearly made from bone and not
antler, and its size and cross-section suggest that it is
a small part of a connecting plate from a composite
comb. There is a vestige of one rivet hole. It is decorated by four horizontal lines and a series of short
diagonal incisions that decrease in size along the top
edge of the fragment. The size of the fragment does
not allow for the precise identification of the comb
type to be made, but the use of bone and the type of
decoration are both comparatively rare characteristics
which are of some significance. There are no tooth
marks along the one surviving edge of the fragment,
and the comb was probably therefore single-sided.
Few bone combs are known from the early
medieval period, where the majority of combs were
made from antler. Antler was the preferred medium,
in particular, for the connecting plates of composite
combs. The most common use of animal bone as
distinct from antler in comb manufacture lay in the
production of handled combs. Handled combs made
from bone appear at present to be exclusive to
Anglo-Saxon England (Riddler 1990b, 179). They
are well attested from Hamwic, and they are known
also from London, North Elmham, Brandon and
Cambois. It is the comb from this last site, supposedly a Viking burial (Alexander 1987), which is of
particular interest here. It is a single-sided bone handled comb, decorated (unusually) on both sides,
with a pattern that distinctly recalls that of the Jarrow
fragment (Alexander 1987, fig 5).
The Cambois burial remains enigmatic. The
brooch from the burial has been published by
Wilson, who has dealt with it at length, but inconclusively (Wilson 1964, 48; 1975, 204). Evison has
rightly concluded that the brooch is Carolingian, a
view followed by Alexander (Evison 1977; Alexander
1987, 102). The handled comb from the Cambois
burial is difficult to date because it is a rare type for
which there are no securely dated parallels. Its construction, with bone connecting plates rivetted along
the length of the teeth and the handle, is a distinct
feature which Alexander has rightly suggested is
specifically Northumbrian. Other examples of the

construction are known from Hartlepool, York and
Whitby (Alexander 1987, 103; Rogers 1993, 1393;
Daniels 1988, fig 37; MacGregor et al 1999, 19345
and fig 896). The Cambois burial can be dated to the
late 9th or 10th centuries and the similarity between
the comb from that burial and the fragment here suggests that the latter is also of that date. A comb from
York, which has been dated to the 10th century, is
also similar (Alexander 1987, 103).
L 30 W 15 T 5mm
Late Saxon
Context: 2965 LPM JA 69 BM 6901
JARBW 1999.10202
WB17 Handle fragment, handled comb. A second handled
comb of Northumbrian type is represented by a fragment of one side of a two-piece handle. It is made of
bone and is decorated by bands of triple decorated
lines, enclosed between borders of lattice pattern.
One rivet hole survives.
The type of decoration can be broadly paralleled on
other combs of this type, as with an example from
York, where vertical groups of lines are accompanied
by diagonal bands (MacGregor et al 1999, fig
895.7685). Combs of this specific Northumbrian type
may not have been produced before the 9th century,
on the basis of the evidence currently available.
L 40 W 20 T 6mm
Middle or Late Saxon
Context: 4197 Saxon JA 70 CM 7005
WB18 Large fragment of a single-sided composite comb,
consisting of two incomplete connecting plates and
four tooth segments. Made of antler throughout. A
single end segment survives, which projects slightly
beyond the line of the back of the comb. The comb
is decorated by a lattice design of incised diagonal
lines, bounded by three vertical lines; this decoration
is confined to the middle section. Unusually, the
comb teeth of the end segment are not graduated in
length and only a small proportion of the segment
has been cut away. It is possible, therefore, that the
comb is unfinished.
This single-sided composite comb has a distinctive
form caused in part by the modelling of the connecting plates to produce a staid, rectangular format.
There is a very gentle curve to the back of the comb
and the end segment projects only slightly beyond this
line. It looks as if connecting plates intended for a
double-sided comb were adapted for use on a singlesided example. Combs with similarly profiled connecting plates are known from continental sites,
including Loquard, Frisia and Mnster (Boeles
1951, pl XLV, 6; Waller 1936, Abb 6; Winkelmann
1977, fig 7). These all lack lightly extended end segments, however, and this characteristic is better paralleled among 9th century and later combs. The
confinement of the decoration of the comb to its centre and the fact that it is repeated on both sides are
also features that are typologically late, and post-date
c AD 850. Comparable combs have been discovered
from sites in York, including 2133 Aldwark
(MacGregor 1978, fig 29.8), 68 Pavement
(MacGregor 1982a, fig 49.528) and Coppergate
(MacGregor et al 1999, fig 884.7551). No precise
dating has been given for these combs, but they have
been described as Anglo-Scandinavian. A similar

example is known also from Lincoln (Mann 1982, fig
3.2). Corroborative dating for this particular type of
end segment is also provided by the occurrence of a
comb of this type from a 10th-century context at
Haithabu (Tempel 1970, 423 and Abb 4.6).
L 77 W 31 T 9mm
Late Saxon
Context: 4715 Saxon-EM JA 76 DP 3 7604
JARBW 1995.102
WB19 Antler connecting plate, double-sided composite
comb. A section of an antler connecting plate decorated by pairs of oblique lines which extend towards
the centre but do not cross, and are imprecisely
aligned. They are bounded at one end by paired vertical lines. There are two rivet holes, one of which
retains part of an iron rivet. Tooth marks survive on
one edge, indicating that there were four teeth per
10mm.
The decoration is fairly elaborate, although it is
crudely applied. It can be distinguished from crossing diagonal line patterns, which are commonly seen
in the earlier part of the Middle Saxon period. The
design does not extend to the end of the connecting
plate and it was probably placed centrally on the
comb, which is a further indicator of a later Middle
Saxon or late Saxon date. Similar designs can be seen
on single and double-sided composite combs from
Norwich and York, among other sites (Margeson
1993, fig 33.411; Waterman 1959, fig 16.3; Rogers
1993, fig 685.5774).
L 21 W 10 T 3mm
Middle or Late Saxon
Context: 1429 LS/EM MK 64 XA 6403
WB20 Bone connecting plate, from horn and bone doublesided composite comb. This incomplete connecting
plate is undecorated and has an iron rivet at one end.
It stems from a horn and bone double-sided composite comb.
This type of comb is found in contexts of 9th to
12th-century date (Biddle 1990, 67883; Margeson
1993, 66; Riddler et al forthcoming). Biddle identified four variants of the type for Winchester but not
all of these are relevant for other sites and they are
dependent on the survival of complete or near-complete connecting plates. The Wearmouth example
belongs to his type A (Biddle 1990, fig 187).
Connecting plates, which were mostly made of bone,
but occasionally of antler, secured one or two sections of horn, across which the comb teeth were cut
(MacGregor 1985, 956; Pritchard 1991, 199200;
Biddle 1990, 67883). The connecting plates were
usually fastened with two or three rivets, although up
to five have been found in some cases (Riddler et al
forthcoming). The rivet surviving at one end provides an indication that the horn was 6mm in thickness. It is likely that this particular comb utilised two
rivets and fastened a single sheet of horn, which no
longer survives. There are no marks from the sawing
of the teeth on this example but where they do occur
it can be seen that these combs were designed to have
fine teeth on one side and coarse teeth on the other.
In general terms the prevalence of single-sided
composite combs over double-sided varieties might
be thought to be unusual for a middle Saxon assem-
273
blage and would be more acceptable in a late Saxon

environment, and the fact that combs come from
contexts which can be dated to the mid 9th century
or later may place them into a later time bracket.
Late Saxon comb assemblages from Hereford,
London, Northampton, Norwich, Thetford and
York are dominated by single-sided composites,
where middle Saxon sites like Hamwic and
Shakenoak show a more even balance between single- and double-sided composites (Riddler et al
forthcoming). On the other hand, however, Middle
Saxon assemblages from East Anglia and further
north include a greater proportion of single-sided
composite combs (Riddler forthcoming b). The
choices made at different times and locations
between single and double-sided composite combs
were evidently determined by a number of variables,
a few of which are now becoming clearer. Currently
it can be suggested that during the Middle Saxon
period double-sided composite combs were particularly common at sites south of the Thames. To the
north, in both East Anglia and Northumbria, singlesided composites occur in greater numbers. Handled
combs are found everywhere in reasonable quantities
at this time. The Jarrow comb assemblage largely
conforms with this situation, although there are
fewer double-sided composite combs than might be
expected for the middle Saxon period.
L 66 W 15 T 2.5mm
Late Saxon
Context: 1555 Med 1 MK 66 SG 6601
TWMS
Other personal objects (Fig 31.5.3)

WB21 Two conjoining sections of whalebone forming a
square-sectioned ring.
Antler and ivory rings have been found in early
Anglo-Saxon contexts in some numbers. Smaller
pieces cut from the corona of the red deer antler
served as suspension devices for keys and other personalia and a broader, decorated version has been
convincingly interpreted as a satchel mount (Speake
1989, 725). It is the larger rings of ivory, however,
which conform more readily in both size and shape
to the Jarrow fragment. They have been reconstructed as bag rings and they are generally associated with
women (Myres and Green 1973, 1003 and text fig
3; MacGregor 1985, 11012; Richards 1987, 128).
Most have been recovered from cremation graves,
where they are more common than is generally supposed (Arnold 1988, 523; Huggett 1988, 68). A
few have been retrieved from settlement contexts, as
at Waterbeach, for example (Lethbridge 1927, fig
4.8). Although very few survive even to the extent of
allowing their diameters to be assessed, Greens
reconstruction of their shape and function remains
both plausible and convincing.
The Jarrow object can be calculated to extend to a
diameter of approximately 125mm, placing it within
the established range of 100150mm for bag rings of
ivory. It differs only in its material, which is cetacean
bone rather than ivory. A fragment of waste from the
working of whalebone is described above (WB2).
If it is accepted that the Jarrow item is related to
274
Fig 31.5.3 Bone and antler: personal objects (WB2122), craft implements (WB2326), objects used in textile manufacture (WB28, 30), household items (WB3134). Scale 1:1; photographs of WB22 and WB24 scale 2:1. YB
earlier ivory bag rings, there remain problems of both
dating and gender association. Bag rings, if common
throughout the early Anglo-Saxon period, have not
been found in any Middle Saxon contexts. As with
certain other object types, they are overwhelmingly
associated with early Anglo-Saxon cremation burials.
They are absent from trading centres, monastic sites
and rural settlements, and it is possible that the use
of bag rings may have effectively come to an end by
the later 7th or early 8th century. As noted above,
where they occur in cemetery sites they are associat-
ed with women. The presence of a cetacean bone

ring from Jarrow in a secure Anglo-Saxon context is
therefore intriguing in several respects. This area has
been proposed as a guest house in its earlier phase.
To add to this, it should be noted that although
cetacean bone waste has come from several Middle
Saxon sites, including Hamwic and Ipswich, actual
objects made from whale bone are scarce and we
know comparatively little about the range of objects
produced in this material in Anglo-Saxon England.
In size and shape the Jarrow ring resembles ivory
bag-rings of the early Anglo-Saxon period but its

presence within an Anglo-Saxon monastery suggests
that it may have performed a distinct, if possibly
related, function.
L 63 W 6 T 6mm
Mid Saxon
JARBW 1999.10195
WB22 A small cylindrical box and lid produced from elephant ivory. The lid has a raised moulding and is delicately shaped to fit neatly over a recessed section of
the box. The container is decorated by a slight raised
moulding at the base and on the central section and
edge of the lid.
Small ivory containers of this sort were not produced in northern Europe during the Anglo-Saxon
period although more elaborate, carved ivory boxes
are recorded from the early medieval period onwards,
in emulation of pyxides of Roman and Byzantine date
(Beckwith 1972, figs 425; van Vilsteren 1987, 36;
Gibson 1994, 678). This object is very similar in
both size and form to Roman bone pyxides as, for
example, those from Mainz (Mikler 1997, 35 and taf
25.23). It can be assigned to Bals type 1a, which
consists of small containers with bodies of circular or
near-circular shape and lids attached over recessed
upper mouldings (Bal and Feugre 1983). The
majority of examples of this particular type of container belongs to the 1st century AD and was widely
distributed across the Roman Empire. Within
Europe, they were normally made of bone, and not
ivory (Mikler 1997, 35). The use of ivory in this case
suggests that the object is of southern or eastern
Mediterranean origin. It may represent Roman spolia
put to a secondary use in the Anglo-Saxon period. A
pyxis of a different shape and size was found in a grave
of the 2nd or 3rd century in the eastern cemetery of
London (Barber and Bowsher 2000, 133, 188 and fig
95). Given the nature of the site and the presence of
other material from beyond Europe it is more likely,
however, that it was produced in the Byzantine world
and came to Jarrow alongside the other, more celebrated objects carried from Rome.
The function of pyxides is unclear, the term covering a variety of objects of varying forms and sizes.
During the early Roman period they may have contained ointments or cosmetics, but few have ever
provided any residues that could be examined.
Others have suggested that they carried small pieces
of textile or acted as containers for devotional or
amuletic objects (Mikler 1997, 36). Similar boxes
have been found in 8th9th-century contexts at Siraf
(D Whitehouse, pers comm).
H 21 Diam 17mm
Roman or early medieval
Context: 570 EPM JA 78 FV 1 7802
JARBW 1995.279
Craft implements (Fig 31.5.3)

WB23 Awl. An incomplete antler implement of circular section, which narrows to a blunt point at one end and
shows traces of a perforation across the opposite
face. It has been polished.
This awl is similar to examples of bone and antler
275
from Abbots Worthy, Dorestad, Hamwic, Ipswich

and York, which date to the Middle Saxon period
(Riddler 1991, fig 36.33; Holwerda 1930, Abb
71.68; Riddler et al forthcoming; Rogers 1993,
fig 667.5561). These are stouter objects than contemporary perforated pig fibulae, with diameters
equivalent to those of double-pointed pinbeaters.
Their stouter form suggests that they may have been
used with cordage.
L 74 Diam 8mm
Mid Saxon
Context: 935 LS/EM JA 76 EM 3 7603
WB24 Part of an antler stamp, originally of square section,
with an incised swastika pattern cut into the surviving end face. The object is fragmentary and shows
clear evidence of lamination and decay caused by
incineration. Its core is now black.
The surviving pieces of this stamp indicate that it
was originally a carefully produced object incised with
a pattern commonly used in Hiberno-Saxon decoration. The term stamp, as adopted by MacGregor
(1985, 194) has been preferred here to die, a word
whose connotations lie with gaming equipment. In
one sense this object lies within the tradition of early
Anglo-Saxon pot stamps (Briscoe 1981; 1983;
MacGregor 1985, 194; Riddler 1986; Richards 1987,
689) and it conforms broadly with the type identified by Knaut which is modified to a peg-like shape.
Stamps of this type can include designs at either end
(Knaut 1987, 471 and Abb 6). Equally, the impression made by this stamp is the most complex to have
come from an Anglo-Saxon context. Although it can
be broadly assigned to Briscoes category J, it can be
differentiated from the rudimentary forms of antler
stamp seen in early and Middle Saxon contexts
(Briscoe 1981, 17; Riddler 1986, figs 1 and 2;
MacGregor 1985, fig 104; Knaut 1987, Abb 5 and
6). A comparison can be made with a copper-alloy
stamp from Swanley (Campbell 1982, fig 81).
It is generally considered that objects of this type
are stamps used on ceramics, although they could
equally be used to impress other materials, like
leather (see introduction, above; Wahl 1972;
MacGregor 1974, 78; 1985, 194). This is the function usually ascribed to the Swanley stamp, and conceivably to the Jarrow stamp also, given that there are
considerable problems in correlating stamps and
stamp impressions during the Middle Saxon period
(Kendrick et al 19561960, 867; Campbell 1982,
84; Riddler 1986, 18). In effect, while some comparisons can be made between stamps and stamped
ceramics in the early Anglo-Saxon period, there are
virtually no correspondences between the two elements in the Middle Saxon period and it seems
unlikely that the Middle Saxon series of stamps,
which includes examples from Birsay, Canterbury,
Hamwic, Hartlepool, Ipswich, Norwich, Sandtun
and Shakenoak, were used to stamp pots at all
(MacGregor 1985, 194).
L 18 W 8 T 5 mm
Mid Saxon?
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ 354 & 362 7305
JARBW 1995.224
Reference: MacGregor 1985, 194
WB25 Implement point. This small fragment of bone or
276
antler of oval cross-section stems from a pointed

implement, and was possibly an awl or a pinbeater.
The small size of the fragment, which has been
facetted but not smoothed and which may therefore be
unfinished, does not allow it to be precisely identified.
L 24 W 5 T 7mm
MidLate Saxon
Context: 2 LPM JA 65 GX 6501
JARBW 1999.10199
WB26 Antler burnisher? This well-made cylinder of antler
is undecorated, but polished from use. The remnant
of an axial perforation can be seen at the centre of
one end, but the object is otherwise formed of solid
bone, with traces of cortile tissue at one end.
The object comes from a medieval context but its
precise purpose is unclear. It is too large (and too well
made) to have functioned as a tuning peg, for which an
axial perforation would be unnecessary. The axial perforation is too narrow to represent a tang, and it finishes at some distance from the end of the object. It is
longer and broader than a comparable peg from York,
or earlier examples from Spong Hill and Botolphs
(Riddler 1990a, 262 and fig 22.49; MacGregor et al
1999, fig 961.7224). It can, however, be visualised as
the lower stem of a burnisher, similar to an example
of late 11th-century date from York (MacGregor et al
1999, 1976 and fig 932.7066). An alternative interpretation could be as the handle of a manuscript pricker.
L 58 Diam 910mm
Medieval?
WB27 Antler hammer. The shed base of a red deer antler
with the brow tine sawn off and the beam removed.
A hole has been cut through from the sawn tine to
the opposite side of the beam parallel to the burr.
The shed surface of the burr shows signs of repeated
impact producing a slightly convex surface losing the
usual collar appearance of the burr. Fig 31.5.1.
This object has already been published by
MacGregor (1985, 1712) and merely needs to be
summarised here. Antler hammer heads are known
from Birka and Aberdeen, as well as Wijchen and
Jarrow (MacGregor 1982b, 180; 1985, 1712; van
Vilsteren 1987, 27, no. 10). British examples appear
to be of medieval date. Naturally shed antler burrs
are well suited for use as hammer heads, although
the relatively soft nature of the material implies that
they were confined to the working of thin sheet metal
and organic materials. Antler was used on occasion
for a variety of tools, from the Anglo-Saxon period
onwards, including planes, punches and clamps, as
well as hammers (Roes 1963, 402; van Vilsteren
1987, 269; Ulbricht 1978, 79; MacGregor 1985,
1714; Riddler et al forthcoming).
H 78 Base ellipse 61 46 Diam of hole 12mm
Medieval
Context: 2523 Med 1? JA 73 JK 7302
JARBW 1995.292
Objects used in textile manufacture

(Fig 31.5.3)
WB28 Pinbeater? Cut from a bone midshaft and roughly
worked by knife to a point at one end.
This object is fragmentary but resembles an unfin-
ished pinbeater, by comparison with similar pieces of

early and Middle Saxon date from Brandon,
Hamwic, Ipswich, Pennyland, Sandtun, Shakenoak,
Sutton Courtenay and York (Riddler et al forthcoming; Riddler 1993a, fig 61.66; 1993b, 115 and 2001,
2401, illus 47; Brodribb et al 1972, fig 64.114 and
118; Leeds 1923, 169 and pl XXVIII fig 2j; Walton
Rogers 1997, 1755 and fig 815). Equally, however,
roughly fashioned bone pointed implements are a
feature of Middle Saxon and later deposits, as at
Burwell, Hartlepool and Seacourt, for example
(Lethbridge 1931, fig 22.9; Daniels 1988, 196 and
fig 37.3; Biddle 19612, fig 32.9 and 10).
L 58 W 8 T 7mm
Mid-Late Saxon
Context: 1189 EPM JA 75 FU 1 7502
JARBW 1999.10198
WB29 Bone spindlewhorl sliced from the proximal epiphysis of a cattle femur and pierced by a central, conical perforation. The upper section has subsequently
been damaged. Fig 31.5.1.
Spindlewhorls of this type are familiar objects
from Anglo-Saxon sites and they continued in use
into the early medieval period. Very few have come
from early Anglo-Saxon contexts but they are common from the Middle Saxon period onwards, attaining their greatest popularity in the 11th to 12th
centuries (Walton Rogers 1997, 17413). They were
produced with marked simplicity from the caput of
the cattle femur, generally by slicing across the
porous tissue and perforating the resultant hemispherical object, as is the case here.
H 24 Diam 4246mm
MidLate Saxon
Context: 2036 Med 1b JA 73 ED 7304
JARBW 1999.10197
WB30 Bone needle case.
Comparable bone cylinders with bevelled ends,
fashioned from goose bone midshafts, occur in late
Saxon deposits at Canterbury, Northampton and
Thetford (Blockley et al 1995, fig 504.1034; Oakley
1979, fig 141.103 and 104; Rogerson and Dallas
1984, fig 194.64-9). Those fashioned from goose
bones which have lateral perforations at the centre of
the midshaft are thought to have been used as whistles or elements of pipes (Blockley et al 1995, 1147;
MacGregor et al 1999, 1977). This example, however, is unperforated and it has been trimmed and bevelled from an ovicaprid metatarsus. It can be
compared in this respect with trimmed ovicaprid
metatarsals from Dover, Ipswich, Gravesend and
Thetford, all of which appear to date to the 11th and
12th centuries (Riddler and Walton Rogers forthcoming; Riddler et al forthcoming).
Their precise function has remained unclear until
recently. An earlier identification with bone hinges
can be discounted and it is unlikely that they served
as stamps (Oakley 1979, 318; Rogerson and Dallas
1984, 179). It is more likely that they served as needle cases and that they formed, in effect, the successors to those of bone that are known from the Viking
period (MacGregor 1985, 193; Riddler and Walton
Rogers forthcoming). Examples known to date have
come from contexts of the 10th to 12th centuries.
Some are perforated laterally at one end and others
include grooves intended to hold suspension cords,

but there are also examples similar to that seen here,
where no obvious method of suspension is apparent.
L 76 W 12 T 12mm
Late Saxon
Context: 3313 Med 1 JA 69 WG 6902
Household items (Fig 31.5.3)

WB31 Antler or bone spoon.
Bone spoons are familiar artefacts of Roman
Britain and evidence for their manufacture has been
found at Woodcuts and Winchester (MacGregor
1985, 181). Post-Roman bone spoons are a rarer
commodity although recent excavations have furnished examples that now span most of the AngloSaxon period. A series of spoons with spatulate
bowls and square or round shafts, made of both bone
and ivory, has been published from Winchester
(Collis and Kjlbye-Biddle 1979; Kjlbye-Biddle
1990, 82831). Stratified examples come from
deposits of the 10th to early 12th centuries. Late
Saxon spoons with spatulate bowls have also been
published from Canterbury, Goltho, London,
Norwich, Thetford and York (Elder and Riddler
1988, 145 and fig 29.102; MacGregor 1985, 182;
1987, fig 162.15; Pritchard 1991, 205; Williams
1988, 1013 and fig 81.15; Rogerson and Dallas
1984, fig 198.8890; Andrews 1995, fig 87.13;
MacGregor et al 1999, 1973 and fig 929).
Earlier Anglo-Saxon bone spoons were previously
unknown but Middle Saxon examples have now
been recovered from Beverley, Flixborough, Hamwic,
Ipswich, London, Shakenoak and York (Foreman
1991, 1856 and fig 128.1125; Riddler et al forthcoming; Cowie et al 1988, 135 and fig 38.7;
Brodribb et al 1972, fig 59.712; Rogers 1993, 1388
and fig 678.5568). In addition, a crudely fashioned
spoon-like object produced from a rib bone has come
from an early Anglo-Saxon context at Pennyland
(Riddler 1993a, fig 60.61). The Jarrow implement
lacks its bowl and part of the shaft. Its form resembles that of Roman and Middle Saxon examples,
rather than the late Saxon spatulate series, for which
the stem widens as it approaches the bowl (KjlbyeBiddle 1990, fig 247). The stem carries a shallow lateral indentation on either side immediately below the
lip. The spoons from other Middle Saxon sites allow
for the possibility that the Jarrow spoon, also, is of
that date.
L 66 Handle diam 8mm
Mid Saxon?
Context: 2857 ML Sax JA 76 CC 7602
JARBW 1999.10194
WB32 Furniture mount? Ovicaprine tibia, modelled fairly
crudely to a baluster-like shape with a narrowed and
smoothed area at one end.
This object resembles the mouthpiece for a musical instrument, but the midshaft has no air-hole and
thus cannot represent an end-blown instrument such
as a whistle or flute, although it could conceivably
have been a mouthpiece for a bagpipe-type instrument. It is thus quite distinct from the whistle with
transverse mouldings from Winchester (Megaw
1990, 721 and fig 205.2268). Parallels of both shape
277
and decoration are provided by bone handles of the

Roman period from Caerleon and Portchester
(Greep 1986, 209 and fig 72.28; Webster 1975, fig
119.118 and 119). The object type can also be seen
on the continent during the Roman period; the function is not known (Bal 1983, 95100, pl XXIV;
Deschler-Erb 1998, 18990). In each case, however,
these are neater implements which include the characteristic transverse roll mouldings, extending along
the entire length of the midshaft.
A further bone object from Winchester is of the
same form and came from an early post-medieval context. Among the doubts expressed concerning the
objects function, are objections to viewing it as a
musical instrument (Hinton 1990d, 864 and fig
261.2898). An intriguing late Saxon wooden cylinder
described as a chair rail, also from Winchester, raises
the possibility that bone cylinders of this type functioned in some manner as elements of furniture
(Biddle 1990, 971 and fig 301.3442). The fragment of
a similar bone object from Norwich was unstratified
and of uncertain use (Ayers 1988, 106 and fig 84.37).
L 73 Diam 12mm
Date uncertain
JARBW 1995.140
WB33 Part of the scale tang from a knife handle, manufactured from bone. The raised central area includes
three rivet holes but there is no trace of the accompanying rivets.
Bone handles for scale tang knives are frequently
recovered from medieval contexts and those from
London and Winchester, in particular, have now
been well studied (Cowgill et al 1987; Hinton
1990d). Part of the interest of this piece lies in the
possibility that it was never used. Three evenly
spaced rivet holes have been drilled but there is no
trace of metal about any of them, suggesting that the
knife handle was never fully assembled.
L 70 W 18 T 4mm
Context: 1189 EPM JA 75 FU 2 7502
JARBW 1995.267
WB34 Horn knife handle. The organic material on the tang
of this knife has been identified as horn. It encompasses the whole of the whittle tang, which is surmounted by a copper-alloy hilt end plate. The blade
of the knife is fragmentary.
Horn was commonly used for the tangs of knives
from the Anglo-Saxon period, if not earlier. Most of
those of early Anglo-Saxon date for which detailed
analytical work has been carried out have been identified as horn, rather than any other material (Evison
1987, 196; Drinkall and Foreman 1998, 283). With
knives from Anglo-Scandinavian York, however,
wooden handles were apparently more common than
those of horn, and this situation prevailed also with
those of late medieval date from London (Ottaway
1992, 5823; Cowgill et al 1987, table 6).
Some indication of the dating of this knife is provided by the presence of a hilt plate. At Winchester,
these are seen on knives dating between the 10th and
the 16th centuries (Biddle 1990, 838). The knife has
a whittle tang, and in London this remained the most
popular form until the early 15th century (Cowgill et
278
al 1987, 25). The Jarrow example came from a late

medieval or early post-medieval context. The form of
the knife blade itself is unclear, but it is likely that the
object is of late medieval date.
L 79 W 12 T 10mm
Context: 1631 Med 2/EPM JA 71 LW 7105
Styli (Fig 31.5.4)

(see also styli in copper alloy CA125126, iron Fe128
and lead objects Pb56)
It is generally considered that this class of object is
linked with writing in some way. Wheeler, reiterating
the earlier Guildhall Museum catalogue, published
several under the assumption that they were Roman
styli (Wheeler 1946, pl XXIV, 68; Guildhall Museum
1908, 423 and pl XXXI). Unstratified examples from
Whitby, on the other hand, have been published as
Anglo-Saxon (Peers and Radford 1943, 71; Cramp
1967b, no. 4; Backhouse 1981, fig 18). The Jarrow
examples, two of which have already been published by
MacGregor (1985, 124 and fig 67de) come from
medieval contexts and there is now little doubt that the
object type, as a whole, is resolutely medieval.
Stratified examples have been recovered from a
variety of sites and these strongly suggest that the
object type did not come into use before the 13th
century. They include 17 from Battle Abbey, 29 from
The Bedern, York, and smaller quantities from a variety of other sites (Geddes 1985), 14950 and fig 45;
Brown 1990, 7335; MacGregor 1985, 124; Riddler
1998a, 272; MacGregor et al 1999, 19746). The type
continues into the early post-medieval period, occurring in 16th-century contexts at Coventry, Kings
Lynn, Ospringe and Winchester (Woodfield 1981, 103
and fig 10.4; Clarke and Carter 1977, fig 143.11;
Smith 1979, fig 31.1 and 2; Biddle 1990, 743 nos
22867).
Wheeler regarded these objects as styli, an interpretation that has been repeated subsequently, but Brown
argued that they functioned as parchment prickers
(Wheeler 1946, 56; Geddes 1985, 14950;
MacGregor 1985, 1245; Brown 1990, 7335).
Wheeler was undoubtedly correct, and these objects,
which were noticeably common and widespread during the medieval period, should be viewed as styli. Late
medieval writing sets from Namur, Hamburg and
Lbeck include examples, even if the Hamburg example is a modern replacement for its medieval precursor
(Bracker 1989, 202 no. 12.3; Warnecke 1912). At
Battle Abbey, as also at London and Southampton,
bone finds also include tablets recessed to provide wax
surfaces for writing (Geddes 1985, fig 45.4). One of
the Jarrow implements lacks a round or oval knop but
is otherwise of similar design. It can be compared with
styli from Battle Abbey and London, also with missing
finials (Geddes 1985, fig 45.12; Ramsey 1987, nos
4201).
WB35 A lathe-turned cylinder of bone with a tapering finial

can be identified as a medieval stylus. This particular
example includes four bands of incised decoration
around its shaft. This form of decoration can be
matched on several styli, including examples from
Christchurch and Hull (Jarvis 1983, fig 33.44;
Armstrong and Ayers 1987, fig 127.394).
L 46 Diam 8mm
Medieval
Context: 1860 EPM MK 66 GQ 6602
TWMS
WB36 The shaft and knop of a bone stylus. The metal tip is
now missing but traces of iron staining are present
about the base of the shaft. The shaft itself is plain
and is separated from the circular knop by a double
roll moulding.
L 64 Diam 5mm
Medieval
Context: 1985 Med 1 JA 73 OZ 7305
WB37 The shaft of a bone stylus, now lacking both its metal
tip and its bone knop. The upper end of the shaft is
decorated by two groups of incised lines.
L 55 Diam 7mm
Medieval
Context: 582 Med 2? JA 78 GY 1 7802
WB38 A complete bone stylus with a metal point. The shaft
is decorated by a sequence of incised lines towards
the junction with the pointed oval knop.
L 68mm Diam 5mm
Medieval
Context: 2810 Med 2 JA 78 EX 1 7802
JARBW 1995.316
Recreation (Fig 31.5.4)

WB39 Bone or antler plano-convex counter, from a stratified Anglo-Saxon context, now unfortunately lost. It
is likely that it was of plano-convex section, possibly
with a single basal hole. Not illus.
The transition from shallow plano-convex counters, which are commonly found (particularly in
early Anglo-Saxon cremation burials), to the much
rarer, taller and later form characteristic of the late
Saxon period is not well understood. It is clear, however, that the taller form of counter was in use by the
9th century, and possibly before that date (Riddler
forthcoming a). There are few gaming pieces from
Middle and Late Saxon contexts, although examples
are known from Beverley, Hamwic, Hartlepool,
Ipswich, Lincoln, Nazeingbury, Winchester and York
(Foreman 1991, fig 131.1158; Daniels 1988, fig
37.4; Riddler et al forthcoming; Mann 1982, fig
11.99; Huggins 1978, fig 24.10; Biddle 1990, fig
195.2222; Rogers 1993, fig 687.4565; MacGregor et
al 1999, fig 940).
Dimensions not known
Early or Middle Saxon
Context: 2065 Saxon MK 67 HZ 6701
WB40 Discoidal counter. A second gaming piece is now
fragmentary and its central section has been cut
away. It is lathe-turned and is decorated by a band of
single ring-and-dot motifs, enclosed within incised
concentric circles. Traces of the inner band, where
further ring-and-dot are widely spaced, can also be
seen.
279
Fig 31.5.4 Bone and antler: styli (WB3538), recreational items (WB4045) and miscellaneous WB4648. Scale 1:1. YB
This flat, discoidal type of counter was used for
the game of Tabula, which was reintroduced to
England in the 11th century, possibly before the
Conquest (Riddler 1994, 186). Alongside chess, it
was one of the most popular board games of the
medieval period (Murray 1941; 1952, 11929). This
counter is decorated in a conventional manner and it
can be compared with numerous examples of 11th to
12th-century date, including those from London,
Schleswig and Winchester (Pritchard 1991, fig 3.87;
Ulbricht 1984, Tafeln 39, 40 and 86; Biddle 1990,
fig 195.222436).
Diam 36mm
Early medieval
Context: 1146 U/S MK 61 IS 6102
WB41 Bone or antler perforated discoidal counter, incised
on the obverse face with several crude concentric circles and well polished.
A third object identified as a gaming piece is sim-
ilarly of discoidal form, although it is smaller and it

lacks ring-and-dot decoration. Both characteristics
are of some significance. It is probably made from
antler rather than bone. The disc comes from a late
medieval context and it is noticeably smaller than the
earlier series of Tabula counters, most of which have
ring-and-dot designs or similar patterns on their
obverse faces. It can be compared, for both its size
and its concentric circle decoration, with counters
(mostly made of wood) from Bergen, Constanz,
Freiburg, Gttingen, Lbeck, Novgorod, Southwark
and York (Bracker 1989, 145 and 370; Mller 1996,
157; MacLees 1990, 803; Poljakova and Fecher
1973; Riddler 1999; MacGregor et al 1999, fig
940.71134). Further examples from Colchester and
Winchester retain the ring-and-dot patterning, but
are noticeably smaller than the early medieval series
(Crummy 1988, 45 and fig 51.2016; Biddle 1990, fig
195.2230). Some of these objects are perforated cen-
280
trally, as is the case here, but others are not.

Typologically, these counters represent a development beyond the larger early medieval series, but all
of them are still likely to have been used for Tabula,
possibly on boards of smaller dimensions.
Correspondingly, the reconstructed early medieval
Tabula board from Gloucester is broader (if not
longer) than one of the well-preserved late medieval
Tabula boards from Freiburg (Kluge-Pinsker 1991,
Abb 32; Mller 1996, Taf 27). Equally, however,
these counters could also have been used for the
game of draughts. This game was developed during
the medieval period and like several others, including
rhythmomacy, it was initially based on the use of a
chessboard. Many of the Tabula counters of early
medieval date would have been too large to use on
chess boards, but the smaller late medieval series,
which is more strongly reminiscent of modern
draughts pieces, would have been suitable for several
board games, including both Tabula and draughts.
Diam 20 T 3mm
Later medieval
WB42 Bone waste, possibly for the production of dice. A
length of bone, cut in all probability from a cattle
metapodial and facetted by knife and saw to provide
a square section, came from a medieval deposit. It
forms a piece of bone waste and it may be no more
than the residue from the cutting away of flat sections
of bone from the metatarsus.
Waste of this type is known from Anglo-Saxon and
later deposits (Addyman and Hill 1969, pl Vib;
MacGregor et al 1999, fig 879.6748 and 6776).
Equally, however, the squared section allows for the
possibility that it stems from the manufacture of
dice. Similar lengths of worked bone from Schleswig
were used in this manner, the cubic dice being cut
from a squared section of bone, after which the requisite numbers were added to each side (Ulbricht
1984, 39-40 and Taf 46.34). In this case the section
is not precisely square, but that should not be regarded as a particular difficulty. It may be unfinished, but
it is worth noting that medieval dice were generally
not precise cubes and in some cases at least they were
designed in that way so as to roll favourably to particular numbers.
L 92 W 8 T 7mm
Medieval
Context: 1996 Med 1 JA 73 SV 7305
WB43 Perforated pig metapodial. An unfused pig metatarsus pierced through the lateral and medial faces by a
roughly finished sub-circular perforation.
Pig metapodia that have been perforated laterally
through the midshaft are commonly encountered on
sites of Late Saxon and early medieval date, as at
Castle Acre, Colchester, Durham, Exeter, Ipswich,
Lincoln, London, Northampton, Norwich, Oxford,
Tetsworth, Thetford, Winchester and York
(Margeson 1982, fig 46.6; Crummy 1983, fig
109.2537; Carver 1979, fig 14; Megaw 1984, 349;
Riddler et al forthcoming; Mann 1982, 1213;
Pritchard 1991, 208; Oakley 1979, 313; Ayers 1988,
104 and fig 82.20; Durham 1977, 2967; Rogerson
and Dallas 1984, 182; Robinson 1973, 107; Brown
and Lawson 1990, 58990; Waterman 1959, 93;
MacGregor et al 1999, 1980-1). Their distribution

extends also to British sites like Birsay and Freswick,
and to the continent (Curle 1982, ill 50.282; Curle
1938-9, 978; Ulbricht 1984, 62; Lehmkuhl 1982).
These sites have produced examples from contexts
generally extending in date from the 10th to the 14th
centuries, with most examples coming from the 11th
and 12th centuries.
In most cases a single perforation has been placed
centrally through the midshaft, directed either from
the anterior to posterior face, as here, or medio-laterally. The perforations are crudely made and normally
occur singly, although paired examples are occasionally seen and one example from Ipswich has three perforations (Mann 1982, fig 9.88; Rogerson and Dallas
1984, fig 199.101; Ulbricht 1984, 62; Brown and
Lawson 1990, fig 158.1846; Riddler et al forthcoming). Generally, the bone is otherwise unmodified.
Such objects have previously been described as toggles, dress fasteners or bobbins for wool (Oakley
1979, 313; Margeson 1982, 243; Mann 1982, 13;
Rogerson and Dallas 1984, 182; Ayers 1988, 104).
Currently, following a suggestion of Hruby, they are
regarded as musical toys, threaded with twine and
induced to spin at speed, creating whirling sounds
(Hruby 1957, 195; Megaw 1984, 349; Ulbricht 1984,
623; MacGregor 1985, 102-3; Pritchard 1991, 208).
A growing body of European literature, including
ethnographical accounts, tends to support this interpretation (Brown and Lawson 1990, 58990).
L 61 W 15 T 14mm
Late Saxon
Context: 2821 Med 1-2 JA 78 JN 7803
WB44 Bone flute. A small fragment of a bone flute, possibly cut from an ovicaprid metapodial. Traces of two
finger-holes remain, cut obliquely in relation to the
sawn end of the object. They are so close to the end
that it seems unlikely that this was the original configuration of the object.
The sawn end may well be a later truncation, but it
is worth noting that finger-holes are attested in positions close to these elsewhere (Megaw 1990, 720;
Brade 1978, Abb 1.3.5 and 6). Fipple flutes with up
to four finger-holes have a long ancestry, stretching
back into prehistory (Brade 1975; MacGregor 1985,
149). This particular example may be Anglo-Saxon
or medieval. They are relatively common finds,
although the limb bones of birds (particularly goose
or crane) were generally preferred as the raw material in England, and those produced from ovicaprid
bones are less common, if not unknown (MacGregor
1985, 150; Megaw 1990, 719).
L 40 W 14 T 2-4mm
Context: Layer 16 EPM JS 73 OI 164 Area IV W
JARBW 1999.10201
WB45 Tuning peg. A cylindrical peg made of bone or
antler, widening to a sub-rectangular finial. It is perforated at the base and retains vestiges of diagonal
rasp marks.
Bone tuning pegs were previously thought to go back
to the Anglo-Saxon period, but they are resolutely
post-Conquest in date (Fry 1976; Lawson 1978;
MacGregor 1985, 1468). The form seen here, which
is perforated laterally at the opposite end to the finial,
has been described as type A (Lawson 1985, 152;

Lawson 1990, 713 and fig 201.III). A broad survey of
Insular medieval examples suggests that this type
dates from the 13th to 15th centuries and the Jarrow
example may be among the earliest known, coming
from a context of late 12th-century date (Lawson
1990, 713; MacGregor 1985, 147). Type A pegs were
intended for instruments with open superstructures,
allowing them to be tuned from the back or side. Such
instruments include harps, lyres and simple lutes
(Lawson 1990, 713 and fig 201.VII and VIII).
L 48 W 6 T 5.5mm
Medieval
Context: 2371 Med 2? JA 75 EU 1 7505
JARBW 1995.139
Miscellaneous (Fig 31.5.4)

WB46 Graffito. A small section of rib bone with the incised
drawing of a head, sketched with large sub-rectangular eyes and a prominent nose. This small and swiftly executed incised drawing lies with traditions
occurring from the prehistoric period onwards,
under which sketches are made on materials readily
to hand. Broad comparison can be made with graffiti of 16th and 17th-century date scratched onto
stones at Whithorn, Exeter and Launceston Castle
(Hill 1997, fig 10.111; Allan 1984, fig 171).
L 35 W 21 T 5mm
Date uncertain
Context: 3582 Med 2 JA 70 EG 7004
JARBW 1995.265
WB47 Bone mount. A well-cut fragment of bone from a
medieval context shows a floral motif, with a large
flower head above a latticed support. The object is fragmentary but it appears to be a mount which may have
been applied to a casket, or possibly to a book cover.
L 31 W 10 T 2mm
Medieval
Context: 1204 Med 1 MK 74 GK 140 6402
WB48 Antler object. A small but elaborate section of antler
cylinder with rebates at either end which splay out to
decorated terminals. One end is decorated by a single lateral line; the other by two grooves. The rebated ends would presumably dovetail into grooved
uprights, but the object is unparalleled and its function is unclear.
L 44 Diam 6mm
Date unknown
Context: Layer 85 EPM JS 73 HU 85 Area IV
WB49 Fragment of long bone with two pointed ends, worn
smooth and possibly utilised. From the fill of medieval
grave 66/104, above Building A. Possibly therefore
disturbed from an Anglo-Saxon context? Fig 31.5.1.
L 61 W 10 T 3mm
Context: 5868 Med JA 66 YZ 6601
JARBW 1995.69
WB50 Fragment of long bone with one pointed end, worn
smooth and possibly utilised. Fig 31.5.1.
L 55 W 14 T 5mm
Context: 3191 Med 2 JA 69 LQ 6904
JARBW 1995.70
31.6 The iron objects
281
by Ian Goodall
The iron objects from Jarrow and Wearmouth are
dominated by items of structural ironwork, among
them a wallhook, a range of different straps, hinge pivots, strap hinge fragments, clench bolts and nails. The
strap fragments include a few with shaped terminals,
but whether they are from doors or items of furniture is
uncertain. The clench bolts could be from either category, or even from ships, and although the ubiquitous
nails may be principally structural, some, including
those with plating, may be from furniture. The few iron
strips are likely to be from boxes or caskets. The dominance of structural ironwork and fittings reflects the
fact that monastic sites were kept clean, and that few or
no middens, a rich source of objects, were excavated.
Many aspects of daily life are nevertheless represented
by a comparatively small number of other objects.
Crafts are represented by a slaters pick, a punch and a
stylus, and there are a few everyday knives. Barrel padlocks, padlock keys and keys are present as well as a
hasp. The buckles are all utilitarian. Horseshoes are
comparatively numerous, although part of a bit and a
spur, and a spur buckle were also found.
Note: Some items were drawn from X-rays and
consequently do not have sections.
Hooks and staples (Fig 31.6.1)

Fe1
Fe2
Wallhook, the hook rising from the end of the shank.

L 66 H 28mm
Context: 4440 Saxon JA 69 XN b 6902-4
Tenterhook with slender hook and broken shank.
Such hooks were used, as their name implies, on tenters on which woollen cloth was hung and stretched
to dry, but there is also evidence that they were used
to support wall hangings and even roof tiles (Goodall
1990a, 2345).
L 21+ H 18mm
Context: 4972 LS/EM JA 70 XI a 7001
The range of shapes and sizes of the staples from

Jarrow reflects the variety of their uses, some as part of
structures, others from fittings. The rectangular staples
(Fe1011) are likely to have been used to join timbers,
the arms perhaps originally inturned and even
clenched. The U-shaped (Fe1215) and looped
(Fe39) staples are more likely to have been used to
secure fittings such as chains and hasps in place, or to
have held rings and handles on doors, chests, caskets
or buckets. Most of the looped staples are quite small
and could well be from caskets. Pre- and postConquest examples of these uses are known (Ottaway
1992, 61923, figs 2589, 2701; Arbman 1940, Taf
207; Goodall 1980, 11819, fig 85, nos H655 and
H657; Goodall 1990a, 3289, fig 78).
Fe3
Looped staple.
L 40 Diam 14mm
JARBW 1995.64
282
Fig 31.6.1 Iron objects: hooks, staples, hinge pivots and strap fragments. Scale 1:2. YB
Fe4
Fe5
Fe6
Fe7
Looped staple.
L 34+ Diam 14mm
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ 157b 7305
JARBW 1995.126
Looped staple.
L 30+mm
Looped staple.
L 29 Diam 15mm
Context: 982 L Sax JA 76 FR 4a 7604
JARBW 1995.65
Looped staple.
L 32+ Diam 18mm
Fe8
Fe9
Fe10
Context: 2645 Med 1 JA 73 RO 7302

JARBW 1995.66
Looped staple. Not illus.
L 40+ Diam 16mm
Context: 4035 Med 1b JA 70 OC 7006
Looped staple.
L 76 Diam 37mm
Context: Layer 29 EPM/LPM JS 76 ID 396 Area
VI
JARBW 1996.2442?
Rectangular staple.
L 17+ W 23mm
Context: 2021 L Sax JA 73 WH 7305
Fe11
Fe12
Fe13
Fe14
Fe15
Rectangular staple.
L 43 W 18mm
Context: Layer 40 Late Med JS 76 IO Area VI
JARBW 1996.2445?
U-shaped staple.
L 66+ W 30mm
Context: 371 LS/EM JA 66 PF 6601
U-shaped staple. Fig 31.6.1.
L 32+ W 32mm
Context: 2377 Med 1 JA 75 KD 7505
JARBW 1995.297
U-shaped staple. Not illus.
L 39 W 26mm
Context: 1191 Med 2 JA 75 GK a 7502
U-shaped staple. Not illus.
L 36+ W 24mm
Context: Layer 48 EPM JS 73 OD 153 Area IV
Hinges and strap fragments (Fig 31.6.1)

All three hinge pivots from Wearmouth are incomplete,
the shank of Fe24 deeply worn at the base. The upright
guide arms of the hinge pivots from Jarrow are all complete, the shanks broken on all but Fe22 and Fe23.
The shank of Fe17 does not taper, and unless it is an
incomplete forging it might once have been set in
masonry. The tapering shanks of Fe22 and Fe23 are
more likely to have been driven into wood.
Fe16
Fe17
Fe18
Fe19
Fe20
Fe21
Fe22
Fe23
Fe24
Fe25
Fe26
29
Hinge pivot.
H 22 L 33+mm
Context: 951 Saxon JA 76 HG 7 7603
Hinge pivot. Not illus.
H 28 L 45mm
Context: 2021 L Sax JA 73 VU 1 7305
Hinge pivot.
H 71 L 78+mm
Context: 969 LS/EM MK 69 HQ 1 6902
Hinge pivot.
L 40 H 33+mm
Context: 1133 LS/EM JA 75 LL b 7504
Hinge pivot.
H 33 L 37+mm
Context: 1172 Med 1 MK 61 JJ 6105
Hinge pivot.
H 32 L 47+mm
Context: 2153 Med 1 JA 73 SD 7304
JARBW 1995.276
Hinge pivot.
H 57 L 87mm
Context: 1279 Med 2a JA 71 NR 7106
H 59 L 84mm
Context: 3416 Med 2 JA 70 AFV 7008
JARBW 1996.1836
H 18+ L 45+mm
Context: 920 Med/EPM MK 69 EV 6903
Strap with waisted centre and expanded, pierced terminals. Fig 31.6.1.
L 126 W 1524mm
Context: 638 L Sax MK 71 KV 1 7101
Strap fragments, Fe28 and Fe29 with terminals, 28
rounded, 29 expanding to a straight-cut end. Not
illus.
283
Fe26
L 51+ W 23mm
Context: 346 Saxon MK 61 EK 6105
Fe27 L 38+ W 18mm
Context: 1224 Saxon MK 64 QN 6402
Fe28 L 56+ W 42mm
Context: 834 Med 2 MK 66 RL 6604
Fe29 L 61 W 10mm
Context: 163 Med 2/EPM MK 74 DC 7402
Fe30 No identifiable hinge was found at Jarrow, but there
40
are eleven fragments of strap, most of them small and
with parallel sides, although Fe38 tapers. They range
in width from 8 to 30mm, most being between 14
and 20mm; none is longer than 94mm. Fe32 is a
pierced, square terminal.
Fe301 Not illus. Context: 2863 LS/EM JA 76 DK 7602
JARBW 1996.2446
Fe32 Context: 1206 Med 1 JA 75 LO 3 7502
Fe334 Not illus. Context: 86 Med 1 (dist) JA 63 DQ
6302 ?JARBW 1996.12967
Fe35 Not illus. Context: 4826 Med 1-2 JA 63 DV 6301
Fe367 Context: 1191 Med 2 JA 75 GK c, k 7502 528
JARBW 1995.174 and 1995.273
Fe38 Context: 1124 Med 2 JA 75 KP a 7504
Fe39 Context: 1089 Med 2b JA 75 DY 7504 JARBW
1995.298
Fe40 Not illus. Context: 3339 Med? JA 69 VA 6905
Clench bolts and roves (Fig 31.6.2)

Fe41
75
Fe41
Fe42
Fe43
Fe44
Clench bolts, which were used to join overlapping

timbers, consisted of a nail whose shank passed
through the timber and then a small pierced iron plate,
the rove, over which its tip was burred or clenched.
Three of the Wearmouth clench bolts come from
Anglo-Saxon contexts, three from medieval and two
from later contexts. Fe41, 43 and 53 are complete
and are 34, 33 and 40mm long; the incomplete ones
are from 18 to 55mm in length.
At Jarrow, three clench bolts and an indeterminate
number in a corroded mass come from Saxon contexts, fourteen clench bolts (including ten, Fe48, from
grave 70/155 at Jarrow; Fig 31.6.2) and two roves
from Late Saxon/early medieval contexts, and twentynine clench bolts and three roves from medieval contexts. Also there are five clench bolts from late
medieval or early post-medieval contexts. Only eleven
clench bolts are complete, and their lengths are
between 25 and 57mm, with most between 25 and
36mm. Incomplete clench bolts are up to 70mm in
length, most no more than 45mm but four measuring
58, 63, 67 and 70mm. The clench bolt heads are usually flat and of a rounded square shape, the form of the
commonest timber nails (Type A, see below), but the
occasional head is oval or domed. The roves are all
flat; most are lozenge shaped, a few square. Clench
bolts are characteristically associated with clinker-built
ship construction, but they in fact had a wider use that
extended to include cart bodies, coffins, doors, hatches and well covers (see Ottaway 1992, 61519, figs
256-7 and Goodall 1990b, 329, fig 80). Numbers in
brackets denote more than one from the same context.
Context: 1144 Saxon MK 61 CO 6102
Context: 1361 Saxon? MK 64 JQ 6403
Context: 1688 L Saxon MK 62 JQ 6201
Context: 3613 Saxon JA 70 LF 7004
284
Fig 31.6.2 Iron clench bolts and rove. Scale 1:2. YB

Fe45
Fe46
Fe47
Fe48
Fe49
Fe50
Fe51
Fe52
Fe53
Fe54
Fe55
Fe56
Fe57
Fe58
Fe59
Fe60
Fe61
Fe62
Fe63
Fe64
Fe65
Fe66
Fe67
Fe68
Fe69
Fe70
Fe71
Fe72
Fe73
Fe74
Fe75

Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ 447b (corroded
mass) 7305
Context: 2017 L Sax JA 73 VF 7305
Context: 4990 SaxonMed JA 70 ACQ (10) 7001
JARBW 1995.63. Fig 31.6.2.
Context: 1121 Norman/Med 1 JA 75 JQ (3) 7504
Context: 1113 LS/EM JA 75 GX 7503
Context: 553 Med MK 71 LW 7102
Context: 1355 Med MK 64 JZ 6403
Context: 816 Med? MK 61 FI 6104
Context: 2144 Med 1 JA 73 RQ 7304
Context: 2697 Med 1 JA 73 TQ 7302
Context: 2369 Med 1 JA 75 DE 7505
Context: 1204 Med 1 JA 75 KY 7502
Context: 927 Med 1 JA 76 DB (2) 7603
Context: 1116 Med 1? JA 75 HA 7504
Context: 1130 Med 1b JA 75 LB 7504
Context: 905 Med 1b2 JA 76 BC 7603
Context: 1278 Med 2a JA 71 PG 7106
Context: 5950 Med 2 JA 66 GU a (2) 6601
Context: 1771 Med 2 JA 71 RW 7105
Context: 2137 Med 2 JA 73 OY 7304
Context: 1104 Med 2 JA 75 GJ 7504
Context: 1117 Med 2 JA 75 HB 7504
Context: 1195 Med 2 JA 75 HW (2) 7502
Context: 1124 Med 2 JA 75 KP (3) 7504
Context: 1126 Med 2 JA 75 KT 7504
Context: 966 Med 2 JA 76 BT 7604
Context: 967 Med 2 JA 76 BU 7604. JARBW
1996.2435
Context: 2816 Med 2 JA 78 HK 7803
Fe76
Fe77
Fe78
Fe79
Fe80
Fe81
Fe82
Fe83
Fe84
Context: 2828 Med 2 JA 78 IX 7803

Context: 582 Med 2? JA 78 GY 7802
L42+mm Context: Layer 42 Med 2 JS 73 PT
Area IV W
Context: 163 Med 2/EPM MK 74 DK 7402
Context: 969 Med 2/EPM JA 76 CD 7604
Context: 533 EPM MK 71 HD 7102
Context: 3659 EPM? JA 70 AAH 7007
L17+mm Context: Layer 39 EPM JS 76 GM
Area IV N. JARBW 1996.2436
L20mm Context: Layer 65 EPM JS 73 PE 262
Area IV
Fe8592 Roves were found in the following contexts at

Jarrow:
Fe85
Fe86
Fe87
Fe88
Fe89
Fe90
Fe91
Fe92
Context: 454 LS/EM JA 67 LG 6702 JARBW

1996.1590
Context: 1121 Norman/Med 1 JA 75 JQ 7504
Context: 2639 Med 1 JA 73 QZ 7303
Context: Layer 76 Med 1 JS 76 CX Area VI
Context: 1188 Med 2 JA 75 FL 7502
Lozenge-shaped rove. Fig 31.6.2. Context: Layer 64
EPM JS 73 OE 166 Area IV E
Timber nails
Of the 708 timber nails from Jarrow with identifiable
heads that were examined, five separate types (AE)
were isolated (Fig 31.6.3; type E not illustrated). Type
A nails have flat, rounded square heads, Type B a long,
broad, flat rectangular head, Type C a long, narrow
rectangular head, Type D a long rectangular head ris-
285
Fig 31.6.3 Iron nails of types AD. Scale 1:1. YB

ing to a central cross ridge, and Type E a flat, figureeight shaped head. Of these five types, 654 are of one
type, Type A, and they come from both Saxon and
medieval contexts, whereas the remaining 54 nails, of
Types BE, come solely from medieval contexts.
The Type A nails are equivalent to the commonest
type of nail from Anglo-Scandinavian contexts at
Coppergate in York (Ottaway 1992, 60811) as well as
from medieval and post-medieval contexts elsewhere
(Goodall 1973, 175; 1975, 857; Mould 1979,
14951). The nail heads range in width from 7 to
33mm, but most from Saxon and late Saxon contexts
cluster between 12 and 17mm, and from medieval
contexts between 10 and 20mm. Of the 654 Type A
nails from Jarrow, 181 were complete. Among those
with heads up to 11mm in width, complete lengths
range from 12 to 51mm, although most are no more
than 26mm long with the exception of a few from
medieval contexts. Complete nails with heads from 11
to 17mm in width range from 13 to 102mm in length,
most no longer than 40mm, the few that are above this
coming from contexts of all dates. The nails with heads
18mm and more wide range in length from 19 to
100mm; most of those from Saxon and late Saxon contexts are no more than 40mm long, but the medieval
ones spread more evenly across the whole range.
The four other Jarrow nail types, B to E, are all
solely of medieval date (post-medieval nails were not
examined). There are four of Type B (two complete,
51 and 84mm long), 15 of Type C (five complete,
2558mm long), 14 of Type D (eight complete,
2860mm long), and 21 of Type E (14 complete,
4962mm long).
Of the 310 nails with identifiable heads from
Wearmouth that were examined, 306 had flat, rounded square heads (Type A), and four had long rectangular heads rising to a central cross ridge (Type D).
The Wearmouth Type A nails have heads from 6 to
26mm in width, most of those from Saxon and late

Saxon contexts clustering between 11 and 20mm, and
from medieval contexts between 13 and 20mm and
122 of the 306 nails are complete. Among those with
heads up to 11mm in width, complete ones from
Saxon contexts range from 12 to 27mm in length, the
longest broken one being 38mm long. Those from
medieval contexts were all broken, the longest measuring 38mm. Complete nails with heads from 11 to
20mm in width range from 16 to 85mm in length.
Those from Saxon contexts are between 16 and 79mm
long (most are less than 50mm long; the longest broken nail is 54mm), from late Saxon contexts between
16 and 30mm (longest broken nail, 45mm), and from
medieval contexts between 18 and 85mm (most under
50mm long; longest broken nail 81mm). The nails
with heads 21mm or more in width range in length
from 30 to 70mm, whatever their date.
The four Type D nails from Wearmouth, all from
medieval contexts, have heads between 8 and 14mm in
length, and complete lengths of 57 and 62mm.
In analysing the Anglo-Scandinavian nails from
Coppergate, York, most of them equivalent to the Type
A nails from Jarrow and Wearmouth, it was suggested
that the majority had probably been used for furniture,
with comparable nails, some of them plated, being used
on chests, boxes, caskets and coffins (Ottaway 1992,
61314). Similar uses are possible for the Jarrow and
Wearmouth nails. A few from Saxon and late
Saxon/early medieval contexts at Jarrow are plated and
could be from boxes or caskets, while a number of the
commonest size of Type A came from burials in Saxon
and medieval contexts, some perhaps from coffins.
Nails were also used in abundance on buildings, as
medieval documents indicate (Salzman 1967, 30317).
Structural and roof timbers would have been jointed,
but among other uses, nails could have secured laths in
partitions and on roofs, or have secured hinges or other
286
fittings in place. Two nails from medieval contexts

(Context 3838, Med 2, JA 70 NF, 7003; Context 4973,
SaxonMed 1, JA 70 ZH, 7001) are nailed through
small pieces of lead sheet and may have held lead covering in place. The use of the Wearmouth nails will have
been similar to those from Jarrow. Four are plated
(Context 1891, Med, MK 66 NH, 6602; Context
1904, Saxon, MK 66 SS, 6602; Context 853, Modern,
MK 66 WR, 6602; Context 969, LS/EM, MK 69 HQ,
6902), and one has sheet lead around its head (Context
1633, LPM, MK 62 BV, 6201).
Fe95
Fe96
Fe97
Handles (Fig 31.6.4)

Fe93
Fe94
Handle support from wooden object. Fe93 has a

looped eye which carried the handle, an expanded
body with a hole to take the nail, and an end spike
which was driven into the wooden object to secure
the fitting further. A similar fitting from Coppergate,
York, supports a ring handle (Ottaway 1992, 648, fig
274, no. 544).
L 60 Diam 22mm.
Handle support from wooden object. A U-shaped
mount which was nailed through wood and could, in
the manner of one from a bucket from Birka, have
supported a ring handle (Arbman 1940, Taf 207, nos
1, 2).
L 64 W 28mm.
Strap with ridged surface, perhaps part of a handle.
L 132+ W 16mm
JARBW 1995.126
U-shaped handle with splayed, perforated terminal
forged to fit a curved surface.
L 45 W 43+mm
Context: 749 Med JA 67 PE 6701
JARBW 1995.250
Shaped bar with copper-base plating, perhaps part of
the handle of a bell.
L 61 H22+mm
Context: 1213 Med 1/C13th JA 75 MK 7502
JARBW 1995.275
Binding strip (Fig 31.6.4)

Fe98
104
Fe98
Fe99
Binding strip: Fe98101 with simply forged

terminals, Fe98 spade-shaped, Fe99101 pierced
and with convex sides. Fe102104 are plain strip
fragments. Strips, often more elaborate and of a
nobler metal, were used on boxes and caskets
(Ottaway 1992, 62831; Carver 1979, 19, fig
13.129/1668).
L 64+ W 11mm
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ d 7305
JARBW 1995.146
L 104+ W 12mm
Fig 31.6.4 Iron objects: handles, binding strip, chains and rings. Scale 1:2. YB
Context: 1443 Norman JA 71 RT 7106

Fe100 L 40+ W 13mm Fig 31.6.4.
Context: 718 Med JA 67 KW 6701
Fe101 L 34+ W 12mm
Context: 1107 Med 2 JA 75 GO 2 7504
JARBW 1995.315
Fe102 L 49+ W 8mm. Not illus.
Context: 2141 Med 1 JA 73 PZ 7304
Fe103 L 76+ W 10mm Not illus.
Context: 163 Med 2/EPM MK 74 EB 3 7402
Fe104 L 60+ W 7mm. Not illus.
Context: 231 EPM MK 74 CO 1 7401
Chains (Fig 31.6.4)

Fe105 Chain with two incomplete sub-rectangular links.
L 22+ and 28+ W 12mm
Context: 1117 Saxon? MK 61 CI 6101
Fe106 Chain link fragment.
L 58+ W 37mm
Context: 5577 LS/EM? JA 65 SD b 6506
Fe107 Looped hook from chain.
L 79mm
Context: 1211 Med 1 JA 75 LV b 7502
Fe108 Chain link fragment. Not illus.
L 26+mm W 15mm
Context: 5904 Med JA 66 PK 6601
Rings (Fig 31.6.4)

Fe109 Ring.
Diam 44 T 9mm
Context: 1560 Saxon MK 66 UU 6601
Fe110 Ring, broken. Not illus.
Diam 47 T 7mm
Context: 969 LS/EM MK 69 HQ 6602
Fe111 Ring with overlapping terminals.
L 25 W 19mm
Context: 4734 Saxon JA 78 DK 1 7805
Padlocks and keys

(Fig 31.6.5) (see also CA136141)
Fe112 Barrel padlock with incomplete bolt. The case has
narrow straps down its length and is closed by circular end plates that are wider than the case and overlap it slightly. The padlock is small, but comparable
examples include those from a 7th-century grave in
Kent (Fausset 1856, pl 10, nos 810; I should like to
thank Patrick Ottaway for this reference, and for discussions about the ironwork). Not illus.
L 43+ Diam 16mm
Context: 2017 L Sax JA 73 UG 7305
Fe113 End-plate from barrel padlock with copper-alloy
plating.
Diam 22 T 1mm
Fe114 Barrel padlock case fragment with straps around
case. Probably from barrel padlock with shackle.
L 34+mm Diam 38mm
Context: 827 Med 2 MK 66 PV 2 6604
Fe115 Fin and tube fragment from a barrel padlock.
L 57 W 45 T 16mm
Context: 2371 Med 2? JA 75 EU 3 7505
287
Fe116 T-shaped padlock bolt from barrel padlock with

shackle. One spine has just a single spring, the other
a double-leaf spring.
L 62mm
Context: 1190 Med 2 JA 75 FV a 7502
JARBW 1995.277
Fe117 Barrel padlock keys, all of types with a pre119 Conquest origin but all from post-Conquest contexts. Fe117, with the bit in line with a swollen stem
which is decorated with an incised geometrical pattern, and has a non-ferrous coating, is probably of
11th to 13th-century date (Goodall 1987, 183, fig
158.11213). Fe118 has a broad stem with a swollen
and originally hooked terminal and part of a laterally set bit, while Fe119 is just such a bit, having two
holes to pass over the spines of the padlock bolt.
Fe117 L 122mm.
Context: 462 Modern JA 76 EP 7601
JARBW 1995.303
Fe118 L 130+mm.
Context: 1244a Med 2 JA 71 JN 7304
Fe119 L 24 W 22mm. Not illus.
Context: 2139 Med 2? JA 73 PF 7304
Fe120 Keys, all of post-Conquest date, Fe120 and Fe122
123 complete, 121 a fragment. Fe120 and Fe121 both have
their bits rolled in one with the hollow stem, Fe120 having a ring bow. Fe122 has a solid stem with a knobbed
tip and a lozenge-shaped bow. Fe123 has a broken,
hollow stem and oval bow with inner kidney shape.
Fe120 L 130mm.
Context: 1208 Med 1b JA 75 LQ 1 7502
JARBW 1995.304
Fe121 L 70mm. Not illus.
Context: 1965 Med 1 JA 73 NM 7305
Fe122 L 104mm.
Context: 374 LPM JA 66 DP a 6601
Fe123 L 42+mm. Not illus.
Hasp (Fig 31.6.5)

Fe124 Figure-eight hasp, gently curved in side view.
L 135 W 32mm
Context: 98 Med MK 66 GR 6602
Implements (Fig 31.6.5)

Fe125 Fishhook with plain hook and looped eye for attachment of line, similar in form to others of preConquest date from Coppergate, York (Ottaway
1992, 6001, fig 248).
L 29 W 9mm
Context: 5271 Saxon JA 67 OW 6703
Fe126 Socketed weedhook with incomplete blade.
L 65mm
Context: 2376 Med 2 JA 75 JX 72 7505
Fe127 Small punch, circular in section.
L 41 Diam 9mm
Context: 5950 Med 2 JA 66 GU 6601
Fe128 Stylus for writing on wax tablets. The broad, wedgeshaped eraser is typical of pre-Conquest styli, in contrast to the T-shape more common later (Ottaway
1992, 6067, fig 252; Goodall 1991, 132, fig
102.3032). See also styli in copper alloy CA125126,
lead objects Pb56 and worked bone Wb358.
288
Fig 31.6.5 Iron objects: padlocks and keys, hasp, implements and knives. Scale 1:2. YB
L 95 W 14mm
Fe129 Pick with circular eye, the body tapering towards each
end, and capable of being used to make holes in slates.
L 99 W 25mm
Context: 1009 Med 2 MK 69 CS 1 6901
Knives (Fig 31.6.5)

Fe130135 are whittle-tang knives, Fe136 a scale-tang
knife with blade and tang both broken, Fe137 and 138
fragments of whittle and scale tangs, and Fe139, 140145 knife blade fragments. Fe130131, both of preConquest date, have blade forms which are found on
other sites of the period (Ottaway 1992, 55885).
Fe133135 are from medieval contexts, Fe133 too
incomplete to classify, but Fe134135 having the most
common blade form of the period, with the back and
cutting edge both tapering to the tip. Fe134 also has a
pattern-welded core, a feature of some knives of this
period (Goodall 1990c, 8356). The scale tang fragment, Fe137, must be of 13th-century or later date.
The blade fragments include three of particular note,
Fe142, which is like the tip of Fe130, Fe143, which has
a gently curving back, and Fe145, whose back and
blade are parallel.
Fe130 L 70+mm.
Context: 2869 Saxon JA 76 FH a 7602
Fe131 L 76+mm.
Context: 432 Med MK 71 MH 7104
Fe133 L 50+mm.
Context: 1201 Med 1b JA 75 KM a 7502
Fe134 L 74+mm.
Context: 2362 EPM JA 75 DQ 1 7505
JARBW 1999.11401
Fe135 L 122+mm.
Context: 1185 Med 2/EPM JA 75 EX b 7502
JARBW 1995.299
Context: 830 EPM MK 66 QW 6604
Context: 242 Med 1 JA 67 NU 6701
Fe138 L 77+mm.
Context: 970 Med 2 JA 76 CK 7604
Fe139 L 100 W 14mm. Not illus.
Context: 135 Med 2 MK 74 GA 7403
Context: 17 Med 2 JA 66 XP 6601
JARBW 1995.274
Context: 2186 Saxon JA 73 UH 4 7304
Context: 1337 Med 1a JA 71 OL 7106
Fe145 L 64+mm. Fig 31.6.4.
Context: 2829 EPM JA 78 JH 7803
289
Arrowhead and spearhead (Fig 31.6.6)

Fe146 Socketed arrowhead with slender tapering blade.
L 65+mm
Context: 2143 LS/EM JA 73 RU 6 7304
Fe147 Socketed spearhead with damaged blade.
L 132mm
Context: 1568 Med 2 JA 71 LW b 7105
JARBW 1995.300
Ferrule
Fe148 Ferrule. Tapering, oval-shaped socket with rib
extending up from one side. Not illus.
L 35+ W 13 7mm
Context: 1382 LS/EM MK 64 PN 6403
Buckles (Fig 31.6.6)

Fe149 Fe149 is a D-shaped buckle with free arm ends
155 comparable to others of similar date (Ottaway 1992,
683, fig 294, nos 3708, 3710, 3717, 3727). Fe150
has a broken trapezoidal frame with the pin resting
against a sheet-iron cylinder, and Fe151 a substantial
T-shaped harness buckle shaped to enable it to be
used with straps of differing width; a probable belt
slide (Fe152) may be associated. Fe153 and 154 are
of similar shape, the latter retaining much of the
buckle plate through which it was attached to the
strap. Fe155 has a trapezoidal frame. Fe152 and 155
retain traces of non-ferrous coating.
Fe149 W 32 L 27mm.
Context: 1551 L Sax MK 66 PT 6601
Fe150 L 39 W 26mm.
Context: 982 L Sax JA 76 FR 3 7604
JARBW 1995.87
Fe151 L 30+ W 25mm.
Context: 3724 LS/EM JA 75 MH 7505
JARBW 1995.88
Fe152 L 42 W 30+mm.
Context: 126 Med 2 MK 74 DX 1 7403
Fe153 W 160 L 80mm. Not illus.
Context: 553 Med MK 71 LW 4 7102
Fe154 ?Belt slide. Sub-rectangular with inner shaping. From
same context as Fe151, and possibly associated.
L 69 W 35 T 6mm
Context: 553 Med MK 71 LW 1 7102
Fe155 L 32 W 34mm.
Context: 1086 Med 2 JA 75 DJ 7504
Horse equipment (Fig 31.6.6)

Horseshoes were introduced in the 9th century, and a
number of different types succeeded each other in the
following centuries. The nails which secured them, and
which projected beyond the shoe to aid grip, also
evolved, their shape influenced by that of the nail hole,
initially countersunk, but later rectangular (Goodall
1990d, 105467).
Twenty-three horseshoe nails, all from medieval
contexts, were noted at Jarrow, and three types (LN)
were distinguished. Type L, of which there are 14
examples, is the so-called fiddle-key nail, characteristi-
290
Fig 31.6.6 Iron objects: arrowhead, spearhead, buckles, horse equipment and miscellaneous objects. Scale 1:2. YB
cally with a semicircular-shaped head no wider in side
view than its shank. The head, sometimes worn down
to a T-shape, fitted into the countersinking of the nail
hole, and the type was used from the 9th to the early
13th century when it was superseded by nails of Type
M, four of which were found. This nail has an eared
head, which expands in side view to a broad, flat top:
the ears fitted into the countersinking. The two nails of
Type N represent a late medieval type of horseshoe
nail, used from the 14th century in horseshoes with
rectangular nail holes. The head tapers to a flat top in
front view, but expands in side view.
Three horseshoe nails were recognised at
Wearmouth, two of Type M, which were presumably
intrusive in late Anglo-Saxon contexts (Context 347,

MK 61 FS; Context 2087, MK 67 GE), and one Type
N from a probable medieval context.
Fe156 Tip of horseshoe. Not illus.
L 45+mm Context: 262 Med MK 74 FX 7401
Fe157 Horseshoe arm fragment. Not illus.
L 103+ W 25mm
Context: 116 EPM MK 74 CV 7403
L 78+mm
Context: 393 Med 1/2 JA 67 JA 6704
L 56+mm
Context: Layer 36 Med 2 JS 76 BJ Area V
JARBW 1996.2441
Fe160 Arm fragment with a calkin but broken across a nail
hole.
L 65+ W 20mm
Context: Layer 12 Med 2 JS 76 AL 394 Area V
JARBW 1996.2440
Fe161 Spur with non-ferrous coating.
W 55mm
Context: 1335 EPM MK 64 PL 1 6405
Fe162 Spur buckle. Rectangular, double-looped frame with
pin and an end support loop.
L 29 (max) buckle L 21 14 T3mm
Context: Layer 65 EPM JS 73 PE 236 Area IV
Fe163 Mouthpiece link from bit.
L 90mm
Context: 100 Med JA 63 GD b 6302
Fe164 Mouthpiece link from bit. Not illus.
L 73+mm
Context: 1281 Med 1 JA 71 NZ 7106
Miscellaneous (Fig 31.6.6)

Fe165 Sheet iron fragments.
L 62 W 40; L 58 W 40mm
Fe166 Part-forged piece of bar iron.
L 145mm
Context: 5246 LS/EM JA 67 FG 6702
Fe167168 Tapering iron bars.
Fe167 L 87 W 13 5mm.
Context: 4467 Saxon JA 69 PD a 6903
Fe168 L 127 W 18 10mm
Context: 96 LS/EM JA 63 FM b 6302
31.7 Iron coffin fittings from

Wearmouth
by Philip Clogg
Introduction
The group of material termed iron coffin fittings and
coffin nails was excavated in 1964 and 1966 from two
areas in the western part of the Wearmouth AngloSaxon cemetery (Fig 31.7.1). Although recognisable as
an important group of ironwork clearly associated with
graves, the precise function of these objects was not
immediately apparent, nor were the type and form of
the associated grave structures. Little evidence was
forthcoming from the excavation of the cemetery, as the
area was heavily disturbed as a result of constant use
and subsequent building and few of the burials were
found intact (see Vol 1, Ch 8). During the examination,
additional material from earlier excavations at the site
was identified as relevant and was therefore included in
this study. The material consists of 22 flat iron plates
and plate fragments and 39 iron nails, all originating
from the earliest burial layers and most recorded as
being closely associated with human bone, although
only one piece (CF10) is associated with a particular
skeleton. No distinct group of material could be
assigned to a specific burial and the majority of the
pieces must therefore be treated as individual items.
291
Exceptions are plates CF1, CF2 and CF3 and two distinct groups of nails, MK 66 NH and NE. Initial examination of the form of the plates revealed very plain,
basic, designs with few diagnostic features, although
many of the pieces exhibit areas of iron-replaced wood.
Previously published material concerned with
Anglo-Saxon burials, particularly the large body of
work that took place in the 18th and 19th centuries,
concentrates on the more diagnostic and decorative
burial material rather than rusty pieces of ironwork
that often receive only a cursory mention along with
the obligatory drawing of the uncleaned item, arguably
more misleading than helpful. Two important works in
the field of understanding the different structures associated with Anglo-Saxon graves are articles by Hogarth
(1973) and Reynolds (1976), while surveys of the
structural fittings from Anglo-Saxon graves appear in
unpublished works by Graham (1977), a general survey with particular reference to Wearmouth, and
Riddler (1980) who concentrates on material from
Anglo-Saxon graves in Kent cemeteries. These last two
writers have both evolved classification systems,
Graham classifying wooden coffins according to the
type of iron fittings employed in their construction
nails, hoops or bands, clench bolts, angle-irons and
plates, while Riddler distinguishes five types of iron fittings clench bolts, cleats, angle-irons, staples and
nails. More recently, larger and more complete assemblages have been studied and published. Heawood
(1990) produced a detailed assessment of the iron fittings from burials at Whithorn while a summary of this
work, updated to include additional information, has
been published by Nicholson (1997, 41015).
Excavations at Ailcy Hill, Ripon (Hall and Whyman
1996) have produced a large, relatively undisturbed,
assemblage of iron fittings from contexts associated
with human burials and a detailed study of these has
been published by Ottaway (1996). In addition, similar iron fittings were recovered from excavations at
Dacre, Cumbria (Ottaway forthcoming).
The important but fragmentary nature of the
Wearmouth material demands a detailed examination
of the individual pieces in order to extract the maximum amount of information. This, together with the
increasingly detailed information from sites such as
Whithorn and Ripon, provides a basis for a more
informed interpretation of the Wearmouth fittings and
their associated structures.
Examination techniques and recorded

data
The following methods of examination were used in
order to extract what was considered the most relevant
information from the ironwork.
X-radiography was undertaken on the uncleaned
pieces in order to provide detailed information on the
original form of the artefact, the presence of nails or
nail holes and their general physical condition.
292
Fig 31.7.1 Distribution of coffin fittings and coffin nails from Wearmouth. AMacM
A detailed visual examination was undertaken with
the aid of a stereo-microscope (magnification of up to
25) in order to locate the areas of iron-replaced wood
and to relate the X-radiographs to the threedimensional form of the artefacts.
Removal of the outer corrosion layers was necessary
to establish the three-dimensional form of the artefacts, to enable the relevant meaningful dimension to
be recorded and to uncover the full extent of the ironreplaced wood for further detailed examination.
During the cleaning operations no evidence emerged
for the use of any non-ferrous metal on either the
plates or the nails. Cleaning was carried out with a S S
White Airbrasive Unit Model K, using 53 micron
aluminium oxide abrasive powder with a 0.46mm diamond nozzle.

A second series of X-radiographs was considered
necessary to check that there had been no masking of
features by the extensive outer corrosion products.
The cleaned material was examined in order to record
the grain direction of the iron-replaced wood (with the
aid of a stereo-microscope at a magnification of up to 25)
and to ascertain the completeness of the artefact.
The structure of the iron-replaced wood was examined with the aid of a Scanning Electron Microscope
(SEM) in order to identify the species. On samples
with sufficient quantities of the relevant features intact
the identification made was that of Oak (Quercus sp).
293
Table 31.7.1 Plate dimensions
CF1
CF2
CF3
CF4
CF5
CF6
CF7
CF8
CF9
CF10
CF11
CF12
CF13
CF14
CF15
CF16
CF17
CF18
CF19
CF20
CF21
CF22
Group
finds
code
length
width
thickness
1a
1a
1a
1b
1b
1b
1b
1b
1b
1b
2a
2a
2a
2b
2b
2b
2b
2b
2b
2b
2b
2b
64
64
64
62
59
59
62
66
66
66
64
64
64
61
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
VB(I)
VB(ii)
VB(iii)
AW
CW
DA
KH
SD
SW
WB
QN
RL(ii)
RL(iii)
CA
JT
KM
LB
LY
RF
RL(I)
SN
UZ
96
97
92
87
50
50
44
83
84
86
38
58
55
75
36
98
58
44
25
57
38
99
27
26
28
32
29
24
28
27
28
33
17
17
18
24
18
19
20
19
20
24
28
24
4
4.3
5
4.5
4.5
4
4.5
4.5
4.5
4
1.8
2.5
2.5
3
2.5
2.5
2
2
1.8
2.5
3
3
On samples where a positive identification could not

be made there was no evidence that an alternative
species was present.
The features and the dimensions recorded from the
cleaned material were as follows: the length, width and
thickness of the plates was measured in millimetres,
the number of nail holes, the spacing of the nail hole
centres in millimetres and the number of nails or nail
fragments piercing the plates. The grain direction of
the iron-replaced wood was recorded as an angle to the
long axis of the plates (Table 37.7.1).
For nails (including the nails present within the
plates), the overall length (ie length of shank plus
depth of nail head), the shank diameter or cross-section (if the nail was complete this dimension was
recorded at approximately the mid-point of the shank,
if incomplete the dimension was recorded at the fractured end of the shank), and the diameter of the nail
head were recorded in millimetres. The grain direction
of the iron-replaced wood was recorded as an angle to
the long axis of the shank. The features and dimensions recorded are catalogued in Table 37.7.2.
Plates and plate fragments (Fig 31.7.2)

An initial visual examination of the plates and the fragments reveals a few common elements all are pierced
by holes, most have the remains of nails attached and
all could be described as being fabricated from a flat
plate of iron. However, only plates CF1, CF2 and CF3
display a characteristically similar shape described
here as being triangular.
If thickness is considered as one factor contributing
direction ()
of wood grain
no. of nail
holes
90
90
90
90
90
90
70
0
0
90
90
90
90
90
90
1
1
2
4
1.5
2
1
3
3
4
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
3
1
3
no. of nail
frags
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
2
3
3
1
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
3
to the strength of the plates, and the attached surface

area is a factor of their width and hence their stability
to applied forces, then a consideration of these two
measurements may permit an objective comparison of
the artefacts. By representing the results graphically
(Fig 31.7.3) it is possible to show that two distinct
groups of material exist. Thus Group 1 (the heavier,
larger plates) cluster around mean values for width =
28.2mm, and thickness = 4.4mm; Group 2 (the
lighter, smaller plates) cluster around the mean values
of width = 18.6mm, and thickness = 2.2mm.
The two groups may now be further divided on the
basis of their external form:
Group 1a: CF1, CF2 and CF3 are triangular in form,
tapering in one direction to a narrow point with a 90
degree bend, and, in the case of CF1 and CF2, to a
hooked terminal in the opposite direction. All are
pierced by one nail.
Group 1b: CF4, CF5, CF6, CF7, CF8, CF9 and
CF10. Flat oblong plates, pierced by a number of nails.
Group 2a: CF11, CF12 and CF13. Nailed plates with
a 90 degree bend (?angle-irons).
Group 2b: Flat oblong nailed plates.
Nails and nail holes

The survival of nails piercing the plates is rather disappointing as only three possible complete examples survive the remainder existing only as fragments of
shanks, some with their heads intact and some with
their heads missing. On plates CF8, CF10, CF15 and
CF6 the shanks piercing the broader end of the plates
Fig 31.7.2 Iron coffin fittings from Wearmouth. Scale 1:2. YB
295
Table 31.7.2 Nail dimensions
Fig 31.7.3 Plot of width of plate against thickness. P Clogg

project either side of the two faces, suggesting their
form is other than a nail. In the case of plates CF6 and
CF10 the shanks, although incomplete, are substantial and suggests the remains of a ring or looped pin.
The shanks piercing CF8 and CF15, although more
fragmentary, appear similar and should be considered
as other than nail fragments.
The surviving nail heads may be conveniently
divided into two groups based on the head diameter.
Group A: diameter 15 to 17mm; Group B: diameter 9
to 11mm. The larger headed nails Group A occur
entirely within the Group 1 type of fitting, ie the larger fittings. The smaller headed nails Group B
occurs within the Group 2 type of fittings, ie the smaller fittings. Two exceptions to the above rule exist. On
plate CF10 the only surviving head is of the smaller
Group B type and the positioning of the remaining two
nail holes is such that the use of Group A type nails is
not possible. This use of the smaller headed nails on
the larger plates may also occur in the case of plate
CF4, as the distribution of the nail holes is very similar to that of CF10.
In construction techniques nails may be used either
for joining pieces of wood, for attaching other types of
fittings to wooden structures or purely for decorative
purposes. Whichever one or more of these functions
they fulfil, the nails shanks must be encased in a thickness of wood. The final shape of the nails may therefore indicate how they were used.
Nails may survive as complete or incomplete. If they
are associated with, and are retrieved from, some form
of grave structure, then it may be assumed that there
has been no subsequent reuse and the form of the complete excavated nail will not have changed since it was
used in the construction of the structure. Incomplete
nails, however, may have been damaged as a result of
collapse of the grave structure on decay of the wood
and subsequent disturbance of the burial environment.
In addition, the nails may have been deliberately cut
Nail no.
length shank head

width diam
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
66
7
?
75
10
10
48
17
18
8
6
35
20
15
17
31
61
19
23
20
43
63
53
30
45
21
21
18
48
46
60
60
34
18
19
14
32
25
22
17
Kmi
Kmii
LH
LY p
LY p
QS
RLi
RLii
RL p
RL p
RQ
SDi
SDii
SDiii
SDiv
SDv
VBi
VBii
VBiii
YE
YLi
YLii
YLiii
NEi
NEii
NEiii
NEiv
NHi
NHii
NHiii
NHiv
NHv
NHvi
NHvii
NHviii
NHix
NHx
NHxi
VE
4.5
5
8
4
4
7
7
7
7
6.5
4.5
4.5
5
5
4.5
6
5
4.5
5
7.5
5
7
6
5.5
5.5
4.5
4
5.5
6.5
6.5
6
4.5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
?
11
14
10.5
9
17
20
19
9
9
16
16
13
??
15
21
15
14
15
17
17
19
14
15
15
13
13
15
19
?
?
10
15
18
12
?
?
?
16
direction comments
() of
wood grain
Remains in plate
Remains in plate
Remains in plate
Remains in plate
Bend at 20mm
90
90
Remains in plate
Remains in plate
Remains in plate
Not nail
90
90/180
Dir change 18mm

Bend at 18mm
Remains in plate
90
90/180
90
90
180
180
90
Dir change 16mm
180
180
90
90
180
90
180
90
during the construction process, eg if the nail was

longer than the combined thickness of the wood, the
projecting shank may have been cut off. Changes due to
the burial environment should not affect the form of the
nails, only their physical and chemical condition.
Complete, straight, nails may be considered as having been encased entirely in wood and would therefore
have been used for joining two or more pieces whose
combined thickness was greater than or equal to the
length of the shank. It has been assumed that the practice of leaving the points of nails projecting from the
wood was unacceptable. If, however, there are areas of
iron-replaced wood present, a division may be
detectable within the remains (due, for example, to a
difference in grain direction), thus providing at least
one reliable wood thickness measurement. Two nails
from Wearmouth display these characteristics (MK 64
296
Fig 31.7.4 Distribution of nail holes along length of Group 1a plates. P Clogg
Fig 31.7.5 Distribution of nail holes along length of Group 1b plates. P Clogg
SD v and MK 64 YL i).
Complete clenched nails were used to join two or
more pieces of wood with a combined thickness less
than the original straight length of the nail. The length
of the shank from the head to the bend will, therefore,
provide a reliable wood thickness measurement equal
to either the combined thickness of joined pieces of
wood or the combined thickness of the fitting and the
wood.
Incomplete nails that have had their shanks deliberately cut could provide a reliable wood thickness measurement. However, as it is difficult in the majority of
cases to distinguish between a deliberate cut and a subsequent break it can only be assumed that the length of
the remaining shank is equal to or less than the wood

thickness.
In addition to the information supplied by the nails,
the pointed terminals of plates CF1, CF2 and CF3,
which were used as anchoring points, show evidence of
having been clenched, thereby supplying a measurement of the thickness of the wood to which they were
attached. The wood thickness measurements are summarised in Table 31.7.3.
The number and distribution of nail holes across
the plates (unless the nails are for purely decorative
purposes) must bear some relationship to the function
and the size of the plates and the related wooden structures. If the nail hole distribution is plotted graphical-
Table 31.7.3 Estimate of wood depth from nail

shanks
Nail no.
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
66
shank length
wood depth
48
17
18
19
23
20
20
16
31
61
63
17
20
17
18
19
18
20
20
16
18
18
17
16
QS
RL(i)
RL(ii)
VB(i)
VB(ii)
VB(iii)
SD(i)
SD(ii)
SD(iv)
SD(v)
YL(i)
VE
ly (see Figs 31.7.4 and 31.7.5) it illustrates the regularity with which the nail holes coincide. This suggests
that, particularly within the Group 1 material, the
plates must perform some common or related function, possibly on similar sized structures.
Discussion
The Group 1a plates
These are clearly the remains of a pair of linked hinges,
which, from a consideration of their size must have
been associated with quite a substantial structure.
Hinges similar to this type have been recorded in
early Saxon burials. A possible 7th to 8th-century
example comes from Garton Slack, Yorkshire
(Mortimer 1905, pl XCL, fig 715). In this example
two complete hinges were found lying at the left shoulder and the left knee of the skeleton. The hinges
appear to be approximately the same size and shape as
the Wearmouth examples with the exception of the
anchoring points. One of the Garton Slack hinges ends
in a rounded terminal whereas the other appears to
broaden out into a square terminal. Another slight difference from the Garton Slack material is the number
of nails used to secure the hinges in position. On one
hinge both the male and the female pieces are held by
three nails whereas on the other it appears that only
two nails were used. More recent excavations at Dacre
(Ottaway forthcoming) and Ailcy Hill, Ripon (Ottaway
1996) have also produced these forms of linked hinges
which, as at Garton Slack, normally occur in groups of
two sets per grave and exhibit rounded terminals.
Fragments of hinge plates have also been recorded
from Whithorn (Nicholson 1997, 413). When intact
these too appear with rounded, pierced terminals
(Nicholson 1997, 414).
The Wearmouth hinges, however, do seem to display one unique feature when compared with the
examples mentioned above, that being the method of
297
attachment and consequently the number of nails used

in the process. Instead of being nailed at the narrow
end, the plate itself is used as the anchoring point. A
90 degree bend approximately 35mm from the end
creates a spike which can then be hammered into the
wood structure and clenched in position. It should be
noted that this method of attachment is the same
technique employed for securing staples. Two straps
from Ailcy Hill, Ripon (Ottaway 1996, 101, fig 19 SF
113b, fig 24 SF332b), show similar features, being
pierced by only one nail and tapering to a point. They
do not terminate with a 90 degree bend but, as it is not
clear whether these straps are complete, they could
alternatively have had rounded terminals as shown by
the other hinges from the site.
The suggested method of attachment and positioning of the hinges is as follows. The female part of the
hinge only one existing from Wearmouth would be
nailed into position on the side wall of a chest/coffin
with the broad end projecting approximately 30mm
above the edge of the plank. This would leave the hole
piercing the broad end clear of any obstruction. The
looped terminal of the male part of the hinge would
then be hammered into the edge of the lid, interlocking with CF3, and the plate nailed into position on the
upper surface (Fig 31.7.6). Examination of the nails
and the clenched ends of CF1, CF2 and CF3 indicate
that the structure to which they were attached was
approximately 19 to 21mm thick.
In comparison with material from the above-mentioned sites the Wearmouth hinges, particularly due to
their very basic/primitive method of attachment, reflect
similarities to staples. Consequently their lack of decorative terminals, would appear to be much cruder
examples of the linked hinge, perhaps reflecting the
structure from which they originate.
Although no other ironwork was found associated
Fig 31.7.6 Suggested method of attachment and position

of hinge assembly CF2 and 3. P Clogg.
298
with this group of hinges (one might expect angleirons, nails etc as at Garton Slack) it cannot be
assumed that none existed. The recovery of only three
of what must originally have been four pieces reflects
the great amount of disturbance present within that
area of the cemetery.
CF1
CF2
CF3
Triangular plate, tapering in one direction to a narrow point with a 90 degree bend and to a hooked terminal in the opposite direction. Pierced by one hole
containing a nail. Fig 31.7.2.
L 96 W 27 T 4mm
Context: 1224 Saxon MK 64 VB(i) 6402
Triangular plate, tapering in one direction to a narrow point with a 90 degree bend, and to a hooked
terminal in the opposite direction. Pierced by one
hole containing a nail. Fig 31.7.2.
L 97 W 26 T 4.3mm
Context: 1224 Saxon MK 64 VB(ii) 6402
Triangular plate, ?incomplete, tapering in one direction to a narrow point with a 90 degree bend. Pierced
by two holes, one containing a nail. Fig 31.7.2.
L 92 W 28 T 5mm
Context: 1224 Saxon MK 64 VB(iii) 6402
The Group 1b plates

Flat oblong nailed plates of various sizes, although not
common, are known from Saxon burials. They are
usually referred to as cleats, the majority being pierced
by two nails positioned at either end. The suggested
use for these nailed plates is in clenching together the
side planks of coffins, positioned at regular intervals
along each side as suggested by Evison (1980) in her
reconstruction of the Sutton Hoo coffin.
A superficial examination of the Group 1b plates
would seem to suggest that, although different in the
number of nail holes, they could fit into this class of
object. However, from a closer consideration of the
recorded data this explanation appears unsatisfactory.
To clench wooden planks together one would expect
the plates to be mounted symmetrically about the
joint. If plates CF8 and CF9 were used in this way it
would mean the central nail passed through the actual
joint. In the case of plates CF4 and CF10 the two central nails would be so close to the joint as to cause the
planks to split. Neither is an acceptable practice and
with the clear indication that CF8 and CF10 are
pierced at one end by a fitting other than a nail, then
this group of plates appears to perform a different
function from that performed by cleats.
The evidence available for the positioning and function
of CF8 and CF10 may be summarised in the following
four points.
1. From a consideration of the grain of the replaced
wood, the plates must be positioned on the face of
a wooden structure with their long axis at right
angles to the direction of the wood grain. Similar
conclusions are drawn from the existing miner-
alised wood from some of the fittings at Whithorn

(Heawood 1990, 24; Nicholson 1997, 413).
2. The distribution of the replaced wood on one side
of the plates is such that an area approximately
30mm from the broader terminal is bare,
suggesting that the broader end of the plate stood
free of the wooden structure by approximately
30mm.
3. The remains of the curved shanks piercing the
broad end of the plates appear to be fragments of
ring or staple and suggest that the plates did not
exist individually but were part of a more complex
arrangement.
4. Signs of wear on the curved shanks as they pass
through the slightly enlarged and distorted holes
suggest there was once some movement between
the plate and the fitting.
A more subjective point arises from an appraisal of
the forms of CF8 and CF10. The slight taper from a
rounder terminal to a wider more square terminal
would give a rather unbalanced appearance if placed
other than at the edge of a structure (Fig 31.7.7A, B).
If the evidence for the positioning of CF3 is compared to that of CF8 and CF10 then certain similarities emerge, suggesting a common function for the
three plates. It is clear, therefore, that plates CF8 and
CF10 could act as part of a hinge arrangement.
CF9 is so similar to CF8, both in form and in the
distribution of nail holes, that both must have performed
a similar function. A parallel for these plates exists at
Ailcy Hill, Ripon (Ottaway 1996, fig 21 no. 162, 92)
where the plate is illustrated as component B or the
female part of a complete strap hinge arrangement. This
plate shows the remains of two nails with a similar distribution to CF8 and CF9 and a hole which is pierced
by the looped end of component A or the male part of
the strap hinge. Although CF4 differs slightly in form to
CF10, the positioning of the nail holes is so particular to
these plates that they must also be considered as performing a similar function (Fig 31.7.7C, D).
If Group 1b plates are seen as part of a hinge
arrangement similar to Group 1a (Fig 31.7.8A)
then where are the equivalents of CF1 and CF2, ie the
male part of the hinge? The only indication of any
equivalent fittings are the remains of the curved shanks
from CF8 and CF10; no other associated material
could be considered as being representative. An alternative would perhaps be to view Group 1b as being a
more rudimentary set of fittings than Group 1a, and
consequently the equivalents to CF1 and CF2 would
be equally rudimentary, perhaps only existing as a ring
or staple. If this alternative is accepted, ie that the
Group 1b fittings are associated with a ring or staple
(see Fig 31.7.8B), then a further possibility exists for
their use as securing points for either a rope or leather
sling or carrying handle. However, if used on a coffin
or chest then one would expect that at least four plates
(two at either side) would be required to maintain suit-
299
Fig 31.7.8 A. Example of Group 1b fitting as part of

hinge assembly similar to Group 1a fittings. B. Example of
Group 1b fitting associated with ring fastening. P Clogg
able stability when the structure was mobile.
If viewed as hinges similar to Group 1a then only
two sets would be required per structure. A set may
consist of two similar plates connected by a ring, or only
one plate and a staple. The slight difference in styles
between CF8, CF4 and CF10 would suggest that they
were associated with three separate structures, there
being originally either six or twelve plates in existence.
In comparing the individual fittings within the
Group 1b material it is tempting to view the
CF4/CF10 style as more elaborate than the CF8/CF9
style. This is reflected in the more positive curving of
the terminals, the arrangement of the nail holes and
the use of smaller headed nails producing in all a much
finer appearance.
CF4
Fig 31.7.7 Suggested positioning of Group 1b plates. P

Clogg
Rectangular plate with one slightly rounded end.

Pierced by four holes, three of which contain fragments of iron ? nail shanks. Fig 31.7.2.
L 87 W 32 T 4.5mm
Context: 1637 Norman/Med 1 MK 62 AW 6201
CF5 Rectangular plate fragment. Pierced by two holes,
one of which contains a nail fragment. Fig 31.7.2.
L 50 W 29 T 4.5mm
Context: U/S MK 59 CW
CF6 Rectangular plate fragment. Pierced by two holes one
of which contains a nail fragment and one contains
the remains of an iron loop or staple. Fig 31.7.2.
L 50 W 24 T 4mm
Context: U/S MK 59 DA
CF7 Rectangular plate fragment. Pierced by one hole containing a nail fragment. Fig 31.7.2.
L 44 W 28 T 4.5mm
Context:1688 L Sax MK 62 KH 6201
CF8 Rectangular plate. Pierced by three holes, two contain nail fragments, the third contains the remains of
an iron shank. Fig 31.7.2.
L 83 W 27 T 4.5mm
Context: 1902 Med MK 66 SD 6602
CF9 Rectangular plate. Pierced by three holes, one containing a nail fragment. Fig 31.7.2.
L 84 W 28 T 4.5 mm
Context: 852 L Sax MK 66 SW 6602
CF10 Rectangular plate with one rounded terminal. Pierced
by four holes, one contains a nail fragment and one
300
contains the remains of an iron loop. Fig 31.7.2.

L 86 W 33 T 4mm
Context: 873 Saxon MK 66 WB 6602
The Group 2a plates

The Group 2a plates may be viewed as belonging to
that group of fittings that both Graham and Riddler
class as angle-irons, ie flat nailed plates with a 90
degree bend, often with decorative terminals, used to
secure corner joints. Three such fragments occur at
Wearmouth, CF12, CF13 and CF11: all are incomplete with only CF12 exhibiting a full 90 degree bend.
When present in burial situations they normally
occur in groups of four, their assumed function being
to strengthen the perpendicular corners of a wooden
chest or coffin. They appear in a variety of styles, ranging from the plain rectangular form as at Gilton to
more elaborate styles with decorative terminals such as
those recovered from Garton Slack or Kingston
(Faussett 1856). One feature common to all is the use
of only two nails, one in each arm, to secure them in
position. The majority of angle-irons appear symmetrical, ie both arms are a similar shape and size; however, asymmetrical angle-irons do occur, examples of
these being found at Finglesham (Hawkes 1958).
Whithorn has produced what must be one of the
more complete and undisturbed collections of angleirons. Fourteen examples were excavated from grave 2,
twelve from grave 4 and six from grave 1 (Heawood
1990). Fortunately very little disturbance had occurred
within the burials and the fittings were uncovered in
their as deposited positions. This showed that they
were not only used to strengthen the corners of coffins
(generally two positioned at each corner) but also to
strengthen the side to base joint (three positioned along
each side). The style of angle-irons is similar to those
from Garton Slack, Dacre and Ailcy Hill, Ripon (ie the
arms narrow towards rounded, pierced terminals.
The Wearmouth Group 2a type fittings appear to
be of the plain rectangular type with the remaining
intact arm pierced by a nail; there is no evidence for
decorative terminals. The major difference between
the Wearmouth fittings and those normally found in
Anglo-Saxon burials is the size. The Group 2a fittings
are very much smaller. If viewed as being symmetrical
then CF12 and CF13 would have arms approximately
55 to 60mm in length; however, the occurrence of the
much smaller fragment CF11 could point to them
being of the asymmetrical type and therefore having
one arm 5560mm in length and the second arm only
37mm. As none of the existing fragments join they
must be considered as being from different angle-irons.
There are, therefore, the remains of three separate fittings with the possibility that both CF12 and CF13
may be associated with the same structure.
The two pieces, CF12 and CF13, have traces of
replaced wood on the inside running parallel to the long
axis of the fitting. If it is accepted that the associated
wooden structure is a chest or a coffin, the fittings must

be positioned around an outside corner with the existing
intact arm parallel to the grain of the wood and therefore presumably parallel to the long axis of the structure.
As mentioned previously, angle-irons normally
occur in groups of four, eg Faversham and Gilton
(Faussett 1856), and when recorded are situated at the
head and the feet of the body. This number is obviously
inadequate if the angle-irons are to be used as the sole
method of joining the corners of a box. Consequently,
they must only be used to strengthen an already existing method of corner construction. Whatever method
of construction is used, the lower half of the corner
would gain extra strength and rigidity from the presence of a baseboard, leaving the upper half relatively
weaker and prone to distortion. It is therefore in this
area that strengthening would be required, particularly
if there is a hinged lid. It is conceivable then that a single angle-iron positioned in the upper half of the corner
joint, supplementing some other form of joint (rebate
or nailed) on the lower half of the structure, would be
adequate to hold a chest or coffin rigid.
It should be noted, however, that the main pressure
within a coffin will be that of the body acting on the
base plate and consequently this is the area most in
need of strengthening. This can be supported by the
evidence from Whithorn (Heawood 1990, 10 and 17)
on the use of angle-irons for attaching the base plate to
the coffin sides. It could therefore be suggested that the
occurrence of a small number of angle-irons within a
grave (eg four) may point to their use in providing support to the base plate/side joint (perhaps in groups of
two or three along either side) rather than to the corners.
CF11 Angle-iron fragment. Pierced by one hole containing a
nail fragment. Not illus.
L 38 W 17 T 1.8mm
CF12 Angle-iron fragment. Pierced by ?one hole. Fig
31.7.2.
L 58 W 17 T 2.5mm
Context: 1224 Saxon MK 64 RL(ii) 6402
CF13 Angle-iron fragment. Pierced by one hole containing
a nail fragment. Not illus.
L 55 W 18 T 2.5mm
Context: 1224 Saxon MK 64 RL(iii) 6402
The Group 2b plates

Many of the items in this group exist only as fragments,
making the interpretation of their original form difficult. An attempt has therefore been made to classify
these items on the basis of the distribution of their nail
holes in addition to their general form.
CF14 Rectangular plate fragment. An incomplete plate with
one intact terminal. The plate is pierced by two holes
one containing a nail fragment. The form suggests a
similarity to plate CF22 and, although smaller, to
plates CF8 and CF9 and may well have performed a
similar function to these plates. Not illus.
CF15
CF16
CF17
CF18
L 75 W 24 T 3mm
Context: 682 Med MK 61 CA 6104
Rectangular plate fragment with one intact and
slightly rounded terminal. An incomplete plate with
one intact rounded terminal pierced by a hole
approximately 7mm in diameter and therefore larger
than the usual nail holes. The remains of a shank
3mm in diameter and 45mm in length passes
through the hole projecting onto either side of the
plate. Fig 31.7.2.
This arrangement suggests that the end of the
plate stood free of its associated structure, leaving the
hole free from obstruction and making possible
movement between the shank and the plate. The
formation of the hole in plate CF15 is unusual within the Wearmouth collection and is very similar to
that of CF12. The hole does not appear to have been
formed by punching through the plate but by drawing out the end of the plate and bending it around
upon itself, thus forming the hole and the rounded
terminal. This fabrication technique has also been
noted in the material from Ailcy Hill, Ripon
(Ottaway 1996, 100).
L 36 W 18 T 2.5mm
Context: 1206 LS/EM MK 64 JT 6402
Rectangular plate with one rounded end and one
square end. Pierced by two holes, both of which contain nail fragments. Fig 31.7.2.
The distribution of the two nail holes and the shape
of the terminals suggest that this is a complete plate.
If so, then this is the only example from Wearmouth
resembling that class of fittings known as cleats.
However, it appears to be much narrower than the
majority of these plates, which are normally between
2430mm wide as the examples from Dover and
Lyminge illustrate (Evison 1979b) this comparison
is with the uncleaned plates and may therefore be
misleading. The distribution of the replaced wood
appears to be along the entire length of the plate with
no indication of any break or join to support the possibility of its use as a plate clenching together two
parallel planks. The direction of the wood grain 90
degrees to the long axis would suggest a position
across the width of a plank with the slightly squared
terminal positioned up to an edge.
L 98 W 19 T 2.5mm
Context: 1212 Saxon/Med MK 64 KM 6402
Rectangular plate fragment. Pierced by one hole
which contains a nail fragment. An incomplete plate
the fracture is clean and sharp and could therefore
have occurred during excavation. The nail appears to
be too large for the hole and could therefore not be
driven in fully. Only a trace of replaced wood is in
evidence. Fig 31.7.2.
L 58 W 20 T 2mm
Context: 1284 Saxon MK 64 LB 6401
Rectangular plate fragment. Pierced by two holes,
both of which contain nail fragments. An incomplete
plate with one intact terminal and a fracture across
the edge of a nail hole. The two nail holes have a distribution similar to that of plate CF20. The distribution of the replaced wood and the direction of the
grain indicate a position similar to that of plate
CF16. Fig 31.7.2.
L 44 W 19 T 2mm
301
Context: 1375 Saxon MK 64 LY 6403

CF19 Rectangular plate fragment with one intact and
slightly rounded terminal. The plate is pierced by
one hole. Fig 31.7.2.
L 25 W 20 T 1.8mm
Context: 1230 Saxon MK 64 RF 6402
CF20 Rectangular plate fragment. Pierced by three holes,
two of which contain nail fragments. An incomplete
plate with one intact terminal the fracture occurring across a nail hole. The middle of the three nail
holes is slightly displaced from the central axis. The
distribution of the nail holes shows a similarity with
those of plate CF22, while the distribution of the
replaced wood and its grain direction indicate a positioning similar to that of plate CF16. Fig 31.7.2.
L 57 W 24 T 2.5mm
Context: 1224 Saxon MK 64 RL(i) 6402
CF21 Rectangular plate fragment. Pierced by one hole containing an iron shank. An incomplete plate fragment
pierced by one hole containing the possible remains
of an iron shank. Due to the extensive corrosion it is
not possible to say if this plate has any intact terminals or if the shank is that of a nail. Fig 31.7.2.
L 38 W 28 T 3mm
Context: 1235 EPM MK 64 SN 6402
CF22 Rectangular plate. Pierced by three holes, all of
which contain nail fragments. The distribution of the
nail holes suggest that this is a complete plate. It is
similar in form to the Group 1b plates CF8 and CF9
though smaller. Blistering of the corrosion layers has
caused a great deal of distortion to the external form
of the plate making any further identification difficult. Fig 31.7.2.
L 99 W 24 T 3mm
Context: 1247 Saxon/Med MK 64 UZ 6402
Conclusion
From a study of the existing literature/material from
Saxon burials and considering the work of Graham
(1977) and Riddler (1980), the following types of ironwork associated with the construction of wooden grave
structures may be identified. Nails; clench-bolts; cleats;
staples; angle-irons; hinges and hoops. However, a
complete list of available techniques would also include
carpentry techniques such as rebate joints and pegging
etc (Rodwell and Rodwell 1982; Hewett 1985). In consideration of the above techniques and materials in relationship to the Wearmouth burials, little can be said
about the carpentry involved as the burial environment
was unsuitable for the preservation of organic materials.
Nails may be regarded as perhaps the most universal of the items in that they could be used for the production of right-angled joints in wooden structures, eg
joining end panels to side panels, side to base etc. In
addition they may also be used to attach other forms of
constructional ironwork, eg angle-irons, cleats etc.
Nails are present within the Wearmouth material and
there is evidence for their use in both of the methods
referred to earlier.
Clench-bolts or roves, when present in burials, are
often seen as indicative of the continuation of the tra-
302
dition of boat-type burials, and certainly their form is

most suited to the clinker construction technique.
Their occurrence in large numbers has also produced
a number of speculative reconstructions of grave structures other than boats, eg Barton-upon-Humber
(Rodwell and Rodwell 1982). There is no evidence
from the Wearmouth burials for the existence of this
class of fitting and it may therefore be assumed that the
clinker construction technique was not employed.
Cleats (defined as flat rectangular plates pierced by
two nails) have been viewed as a means of joining parallel planks together, as for example in the Sutton Hoo
reconstructions of Evison (1980), for joining side
planks, and East (1983), who suggests their use in
clenching horizontal planking. An alternative role on a
box type structure, eg a coffin, is for the attachment of
the base to the sides or the lid to the sides. There is evidence for the existence of only one possible artefact
from this category (CF16) and it therefore appears that
cleats were not necessary in the construction of the
Wearmouth grave structures.
Staples are considered here as being flat rectangular plates with two pointed terminals at 90 degrees to
the body of the plate, similar in design to cleats. Their
assumed function on grave structures has been compared to that of cleats, ie holding two planks together,
although perhaps being regarded as a more basic/rudimentary fitting. As with the clench bolts, staples do not
appear within the Wearmouth record, although one
terminal of the hinges CF1, CF2 and CF13 utilise the
same method of attachment.
Angle-irons have been discussed in detail above.
They may be used for producing a right-angled joint,
eg joining the base to the sides or end panel to side
panel. Often occurring in groups of four when their
assumed role is in the strengthening of the corner
joints between the end panels and the side panels of a
coffin/box type structure although it has been suggested that an alternative, perhaps more important, use is
in giving support to the base plate of the coffin.
However, the examples from Whithorn show that they
do occur in greater numbers and in this instance their
use may perhaps be decorative rather than solely functional (Heawood 1990). The small size of the
Wearmouth examples leads to some speculation as to
their importance in the construction of grave structures, and an alternative is perhaps their use on smaller wooden chests within the burial, similar to that from
Blacknell Field, Pewsey (Webster and Cherry 1977).
Hinges are not mentioned by either Riddler or
Graham in their surveys although they are reported
from Saxon burials, eg Garton Slack (Mortimer 1905)
and more recently Dacre (Ottaway forthcoming), Ripon
(Ottaway 1996) and Whithorn (Nicholson 1997). Their
existence on grave structures can only be satisfactorily
explained as the means of attaching a movable lid to a
coffin/box type of structure. This assumption can be
further supported by their occurrence, when recorded,
in sets of two positioned at one side of the grave.
Hoops appear to be extremely rare and may possibly be considered as being a misinterpretation of fittings such as cleats, angle-irons or hinges. The coffin
from Roundway Down, Wiltshire, is said to have been
bound with strong iron hoops (Cunnington 1860);
however, as the metalwork is now lost, confirmation of
this is not possible. None of the ironwork from
Wearmouth could be considered as being substantial
enough to be related to this type of fitting.
The collection of fittings from Wearmouth is small
in number and from an initial examination of their
form, rather fragmentary as a group. With a more
detailed analysis it has been possible to identify positively a number of the fittings, produce a classification
series for the collection, and examine this series in relation to known types of structural fittings from graves.
This, together with the evidence gained from the
dimensions of the material and the examination of the
form and distribution of the replaced wood enables a
more informed perception of the nature of the structure(s) with which the fittings were associated and the
range of construction techniques employed.
It is possible to summarise the results of the analyses as follows:
1. The fittings and nails were associated with a wooden grave structure.
2. The plates (with the exception of the angle-irons
CF12, CF13) were mounted on this structure such
that their long axis was at 90 degrees to the grain
direction of the wood. The angle-irons were mounted with their long axis parallel to the grain direction.
3. In certain places the thickness of the wooden structure(s) was 1620mm.
4. The lack of staples or cleats suggests that the grave
structure was not constructed of parallel planking
as for example in the reconstruction of the Sutton
Hoo coffin (Evison 1980; East 1983) and that other
types of constructional techniques must have been
employed for the production of right-angled joints.
5. The absence of clench-bolts or roves excludes the
use of a clinker style of construction as in boat burials or the reconstructions for the Barton-uponHumber burials (Rodwell and Rodwell 1982).
6. The existence of hinges points to certain of the
structures having movable components, presumably lids, and therefore being of a coffin style of
construction.
7. The number and range of styles of the identified
hinges suggests there were at least four lidded structures.
8. The number and range of styles of those fittings
identified as angle-irons suggests that they were
used on at least three structures.
9. The existence of two size groups of fittings leads to
a number of possible conclusions. First, the Group
1 fittings being much more substantial than Group
2 were used on more substantial structures.
Secondly, the Group 2 fittings may be viewed as

being finer and therefore used for a more decorative
purpose. Finally, if Group 1 fittings are without
exception hinges then their function may necessitate
a more substantial fitting in relation to the other
type of fittings present, eg angle-irons, cleats etc.
10.The evidence which hints at the possible construction techniques employed on the grave structures
comes only from the existence of the angle-irons
and the nails (the hinges are not included here as
they are associated with a movable component
within the structure). In general the sparsity of
these fittings suggests that some other construction
technique was employed (evidence for which has
not survived, eg the use of wooden pegs or dowels
and carpentry joints) and the iron fittings were used
merely for strengthening the structure. The angleirons, as argued earlier, were possibly used on the
upper half of corner joints while the nails may be
used for the production of a joint or attaching
another type of fitting. The small number of nails is
of concern when attempting to rationalise their
function on the structure(s). There are too few to
suggest that they could have been used at regular
intervals along corner joints and the possibility that
they were used as additional supports in weak areas
suggests poor workmanship or constructional
design. It may be more appropriate to consider
their function as being more dedicated, for example
to secure the lid of the coffin for burial.
11.In general the style of the fittings is rather crude in
comparison with the majority of examples from
other areas, eg the richly decorated fittings from
Winchester (Biddle 1975; 1990) and Gloucester
(Webber 1999). And indeed the hinge set MK 64
VB which could be considered to be the most elaborate from Wearmouth appears relatively crude
with its staple-styled terminal in comparison to the
more decorative nailed terminals on similar hinges
from, for example, Dacre, Garton Slack, Whithorn
and Ripon.
Although there is the possibility that other forms of
structure existed, the body of available evidence indicates the Wearmouth grave structures took the form of
a wooden coffin. These were constructed of oak planks
approximately 16 or 21mm thick, the width of the
planks being such that single pieces were used for the
individual components, ie sides, base etc of the structure. These aspects are similar to the results obtained
by Heawood (1990) in his examination of the
Whithorn material. The main constructional techniques employed were conventional carpentry techniques, eg pegging or joints, with the possibility that
areas such as the upper vertical corner joints were
strengthened with iron fittings, eg angle-irons or nails.
Some of the structures were lidded and these were
hinged using two linked hinges per structure, with the
possibility that the lids were secured for burial with
303
nails.
Although there exists a degree of similarity between
the Wearmouth material and that from sites such as
Whithorn and Ripon, there is also a certain distinctive
character about the assemblage. The relatively crude
form of the hinge straps has been discussed above as
has the more rounded ornamental style of fittings CF4
and CF10, however, the lack of the more elaborate fittings, such as locks, which are present at a number of
other sites must also be considered. Whatever the reasons for this observed difference between sites, the
Wearmouth material also indicates a difference within
the site itself, as the small size of the assemblage
(reflecting the limited number of grave structures) and
its confinment within two distinct areas suggests that
decorated coffin/chest burials were reserved for specific individuals within the community. On the present
evidence it is not possible to indicate who these individuals were; however, Nicholson (1997, 415) implies
that, given the presence of coffin burials at Garton
Slack, Thwing and Ripon, the Whithorn burials may
not necessarily be those of ecclesiastics, while Ottaway
(1996, 113) suggests that the custom of chest burials
are related to high rank rather than, for example, ethnic or other social affiliations. Given the available evidence it is difficult to envisage how one could go
further than this. However, one line of enquiry would
be to identify whether burials were either in reused
chests or purpose-built coffins and whether this reflected a difference in the status of the buried individual.
31.8 Lead objects

by Rosemary Cramp
The range of lead object material found at Wearmouth
and Jarrow was not wide and indeed some (Pb2 and
Pb4) could well be scrap. An enigmatic object is the
funnel or finial Pb5. As is befitting a site where one
might expect to find evidence of literacy, the scribers
Pb1 and Pb6 reflect this, as do similar items in other
materials, notably the styli in copper alloy, iron and
worked bone (CA125126, Fe128 and WB358). The
plumb bob (Pb7) and the weights are forms that are
found on similar sites (see below). It is possible that
some of the small pierced discs which have been interpreted as net weights or even spindlewhorls on other
sites, but in this case have been discussed with the lead
fittings (see Ch 26.6, Structural lead), should be considered under this grouping of objects. Items Pb911
could be rough-outs for such discs or small weights. It
would be unusual on a maritime site such as Jarrow if
there were no line weights. Pb12 is an example of a
simple type of line weight but the discovery of the hand
line weight (Pb16) is of interest since it is a distinctive
form and could well be evidence for late pre-Conquest
activity on the site.
Pb1
Scriber/stylus. This tool is shaped like a short thick

stylus with one pointed and one spatulate end. The
shaft is curved and there are grooved lines on its sur-
304
0,
,
\8
,.
)
@>
--
t"-
"
.,.OY
\6
.,
31.8.1 Lead objects from Wearmouth and Jarrow. Scale 1:1. YB, KM, TM
Pb2
Pb3
Pb4
Pb5
Pb6
Pb7
face. There are lines marking off each end and a

small hole in the spatulate end. Sturdier than most
styli, it may have been used on a heavier substance
than wax. Similar objects in lead have been found in
a medieval context at the Dominican Priory in
Oxford (see Lambrick and Woods 1976, 216, nos 29
and 30). These are interpreted as pencils. Analysis of
the Wearmouth object by EDXRF gave the following
composition: 55% lead, 43% tin and 2% other metals. It is possible that this instrument represents a
transition between the stylus or dry point and lead
pencil. The fact that it was found in the fill of a Late
Saxon grave SK 66/61 might mean that it was a treasured personal possession. Fig 31.8.1.
L 82 W 10 T 6.5mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 1611 Saxon MK 66 TX 6601
Illustration: D5016
Reference: Cramp 1967b, 15, no. 33
Part of a vessel of unknown type. Triangular fragment of a curved form bearing signs of cut marks. As
this was found in the cemetery earth it is therefore
difficult to date precisely but it is possible that it had
come to the site as scrap or had been cut up for scrap
on the site. Fig 31.8.1.
L 50 W 46 T 5mm
Roman or Anglo-Saxon
Context: 1789 Saxon MK 66 SY 6603
Fastening. This piece has a nail-like form and its
function is obscure. It was found on the floor of
room Bii with window glass and could be part of a
fixture for framing glass. Fig 31.8.1.
L 30 W 4 T 3mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 4498 Saxon JA 69 XT b 6902-4
Key-shaped piece. This piece of lead from a late
Saxon context is perhaps fortuitously shaped like
a key. It was found with some window glass and may
have had some relationship to glass fittings. Fig
31.8.1.
L 86 W 20 T 4mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 1192 Med 1? MK 62 IS 6201
Finial? A tapering cone of rolled lead, slightly
curved. This hardly seems to be structural, although
it was found among the debris from the collapse of
Building A. It could have been the spout or finial of
some object. Fig 31.8.1.
L 84 Diam 525mm Wt 31.58g
Context: 413 LS/EM JA 65 AKQ 6503
Tapering solid rod, slightly curved. Found in the fill
of a pit to the north of Building A. Possibly used as a
marker/scriber (see Biddle 1990, 367). Compare
CA125 and its discussion. Fig 31.8.1.
Context: 5883 LS/EM JA 66 ZN 6601
L 102 Diam 6mm
JARBW 1995.73
Plumb bob. This object, found north of the north
wall of Building B, is a cast conical object, pierced
through from the top to the base, which has a concave
indentation to hold the knot for suspension. It could
possibly be a balance weight but its form seems to be
like the Roman plumb bobs which hung in wooden
set squares for levelling walls (see Biddle 1990, fig
71a, 428; Cormack 1995, 75 and fig 38). Fig 31.8.1.
Pb8
Pb9
Pb10
Pb11
Pb12
Pb13
Pb14
Pb15
305
H 46 Diam 1323mm Wt 142.72g

Anglo-Saxon
Context: 3129 LS/EM JA 69 NT 6901
JARBW 1995.57
Balance weight or, less probably, a plumb bob.
Although from a modern context, there were many
residual finds in the disturbed soils over Building A,
and this could be an early hanging weight. The
weight is cast and the oval suspension hole shows
wear, as if from a wire suspension. Fig 31.8.1.
H 32 Base Diam 24mm Wt 60.035g
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 35 Modern JA 66 DO 6601
JARBW 1995.35
Irregular disc, slightly concave. This object seems
too fragile to be a weight. Since it was found on the
workshop floor it could be a blank that was not been
fully worked. Fig 31.8.1.
Diam 12 T 1.5mm
Anglo-Saxon
JARBW 1996.3368
Small irregular shaped disc, partly worked. Fig
31.8.1.
L 12 W 15 T1mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA UZ 309 7305
This small irregularly shaped disc could perhaps be a
small pan weight (see Biddle 1990, 9078). Fig
31.8.1.
Diam 15 T 2mm
Anglo-Saxon
JARBW 1998.7863
Net sinker or line weight found in the workshop
debris on the floor of Building D. The object, which
is hollow and tapers towards each end, is formed
from a tightly rolled lead strip leaving a central transverse hole. Compare objects from Whithorn (Hill
1997, 3945, 10/78). Fig 31.8.1.
Anglo-Saxon
JARBW 1995.71a
Disc with scalloped edges which has been folded in
half. Small triangular perforations in the surface.
This piece was found in a late phase of the deposits
in the workshop area. It seems to be decorative but
its function is obscure. Fig 31.8.1.
Diam c 40 T c 2.5mm
Anglo-Saxon
Short melted rod with lug, found with other melted
lead on the disturbed floor of Building D. possibly
part of a window bar. Fig 31.8.1.
L 30 W 10 T 9mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2863 LS/EM JA 76 DK 7602
Small disc with hollowed centre surrounded by radiating incised decoration. The centre could have held
another setting. Found on the ground surface north
of the workshops. Fig 31.8.1.
Diam 7 T 2mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 4715 Saxon-EM JA 76 DP 2 7604
306
31.8.2 Lead objects from Wearmouth and Jarrow. Scale 1:1 YB, KM
Pb16
Pb17
Pb18
Hand line weight. Bar with one convex and one

straight face, pierced and nicked at each end. The
nicks and holes at the ends would allow this object to
be suspended from a line and to hang vertically. In a
line sinker the use of the holes was to attach the hook
line with the weight at one end and the hand-held
line at the other, while the nicks would assist in
securing the knots (see a modern example from the
Aran Islands, Wallace 1998, fig 1). Wallace has compared this object with similar line weights found in
Viking Age contexts in Dublin. This weight is most
like his type 1 but with the addition of nicks. This
object was found in pit 1499 which contained some
residual material and may have been of a similar date
to the Irish type. Fig 31.8.1.
Late Saxon-Early Med
Context: 1200 Med 1 JA 75 KL1 7501
JARBW 1995.295
Pin or awl? The object has a peg-like, double
lozenge-shaped head decorated with incised lines
and a flat shaft that tapers to a point. No satisfactory parallels to this piece have been found. This object
was found at the base of a deep layer that seems to
extend from the Anglo-Saxon to the early medieval
periods. Fig 31.8.2.
Late Saxonearly medieval?
L c 115 W at head 18 T 5-6mm
Context: 2840 Med 1? JA 78 KO 4 7803
A flat strip of cast lead pointed at one end and
pierced in the middle. The tip of this enigmatic
object is slightly curved and if nailed to a surface this
could have served as a type of wedge. Fig 31.8.2.
Pb19
Pb20
Pb21
Pb22
Pb23
Medieval
L 25 W 8 T 2mm
Context: 4888 Med JA 70 IE a 7001
JARBW 1996.3361
Pan weight irregularly shaped into a roundel with a
flat surface and base. Compare Biddle 1990, fig 281
3191. Fig 31.8.2.
Diam 3740 T 10mm
Medieval
Context: 2134 Med MK 67 FD 6702
Pan weight roughly cut into an irregular oval with
smooth surfaces and slightly raised edges on one
face. Not illus.
Diam 27-31 T 3mm Wt 16.69g
Medieval
Context: 2809 Med 2 JA 78 HP 7803
JARBW 1996.3377
Pan weight. Although from a post-medieval context,
this object could be residual and of any date from the
14th to the 17th century. Compare Pb19. Fig 31.8.2.
Diam 32 T 6mm
Medieval?
Context: 579 LPM MK 71 BU 7101
Thick rolled strip of lead found in a medieval grave.
Possibly a weight. Fig 31.8.2.
Diam c 22 H c 27mm Th 3mm
Medieval?
Context: 4957 Med JA 70 TW 3 7001
Perforated disc, possibly a spindlewhorl, cf Hill
1997, fig 10.75. Fig 31.8.2.
Ext diam 12.5 Diam hole 3 T 2.5mm
Medieval
Context: 964 Med 2 JA 76 AU 7604
Pb24
Pb25
Part of the edge of a ventilator? Since this was found

with the debris of destruction of the medieval buildings, this identification seems likely. Fig 31.8.2.
L 60 W 14 T4mm
Rolled strip of lead tapering at each end. Possibly a
line weight. Compare Pb12. Fig 31.8.2.
L 38 W 14 Diam at end 8mm
Medieval?
Context: 78 LPM JA 63 DN 6302
31.9 Wooden objects

by Rosemary Cramp
There were only a limited number of contexts at
Wearmouth and Jarrow in which wood survived. At
Wearmouth these contexts were the wet sand on the
west of the site in which early burials were located (see
Vol 1, Ch 7) and the lower fills of the shaft, context
1377. The former produced strainer W1, but the latter
only yielded plant and unworked wood debris (see
307
environmental report). In addition, a charred fragment

of lathe-turned wood from a wall construction trench
may be the base of a bowl (W2).
At Jarrow the only place where wood survived was
in the fill (context 4342) of the small well (context
4348) near the centre of the cloister. This material
consisted of part of the barrel lining of the well and
other fragments which might have accumulated over a
period of time, since the pottery in the fill included
types which ranged from the 12th to the 14th centuries.
It is extremely unfortunate that in the course of conservation treatment in a regional laboratory, the kiln
exploded and nearly all of the wood was destroyed. It
is therefore described from the sketches with their
measurements and the photographic record made
before conservation. The photographs have been chosen to illustrate these pieces because they provide a
clear record of the tool marks which are the most interesting feature of these fragments. Ten other featureless
fragments are not described or illustrated (see archive).
Fig 31.9.1 Wooden strainer (W1) and bowl fragment (W2) from Wearmouth. Scale 1:2. YB
308
Fig 31.9.2 Wooden objects (W310) from the well shaft at Jarrow. Scale 1:2
W1
Strainer, in two pieces. Roughly circular board, bevelled on one face and pierced with thirteen complete,
and two incomplete holes in the broken section. The
wood is either Quercus oak, or Castanea sweet
chestnut (see report below). Fig 31.9.1.
This piece was found in a deposit that contained

disturbed burials and a quantity of Anglo-Saxon
building debris. Despite the fact that no later material was found in this context it possibly represents an
early post-Conquest disturbance. The good condition
of the piece when excavated prompted the supposi-
309
Fig 31.9.3 Wooden objects (W11W14) from Wearmouth and Jarrow. W12W13 Scale 1:2; W11 and W14. Scale 1:1
tion that it was planted, but this was not the opinion
of the supervisor. There is moreover a close parallel in
a pierced bronze plate (which had been fixed to a
wooden frame) found in a 7th-century hut at
Canterbury, The plate itself may be residual Roman,
but the strainer is best taken as a home-made utensil
of the Anglo-Saxon period (Blockley et al 1995,
1063. F.653, fig 459). The neat bevelling of the
Wearmouth piece might suggest that it was a lid for a
container, possibly used in cheese making.
Diam 224 T 12mm
Saxon?
Context: 852 L Sax MK 66 TH 6602
Drawn
Laboratory report
by Jacqui Huntley
The object W1 has been cut from a longitudinal section of timber. The two pieces are very dry and dusty
and there is a severe covering of white fluff at least
some of this is fungal hyphae and many fungal spores

were noted during microscopic investigation.
Very small slivers (12mm max) of wood were shaved
from the edges of the smaller piece, and these were
mounted in a glycerine/meths/water mix and examined
under the microscope at magnifications of up to 400.
Cell characteristics and morphology were noted and
compared with both photographic manuals and reference material held in the Biological Laboratory at the
Department of Archaeology, University of Durham.
Transverse section: ring porous wood, large crowded
vessels and uniseriate rays only seen. However, the section is too small to be sure that aggregate or compound
rays were absent from the whole tree. Radial longitudinal section: homogeneous rays, simple perforation
plates. Very obvious pits both in section and through
adjacent cell walls. While most seem to be alternate
there are places where they are predominantly opposite.
Tangential longitudinal section: only uniseriate rays can
310
be seen with a ray height of 2030 cells.

From these characteristics the most likely identification is either oak (Quercus sp) or sweet chestnut
(Castanea sp). Unfortunately, the two tree species are
best separated by the presence of large compound rays
in Quercus but the piece removed for examination was
too small to determine either their presence or
absence. The rest of the edge of the object is too silty
and abraded to determine ray presence without causing considerable damage.
Castanea is not indigenous to Britain but was planted
and coppiced at least as early as the medieval period in
southern England in order to produce smaller wood for
wattling and hurdles etc. It typically grows in a somewhat
twisted manner, thus not producing useful long sections
of timber. On the other hand, Quercus is native and its
timber has been widely used for structural needs as well
as smaller items. While on the face of it Quercus would
seem the most likely, as this is an object it could therefore
have been traded from outside the region. Therefore, the
identification is considered best left as Quercus/Castanea.
Small fragment of charred lathe-turned wood.
Possibly the base of an open wooden bowl, base
diameter c 0.2m. Fig 31.9.1.
34 34 10mm
Context: 1386 Med MK 64 OK 6403
W314 Fragments from the fill of well shaft 4348.
C1114th
Context: 4342 Med1b JA 70- 7002
W3
Fragments of barrel staves. Fig 31.9.2.
a. L 95 W 2027 T 12mm
b. L 135 W 32 T 10mm
c. L 175 W 1535 T 15mm
d. L 102 W 1230 T 15mm
e. L 155 W 1550 T 20mm This piece may be part
of the base of the barrel rather than a stave.
W4
Wedge or peg. The broad face is sharply cut and the
narrow face is chamfered towards the broken tip. Fig
31.9.2.
L 125 W 23-40 T 1525mm.
W5
Stake in two pieces round in cross-section and pointed at one end. Fig 31.9.2.
L 275 Diam 35mm
W6
Two bungs, possibly poplar (Populas sp), one still
with bark attached. Fig 31.9.2.
a. H 55 Diam 50mm
b. H 60 Diam 50mm
W7
Two pegs. Fig 31.9.2.
a. Hooked peg, possibly split or cut longitudinally.
Some traces of facetting on the head.
H 50 W of head 24 and of shaft 14mm
b. The head of the peg is roughly facetted to form its
shape and there is a split on one face.
H 75 W of head 35 and of shaft 25mm
W8
Corner fragment with fine chisel marks. Fig 31.9.2.
H 50 W/Diam 20 12mm
W9
Wedge chamfered on one broad face to a point. Fig
31.9.2.
H 64 W 2427 Diam 155mm
W10 Rectangular block cut diagonally on one narrow face.
Fig 31.9.2.
H 62 W 42 Diam 1318mm
W11 Corner fragment of a block with marking out lines
W12
W13
W14
and a cross on one face. Fig 31.9.3.

H 50 W 65 Diam 35mm
Irregularly shaped piece with facetted planes and
with tool marks. A hole in one face. Fig 31.9.3.
H 112 W 60 D 70mm
Irregularly shaped piece that has been cut along and
across the grain of the wood (slow grown oak). Fig
31.9.3.
H 170 W 70100 T 40mm
Slice of oak. Fig 31.9.3.
H 73 W 62 T 50mm
31.10 Textiles from Wearmouth

pit 142
Azra Becêvic
Fragments of several pieces of textile, apparently from
garments, were recovered from context 135, the fill of
a latrine pit attached to the south range at Wearmouth,
W2
Fig 31.10.1 Diagrams of A. tabby weave. B. twill 2/2

diagonal fabric. C. S- and Z-spun yarns. A Becêvic/CU
Fig 31.10.2 Type 1 textile fragments. TM. Scale unit 10mm
311
and dated to the end of the medieval occupation (see

Vol 1, Fig 11.15).
The textiles were examined for differences in type
of weave, twist, and in fineness of threads. Two different types of weave were found: tabby and twill; the
yarns included both S and Z twisted (Fig
31.10.1AC). Five different types of textile were identified.
A simple method for identifying the fibres was carried out, measuring the pH of the fumes of the fibres
on pyrolysis (Tmr-Balzsy and Eastop 1998).
Depending on the pH of the fumes, it is possible
to distinguish different groups of fibres. Samples
were obtained from fibres that had fallen off during
previous unsuitable storage conditions. The method is
as follows: a sample is placed in a semi-micro test-tube;
a piece of pH indicator paper, moistened with distilled
water, is placed in the test tube so that it does
not touch the sample but is close enough to absorb
fumes. The sample is then heated until it burns.
The indicator papers showed alkaline pH 9, which
proved that all five of the Wearmouth samples were
wool.
Type 1
Six separate pieces of fabric were defined as type 1 (Fig
31.10.2). These textiles are tabby weave (Fig
31.10.1A); both systems warp and weft use S-spun
yarn. The bigger pieces are slightly felted on the surface. Their colour varies between light brown to reddish-brown. The warp and weft counts vary between
the pieces, being 9 8, 10 12, and 12 14 threads per
10mm. There are visible holes made by insect attack.
Type 2
Two separate pieces of tabby weave textile were

defined as type 2 (Fig 31.10.3). Here, one system is Sspun yarn while the other is Z-spun yarn. These fragments are brown in colour. The warp and weft counts
are 11 13 threads per 10mm. There are visible holes
made by insect attack.
312
Type 3
Discussion
Textiles defined as type 3 are tabby weave (Fig

31.10.4). One system is Z-spun yarn while the other is
S-spun yarn. Type 3 fabrics consisted of two separate
pieces, which are light and dark brown in colour.
Most fabric found in archaeological contexts in northern Europe has counts of between 8 and 20 warp
threads and 7 to 18 weft threads per 10mm. Thread
counts vary slightly from one area to another, which
can be explained by the use of primitive techniques for
the production of fabrics.
Twills, especially diagonals, were popular in northern Europe from the Roman period onwards. 2/2 plain
twill Z/Z is the most common type (ie plain diagonal
four-shed twill with Z-spun yarn for both warp and
weft), accounting for 34.638% of all fabrics in different parts of Britain). Among the 1454 Anglo-Saxon
textile remains known to date, 470 are 2/2 plain twill,
that is 32.2% of the material; only five pieces fewer
than the most common type, tabby Z/Z (Bender
Jrgensen 1992).
Type 4
Textiles defined as type 4 are twill 2/2 diagonal weave
(Fig 31.10.5). Both systems, warp and weft, are of Zspun yarn. The fabric is fine, as indicated by a warp
and weft count of 18 24 threads per 10mm. This
sample consisted of one big piece and several small,
separate fragments. The colour is reddish-brown.
There are visible holes made by insect attack.
Type 5
Three separate pieces of textile were defined as type 5.
These are twill 2/2 diagonal weave (Fig 31.10.6). Both
systems, warp and weft, are Z-spun yarn. The pieces
are slightly felted on the surface. Stitching holes are
visible on the bigger pieces.
31.11 Clay spindlewhorl from

Jarrow
Cer1
Annular spindlewhorl in fired clay with quartz inclusions. Fig 31.11.1. The disc is flat in section, with
one side broken or flattened. The perforation is
hour-glass shaped. Spindlewhorls of this shape are
common on medieval sites, but are more often
formed of stone (see Hill 1997, fig 10.113). This was
found in a burnt layer on the floor of room ER3. It
could have been a possession of the yard woman
mentioned in the accounts (Piper 1986, 14).
Diam 35 T 1416 D of hole 912mm
Medieval?
Context: 4453 Med 2 JA 69 IG 6903
31.11.1 Clay spindlewhorl (Cer1). Scale 1:1. RC
32 Vessel glass
32.1 Roman vessel glass
GlV R4 Blue-green; fragment of convex body curving in to

base. Perhaps large unguent bottle or flask. Not illus.
15 11 3mm
Probably C1st3rd AD
Context: 84 LPM JA 63 EW 6302
JARBW 1998.7578
GlV R5 Blue-green. Fragment, thick-walled lower body and
edge of base, large cylindrical bottle. Ring of heavy
wear on base. Not illus.
Diam of body c 160 T 2.58mm
C1st AD
Context: 5803 Modern JA 66 AE 6601
JARBW 1998.7604
GlV R6 Blue-green. Convex body fragment. Not illus.
28 18 1.8mm
Probably C1st3rd AD
Context: 373 LPM JA 66 DK 6601
JARBW 1998.7644
GlV R7 Blue-green. Fragment, shoulder and handle of bottle. Thin walled convex shoulder, small angular ribbon handle with reeding pulled down to shoulder.
Not illus.
W 33 T 3mm
C1st2nd AD
Context: 14 Med? JA 66 RL 6601
JARBW 1998.7621
GlV R8 Greenish fragment, rim and neck of flask or bottle.
Horizontal rim, fine rounded edge, neck expanding
out. Fig 32.1.1.
Diam 40 H 23 T 1.5mm
Late Roman?
Context: 5845 LPM JA 66 XW 13 6601
JARBW 1995.170
GlV R9 Blue-green melted fragment, perhaps from square
bottle. Not illus.
15 18 4mm
Roman
GlV R10Blue-green. Fragment of horizontal rim, edge folded out, up and in and flattened. Probably from jug
or small flask. Not illus.
Rim diam 31 L 25 W 9.5 T 4mm
Probably 1st2nd century AD
Context: 3178 Med 1 JA 69 MZ 2 6903
by Jennifer Price
A small amount of Roman vessel glass was found at
both sites. The distribution of this material does not
entirely support the idea that this material was introduced as waste glass for recycling, although this
remains a possibility. At Wearmouth GlV R1 was found
with Anglo-Saxon building debris from Building B and
disturbed burials. GlV R2 and GlV R3 were both found
in the same trench near to the church and associated
with human bone, although in disturbed contexts.
Nevertheless both could have originated with burials.
At Jarrow, the glass fragments were found in three
distinct areas. GlV R4 was found to the south of
Building A, in what later became a workshop area, with
evidence for millefiori working. GlV R58 were discovered above Building A but in the disturbed contexts
which the gardening and allotment activities had produced in that area. The occurrence of the fragments
above Building A is not easy to explain. Another group,
GlV R911, were found in the disturbed clays east of
Building B and all with disturbed human bone. The
earliest features in this area were graves and so, as at
Wearmouth, this group could have been associated
with graves, in an area where these could be of an early
date (see Ch 15). The third group, GlV R1214 were
all found in the collapsed debris or silt over Building D.
It is possible that these pieces could have been used as
cullet since there was evidence for glass melting in
Building D but, as with the Anglo-Saxon vessels which
were also found in Building D, GlV R12 might have
been in use. (RC)
GlV R1 Several blue/green fragments partly fused together.
Not illus.
L 26 T 11mm
Roman?
Context: 1670 L Sax/Norman MK 62 EPc 6201
Hunter SP13
SLDM
GlV R2 Light blue/green fragment from short narrow neck
with tooling marks above body (now missing), possibly from a bath flask but too fragmentary for positive identification. Fig 32.1.1.
L 16 T 3 D c 20mm
?C1st3rd AD
Context: 2080 Saxon MK 67 FN 6701
SLDM
GlV R3 Fragment. Light green/blue with iridescent remains
of ?white marvered trails. Form uncertain. Fig
32.1.1.
L 19 T 1.5mm
Roman?
Context: 2075 Med 2/EPM MK 67 EV 6701
SLDM
Fig 32.1.1 Roman vessel glass. Scale 1:2. YB, LB

313
314
GlV R11Blue-green; slightly convex body fragment. Not illus.

16 7 3mm
Context: 4221 LPM JA 70 FL 7005
JARBM 1998.7698
GlV R12Dark blue body fragment from either a cylindrical or
conical body, perhaps a jug. Glossy and unworn. The
bubble patterns show some vertical stretching.
EDXRF analysis indicates that the glass is soda lime
glass and contains no arsenic; high level of manganese, probably to enhance the colour of the glass
that derives from cobalt. From its context it could be
Roman or Anglo-Saxon but the clarity of the glass
favours a Roman date. Fig 32.1.1.
L 52 T 1.5mm
Roman?
Context: 2005 L Sax JA 73 TE 3 7305
GlV R13Base of a square flask, with parts of two sides. Not
illus.
L 23 T 34mm
Roman
Context: 1007 M Sax JA 78 EF 2 7804
JARBW 1995.172
GlV R14Fragment of light blue-green glass from a square
bottle. Fig 32.1.1.
L 16 W 15 T 34mm
Roman
Context: 2017 L Sax JA 73 VF 4 7305
32.2 Anglo-Saxon vessel glass of

the 7th to 9th centuries
by Vera I Evison
The number of fragments of Anglo-Saxon glass found
at Jarrow and extant is fifty-one, and at Wearmouth it
is six. Twenty-eight of the Jarrow fragments are small
and without any features which might indicate the type
of vessel. There are, however, some joining fragments
and some of the pieces are very distinctive.
One of the rim fragments from Wearmouth in light
green-blue (GlV5), was part of a small, plain globular
beaker, a type which was common in England in the
7th century and occurred frequently in grave contexts.
Most were found at Faversham, with some at other sites
in Kent, and it seems probable that Faversham was the
production centre of the type and the source of this particular beaker (Evison 2000a, group 61). The colour
terminology employed in this report is the authors and
does not correspond exactly with that used for describing the Anglo-Saxon window glass in Ch 27.1.
Other globular beakers from Wearmouth and
Jarrow were more complicated and rare types that did
not occur in graves but are found as fragments in contexts of the 8th and 9th centuries. GlV1 and GlV2 are
both light green-blue fragments of a beaker. The rim
(GlV1) suggests that it was a large globular beaker and
the other fragment would have belonged to the globular body. A red trail on top of the rim has been
smoothed in. In Cramp 1970c, 19, fig 3.3, reference is
made to two fragments like this, but the second is not
extant. A trail in this position, usually bicolour and
twisted, sometimes occurs on mid-Saxon glass as at
Southampton (Hunter 1980, fig 11.2.13), and one was

found in London at the Bedfordbury site (Evison
1989b, 113, fig 40, 162).
A monochrome trail on the rim occurs less frequently, but at Visemarest in France at the site of
Quentovic (Hill et al 1990) a light green-blue rim is
surmounted by a blue-white trail (Heyworth and
Evison forthcoming 87/18b). Also at the Mote of
Mark, Scotland, a very light olive rim has a white trail
on top (Curle 191314, 152, fig 17, 1). A marvered
red trail like this is difficult to distinguish from red
streaking incorporated in the metal before blowing, but
deliberate placing in a specific position as on this rim
indicates the more precise use of a trail. Another example of a neatly positioned marvered red trail occurs on
the foot of a vivid green-blue vessel at Flixborough
(Evison 2000a, fig 16c; Evison forthcoming b,
8723/8708, 8717/8708). A similar red trail is applied
to the rim of a flat-based bowl of vivid green-blue decorated with horizontal white trails (private possession).
Six fragments of blue glass from the same context
2018 probably belong to the same vessel, GlV12. The
shape of a globular beaker is determined by the joining
rim fragments (GlV12a) and the globular shape of
some of the other fragments. Six fragments of a dark
blue globular body are distinctive because of the decoration by unusual trails (GlV7). The form is a globular
beaker, and most of the fragments come from near the
kicked base. The decoration is by trails applied vertically on the wall and radiating from the base (see Fig
32.2.4). The trails are alternately in the self colour,
dark blue and dark blue decorated with fine longitudinal red threads. There are two other joining fragments
in the same dark blue colour, GlV8, also of globular
shape, but which probably do not belong to the same
vessel as the above, as there is no sign of decoration on
what is a considerable area. Two other dark blue pieces
could belong to either of these two vessels, the fragments (GlV9), which appear to be part of the same rim
and could have belonged to a globular beaker.
These dark blue globular beakers are a continuance
of the production of a group of blue beakers made in
England in the 7th century, which include beakers
plain or with neck trails, and beakers decorated with
thick trails applied vertically on the body or in zigzag
formation (Evison 1989a; Campbell 1989; Evison
2000a, groups 613, 667).
The form of a globular beaker continued into the
mid Saxon period and multi-colour effects were
achieved in various ways, eg by an applied rim of contrasting colour and vertical reticella trails as on the
beaker from Birka, grave 649, Norway (Arbman 1940,
Taf.189, 3; Evison 2000a, pl Vc). Fragments of similar
colourful globular beakers have been found at other
continental and English sites (Baumgartner and
Krueger 1988, Dorestad, 74, no. 17; Evison 1991,
Brandon, 88, no. 60(x), Barking Abbey, 92, 67(q).
Although the Jarrow fragments clearly belong to this
series, this particular colour combination and the type
32: VESSEL GLASS
of reticella, ie trails consisting of fine red threads running longitudinally untwisted on a dark base, is not
paralleled elsewhere.
Reticella trails of this period have been discussed on
a number of occasions: Hunter 1980; Evison 1983a,
913; Evison 1983b, 1112, 201; Nsman 1986, 76ff;
Koch 1987, 2657; Baumgartner and Krueger 1988,
69ff; Evison 1988a, 240ff; Evison 1988b; Evison
2000a; Evison forthcoming a). Reticella trails usually
consist of two or more threads twisted together and
untwisted threads, as at Jarrow, are comparatively rare.
A light blue-green fragment of a tall palm cup at Lige
in Belgium was decorated with self-colour trails containing fine red longitudinal threads (Evison 1988b,
216, fig 140, 3), and other similar fragments were
found at Waltham Abbey in Essex and Helg in Sweden
(Evison 1988a, 2423, fig 11 and 12, 1), while blue and
white trails are recorded from Cordel in Germany
(Arbman 1937, Taf. 2, 1). White trails with a longitudinal red thread ornamented the foot of the beaker at
Flixborough mentioned above (Evison 2000a, fig 16c).
Two fragments from the National Gallery site in
London were dark blue and belonged to a thin-walled
cylindrical vessel, probably a funnel beaker, each with a
marvered reticella trail in contrasting colours of yellow
and light green. The trails were placed vertically (not
horizontally as illustrated; Evison 1989b, 11216, fig
40, 164), and one was slightly twisted while the other
was straight. In this case the straight trails may be a matter of accident rather than design at the end of an
extended twisted trail. Some of the red threads on the
above-mentioned vessels, however, are very fine, like
some of those in the Jarrow reticella. Bicolour, untwisted, trails also occur at a few other English sites,
although not in the same colour combination:
Southampton, Hants, light blue-green with white and
red feathered trails (Hunter 1980, fig 11.2.10), Barking,
Essex 830/3738 (Evison 1991, 67n, 67t and Ipswich,
Suffolk, 0703/3, 3104/2541, Suffolk County Council)
Two fragments are opaque dark red streaked and
nearly black on the outside, a rim and a body fragment
(GlV11). Transmitted light shows a patch of translucent light green-blue streaking also on the rim. There
is a considerable difference in the condition of the surfaces, the rim being dull and the body fragment glossy,
but this could have been the result of burial in different contexts and they might have come from the same
vessel, a globular beaker. A third fragment which fitted
with the rim is now missing. The rim is not circular
and may be deformed but, if not, there is a possibility
that it might have been part of the trefoil rim of a jug
form, not otherwise noted in this period.
Red swirled glass of this type where the colour varies
from black in parts to a translucent light green in others
occurred in the Roman, Merovingian and Carolingian
periods. Evidence of production is available from crucible fragments which have been found at different
places containing streaked marbled glass of these
colours, Roman at the Barbarathermen, Trier (Evison
315
1990, 2223, fig 8) and Carolingian at Cordel, Germany

and Quentovic, France (Evison 1990, 2245, fig 9).
Vessel fragments in this kind of glass are known from
Scandinavia, Germany, Holland and France, including
Carolingian bowls from Dorestad (Baumgartner and
Krueger 1988, 712, nos 14 and 16). Red marbled glass
occurred also in mid-Saxon contexts in England, as window fragments (see Cramp, this volume), and as vessels,
eg a globular beaker at Southampton, Hants (Hunter
1980, 70, fig 11, 4.3), and Brandon, Suffolk (Evison
1990, 220, figs 45; Evison 1991, 87, 66(v)). An opaque
red glass folded rim was found at Fishergate, York
(Rogers 1993, 1334, fig 646, 4640). It occurred also in
the unusual form of a footed beaker at Barking, Essex
(Evison 1990, 2202, figs 67).
Three fragments of a distinctive colour, vivid bluegreen, are parts of a bottle (GlV10), which shows an
inward folded rim and slightly incurved narrow neck.
10b is part of the neck and 10c is a slightly thinner globular fragment probably from the body. Except for a few
imports bottles were rare in the early Saxon period
(Evison 2000a, groups 401), and this rarity seems to
have continued into the mid-Saxon period. One complete bottle from Germany at Wiesbaden, Dotzheimer
Strasse, had been allocated to the period 9th to 12th
century (Baumgartner and Krueger 1988, 83, no. 34).
The rim fragment of a small light green bottle was
found at Ipswich (Suffolk County Council 3104/429), a
simple vertical rim, slightly thickened and smoothed,
with a diameter of c 18mm. It was in a 10th-century
context, but probably belongs to an earlier period as this
is a town site and much of the glass appears to be redeposited. The rim and neck of a bottle has, however,
been found in a 10th-century Norwegian grave at Tr,
Ulvin, Granvin, Hordaland (Hougen 1968, 102, fig 8).
Other joining fragments are GlV15, light green,
which form the kicked base of a funnel beaker,
although slightly wider than normal (cf Isings 1980,
figs 153, 12 and 35). A base of similar shape but in
thicker, blue glass is GlV3 from Wearmouth.
The colourless fragment GlV16 is decorated with
bicolour trails, colourless and light vivid green-blue
which have been drawn out straight and not twisted,
the same technique as that used for the red trails on the
blue globular beaker above (GlV7). A closer effect,
however, is achieved on glasses of lighter colour, ie on
the light blue-green palm cups/funnel beakers where a
longitudinal red thread is encased in glass of the same
colour as the vessel. The diameter of this piece suggests it was part of a palm cup or funnel beaker.
Vessel decoration by means of opaque white marvered trails combed into arcades was common in the
5th and 6th centuries but less frequent in the 7th
century and later. The light blue-green fragment GlV17
decorated with arcades, however, can be compared with
blue fragments at Hamwic 169/176 and 169/1654
(Hunter and Heyworth 1998, fig 13 and fig 15, pl 5),
also at Ipswich, Suffolk (3104/419), and a number at
Fishergate, York (Rogers 1993, 1338, fig 648).
316
A few of the monochrome fragments show

some features. The small fragment GlV13, light green,
is a smoothed rim, heat damaged. GlV14 is a light
green-blue rim also slightly deformed. Most of the
small fragments, however, are featureless and do not
indicate any specific form.
Conclusions
The colours present are among those usual in 7th to
9th-century contexts. The light greens common in the
early Saxon period have become very infrequent and
there is a preponderance of blues and green-blues.
Some of the more distinctive colours of the period are
also present, ie vivid green-blue and vivid blue-green,
and red streaked with black and translucent light
green-blue. On the other hand, bichrome and polychrome fragments are much less frequent than on
other English sites of this period.
The forms of the vessels that can be deduced from
the fragments are globular beakers and tall palm cups
or funnel beakers which were the main forms in the
period AD 700900. The only possible exception is the
rim of a plain, small globular beaker (GlV5), a type
which was common in graves of the 7th century, but
which continued later (Evison 2000a, group 61). The
pushed-in base of a vessel of conical shape was found
at Jarrow (GlV15), light green, and another at
Wearmouth (GlV3), blue. Both are slightly wider than
normal for palm cup/funnel beakers.
These factors are enough to establish the date of the
fragments, but there are notable differences that distinguish them from other glass finds of the period both in
England and on the continent. The application of a second, contrasting, colour, usually in the form of trails,
was widespread, but here is only represented by four
vessels: the colourless vessel with vivid green-blue trails
(GlV16), the dark blue globular beaker with blue-red
trails (GlV7), the light green-blue beaker with a red trail
(GlV2) and white trails (GlV17). Red trails are among
the least common at this time, the blue-red trails and
the vivid green-blue/colourless trails have not been
noted elsewhere. The usual colour of contrasting trails
at this time was opaque yellow, and, less often, white,
but here there is only one example of white trails.
More remarkable is the complete absence of reticella
trails with the exception of the blue-red trails that,
however, are unusual for being untwisted. Glass vessels
of this period have been found at many sites in northwest Europe and Scandinavia, and also a considerable
number in England, and at most of these twisted
coloured trails also occurred (Evison 2000a, fig 7). In
the north of England they are in evidence at
Flixborough and at Whitby, where the total number of
fragments is even smaller than at Wearmouth and
Jarrow (Evison forthcoming b), and they also occur at a
number of sites further south in England. The evidence
at present available, therefore, indicates that the collection of glass at Wearmouth and Jarrow is not closely
connected with any other known English sites. The

requests recorded on two occasions for glass makers to
come from France and Germany (Cramp 1970c, 16) to
Wearmouth and Jarrow must have been fulfilled as the
physical remains demonstrate, but the differences noted
in the glass from other English sites suggests that these
particular glass-makers may have returned to the continent as soon as this mission was completed without
supplying customers in other parts of the country.
Temporary visits of glass-makers to monasteries or
other establishments, as indicated by the historical
record, are confirmed by archaeological evidence. At
Paderborn, Germany, most of the glass finds were
associated with the building of the palace in AD 776
(Winkelmann 1977, 1235; Winkelmann 1985). At
Ribe in Denmark the market area was divided into
plots which were occupied seasonally by craftsmen,
among them glass-workers producing beads, and possibly vessels (Jensen 1991, 15, 379).
The amount of vessel glass available from
Wearmouth is no greater than six fragments so that it
cannot profitably be compared with the vessel glass
from Jarrow. However, as the form of an unusually
wide-based palm cup/funnel beaker occurs at both
sites, and at both there are red trails, which are rather
rare, it would seem likely that the same craftsmen were
responsible for the vessels at both sites.
The vessel fragments do not give the impression of
being a random collection of cullet imported for use in
glass-working. Some joining fragments suggest that they
are the remains of vessels broken on the site. This
amounts to about eight globular beakers, three palm
cup/funnel beakers, and one bottle, although this assemblage must represent only a small percentage of the vessels produced for the community. No doubt the broken
remains of glass vessels were gathered for possible reuse.
In addition to the material examined by the author,
a number of other pieces of Anglo-Saxon vessel glass
were recovered from the two sites. These are catalogued separately below.
Wearmouth (Fig 32.2.1)
GlV1
GlV2
GlV3
GlV4
Light green-blue rim from globular beaker, thickened and incurved with a red marvered trail along
the top. cf GlV2.
26 13 T 25 Rim diam c 70mm.
Context: 1707 LS/EM MK 62 DN 6201
Fragment of beaker. Light green-blue. Globular,
few bubbles, scratched exterior. Probably from same
vessel as GlV1.
27 12 T 3mm
Context: 1666 EPM MK 62 CL 6201
Dark blue. Kicked base of a conical vessel, with
small bubbles and striations. Figs 32.2.1, 32.2.4.
Ht 32 T 35 Base diam 26mm
Context: 1670 L Sax/Norman MK 62 EP a 6201
Reference: Hunter 1971, pl 10, sp 23
Light blue-green. Part of melted vessel which has
fallen into folds. Not illus.
29 9 T 1.5mm
32: VESSEL GLASS
GlV8
GlV9
GlV10
GlV11
Fig 32.2.1 Anglo-Saxon vessel glass from Wearmouth.

Scale 1:1. YB, PF
GlV5
GlV6
Context: 1670 L Sax/Norman MK 67 EP c 6201

Light green-blue. Rim fragment of small globular
beaker. Smoothed and slightly thickened rim narrowing slightly to a neck and then widening to a
globular body. Bubbly with streaks of impurities
inside. Figs 32.2.1, 32.2.4.
Ht 24 T 2.53 Rim diam c 50mm
Context: 1672 Saxon MK 62 JY 6201
Reference: Hunter 1971, pl 10, Sp 24
Vivid green-blue. Cylindrical, iridescent, striated.
21 19 T 0.5mm.
Context: 369 Med 2 MK 71 KK 7104
GlV12
Jarrow (Fig 32.2.2)

GlV7
Six fragments of a globular beaker in dark blue glass

with self trails and trails with red threads. Figs
32.2.2, 32.2.4.
a. Two conjoining fragments from near base, with
three applied vertical trails, blue with longitudinal
red thread, and two self trails in between.
GlV13
317
60 22 T 2-4mm
Context: 2873 L Sax JA 76 GY 8 7602
Context: 2029 Saxon JA 73 WG 3 7305
b. Fragment, one self trail.
14 8 T 2.5-3mm.
Context: 2018 ML Saxon JA 73 UZ 45d 7305
c. Globular fragment, trace of self trail at one edge.
25 11 T 23mm
d. Globular, one trail with red thread.
16 20 T 2.5mm
Context: 2863 LS/EM JA 76 DK 187a 7602
e. Globular, self trail and end of one trail with red
thread.
25 9 T 2.53.5mm
Context: as above JA76 DK 187b
Two joining fragments of a globular beaker in dark
blue glass, with dull surfaces, iridescent. Probably
not the same vessel as GlV7. Fig 32.2.2.
29 44 T 22.5mm
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ 57f, 64s 7305
Two rim fragments of a globular beaker in dark blue
glass. Smoothed, slightly thickened rim; dull; iridescent. Est diameter 80100mm. Might belong to
either GlV7 or GlV8.
a. 18 10 T 2-4mm
b. 17 15 T 2.5-4.5mm
Three fragments of a bottle in vivid blue-green glass.
One globular and one cylindrical body fragment.
Bottle rim with shallow inward fold, slightly incurved
neck, small bubbles, one large inclusion, glossy.
a. Ht 32 Rim diam c 30mm T 23mm
Context: 2876 Saxon JA 76 GH 4 7602
b. 18 14 T 23mm
Context: 2859 LS/EM JA 76 CG 7 7602
c 6 11 T 1.5mm
Context: 2762 Med 1 JA 73 VE 2 7302
Two globular fragments, probably from the same
vessel, despite different condition. Opaque and
glossy body sherd, very dark red to black exterior,
red-black streaked interior. The smoothed and
slightly thickened rim is dull, partly iridescent, nearly opaque, streaked with translucent light greenblue, dark red outside red streaked inside. The rim
is not circular, but ?deformed.
a. 20 12 T 1mm; b. 20 10 T 22.5mm
Context: 96 ML Sax JA 63 GB 6302
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ 403 (fits with
JA 73 UZ 391, now missing) 7305
a. Two joining fragments of a smoothed rim, slightly thickened. Blue, with striations and iridescence.
Ht 18 T 11.5mm Rim diam c 6065mm
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ 12, 30 7305
b. Four other fragments from the same context are
probably from this vessel:
Blue. Cylindrical with striations and small bubbles
(JA 73 UZ 40). L 14 T 1mm
Blue. Globular, iridescent (JA 73 UZ 64v). L 18 T 1mm
Blue. Body fragment, dull and iridescent (JA 73 UZ
362a). L 29 T 1mm
Blue. Body fragment (JA 73 UZ 370). L 9 T 1mm
Heat damaged smoothed rim, heat damaged. Light
green.
318
Fig 32.2.2 Anglo-Saxon vessel glass from Jarrow. Scale 1:1. YB, PF
10 8 T 2mm
GlV14 Light green-blue rim fragment, smoothed and
straight, small bubbles, striations and iridescence.
Ht 23 Rim diam c 65mm T 1.52mm
GlV15 Three fragments, all joining, from the base of a light
green funnel beaker with kick, ring punty 15mm
diam.
Ht 9 T 12mm
Context: 935 LS/EM JA 76 EM a-c 7603
GlV16 Cylindrical sherd in almost bubble free colourless
glass. Three horizontal half-marvered bicolour
trails, colourless with vivid light green-blue.
19 13 T 1mm
Context: 983 LS/EM JA 76 FR 6 7604
32: VESSEL GLASS
319
Fig 32.2.3 Anglo-Saxon vessel glass from Jarrow. Scale 1:1. PF

GlV17 Body fragment of squat globular beaker, 2 white
horizontal trails marvered and drawn down at
intervals into arcades. Very small bubbles. Figs
32.2.2, 32.21.4.
36 32 T 11.5mm
Context: 5913 Med 2 JA 66 GL 1 6601
JARBW 1995.168
GlV18 Two joining fragments, slight curvature, iridescent,
few small bubbles.
23 21 T 1mm
a. Context: 2011 L Sax JA 73 TX 4 7305
b. Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ 21 7305
GlV19 Three fragments, brown in colour.
Saxon?
a. Globular body fragment, few small bubbles and
inclusions.
27 17 T 1.5mm
b. Fragment of ?kicked base of globular beaker.
20 12 T 1mm
Context: 928 Norman/Med 1 JA 76 DC 2, 14
7603
Globular, small bubbles, iridescent.
c. L 16 W 17 T 1.5mm
Context: 4826 Med 12 JA 63 DV 6301
d. Globular, small bubbles, striations, iridescent. L

18 T 0.5mm
e. Body fragment, dull, iridescent. L 9 T 1mm
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ 26, 141, 270,
283, 422d 7305
GlV22 Light green-blue, globular, with striations and small
bubbles.
L 23 T 22.5mm
GlV23 Blue. Five small fragments.
a. Globular, small bubbles, striations. L 21 T 1mm
b. Body fragment. L 12 T 0.5mm
c. Globular, dull, iridescent. L 23 T 1mm
d. Body fragment, dull, iridescent. L 20 T 1mm
e. L 11 T 1mm
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ 104a, 135,
154c, 422b, 433 7305
GlV24 Blue. Seven small fragments. Globular, dull.
a. L 18 T 1mm
b. Two small fragments. L 28 T 1mm; L 12 T 1mm
c. L 21 T 1mm
d. Three fragments, iridescent. L 14 T 1mm; L 11
T 1mm; L 9 T 1mm
Context: 2023 L Sax JA 73 VW 17, 19a, 19b, 24f,
27b, 27d, 27f 7305
Featureless sherds (Fig 32.2.3)
Other Anglo-Saxon vessel glass not seen

by Vera Evison
GlV20 Vivid green-blue. Distorted, red patch on one surface.

L 25 T 2mm
GlV21 Light blue. Five small fragments.
a. Globular. L 9 T 0.5mm
b. Globular, striations. L 11 T 0.5mm
c. Globular, crazed inner surface, adhesions. L 20
T 0.5mm
In the long process of post-excavation, both the

Wearmouth and the Jarrow glasses have been moved in
museum stores and have been taken on and off display
in their respective museums, as well as being moved in
Durham. The result of this has been that several fragments have been mislaid or lost, including a number of
vessel fragments which were analysed and discussed by
320
John Hunter for a dissertation presented in 1971 as

part of the Anglo-Saxon Diploma in Archaeology at
the University of Durham, in particular numbers
GlV43, 4649 and 52. This listing has been prepared
from initial records and the thesis (Hunter 1971).
The pieces have been described by Harden (DH),
Cramp (RC) and Firby (MF).
Wearmouth
GlV25 Tiny rim fragment of blue green vessel. Flamerounded cylinder edge.
L 13 W 7 T 3.5mm
Saxon
Context: 1551 L Sax MK 66 SL 6601
GlV26 Part of vessel. Flame-rounded rim. Blue green.
L 31 W 23 T 4mm
Saxon
Context: 1565 L Sax MK 66 UW 6601
GlV27 Part of body of a vessel. Blue green. Possibly a bag
beaker.
L 27 W 11 T 3mm
Saxon
Context: 1551 L Sax MK 66 WY 6601
GlV28 Part of glass vessel. Blue green. Slightly curved.
L 23 W 10 T 3mm
Saxon?
Context: 1614 L Sax MK 66 ZE 6601
GlV29 Handle with fragment of the vessel in pale green
glass. Possibly the handle of a glass lamp. Fig 32.2.4.
This was first identified by Harden as deriving
from a Byzantine type of glass lamp (cf Crowfoot
and Harden 1931, 199, 205, pls XXVIII, 7; XXX,
40, 41). I can cite no other example of one of these
eastern glass lamps being found in the West, but it is
not impossible that some should have come across
via Italy and the European monasteries (DH).
This still remains an attractive suggestion and it
should be remembered that Bede mentioned that
Gaulish glaziers were imported by Benedict Biscop to
make glass lamps, although it is also noted that he
purchased anything that he could not obtain at home
(see Appendix A2.3). Hunter, however, doubted
whether this was part of a lamp, because he felt the
diameter of the vessel measuring from the fragment
was very small, and because the workmanship was
not good; he also found that the compositions of the
handle and the vessel were different, since the handle contained a measurable quantity of manganese
while the sample from the vessel lacked any trace of it
(Hunter 1971, 412). He therefore suggested that
this might be an imitation of a claw beaker with a
solid claw applied later to a vessel. While it seems
reasonable that the claw or handle has been separately applied, the form of this vessel remains in dispute,
especially since the body fragment is so small that it is
difficult to calculate its diameter accurately. (RC)
L 29 H 10 T 1.75mm
C6th8th?
Context: 1670 MK 62 EP b L Sax/Norman 6201
Reference: Hunter 1971, pl 10, sp 14/15.
GlV30 Fragment of the body of a vessel in opaque pale
Fig 32.2.4 Anglo-Saxon vessel glass. GLV3, GLV5,

GlV7, GlV17, GlV29. MF.
GlV31
GlV32
GlV33
GlV34
greenish glass of opal type, bubbly. Possibly part of

a squat jar. Now lost. (DH, RC)
L 14 W 13 T 1.53mm
Saxon?
Context: 1143 Med? MK 61 BP 6102
Yellowish green. Two fragments. Curved, one surface much weathered. Densely packed small rounded bubbles. (RC)
L 28 W 18 T 2.5mm; L28 W 10 T 1.8mm
Saxon?
Context: 1271 Med 2 MK 64 DO 6401
Context: 1846 EPM MK 66 GH 6602
SLDM 43-1973/65 (G17216)
Rim fragment. Blue green. Slightly bubbly.
L 18 W 9 T 23mm
Saxon
Context: 2131 EPM MK 67 DR a 6702
Reference: Hunter 1971, pl 6, Sp 2
Body fragment. Deep turquoise blue.
L 15 W 14 T not rec
Saxon
Context: 372 LPM MK 71 FD 7104
Location: Corning
Curved vessel fragment. Very pale blue, bubbly.
Inner surface glossy, outer slightly matt.
L 22 W 15 T 11.3mm
Saxon?
Context: U/S MK 71 AA
Jarrow
GlV35 Deep turquoise green. Fragment of the neck of a
squat jar or flask. (RC)
32: VESSEL GLASS
GlV36
GlV37
GlV38
GlV39
GlV40
GlV41
GlV42
GlV43
GlV44
GlV45
GlV46
GlV47
GlV48
L 18 W 16 T 12.8mm
Saxon
Context: 2875 Saxon or earlier JA 76 GG 7 7602
Drawing: D991
Blue. Three small fragments.
a. Thin, curved fragment. Vessel?
10 6 mm
b. Vessel rim. Heat warped. Dimensions not rec
c. Twisted. Dimensions not rec
Saxon?
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ 125 b, 378 b,
441 b 7305
Pale blue. Dimensions not rec
Saxon
Light green. Two curved body fragments, one with
raised ridge. Dimensions not rec
Saxon
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ 153g, h 7305
Light blue. Curved body fragment.
L 13 W 8 T 1mm
Saxon
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ 297c 7305
Turquoise. Curved body fragment.
12 10mm
Saxon
Light greenish, clear. Curved body fragment.
Dimensions not rec
Saxon
Cobalt blue. Curved body fragment. Some surface
lamination. See Ch 27.2, sample no. 3056 for chemical analysis. Fig 32.2.3. (MF)
L 25 W 24 T 1.3mm
Saxon
Location: Corning
Green. Twisted lump. Burnt vessel with two ridges.
Dimensions not rec
Saxon?
Deep blue. Thick and uneven.
L 12 W 10 T 2.54.5mm
Saxon
Pale yellow-green. Three conjoining fragments.
Surfaces iridescent and flaking. (MF)
Total L 32 W 16.5 T 0.71mm
Saxon
Blue green. Curved. Body fragment of ?bowl.
L 31 W 24 T 2.5mm
Saxon
Context: 62 LS/EM JA 65 QH 6511
Reference: Hunter, pl 6, Sp1
Pale blue green. Body fragment. Curved surface slightly pitted. From demolition level of Building B. (MF)
L 18.5 W 12 T 1.52mm
Saxon
Context: 3395 LS/EM JA 69 XE 8 69013
Very pale green. Small curved body fragment. From
grave of Sk 70/90. (RC)
L 8.5 W 7 T 11.30mm
Saxon
321
Context: 4172 Saxon JA 70 YN 1 7006

GlV49 Green. Curved body fragment. Dimensions not rec
Saxon
GlV50 Greenish aqua. Curved, shiny surfaces, scratched.
L 15 W 5 T 2mm
Saxon?
Context: 1786 LS/EM JA 71 SZ b 7105
GlV51 Light turquoise. Curved. May be eroded part of a
rim. (MF)
L 18 W 15 T 3.74.1mm
Saxon?
GlV52 Pale blue, translucent. Curved. Neck of small bottle. (MF)
Diam 30 L 19.5 W 16 T 22.5mm
Saxon
Context: 3568 EPM JA 70 BX 1 7004
Location: Corning
GlV53 Green. Curved. Thin and bubbly. Found over
Building A. (MF)
L 24 W 11 T 1.25mm
Saxon
Context: 303 LPM JA 66 CL 6601
GlV54 Opaque. Curved body fragment. Incised lines on
outer surface. Found lying above the opus signinum
floor of Building A (RC).
L 17 W 20 T not rec
Saxon
Context: 5845 LPM JA 66 UC 1 6601
GlV55 Clear green. Very curved. Base of a phial? Found
above the opus signinum floor of Building A. (RC)
L 13 W 8 T 2mm
Saxon?
Context: 5845 LPM JA 66 VE 10 6601
32.3 The vessel glass from the 13th

to 16th centuries
by Hugh B Willmott
A total of ten fragments of glass from three vessels at
Wearmouth could be identified. Two of these are goblets that can be dated to the second half of the 16th
century. The third is a beaker that can be dated to the
late 15th century. The first (GlVM1) has a profile that
can be fully reconstructed. It is a small three-piece
goblet with a small flaring base and inverted baluster
stem. The style and quality of the metal suggest that
this was a vessel produced in England during the
monopoly of Giacomo Verzelini. The second vessel is
represented by a single fragment (GlVM2), also postmedieval in date. It is a fragment from the lower portion of a complex coiled serpent stem, one of the most
elaborate goblet forms of the late 16th and early 17th
centuries. Although it is possible that these vessels were
made in England, it is more likely to be a Venetian or
faon de Venise import. The final two fragments of
drinking vessels (GlVM3 and GlVM4) are represented
by small fragments decorated with prunts (applied
blobs) from a Krautstrunk (cabbage stalk) beaker.
These beakers were a common drinking form in many
north-western European countries (eg Charleston
322
1975, 222 no. 1550) during the 15th century but are
surprisingly rare in England. These beakers are commonly thought to have been produced in northern
Germany where they are frequent finds on Weldglas
(forest glass) production sites.
Twenty-seven fragments of vessel glass, from a maximum of eighteen vessels, could be sufficiently identified from the excavations at Jarrow. Most of these
fragments were made in potash glass, the most common form of glass used between the 12th to the 17th
centuries. Potash glass was produced in England
throughout this period and there is no reason to view
these vessels as being foreign imports (Kenyon 1967).
Potash glass is prone to severe weathering and all the
fragments from Jarrow were in an advanced state of
devitrification. Consequently only the thicker portions
of these vessels were likely to survive and it is probable
that the original quantity of glass deposited was far
greater than that represented by this group. There were
three fragments made of a higher quality soda glass
which, although it was used in the medieval period, can
be dated to the 16th century. This type of glass became
increasingly popular from the late 15th century and is
usually more durable in archaeological conditions. Both
these types of glass served to illustrate some of the range
of the forms used in England during this period.
Only three fragments of drinking vessels were
recovered and these can be dated to the 16th century.
The first (GlVM5) is the complete folded pedestal
base from a potash goblet. This was formed from a single parison of glass, which was pushed-in and manipulated to form a tapering stem and enclosed base ring.
Such vessels were not common in England, but a number of examples, dating to the early 16th century, were
excavated at Camber Castle and two came from the
deposit at Gracechurch Street, London (Oswald and
Phillips 1949, 30 no. II). The only other fragment
(GlVM6) from a goblet is part of a soda-glass flaring
base, with a folded under edge. This was a typical base
form from a three-part goblet dating to the latter half
of the 16th century, although it is impossible to be precise about the appearance of the rest of the vessel. The
final drinking vessel from this assemblage is represented by a fragment of a tall cylindrical soda-glass beaker
with an applied pressed prunt (GlVM7). This was decorated with a spirally marvered alternating pattern of
four opaque white and one opaque blue trails. The
fragment from Jarrow also retains an applied clear
prunt that was impressed with the frontal face of a lion
and originally might have been gilded. This form of
beaker was probably produced in the Low Countries,
where they are also known from excavations, but are
very rare in England (Henkes 1994, 1702). An identical example, which is complete, is now in the British
Museum (Tait 1991, 170 no. 217).
Four or five medieval flasks (GlVM812) were present in the assemblage. All were represented by curved
body fragments that were usually thin and badly
weathered. Flasks in this period were usually globular
in appearance, with a simple pushed-in base, tapering

neck and flared rim (Charleston 1984a, 34). However,
their form was very conservative from their first
appearance in the 12th century until their demise in
the 17th century (ibid). Most commonly, they were
decorated with optic-blown wrythen decoration but
sometimes they were left plain, such as three examples
from Jarrow (GlVM810). Similar vessels have been
found at Quilters Vault in Southampton and at
Christchurch, Dorset (Charleston 1975, 2334 nos
15737; Charleston 1983, 723 no. 9). Two of the
fragments (GlVM1112) are decorated with a very
thick optic-blown vertical ribbing and are possibly
from the same vessel. Although vertically ribbed flasks
are less common than plain or wrythen flasks, other
medieval examples are known (Charleston 1984a, 34).
There are two final fragments of tablewares from
Jarrow (GlVM1314). The first (GlVM13) is a small
portion of an oval handle from a potash jug. Jugs such
as these were usually globular bodied with tapering
necks and were produced from the 13th to the 16th
centuries. Given the size of the fragment, it is not possible to date the example from Jarrow accurately, but it
might have been similar to a 14th-century example
excavated at Goldsmith Street, Exeter (Charleston
1984b, 266 no. 2). The second fragment (GlVM14)
comes from a soda-glass jar. Jars made in potash glass
imitating the pottery Albarello shape were common
in the 16th century and were used for the storage of
medicines and foodstuffs (Charleston 1984a, 923).
However, the fragment from Jarrow is in a good clear
soda glass and is also decorated with vertically marvered opaque white trails. A vessel of such quality
would probably have been intended for use at the table
and there is no similar parallel to it in England.
The largest group of medieval fragments, twelve in
all, were all from potash glass urinals (GlVM1519).
The practice of uroscopy appears to have been introduced into England in the 13th century and has been
discussed extensively elsewhere (eg Charleston 1984a,
323). The most common form of urinal usually consisted of a thick rounded convex base, spherical body,
vertical neck and a wide horizontally everted rim, often
with a slight turned up edge (ibid, 33). Their form was
remarkably consistent from the 13th century, when they
first appear, until the mid-17th century. The only means
of dating them is through the quality of the glass and in
this fashion all the fragments from Jarrow can be roughly dated between the 13th to 15th centuries. Due to
their functional purpose the body of the urinal had to be
blown very thinly, so that the colour of the urine could
be observed. Consequently it is normally only the characteristic rims and bases that survive, although near
complete examples are known from deposits in
Northampton and Winchester (Oakley and Hunter
1979, 299 nos 546; Charleston 1990, 941 no. 3279).
Fragments GlVM1519 were all parts of separate convex bases, with one (GlVM17) possessing a characteristic external circular pontil mark. Two fragments, one a
32: VESSEL GLASS
convex base and one a rim, were probably from the

same vessel (GlVM18). The rim was wide and flat, with
a slight up-turn on its edge, a typical form for a spherical urinal. The final fragments (GlVM19) were from a
single rim that was widely everted but not horizontal.
These fragments probably represent a less common version of the urinal found in England, which had a more
pear-shaped body and tapering neck (Charleston 1984a,
33). A similar vessel dating to the 14th century was
found at Battle Abbey (Charleston 1985, 140 no. 19).
The final form of vessel glass of interest from
Jarrow were three fragments of rim and possible base
from a cucurbit, used in the process of distillation
(GlVM2022). The rims are nearly vertical, having a
slightly concave shoulder that leads to an elongated
globular body. The base (GlVM22) is similar to that of
a urinal, being convex with an external pontil mark,
but its size suggests that it is from a larger cucurbit.
The cucurbit was the vessel into which the liquids were
placed and then heated, until they evaporated and condensed on the alembic above. Fragments of distilling
equipment were not uncommon on both monastic and
secular sites, particularly from the 15th century
onwards. Similar fragments dating to the 15th century
have been found at Pontefract and Selborne Priories as
well as at Sandal Castle (Moorhouse 1972, 89104;
1983, 2257). However, the quality of the glass of this
fragment from Jarrow and its relatively good survival,
suggests that it may date from the 16th century.
GlVM1 Eight fragments of a near complete profile from a
three-piece goblet. The base is flaring with no
underfold, and the stem is a small inverted baluster.
The goblet bowl is deep and U-shaped with a near
vertical rim. Clear soda glass with a grey tint, quite
weathered. Fig 32.3.1.
H c 145 Diam (base) 64 (rim) 80mm
Second half of C16th
GlVM One fragment of lower loop from a three-piece compound serpent stem. The loop is made from a
ribbed hollow tube and joins the basal merese. Clear
soda glass, quite heavily weathered. Fig 32.3.1.
H 30 Diam (base) 12 mm
Very late C16th or early C17th
Context: 1663 LPM MK 62 BB 6201
GlVM3 One fragment of convex body decorated with a flat
added prunt pulled upwards to a point and a single
upper applied prominent horizontal trail. The fragment is from the upper body of a Germanic
Krautstrunk (cabbage stalk) beaker and the prunt is
from the top row of a number of similar bands of
prunts. Clear green potash glass, little weathering.
Fig 32.3.1.
H c 26 Diam (rim) c 60mm
C15th
Context: 647 LPM MK 71 LZ 7101
GlVM4 One fragment of convex body decorated with a flat
added prunt as in GlVM3. The fragment is from
the body of a Germanic Krautstrunk. Clear green
potash glass, little weathering. Not illus.
H c 20mm
323
C15th
GlVM5 One fragment of a near complete one-piece
pedestal base from a goblet with a high kick and
enclosed base ring. Green clear potash glass, quite
weathered. Fig 32.3.1.
68 52 0.5 Diam (base) 80mm
Early C16th
Context: 1500 Modern JA 71 AW a 7105
GlVM6 One fragment of flaring based with folded under
edge from a goblet. Soda glass with little weathering. Not illus.
12 15 1 Diam (base) 70mm
C16th
Context: 4823 EPM JA 63 BI 6301
GlVM7 One fragment of an applied frontal lion mask prunt
applied to a cylindrical beaker body, which is decorated with alternating four marvered trails of
opaque white and one of blue. Soda glass with no
weathering. Fig 32.3.1.
26 24 8mm
Mid to late C16th
Context: 5949 Modern JA 66 PZ 6601
GlVM8 One fragment of lower curved body, probably from
a plain flask. Green potash glass with very heavy
weathering. Not illus.
26 25 3mm
C1315th
Context: 1194 Med 1b JA 75 HV 7502
GlVM9 Three joining fragments of thick rounded body,
probably from a plain flask. Green potash glass with
very heavy weathering. Not illus.
36 12 5mm
C1315th
Context: 1987 Med 1 JA 73 PM 7305
GlVM10 One small fragment of curved neck from a flask or
possible urinal. Green potash glass with heavy
weathering. Not illus.
31 27 2mm
C1315th
GlVM11 One fragment of lower neck, probably from a flask.
Decorated with the remains of four prominent
optic-blown vertical ribs. Green potash glass with
heavy weathering. Fig 32.3.1.
36 25 3.55mm
C1415th
Context: 1994 Med 1 JA 73 RW 7305
GlVM12 One fragment of thick body, probably from a flask.
Decorated with the remains of two optic-blown ribs.
Green potash glass with heavy weathering. Fig 32.3.1.
32 18 5.5mm
C1415th
Context: 2372 Med 2 JA 75 EY 235 7505
GlVM13 One small fragment of a handle with an oval crosssection and fine applied inner trail from a jug. Green
potash glass with heavy weathering. Not illus.
33 13 8mm
C1516th
Context: 5989 LPM JA 66 OF 6601
GlVM14 One fragment from an everted rim and upper convex body from a jar decorated with marvered
opaque white horizontal trails. Soda glass with
some weathering. Fig 32.3.1.
34 28 2 Diam (rim) 50mm
324
Fig 32.3.1 Medieval vessel glass. Scale 1:2. H Wilmott, YB

C16th
Context: 3812 LPM JA 70 EC 7003
GlVM15 One fragment of thick convex base from a urinal. Green
potash glass with very heavy weathering. Not illus.
25 17 34mm
C1315th
Context: 2855 Med 1 JA 76 BK 7602
GlVM16 Three joining fragments of thick convex base from
a urinal. Green potash glass with extreme weathering. Not illus.
43 34mm
C1315th
Context: 1985 Med 1 JA 73 OZ 7305
GlVM17 One fragment of thick convex base with external
round pontil mark from a urinal. Green potash
glass with very heavy weathering. Not illus.
40 40 2.5mm
C1315th
Context: Layer 29 EPM JS 76 GC 539 Area IVN
GlVM18 Two fragments, one a horizontal rim with up-fold
and one a convex base, both from a urinal. Also,
several body fragments. Green clear potash glass
with heavy weathering. Fig 32.3.1.
51 45 1.5 Diam (rim) 66mm
C1315th
Context: 2378 Med 1b JA 75 KK 7505
GlVM19 Five joining fragments of a horizontal rim from a

urinal. Green potash glass with very heavy weathering. Not illus.
35 20 34 Diam (rim) 70mm
C1315th
Context: 1203 Med 1b JA 75 KX 9 7502
GlVM20 One large fragment of rounded edge rim and
convex globular body from a cucurbit. Green
clear potash glass with medium weathering. Fig
32.3.1.
68 65 1.62 Diam (rim) 170mm
C1516th
Context: 76 Modern JA 63 EI 6302
GlVM21 One fragment of quite thin vertical and rounded
edge rim from a cucurbit. Green clear potash glass
with quite heavy weathering. Fig 32.3.1.
66 70 2.02.3 Diam (rim) c 110mm
C1516th
Context: 1504 EPM JA 71 BK 7105
GlVM22 One fragment of thick convex curved base with
large pontil mark from a cucurbit. Green potash
glass, very heavily weathered. Not illus.
45 29 712mm
C15th
Context: 303 LPM JA 66 CS 6601
33 Pottery
33.1 Roman pottery from Jarrow
quarter of the 3rd century (Bird 1986, 1424). The

Jarrow piece will therefore fall within the range c AD
210250.
by P Bidwell
The excavations yielded 35 sherds of Roman pottery
which can be broadly classified as follows.
Discussion
The whole collection consists of common Roman
types and fabrics which occur in large quantities at the
nearby forts of South Shields and Wallsend. However,
the composition of the collection is most unusual.
Two-thirds of the sherds are from samian ware vessels.
In 2nd-century deposits at South Shields and
Wallsend, samian ware usually makes up no more than
20% of total pottery assemblages. In the first half of
the 3rd century, following the closure of the Central
Gaulish potteries, only about 5% of the pottery is
samian ware. Export from East Gaul, the other source
of samian ware occurring on Hadrians Wall, ended in
the mid-3rd century. Although the collection from
Jarrow is small, the amount of samian ware nevertheless seems remarkably large. This pattern was repeated
at Church Bank where the excavations in 198991
recovered six sherds of samian ware but only one other
sherd of Roman pottery (Speak 1998, 612).
The presence of so much samian ware seems best
explained by its collection from nearby Roman sites
and importation to the monastery. What it may have
been used for can only be a matter of speculation. Only
one sherd showed signs of reuse, the stamped Dr 31R
base B12: the side of the dish had been removed and
the fracture ground smooth. The base, placed upside
down, could thus have served as a small, shallow dish,
or, the right way up, as the lid for another vessel.
Similar reuse of broken samian vessels certainly
occurred in the Roman period. There are sixteen
examples of this reuse of dish and cup bases in the
archive catalogue for South Shields, but only one
example displays the smoothing of the fractured edges
seen on the Jarrow example.
How the other sherds of Roman pottery reached
Jarrow is uncertain. They are small enough in quantity
to represent casual losses on the site during the Roman
period, but some of the sherds might have been
brought in from elsewhere with the salvaged Roman
building materials.
Samian ware
Twenty-three sherds, two East Gaulish, one of them
from Rheinzabern, and the remainder in Central
Gaulish fabric where identifiable. The forms represented are Dr 18/31 (two examples), Dr 27, Dr 31
(three examples), Dr 31R (stamped), Dr 45 (mortarium, two examples) and Dr 37 (a decorated sherd of
Antonine date and three base sherds). All are dishes or
bowls.
Pottery of later 2nd- and 3rd-century date

The rounded rim of a dish or bowl in Black-Burnished
Ware 2 (BB2) is no earlier than the last quarter of the
2nd century, but is more likely to date to the first half
of the 3rd century when enormous quantities of this
pottery reached the eastern part of Hadrians Wall
from kilns in the area of the Thames estuary (Bidwell
and Speak 1994, fig 8.6, Type 7/8). There is also a
sherd that is possibly from a Colchester colour-coated
beaker of the second half of the 2nd century. Three
sherds in buff or cream fabrics are probably from
flagons, which are rare after the mid-3rd century. A
rim sherd in grey ware, most likely from the neck of a
narrow-mouth jar, is probably a Norton product of
3rd-century date.
Pottery of late 3rd- and 4th-century date

There are three sherds of East Yorkshire grey ware, one
from the rim of a flanged bowl or dish, the other two
from the bases of bowls or dishes; these sherds are
unlikely to be earlier than the last quarter of the 3rd
century. The rim of a Huntcliff-type jar in calcitegritted ware is of 4th-century date.
The samian potters stamp

by B Dickinson
Form 31R, stamped QVAR[TINVsF]; Quartinus of
Rheinzabern, Die 1a (Dickinson 1986, 194,
3.1693.170); catalogue no. B12 (below). This stamp
was only used on dishes, of forms 31, 31R, 32 and,
perhaps, 79. It occurs twice in a group of unused East
Gaulish samian found at New Fresh Wharf, London,
which contains a high proportion of typologically late
material, and which has been dated to the second
B1
B2
B3
B4
325
Samian footring, Central Gaul.

Context: 5824 Med JA 66 MW 6601
Samian body sherd, Central Gaul.
Context: 263 Med 2? JA 65 DW 6507
Samian, Dr 45, late Antonine, Central Gaul.
Context: 58 LPM JA 65 ME 6511
Samian rim sherd, Dr 31, Antonine, Eastern Gaul.
Fig 33.1.1
Context: 450 L Sax JA 67 FQ 6702
326
B26
B27
B28
B29
B30
B31
B32
B33
Body sherd, cream fabric, flagon?

Context: 197 Modern JA 67 CL 6701
Body sherd, cream/pink fabric, flagon?
Context: 2489 LPM JA 73 FY 7302
Body sherd, fine pink fabric, flagon?
Context: 2522 EPM JA 73 UC 7303
Rim from narrow-mouthed jar, Norton?
Context: 2398 LPM JA 73 BJ 7302
Base sherd, East Yorkshire grey ware.
Context: 2004 L Sax JA 73 SS 7305
Rim from flanged bowl, East Yorkshire grey ware.
Context: 1919 Med 12 JA 73 NH 7305
Base sherd, bowl/dish, East Yorkshire grey ware.
Context: 5617 Saxon JA 65 AJY 6506
Rim, Huntcliff-type jar, calcite-gritted ware.
Context: 77 LPM JA 63 BF 6302
Fig 33.1.1 Roman pottery (B). Scale 1:2

B5
B6
B7
B8
B9
B10
B11
B12
B13
B14
B15
B16
B17
B18
B19
B20
B21
B22
B23
B24
B25
Samian Dr 31, Central Gaul.

Context: 4002 Saxon JA 70 VM 7006
Samian base sherd, Dr 27, Trajanic-Hadrianic,
Central Gaul. Fig 33.1.1.
Context: 1948 Med 2 JA 73 MG 7305
Context: 2649 Med 1 JA 73 SA 7301
Context: 2653 MedEPM JA 73 SG 7303
Samian scrap, footring, Central Gaul.
Context: 2189 Saxon JA 73 VC 7304
Samian rim sherd, Dr 45, late C2nd3rd, Central
Gaul, very abraded.
Context: 2372 Med 1? JA 75 EY 7505
Samian body sherd, Dr 37, Antonine, Central Gaul.
Context: 1137 L Sax JA 75 MZ 7504
Samian base sherd, stamped, Dr 31R, Rheinzabern.
Context: 2378 Med 1b JA 75 KK 7505
JARBW 1999.10186
Context: 2379 L Sax JA 75 ME 7505
Samian rim sherd, Dr 18/31, Central Gaul.
Context: 973 L SaxMed 1b JA 76 DE 7604
Samian rim sherd, Dr 31, Antonine, Central Gaul.
Samian rim sherd, Dr 18/31, Central Gaul.
Context: 977 Norman JA 76 ES 7604
Samian scrap.
Samian base sherd. Dr 37 footring, Antonine,
Central Gaul, and chip from another samian vessel.
Samian scrap.
Context: 1032 Saxon JA 78 JE 7805
Samian scrap.
Context: 2758 Med 2 JA 73 UU 7301
Samian body sherd, burnt.
Context: 2583 Med 1 JA 73 PJ 7302
Samian base sherd, Dr 37 Central Gaul.
Rounded-rim bowl/dish, BB2.
Context: 2758 Med 2 JA 73 UU 7301
Body sherd, BB2?, late C2nd3rd.
Context: 4368 LS/EM JA 70 DF 7002
Body sherd, Colchester colour coated?
Context: 4948 Med JA 70 TJ 7001
Native Roman pottery from Jarrow

by Belinda Burke and Susan Mills
Three sherds from hand-made cooking pots were identified by Alan Vince as native Roman pottery. Parallels
for B34 were found at Newcastle Roman Fort in
Anglo-Saxon contexts and in the context of a 3rdcentury drain or late robbing of the wall of the fort
(86CA context 2497E (Northern Defences), ND6
deposit; S Rowntree, pers comm). The sherd B36 is
similar to pottery thought to date to the 1st century AD,
from Whether Hill in Northumberland, an Iron Age
hillfort probably occupied up to c AD 650 (S Rowntree,
pers comm).
At Jarrow, B34 and B35 came from the AngloSaxon ground surface to the south of Building A, the
only pottery from context 67. B36 came from 2137, a
layer of disturbed Saxon building debris, which also
yielded a sherd of Anglo-Saxon imported red ware
(G1.3), alongside pottery dated to phases Medieval 1
and 2.
B34
B35
The fabric is quite hard, quite smooth, and with a

slightly rough fracture with many voids, 57mm
thick. The matrix is very fine, containing 10% sand,
consisting of well-sorted, subrounded quartz,
0.0620.125mm and sparse, moderately sorted,
subrounded quartz, 0.1250.25mm, poorly sorted,
hard, rounded, grains of haematite, 24mm and
poorly sorted rectangular and rounded voids,
0.52mm, possibly from straw tempering. The fabric ranges from reddish yellow to light reddish
brown externally, the outer margin is light red
(2.5YR 6/8), the core is gray (5YR 5/1), and the
internal surface is very dark gray (5YR 3/1). The
internal surface is discoloured and blackened from
use. The external surface was burnished or is shiny
from use. Not illus.
Context: 67 Saxon JA 65 XL 6511
Sherd of similar fabric to B34. The outer surface
ranges from light reddish brown (5YR 6/3) to reddish brown (5YR 5/3), the core is gray (5YR 5/1)
and the outer margin is dark gray (2.5YR 4/1).
The internal surface is blackened from use, and
there are traces of a possible food deposit. Not illus.
Context: 67 Saxon JA 65 YZ 6511
33: POTTERY
B36
The fabric is quite friable, quite smooth externally

and with a fairly rough fracture, 67mm thick. The
matrix is quite fine, containing c 5% sand, consisting of fairly sparse, moderately sorted, subrounded
quartz, 0.1250.25mm, very sparse, angular mica
schist, 34mm, very sparse angular rock, 45mm
and iron-staining, usually localised around large
grains. The fabric is black (2.5Y N2/) through
core, margins and internal surface, and pale brown
(10YR 6/3) on external surface. Both surfaces are
coated in a creamish deposit. The sherd is very
worn. Not illus.
Context: 2137 Med 2 JA 73 OY 7304
33.2 The Anglo-Saxon and

medieval pottery
by Anne Jenner, Susan Mills and Belinda Burke
This report was produced by several specialists over
many years. Susan Mills devised the recording forms
and terminology. She constructed the initial database
and catalogued the majority of the Jarrow sherds, and
wrote some of the fabric descriptions. Later, the types
were reconsidered by Anne Jenner, who completed the
fabric descriptions and identified the remaining pottery. Belinda Burke was responsible for completing and
editing the database and for the graphs. Anne Jenner
and Belinda Burke wrote the current synthesis.
The pottery presented below is principally from
Jarrow and Jarrow Slake. The Wearmouth material is
reported on separately by the late Gladys Bettess
(below). A number of vessels from Wearmouth are,
however, included in the overall fabric catalogue,
where they appear after the examples from Jarrow.
Within the limitations of the available records, an
attempt has been made to compare the assemblages
from Wearmouth and Jarrow (below).
The pottery from Jarrow up to the period of the dissolution of the monasteries was examined and that
from Wearmouth until the present day. The remit of
the most recent work on the pottery from Jarrow was
to complete work on the Anglo-Saxon and medieval
pottery. The post-medieval material is not considered
in this report, but it has all been retained and archived
for future reference and publication.
The catalogued pottery covers approximately ten
centuries, from the earliest post-Roman material of the
first building phase of the monasteries of Wearmouth
and Jarrow to the dissolution of the monasteries; the
full range of excavated material encompasses the
Roman period, the 7th to 9th centuries and the 11th
century to the present day. A few examples of the pottery from Wearmouth and Jarrow have already been
published (see Hurst 1969; 1976; Whitehouse 1969;
Hodges 1981), but not in relation to the assemblage as
a whole. This has been a rare opportunity to study
such a long sequence from north-east England and it
is hoped that the results will inform future regional
studies.
327
Recording and methodology

In a report of this nature, which has involved several
specialists over a period of time, it is necessary to
include a little background in order to explain the
approach taken and why this has deviated from what
might be expected of a contemporary pottery report.
On site, the pottery was recorded using the same
methods as for other finds (see Introduction to this volume), although only the earliest types of pottery were
plotted with co-ordinates, as opposed to being recorded by context and grid square.
In the 1980s, the pottery from each context was
recorded on a standard pro-forma, which was subsequently transferred to an electronic database. Separate
databases exist for Jarrow, Jarrow Slake and Wearmouth.
The databases were subsequently restructured to facilitate sorting and quantification, and some additional
information was added (for example, joins, decoration
and sooting). Not all the data originally collected have
been utilised in the present report (for example, types
of rim, bases, handles and spouts) but all the information is retained in the site archive for future reference.
In the end, only sherd number but not weight
and minimum vessel groupings were noted. During the
final analysis (in 2000), it was decided only to use
sherd numbers as a measure of the quantity of each
type and form (minimum vessel number being potentially misleading as not all sherds joined and could
therefore represent more than one vessel). In total,
37,160 sherds are recorded in the databases for Jarrow
and Jarrow Slake, of which 26,590 are identified as
Anglo-Saxon or medieval. A total of 11,347 sherds was
found at Wearmouth. The following data form the
basis of the current analysis: sherd count, fabric type,
form name, context, trench, and date.
Additional pro-formas were created for the catalogued vessels, recording fabric, colour (using Munsell
soil colour charts), inclusions observable at 20 magnification, surface treatment, decoration, form, construction and date range, and references. These
records form the basis of the current catalogue.
Recent developments in pottery studies, in particular relating to quantification and statistical analysis,
have led to a more rigorous approach to measuring the
size and relative composition of assemblages. For
example, an analysis undertaken today might include
corroborative measures of estimated vessel equivalents
and weight, but it was decided that the time required
to rework the pottery assemblage in this way would not
have been justified. As far as possible, Anne Jenner and
Belinda Burke have followed the original format since
so much work had already been completed.
The catalogue
A system of letter codes was devised to provide a
chronological and geographical framework for the
assemblage as follows: A Prehistoric, B Roman,
328
C Local post-Roman to 12th century, D Regional

wares post-Roman to 12th century, E Local wares
12th to 16th century, F Regional wares 12th to 16th
century, G Imported post-Roman to 16th century, H
Late Imports, J Post-Dissolution. These categories
were further subdivided using numerals and sometimes lower case letters (for example, E11a). The types
are listed in Table 33.2.1.
Some of the categories have been re-assessed by a
number of researchers over the years. For example,
category C (Local post-Roman to 12th century) contains mainly variants of what is now termed Newcastle
Dog Bank Kiln ware (C1C3). Former categories C4
and C6 are now thought to be native Roman wares (see
Ch 33.1), while C5 has been included with D6
Whitby-type ware. In Category D (Regional wares
post-Roman to 12th century), Permian Yellow Sand
ware (D1) and Durham White ware (D7) are now
thought to be local types. In part, these contradictions
are due to a lack of corroborative information from
dated kilns, associated stratigraphy and finds.
It would have been an enormous task to renumber
and regroup all the type series and this would
undoubtedly have led to confusion, particularly as the
codes have been referred to in other publications (eg
Mills 1995; 1998, 834; Lowther et al 1993, 77103).
It was therefore decided to retain the original coding,
but to abandon its use as an indication of date or
provenance. The names and dates for the various
wares appear in the catalogue as the authors now think
they should be. The fabric types are first sorted
chronologically, then assigned to geographical categories (local, regional or imported), with related wares
grouped together (see Table 33.2.2).
Where categories have been amalgamated, this is
noted in the introduction to the fabric description. A
particular problem was presented by various Grey ware
types from the medieval period (D2, D3, D5, G13),
since they are often difficult to distinguish visually.
This has led to some uncertainty as to their provenance
(see Mainman 1990). So while these types occur in the
catalogue in different sections (ie Local, Regional,
Imported), they may in fact overlap. In other cases
additional variants have been created, for example
E13a, F11a. Two fabrics were recognised among the
Oxidised Gritty ware (E10), but unfortunately at too
late a stage for this to be recorded throughout the database, so no new number was allocated. Similarly,
Scarborough ware (F1) has also been divided into two
phases according to Farmers original fabric divisions
(Farmer 1979) in the text, but not on the database.
The title and code for each type in the catalogue is
followed by the quantity of sherds, expressed as a percentage of the total population of Anglo-Saxon and
medieval pottery from Jarrow and Jarrow Slake. The
catalogued examples, consisting of groups of sherds
representing vessels, are numbered within their fabric
group (for example: C1.1). After the description of
each vessel, the provenance of the sherds is recorded by
trench and then context, with the number of sherds

from each context given in brackets.
In the accompanying graphs (Figs 33.2.62,
33.2.7576), fabrics are arranged chronologically,
using the letter and number codes for ease of labelling
(to identify the corresponding types, refer to Table
33.2.1). The crucibles are catalogued and analysed in
a separate report (Ch 35), but are also included here in
the pottery graphs and synthesis.
Some pottery could not be assigned to a specific
type, and so some broader categories have been
devised for the tables and graphs. The C/D category
contains pottery considered to belong with the pre13th-century types. UM (Unclassified Medieval) has
been used for pottery assigned to the period covered,
but not precisely identified. The buff ware categories
sometimes overlap, so where pottery is recorded as
E11a/b, E11c/d etc it has been classed as E11 on the
graphs (Figs 33.2.75 and 33.2.76), although in quantifying the pottery from individual areas it has been
divided chronologically into Early Buff wares
(E11aEllc) and Later Buff wares (E11c/dE11e).
Pottery thought to be imported, but not positively
identified, has been categorised as G.
Dating evidence/ceramic phasing
The proposed dating for the catalogued pottery has
been gleaned from a variety of sources: any associated
coin dates and other datable finds from the sites, reference to site stratigraphy and distribution, TL dating of
selected sherds from Jarrow, comparison with similar
assemblages from other sites, kilns and their TL dates,
eg Dog Bank (although few have been found in the
north-east), and comparison with current understanding of the chronology of forms and types.
An excavator ideally wants a pottery specialist to
provide precise dating evidence in order to support
stratigraphic and documentary evidence and research,
and a process of discussion and subsequent adjustment
continues. The result in the authors opinion is always
a compromise and can, by its very nature, seldom be
precise. Nonetheless it is hoped that the publication of
this study will make a valuable contribution in its own
right.
Pottery types in alphabetical/numerical order
(Table 33.2.1)
In Table 33.2.1, codes in square brackets are types
used in the Wearmouth analysis but not utilised here in
the Jarrow report, which focuses on the Anglo-Saxon
and medieval pottery. Certain types defined earlier in
the project were subsequently amalgamated and, consequently, the codes allocated to these types at
Wearmouth became redundant. Types H1, 2, 4, 5, 7,
8, 9 are post-Reformation, and are therefore omitted
from this report. The Roman pottery from Jarrow is
presented separately by Paul Bidwell (Ch 33.1).
33: POTTERY
329
Table 33.2.1 Pottery types in alphabetical/numerical order

[B1]
Roman Calcite Gritted ware
E12b
Later Green Glazed ware/RGG types 4, 5

(1375)
[B3]
Roman Colour Coated wares
Cr
Anglo-Saxon Crucibles (750850)
E12c
Green Glazed ware, roof furniture (13001500)
C1
Newcastle Dog Bank-type ware (11501200)
Oxidised Green Glazed ware (1375)
C2
Shell Tempered Gritty ware (11501200)
E13 [E14,
E15, E22]
C3
Finer Version of C1 (11501200)
E13a
Oxidised Green Glazed ware, finer variant

(1375)
C7
Handmade Gritty ware (date uncertain)
E17
Late Reduced Green Glazed ware (1475)
C8
Splash Glazed Reduced ware (11001200)
E18
Sandy Green Glazed ware/RGG type 6 (1400)
C/D
Unclassified Early Medieval (pre-1200)
E19
Local Red ware (1400)
D1
Permian Yellow Sand-tempered ware

(10751200)
E25
Very Coarse Oxidised ware (11001300)
D2
North-east Grey ware (11001250)
E26
Miscellaneous Industrial (date uncertain)
D3
Fine Sandy Grey ware (11001200)
D4
Northern Gritty White ware (11501200)
D5
Very Fine Sandy Grey ware (10751150)
D6
Whitby-type ware (650900)
D7 [D18]
Durham White ware (10751200)
D8
Hard Sandy Grey ware (10751200)
D9
Shelly Sandy ware (11501200)
D11 [D11b] Quite Gritty Oxidised ware (10751200)

D12 [D10]
Handmade Reduced ware with oxidised

surfaces (10751200)
D13
Hard Gritty ware (10751200)
D14
Very Hard, Slightly Gritty ware (10751200)
D15
Hard, Slightly Gritty ware (10751200)
D16
North Yorkshire Silty Buff ware (12001400)
D19
Harder Oxidised Version of North Yorkshire

Silty Buff ware (D16) (12001400)
D20
Northern Glazed White ware (12001300)
D21
Hard Tweedale-type ware (11001300)
D22
Fine White ware (11501300)
D23
Gritty Micaceous Grey ware
D24
Worcester-type ware (10751200)
E1
Moderately Gritted ware (10751300)
E3
Glazed version of C1 (11501250)
E5
Hard, Finely Gritted Splashed ware

(11001200)
E5a
Variant of E5 (11001200)
E6
Coarse Oxidised Gritty ware (11751300)
E8
Coarse Oxidised ware variant (11001250)
E10 [E7, E9] Oxidised Gritty ware (10751300)

E11
Buff White ware
E11a
Tyneside Buff White ware (12001350)
E11b
Tyneside Buff White ware (12001350)
E11c [E11g] Hard Fired Tyneside Buff White ware

(12501400)
F1, [F2, F3] Scarborough/North Yorkshire-type ware

(11501350)
F4
Tudor Green ware (1450 )
F10
Tees Valley ware (11751350)
F11
Kelso-type ware (11501250)
F11a
Kelso-type ware, variant (11501300)
F12
Cistercian ware (1500)
F14
Tweed Valley Fine Grey ware (11001250)
G1
Early Fine Red ware (700850)
G4
Rhenish ware (675800)
G5
Tating ware (750850)
G9
White Gritty ware (date uncertain)
G11
Low Countries Highly Decorated ware

(12501325)
G12
Low Countries Red wares (1350)
G13
Low Countries Grey wares (13501500)
G14
Italian Archaic Maiolica (12501350)
G15
Siegburg stoneware (1300)
G16
Langerwehe stoneware (13501500)
G16/17
Langerwehe/Raeren stoneware (1400)
G17
Raeren stoneware (1475)
G19
Martincamp flasks (1475)
G20a
Rouen-type ware (11501300)
G20b [G20] Saintonge Mottled Green Glazed ware

(12501500)
G20c
Beauvais ware (1500)
H3a
Nasrid Pottery/Vedrio Verde (13001500)
H3b [H3]
Seville-type olive jar (1500)
H10
Beauvais Grs (1450)
[H1]
Westerwald stoneware
[H2]
Werra Slip Decorated ware
[H4]
Weser ware
[H5]
Porcelain, Chinese/English
[H7]
Very Gritty Red ware

Late Low Countries Red wares
E11d
Overfired Tyneside Buff White ware (13001475)
[H8]
E11e
Oxidised Tyneside Buff White ware (13001500)
[H9]
E11f
Tyneside Buff White ware, roof furniture

(13001500)
Dutch very fine white fabric with copperstained and/or yellow glaze
Post-Reformation pottery
E12a [E16]
Early Gritty Green Glazed ware/RGG types 1,

2 & 3 (11751350)
UM
Unclassified medieval pottery
330
Table 33.2.2 Order of catalogue

Period
provenance
type
code
Anglo-Saxon
Regional
Whitby-type ware
D6
Imported
Rhenish ware
Fine Red ware
Tating ware
G4
G1
G5
Local (Durham)
Permian Yellow Sand-tempered ware

Durham White ware
D1
D7
Local (Newcastle)
Hard Sandy Grey ware

Quite Gritty Oxidised ware
Handmade Reduced ware with oxidised surfaces
Hard Slightly Gritty ware
Hard Gritty ware
Very Hard Slightly Gritty ware
North-east Grey ware
Handmade Gritty ware
Gritty Micaceous Grey ware
Splash Glazed Reduced ware
Newcastle Dog Bank-type ware
Shell Tempered Gritty-type ware
Newcastle Dog Bank-type ware, finer version
Newcastle Dog Bank-type ware, glazed version
Coarse Oxidised Gritty ware
Coarse Oxidised ware variant
Northern Gritty White ware
Moderately Gritted ware
Hard Finely Gritted Splashed ware
Hard Finely Gritted Splashed ware variant
Oxidised Gritty ware
Very Coarse Oxidised ware
Tyneside Buff White ware
Tyneside Buff White ware
Hard Fired Tyneside Buff White ware
Overfired Tyneside Buff White ware
Oxidised Tyneside Buff White ware
Early Gritty Green Glazed ware/RGG types 1, 2 & 3
Later Green Glazed ware/RGG types 4 & 5
Oxidised Green Glazed ware
Oxidised Green Glazed ware, finer variant
Sandy Green Glazed ware/RGG type 6
Late Reduced Green Glazed ware
Local Red ware
Green Glazed ware, roof furniture
Miscellaneous Industrial
D8
D11
D12
D15
D13
D14
D2
C7
D23
C8
C1
C2
C3
E3
E6
E8
D4
E1
E5
E5a
E10
E25
E11a
E11b
E11c
E11d
E11e
E12a
E12b
E13
E13a
E18
E17
E19
E11f
E12c
E26
Regional
Very Fine Sandy Grey ware

Worcester-type ware
Shelly Sandy ware
Kelso-type ware
Kelso-type ware, variant
Tweed Valley Fine Grey ware
Hard Tweedale-type ware
Fine White ware
White Gritty ware
Scarborough/North Yorkshire-type ware
Tees Valley ware
Northern Glazed White ware
North Yorkshire Silty Buff ware
Harder, Oxidised version of North Yorkshire Silty Buff ware
Tudor Green ware
Cistercian ware
D5
D24
D9
F11
F11a
F14
D21
D22
G9
F1
F10
D20
D16
D19
F4
F12
Medieval
33: POTTERY
331
Table 33.2.2 (contd)

Period
provenance
type
code
Medieval
Imported
Fine Sandy Grey ware

Low Countries Grey wares
Low Countries Highly Decorated ware
Low Countries Red wares
Italian Archaic Maiolica
Rouen-type ware
Saintonge Mottled Green Glazed ware
Beauvais ware
Beauvais Grs
Nasrid Pottery/Vedrio Verde
Seville-type olive jar
Siegburg stoneware
Langerwehe stoneware
Langerwehe/Raeren stoneware
Raeren stoneware
Martincamp flasks
D3
G13
G11
G12
G14
G20a
G20b
G20c
H10
H3a
H3b
G15
G16
G16/17
G17
G19
The fabric catalogue

The order of wares presented in the catalogue is set out
in Table 33.2.2.
Anglo-Saxon pottery
Whitby-type ware 650900 (D6), 0.02%
Small, hand-made cooking pots and wheelthrown vessels recovered from the site at Whitby made from a
similar clay (Dunning, 1943, 7582; Hurst 1969,
6163) were dated broadly to the 7th to 9th centuries.
The type occurs in very small quantities, and has been
recovered from Jarrow and the Castle, Newcastle. It
was also found at Wharram Percy (Slowikowski 1992,
27).
Fabric: Quite hard, quite smooth externally, slightly
rough internally and with a rough fracture, 68mm
thick. The fabric is quite fine, the matrix containing
1015% sand, consisting of moderate to poorly sorted,
subangular translucent quartz, 0.1250.50mm and
milky quartz, 0.502mm, with sparse subangular
haematite, 0.250.50mm and well-sorted minute mica
specks. The fabric is quite evenly fired to weak red
(2.5YR 4/2) dusky red (2.5YR 3/2) through core
and margins, reddish brown (2.5YR 5/4) on external
surface and dark reddish gray (5YR 4/2) on internal
surface. The external surfaces are slightly sooted and
discoloured.
Discussion: The type occurs in contexts in or adjacent to Buildings A and B at Jarrow, as isolated sherds
which may, however, be residual. Comparison with the
small, handmade cooking pots from Whitby indicates a
similarity of fabric, but the form is not identical, the
manufacturing technique and finish of the Jarrow
sherds being a little more sophisticated. They are presumably a more local product but part of the same tradition. A body sherd (D6.3) was submitted outside the
main TL dating programme, and the following date
was obtained: JA/TL/21/3 AD 780240. While this
very broad range is not particularly helpful, it does at
least confirm that the ware belongs firmly in the preConquest occupation of the site.
D6.1
D6.2
D6.3
D6.4
D6.5
Small globular cooking pot, diam ?90mm (Hurst

1969, fig 25, no. 2). External sooting, discolouration and burnishing from use. Fig 33.2.1.
6704 443(1)
Fig 33.2.1.
7003 3835(1)
JA/TL/21/3 AD 780 240, Not illus.
7006 4079(1)
Not illus.
7303 2761(1)
Appendix H, V862. Not illus.
7302 2585(1)
Form: The only form recovered is a small globular

cooking pot of unknown rim form. The vessel was coilbuilt and either wheel- or hand-finished, and the external surface is shiny, probably from use.
Date: 7th to 9th centuries.
Fig 33.2.1 Whitby-type ware (D6.1, 2). Scale 1:2
332
Rhenish ware 675800 (G4) 0.01%

by Mark Redknap
Rim sherd of high fired, fine wheelthrown ware, in a

fine fabric with reddish yellow core and outer margin
7.5YR 6/8), strong brown outer surface (7.5YR 5/6,
partially reduced to grey, dark gray inner margin and
surface (7.5YR N4/). The inclusions are abundant illsorted rounded yellowish-white pellets (0.31mm,
probably grog), moderate irregular brown and dark
brownish-red ferruginous inclusions (0.30.5mm).
The fabric has been compared with waster sherds from
Mayen, Badorf, Walberberg (Francke 1989; Rech
1989) and Pingsdorf. Of these, the Walberberg sherds
have provided the closest visual parallel in terms of
fracture, hardness, colour and those inclusions that are
present, but not an identical match. The absence in the
Jarrow sherd of abundant clear or opaque white quartz
grains usual in Walberberg sherds (Keller 1998,
29697) need not rule this kiln centre out as a source
(considerable variation has been noted in the fabrics
from the Rhenish centres), though another source in
the Rhineland is also possible. The volcanic suite usually evident in Mayen sherds appears to be absent.
The plain, slightly convex rim suggests a high
rimmed vessel with a diameter of about 90mm. The
sherd lacks the distortions normally found near the rim
of clover-shaped jugs (Kleeblattkrug), and is more likely to be from a biconical jar (Knickwandtopf) of late 7th
or 8th-century type (jngere Merowingerzeit), though
there is no evidence for a neck cordon. Similar rim
profiles have been recorded at Mayen (Redknap 1999,
form D34, D40) and Huy (Willems 1973, fig 6, nos 2,
6) and have a wide distribution (for example, Preures;
Evison 1979a, fig 31, i). The fabric suggests a Rhenish
source rather than one in the Pas-de-Calais or Belgian
regions, and the form is very different from those published from the 8th-century kilns in the Forest of La
Londe near Rouen (Roy 1993).
G4.1
Fig 33.2.2.
7603 956(1)
Fig 33.2.2 Rhenish ware (G4.1). Scale 1:2
Early Fine Red ware 700850 (G1), 0.11%

(Fig 33.2.60)
This type was recovered mainly at Jarrow and usually
from early contexts. An example may also have been
found at Wearmouth but the sherd in question (Hurst
1969, 63, fig 25 no. 19) cannot be located now and it

is impossible to verify this. It is quite different from any
other early ceramics on the site. Despite the fact that
one vessel was published in 1969 (Whitehouse 1969,
645), no parallels have been found for this type so far.
Although Whitehouse and others have suggested a possible Mediterranean origin, evidence of similar burnished and slipped bowls with incised decoration and
occasional subsequent glazing, reflecting a continuous
tradition of pottery making from the Late Roman period, has been noted in north-west Europe, from the
Middle Meuse Valley, Belgium (Giertz 1996, 35) and
at Mayen, Rheinland (Redknap 1988, fig 7, nos
1215).
Giertz links possible ecclesiastic or aristocratic
patronage (Giertz 1996, 44) with these industries and
notes their association with small-scale glass-working
as well as their proximity to water. The relationship
between the distribution of these vessels and that of the
crucibles at Jarrow may also be significant.
Fabric: Very hard, with very smooth feel and fracture,
35mm thick. The fabric is so fine and hard, in some
cases vitrified by a second, glazing firing, that no inclusions are visible at 20. The fabric is usually oxidised,
with surfaces and margins light red (2.5YR 6/66/8),
and core and margins pale red (10R 6/4) to red
(2.5YR 5/6). A few vessels have areas of reduction and
secondary glazing seems to have been carried out in
reducing conditions, since the margins of glazed vessels are sometimes partly reduced to gray (7.5YR
N5/). Surface colours of glazed vessels are in the range
reddish black (10R 2.5/1) to yellowish red (5YR
4/6) to red (2.5YR 4/6).
Form: Small to medium bowls with upright (G1.1, 5)
or slightly out-turned rims (G1.2, 3, 6, 8); larger bowls
or dishes with footringed bases (G1.911); small goblets or cups with upright (G1.13) or slightly
flanged/out-turned rims (G1.15); lids or perhaps,
though less likely, flat, pedestal bases (G1.1617). No
complete profiles could be reconstructed and it is
impossible to determine whether or not the small
bowls had plain, flat bases or footrings, as for the larger vessels. The vessels were probably all moulded and
are a little uneven, though some may show signs of
turning, as well as trimming and smoothing on both
surfaces. This could have been carried out as part of
the finishing process. The surfaces are either plain or
decorated with incised lines, sometimes compassdrawn, and stamped and roller-stamped decoration in
the form of zigzag lines, leaf, palmette, pendant triangle, cone and lozenge designs. Five of the vessels have
been glazed in a secondary process with a lead glaze,
which in some cases has obscured these designs;
presumably there was no original intention to glaze
them. The glazing process seems to have been fairly
competent, producing a thin, even cover on four of the
vessels.
33: POTTERY
Date: Probably late 7th to early 9th century.

Discussion: The ware was recovered from a variety of
contexts, some of which were disturbed. Nonetheless,
G1.1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13 and 14 were all apparently from primary contexts, mainly in the south-eastern area of the site, though G1.1 was found on the
gravel floor of the workshop area to the south of
Buildings A and B along with a fragment of millefiori
rod and a coin of c 796830. The only other ceramics
found in these contexts were crucibles and, rarely,
other contemporary types.
The type is very unusual and is unlike any of the
Near Eastern types examined so far. It is much finer
than African Red Slip ware, the forms are unparalleled
and, though some of the stamped motifs can be found
on ARSW (Hayes 1972), the group includes other
designs not identified in that ware.
When G1.1 was examined originally it was reported that the glaze had a high lead content and that the
second firing may have been accidental (Whitehouse
1969, 65 n 84). SEM examination of G1.4 by the
British Museum Research Laboratory indicated that
the glazing process had been carried out in a second
firing. The report also confirmed that the lead oxide
content of the glaze was significantly higher than that
on the lead-rich glass deposits on glass-working crucibles but did not rule out the possibility that the latter
type was used to produce litharge for such a lead glaze
as on G1.1 (see Tite, Ch 35.2). To suggest that the
glazing of the vessels may have been carried out to such
a relatively high standard in the monastery would
require more convincing evidence than has survived, as
well as some explanation of why it became necessary to
glaze them.
If these vessels were not from north-west Europe,
then a source in the Middle East, perhaps Turkey, is
possible. Neutron activation analysis of G1.4 by the
British Museum Research Laboratory indicated some
similarity in fabric, though obviously not form, with
lamps dated to the 6th to 7th centuries from Sardis in
Western Anatolia (M Hughes, pers comm); another
parallel in terms of composition was with pottery of a
much earlier date from Cilicia in south-eastern Turkey.
No parallels for the forms of G1 have been identified
so far from that area. Sherds of two bowls of quite similar fabric, glaze and form, though not as shallow, were
recovered from Phase 6A (late 11thearly 12th
century) excavations in Lurk Lane, Beverley; the decoration on both was impressed rather than stamped or
incised and of quite a different character (see Watkins
1991, 86, fig 70).
The limited range and size of forms suggest that
these vessels may have had a specific function and were
perhaps brought to the monastery in a single package.
It is tempting to see them as either an example of the
many artefacts brought back by Benedict Biscop and
Ceolfrith from their trips to Rome, or perhaps as a gift
from a visitor to the monastery. In either instance, and
333
whatever the source of these redwares, they are surely

yet another example of the long-range contacts and
connections enjoyed by Benedict Biscop, Ceolfrith and
the early monastery.
G1.1
G1.2
G1.3
G1.4
G1.5
G1.6
Small bowl, diam 128mm, with upright, slightly

uneven rim and indentation under external edge.
The bowl was decorated before being glazed; externally there are rather uneven vertical bands of alternately wide and narrow zigzag linear roller-stamped
decoration. Internally, two concentric lines have
been incised near the base of the bowl. The entire
surface of the vessel has been covered with a thick
coat of lead glaze. In a partially reducing firing, the
glaze has gone a very dark amber or very dark reddish brown in places. The glaze is very thick (up to
1.5mm) externally and in patches on the internal
surface, where it seems to have run down from the
rim, though one area has very little glaze. The decoration has been almost entirely obscured by the
glaze, which is crazed, worn and dulled, especially
internally, presumably from use. Published by
Whitehouse 1969, 645, fig 25 bis; pl IXA. Fig
33.2.3.
6302 96(5) Museum Ref: JARBW 1995.217
Small, shallow bowl, diam 89mm, with slightly outturned rim, indented beneath external edge. The
bowl was stamped with a small palmette design and
a single incised line that probably continued around
the entire vessel. It was glazed in a secondary firing
as for G1.1. The glaze is very dark red, dulled, but
iridescent just below the rim on both surfaces. Fig
33.2.3.
7305 2029(1)
Small bowl (diam indeterminate) with slightly outturned rim similar to G1.2. The fabric is paler than
G1.1 and 2 and the glaze is a lighter amber colour,
though patchily coated on both surfaces with a
cream coloured deposit. The angle of the body
changes slightly near one edge, indicating that the
bowl may have been facetted. Fig 33.2.3.
7304 2137(1)
Body sherd of small bowl. The fabric and glaze are
similar to G1.3. The glaze on the internal surface is
crazed and iridescent; externally it is dulled and
brownish amber. This outer surface was stamped
with vertical zigzag lines that can just be discerned
through the glaze (see Ch 35.2). Not illus.
7304 2190(1)
Small, shallow bowl, diam 122mm with upright rim.
The fabric is close to G1.3 and 4. The vessel is
unglazed and undecorated. It seems to have been
moulded and shows signs of smoothing or wiping on
both surfaces. The internal surface is darker and
may have been coated with slip. Fig 33.2.3.
7603 943(1, sf 10), 7803 2837(1) Museum Ref:
JARBW 1995. 210.
Small, shallow bowl, diam 147mm, with out-turned
rim and externally two incised lines just below the
rim. The vessel is unglazed but appears slightly burnished externally, possibly from use, and there are
two compass-drawn lines curving from below the
lower incised line. The internal surface is very similar to G1.5. Fig 33.2.3.
7805 4728(1)
334
Fig 33.2.3 Fine Red ware (G1.13, 520). Scale 1:2

G1.7
G1.8
Body sherd of bowl. The surface finish is very close

to G1.6 and the external surface is also decorated
with compass-drawn lines. Both surfaces and some
fractures are very shiny/burnished and there are
patchy white deposits on the external surface and
the fractures. Fig 33.2.3.
7303 2538(1)
Small bowl, diam 101mm, with upright rim and
uneven incised lines just below the rim on both surfaces. Immediately below the external line is a row
of stamped, inverted leaf or tree motifs. This area
seems to be coated with a dark red slip that has
probably worn off the rest of the surface. Internally
the vessel is very smooth, particularly on the lower
sherd. Fig 33.2.3.
7805 4739(2)
G1.9
Base of bowl or dish, diameter of vessel uncertain

but at least 180mm, with raised footring. The fabric
appears to be slightly coarser than usual, the vessel
is unglazed and the surfaces, especially externally,
are quite abraded and worn. The incised decoration
is as follows:
external: within the footring a compass-drawn
marigold motif probably consisting originally of six
petals; just above the footring two compass-drawn
semi-circles with a fine line above them
internal: on the base a larger six-petalled marigold
motif encircled by three fine concentric lines.
This vessel is larger than the other bowls. A parallel for the marigold motif, though with gouged
median lines and in a coarser fabric, occurs in a context of the later 5th century at the early Christian
33: POTTERY
G1.10
G1.11
G1.12
G1.13
G1.14
G1.15
G1.16
monastery of Alahan in southern Turkey (Williams

1985, 47, fig 5.51, pl 77). Fig 33.2.3.
7304 2186(1), 7604 984(1)
Base of bowl, base diam 75mm, with raised
footring. The fabric, colour and surface appearance
are very similar to G1.6 and this may, indeed, be
from the same vessel. The sherd is quite unworn.
Externally, on the small surviving section of body
above the footring is a thin, curved, incised line and
within the footring the points of two petals, presumably from a marigold motif, can be seen. The internal base appears to be plain. Fig 33.2.3.
7603 956(1)
Base of ?small bowl, diam indeterminate, with flat
footring. The sherd is very small, the vessel
unglazed and undecorated. Both surfaces show
traces of a dark red slip and on the external base is
a patch of cream-coloured deposit. Fig 33.2.3.
6701 749 Sk 67/44(1)
Goblet or cup. The vessel was probably moulded, is
unglazed but shows signs of burnishing on both surfaces. The lower wall is quite uneven, with traces of
?knife marks on the internal surface. The vessel is
decorated externally with a horizontal band and a
much broader vertical band of roller-stamped zigzag
lines. Similar forms and decorative styles have been
noted from Mayen (Redknap 1988, fig 7, nos
1215). Fig 33.2.3.
7604 992(1)
Goblet or perhaps small bowl, diam 58mm, with
slightly out-turned rim and indentation just below
outer rim. The fabric is dark red and is fully glazed
with a thin, even, amber glaze, some of which has
flaked off internally. Just below the rim the vessel is
decorated externally with a row of stamped or
incised lozenge motifs consisting of three parallel
lines that cross over and under each other. This is
the only vessel where the glazing process has
enhanced rather than obscured the design. Fig
33.2.3.
7804 1006(1, sf 3)
Goblet or cup, diam uncertain but perhaps c 50mm.
The vessel has probably been moulded and was
smoothed on both surfaces. It is unglazed and
undecorated. Fig 33.2.3.
7804 4736(1)
Goblet or ?jar, diam 85mm, with flanged rim. The
vessel may have been wheelthrown and both surfaces were probably coated with a darker red slip
which has worn off in patches. The internal surface
has horizontal striations and shows signs of wear.
The external surface is stamped with an uneven,
narrow band of recurring leaf motifs, below which is
a row of pendant triangles filled with zigzag lines
and below these, one surviving cone motif decorated with horizontal lines. Fig 33.2.3.
JS 76 VM? (layer number not known) (1)
Lid or flat base of ?goblet, diam 121mm. The fabric
is partly reduced at the thick core. Both surfaces are
decorated with two concentric incised lines, while
on the upper surface are also two stamped flowerand-leaf motifs, perhaps a stylised acanthus ornament. The upper surface retains traces of red slip in
the crevices and on the outer edge. Fig 33.2.3.
6601 5959(1)
335
G1.17 Lid or base of vessel, size and diam unknown. This

very small sherd is badly damaged, the internal surface broken away. Part of the external edge survives,
revealing that it had a double contour, unlike
G1.16. The upper surface is decorated with an
incised line and the remains of two stamped leaf
motifs which, though larger and of better quality,
are of a similar design to G1.8. Traces of dark red
slip remain on the surfaces. Fig 33.2.3.
6501 2(1)
G1.18 Bowl in a hard reduced fine fabric with a series of
incised zigzag lines. Although the fabric is reduced,
it is thought that this bowl is of similar type to G1.1
to 17. Core is gray (10YR 5/1), surfaces are dark
gray (10YR 4/1). Fig 33.2.3.
6302 96(1), 7803 2838(1) (sherds join)
G1.19 Semi-tubular fragment, form uncertain, in a softer
oxidised orange-coloured fine fabric with no visible
inclusions. External surface red (2.5YR 5/6), internal
surface and core light red (2.5YR 6/6). Fig 33.2.3.
6703 5269(1)
G1.20 Fragment of a bowl, heavily abraded, fabric similar to
G1.19. There are traces of a border with a raised palmette motif, but the detail is very worn. Fig 33.2.3.
6904 3220(1)
G1.21 Bowl/cup. A fine hard reduced grey fabric with decoration consisting of 3 rows of 3-strand plaits. The
vessel was probably made in a mould. Two horizontal incised lines can be seen on the internal surface.
Not illus.
JS73 Area IVE Layer 1(1) Museum Ref: JARBW
1999.9940
G1.22 Bowl/cup. A hard fired reduced grey fabric. The
upper external surface may have been burnished.
Decoration consists of two bands of roller-stamped
or impressed opposing zigzag lines. Alternating with
these are two 2-strand twists. This vessel was probably made in a mould, reflecting a late Roman tradition. Not illus.
JS73 Area IVE Layer 82(1) Museum Ref: JARBW
1999.9942
Tating ware 750850 (G5), 0.02%

The sherds found at Jarrow represent the only confirmed occurrence of this fairly uncommon ware in the
region, although in northern England it has also been
found in small quantities and usually in residual contexts in York and at Wharram Percy. It is also possible
that it may have been present at Wearmouth since Hurst
(1969, 63, fig 25 no. 20) describes the neck of a bottle
in the same fabric as the handle from Jarrow (G5.2), the
form being reminiscent of a Tating ware spout (A Vince,
pers comm), but unfortunately this sherd is now lost.
Fabric: Quite hard, smooth externally and slightly
rough internally with finely rough fracture, 410mm
thick. The matrix is very fine, with less than 0.05% subrounded fine translucent quartz sand, 0.250.125mm
with a few medium grains 0.500.25mm and very occasional black grains, probably of haematite, together
with a few larger grains, perhaps of sandstone. The fabric is variably fired, with surfaces ranging from dark
336
gray (10YR 4/1) to gray (10YR 5/1) and dark gray

(7.5YR N4/) to gray (7.5YR N5/). The outer margins
range from light reddish brown (5YR 6/4) to light
brown (7.5 YR 6/4) and grayish brown (10YR 5/2);
inner margins are light brown (7.5YR 6/4) to light
yellowish brown (10YR 6/4), while the core is light
gray (10YR 7/1) to light reddish brown (5YR 6/4).
Form: Jug of probable tall and slender form with a
globular lower body and strap handle of atypical form
with indentations on either side of a central ridge.
The external surfaces, particularly that of the handle,
are very smooth and burnished. On the upper wall are
possible traces of applied tin foil decoration (now oxidised to a creamy white colour) or adhesive for this.
The vessel was wheelthrown and very well made.
Date: Mid to late 8th to mid 9th centuries.
Discussion: The ware was recovered from three contexts in the same western area of the site, though only
one was undisturbed. The sherds may all be from the
same vessel. In view of its date range, it is perhaps not
surprising that Tating ware has not been found on any
other sites in the north-east. It has so far been recovered only residually in York, in very small quantities,
including from Skeldergate (Holdsworth 1978, 4, 18,
fig 4 no. 6, pl I a similar vessel to that from Jarrow),
Coppergate (Mainman 1990, 4813, fig 212 nos
23856), though not from the contemporary site of
Fishergate (Mainman 1993, 569), although the Jarrow
vessel is very close in fabric to the black burnished
wares from that site. There is a similar jug from
Hamwic (Hodges 1981, 1718, fig 3.1 no. 1) and more
recently a handled jar was found at Brandon, Suffolk
(Webster and Backhouse 1991, 87 no. 664). On the
continent it has been found at trading sites such as
Dorestad (van Es and Verwers 1980, 9799),
Kaupang, Ribe and, more famously, at Paderborn
(Winkelmann 1972, 3744). Research on the origins
of Tating ware and the related black and grey burnished wares (Hodges 1981, 6468; Mainman 1993,
56976) suggests that it was manufactured at a number of sites west of the Rhine and in northern France.
It may be that previous hypotheses about the specialised, possibly liturgical, function of these decorated
jugs are correct (Coutts and Hodges 1992, 389) and
the presence of one at Jarrow is another indication of

early monastic contacts across Europe.
G5.1
G5.2
Jug or pitcher, diam unknown, with burnished

external surface. Not illus.
6511 63(1), 7301 2758(2)
Strap handle of jug (see Hurst 1969, 64 fig 25 no.
21; Hodges 1981, 43, where the handle was identified as Hodges class 14 black ware). Fig 33.2.4.
6302 89(1) Museum Ref: JARBW 1995.216
Medieval pottery local

Permian Yellow Sand-tempered ware 10751200
(D1), 0.22% (Fig 33.2.61)
This type has been found in small quantities in northeast England. Apart from Wearmouth and Jarrow, it has
been recovered at Hart (Addis 1976, 1001),
Lindisfarne (Bown 1985, 52), Lumley Street in
Hartlepool (unpublished), Queen Street, Newcastle
(Bown 1988b, 44) and the Crown Court, Newcastle,
where three sherds were thought to be residual (Bown
1989, 153). It was possibly found at Prudhoe (unpublished), but this has not been confirmed. A small amount
has been found at the Castle, Newcastle (unpublished).
Fabric: Quite hard, rough, with rough and vesicular
fracture, 36mm thick. The matrix is densely packed
with c 2025% sand, consisting of well-sorted, wellrounded translucent yellow, white and rose quartz,
0.250.50mm and occasional larger grains of up to
1mm, with sparser plates of calcite aligned parallel to
and visible on surfaces, 0.101.5mm, mica specks and
well rounded haematite, up to 1mm. The inclusions
have been identified as permian yellow sands. The fabric colour is variable, with several sherds burnt during
or after use; surfaces are reddish gray (5YR 5/2) to
reddish brown (5YR 4/3), or red (2.5YR 5/6) to
reddish brown (2.5YR 4/4); core and margins are
gray dark gray (10YR 5/14/1) or the same colour
as the surfaces. D1.11 is reduced throughout to very
dark gray (5YR 3/1).
Form: The only form recovered is a jar with a rounded, or squared, everted rim and slightly convex base.
Vessels are a little uneven, but are wheelthrown,
smoothed, knife trimmed on lower walls and unglazed.
Date: Late 11th to 12th century
Fig 33.2.4 Tating ware (G5.2). Scale 1:2
Discussion: Context 2145 is part of the ground surface at the west end of Building D, thought to be
Norman, as is the posthole 2698. Three sherds from
Jarrow were dated as part of the TL dating programme, with the following results: JA/TL/2 AD
140030, 50; JA/TL/24 AD 117545, 70; JA/TL/41
AD 122540, 70. The secondary burning of
JA/TL/41 may have affected the result, but the latter
two dates are close to the range proposed.
33: POTTERY
337
pink (7.5YR 7/4), with occasional fine reduced light

gray (7.5YR 7.0) to gray (7.5YR 6.0) reduced lens in
the middle of the core. A very gritty hard fabric which
is a sandy colour, with round and fine elongated grey
lenses and vesicular, with abundant rounded and
subrounded milky white quartz up to 2mm in length.
Very micaceous, sparse to moderate haematite, rounded, from 0.01 to 0.25mm. Abundant to moderate red
iron ore. The sand may be beach sand as it is very
rounded and lustrous. Moderate flint also present.
Form: Jar? One sherd appears to be evenly sooted
internally.
Fig 33.2.5 Permian Yellow
(D1.13, 5). Scale 1:4
Sand-tempered
ware
The close similarity of sherds from all sites suggests

that they derived from the same production centre. The
Permian Yellow Sands outcrop primarily in the County
Durham coalfield and along the eastern coastal plain,
and the manufacturing centre is therefore likely to be in
that area; the occurrence of the type as far north as
Lindisfarne may be the result of casual coastal trade or
the known links between Durham and Lindisfarne at
that time, although this type has not so far been found
in Durham. However, only one sherd has been found at
Lindisfarne, and it is also thought to be residual.
D1.1
Jar with slightly everted, rounded rim, diam 170mm (cf

Bown, 1988b, no. 34), and convex base. External discolouration and internal sooting and cooking deposit.
Burnt after breakage. JA/TL/24, JA/TL/41. Fig 33.2.5.
7105 1782(1), 7302 2585(1), 7304 2144(13),
2136(4), 2153(1), 7505 2371(2), 2372(1), 7803
2807(1), 2808(1), 2840(1)
D1.2
Globular jar with everted, squared rim (diam
160mm). Fig 33.2.5.
7505 2372(1), 7602 2871(1), 7604 971(1), JS76
Area V Layer 24(1)
D1.3
Jar with slightly everted rim, diam 146mm (cf Addis
1976, nos 1901). Fig 33.2.5.
7302 2560(1)
D1.4
Jar with slightly everted rim, diam 170mm, and convex base. Not illus.
7505 2372(1), 7304 2145(1)
D1.5
Rim of jar. Fig 33.2.5.
7301 2700(1)
D1.6
Not illus. 7301 2698(1); 2565(1); 7503 1113(1);
D1.7
Not illus. 7105 1630(1)
D1.8
Not illus. 7505 2372(1); 7303 2821(1); 2838(1)
D1.9
Not illus. 7802 582(1)
D1.10 Not illus. 7302 2585(1); 7803 2807(1)
Wearmouth
D1.11 Not illus.7401 252(1), 262(1), 264(1), 475(1 base)
Durham White ware 10751200 (D7), 0.30%

Fabric: For the internal surface, the closest match is
pinkish gray (7.5YR 6/2), external surface: light
brown (7.5YR 6/4), core: brown (7.5YR 5/4) to

Discussion: In Durham, Carver (1979, 40) felt that
this type was 10th to 11th century, since it was found
associated with shoes considered to be of that date.
Subsequent discussion regarding the shoes suggests
that they were part of the courtly dress of William
Rufus reign (A Vince and F Pritchard, pers comm), as
a number of similar shoes have been dated to the late
11th/12th century in London.
At Jarrow, D7.1 was found in contexts containing
Hard Sandy Grey ware (D8), Quite Gritty Oxidised
ware (D11), and Oxidised Gritty ware (E10), all datable
to the late 11th century or later, while contexts 926 and
928 also included sherds from vessel D20.3, Northern
Glazed White ware, assigned to the 13th century. D7.4
was extracted from a channel within the thickness of
the 11th-century west wall of ER5 in the east range
(see Vol 1, Ch 19), which contained no other pottery.
D7.1
D7.2
D7.3
D7.4
Jar? Not illus.

7504 1121(3, sfs 8, 9), 7603 926(1), 928(1)
Jar? Abraded, but possibly sooted over rim and
external surface. Fig 33.2.6.
7004 3568(1)
Jar. Not illus.
JS76 Area V Layers 35(3), 64(1), 68(1)
Jar. Not illus.
7106 1440(4)
Fig 33.2.6 Durham White ware (D7.2). Scale 1:4
Hard Sandy Grey ware 10751200 (D8), 1.06%

(Fig 33.2.61)
This type is one of a group of fabrics (D8, D11, D12
and D15) that are paralleled by material from the
South Curtain Wall excavations in Newcastle (Edwards
1966, 114, see no. 60), and from Tynemouth (B J N
Edwards 1967, 73, fig 8 nos 6 and 7).
338
Fabric: Hard, but slightly friable, rough and gritty,

with irregular and slightly laminated fracture, 56mm
thick. The matrix includes 1015% poorly sorted,
rounded to subangular translucent quartz,
0.251.5mm, sparse, subangular quartz sandstone,
1.001.50mm, and very sparse specks of red haematite
and mica, 0.102.0mm. The fabric is reduced to very
dark gray (7.5YR N3/), with light gray (10YR 7/1)
external margin, and patchy dark gray (10YR 4/1) to
dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) or grayish brown
(2.5YR 5/2) surfaces. In firing and texture the reduced
core resembles the early Reduced Green Glazed wares
from the Newcastle area (see Ellison 1981).
Form: Jars, cooking pots and bowls with plain, everted,
squared and frequently finger-impressed rims made in a
variety of sizes. A substantial number are sooted and
were evidently used in food preparation. Most of the
vessels are wheelthrown, though some may have been
coil-built, and smoothed on external surfaces. These are
frequently decorated in the same way as Staxton-type
wares, made from the Humber to the Durham area.
Fig 33.2.7 Hard Sandy Grey ware (D8.24, 610).

Scale 1:4
D8.1
Date: 11th to 12th century.

Discussion: Two sherds were included in the TL survey: JA/TL/21/2 AD 1030150; JA/TL/22 AD
138023, 55. The first date falls within a fairly wide
range, while the second is a later date than might be
expected. Stylistically, this ware is quite unlike
Thetford and other wares generally dated to the SaxoNorman period, but it seems likely that this is largely a
12th-century type. In Newcastle it appears in a level
associated with the building of the South Curtain Wall
(116878; Harbottle 1966, 93) and types very similar
to D8, D11, and D12 have also been found at the
Castle site (unpublished), where they occur stratified
in a narrow strip of land next to the Anglo-Saxon
church in context with a few sherds, perhaps representing one pot, of Normandy Gritty Red Painted ware
(thought to be early 12th century) and a few sherds of
London Rouen-type wares (late 12th century). (The
bulk of the material from this context, however, consisted of the local Early Reduced Green Glazed ware
types 1 to 3.) It was not recovered in excavations on the
Newcastle Quayside, but at Hart and Tynemouth it
seemed to be stratified in levels of the same period.
A sample from D8.4 was included in geochemical
fingerprinting with Grey ware pottery from the northeast, Scotland, East Anglia and Denmark by Dr Simon
Chenery (in Hall and Chenery forthcoming) and it was
found to have similarities with both the Scottish and
the East Anglian material. However, the sample from
the north-east was inadequate as it consisted of only
two sherds (nos 26 and 27); the latter, from
Gateshead, was of a similar type to D12 and appeared
to be more closely related to the Danish material.
Hence these tentative conclusions suggest a different
provenance, not initially noted, for types D8 and D12.
D8.2
D8.3
D8.4
D8.5
D8.6
D8.7
D8.8
Cooking pot body sherd. JA/TL/21/2. Not illus.

7503 1113(1)
Jar/cooking pot with buff surfaces and sooted/
reduced patches externally and on the upper surface
of the rim. Fig 33.2.7.
6601 5932(1)
Cooking pot rim crudely made, perhaps by hand
and trued on a wheel. Quite micaceous. Fig 33.2.7.
JS76 Area V Layer 98(1)
Cooking pot with thickened rim, triangular in section. It looks as if the rim has been added separately as it has been folded over and smoothed down
onto the external surface (as with many of the rims
in fabric D12, see below). A close parallel can be
found at Perth High Street in Phase 1, dated to
before 1125 (D Hall, pers comm) and the South
Curtain Wall, Newcastle (Edwards 1966, fig 11, no.
99). Sooted externally. Fig 33.2.7.
7505 2372(1)
Bowl, hand-made and trued on a wheel. It has buff
surfaces and a reduced dark grey core. No sooting.
Not illus.
JS76 Area V Layer 77(1).
Small cooking pot with simple everted rim, sooted
externally and internally from the rim down to the
neck/body angle. Fig 33.2.7.
7004 3593(1)
Small cooking pot with thumbing along the external
edge of the rim. It is heavily sooted externally and
sooted on the upper surface of the rim, but not
internally. Fig 33.2.7.
7502 1204(1, sf5)
Cooking pot with thumbed rim. Fig 33.2.7.
6701 231(1)
Wearmouth
D8.9
Base of jug reused as a ?lid. The external base surface is smooth and the upper surface has thumb
marks in it, suggesting it was pushed into a mould.
The rounded edge is worn, but broken as if originally the edge of the base of a jug.
33: POTTERY
Thick margins: light brown (7.5YR 6/4), core:

gray (7.5 YR N5/) Fig 33.2.7.
7401 238(1)
D8.10 The base and lower wall of a cooking vessel which
has sooting in patches. Its external surface is smooth
with a fairly sharp edge at the lower wall/base angle.
Fig 33.2.7.
7102 533(1)
Quite Gritty Oxidised ware 10751200 (D11),

1.42% (Includes finer version D11b)
Fabric: A fairly hard fabric, which is very slightly pimply. It is generally reduced internally and oxidised to a
light buff colour externally. It contains moderate to
abundant quartz which is milky and rose stained,
mainly subrounded with occasional angular pieces.
There are occasional conglomerates of rose-stained
quartz with red iron particles up to 2mm across.
Moderate mica can be seen as flecks on the surface.
There is sparse to moderate subrounded red and black
iron ore. The matrix is fairly dense.
The external surface closest match is pink (7.5 YR
7/4), internal surface is gray (7.5YR 5/0), core gray
(7.5YR 5/0).
Form: Collared wheelthrown jars, which are mostly
plain, with occasional spots of glaze. A concave area on
the inside of the rim may have held a stopper or lid. It
extends approximately 20mm down from the upper
surface.
The most common form is an unusual, slightly
hatchet-shaped squared rim, with slight concavity on
the upper surface, perhaps for a lid, and a slight concavity on the internal surface.
Discussion: D11.816 are all coarser, but of a similar
fabric to D11.17. This could suggest either an earlier
339
date or a different kiln or potter. The rim forms vary

from squared and collared to simple and rounded.
D11.1 Rim/neck sherds of a collared rimmed cooking pot,
with sooting on one side suggesting warming rather
than direct heating in the fire. A lid seating can be
seen on the internal surface extending 10mm down
from the edge. The internal surface is reduced light
grey and the external surface is oxidised buff. A
sherd from 7505 2372 sf 442 has a similar rim form.
Fig 33.2.8.
JS76 Area V Layer 3(1), JS76 Area V Layer 29(1)
D11.2 Lid-seated jar/cooking pot. A squared rim with lid
seating on the upper and inner edges. Not illus.
D11.3 A squared rim with less marked lid seating than
D11.1 and 2. It is a very hard overfired fabric, mainly reduced internally, but not externally. Not illus.
D11.4 A similar rim form to D11.2, but without the upper
lid seating. There are a few spots of glaze of a similar
nature to D11.4 on the upper rim edge. Not illus.
7505 2374 (1, sf 22)
D11.5 A hard fired jar with light buff surfaces and a
reduced core. This rim form is similar to D11.14.
However the indentation on the external surface
resembles those on the E5 rims. Not illus.
7505 2368(1, sf 7)
D11.6 A collared rim with very faint, but distinctive horizontal wheelthrown grooves on the external surface.
Not illus.
7505 2378(1)
D11.7 The rim is a thicker, more simplified version of
D11.13, with no apparent lid seating. It has a
splashed lime greenish-yellow lustrous glaze. It is
not reduced internally, but the fabric is similar to
D11.13. Not illus.
7504 1121(1), 1131(1)
D11.8 Rim of bowl. Fig 33.2.8.
6901 3143(1)
D11.9 Rim of jar. Not illus.
7505 2372(1, sf 212)
D11.10 Rim of jar. Fig 33.2.8.
6903 3178(1)
Fig 33.2.8 Quite Gritty Oxidised ware (D11.1, 8, 10, 13-16, 19-22). Scale 1:4
340

7505 2372(1, sf 30)
7505 2372(1, sf 545)
D11.14 Collared rim of cooking pot, which is sooted externally. Fig 33.2.8.
7505 2372(1, sf 501)
D11.15 Collared rim of jar with no apparent sooting. Fig
33.2.8.
7505 2372(1, sf 289)
D11.16 Collared rim of jar with no apparent sooting. Fig
33.2.8.
7505 2372(1, sf 573B)
D11.17 Rim/neck/upper shoulder of jar with buff surfaces
and grey gritty core (see Edwards 1966, 114 no.
60). Not illus.
7105 1788(1)
D11.18 Bowl with smoother surfaces than D11.17, but of a
cruder style of manufacture than D11.17. Vince
would again place this in the 12th century in terms
of its manufacture and look towards the East
Midlands, eg Staxton, for parallels. It has a squaredoff rim with thick walls. Not illus.
D11.19 Jar/cooking pot with squared rim and concavity at
the internal neck surface. Buff surfaces and reduced
core. Fig 33.2.8.
7006 4041(1)
D11.20 Jar with everted hammer-headed rim with concavity
at the neck, perhaps for a lid seating. This resembles
D12 as its surfaces are buff/orange and oxidised. Fig
33.2.8.
6601 340(1)
D11.21 Jar with everted squared rim. Fig 33.2.8.
6601 376(1)
D11.22 Jar with sooting internally and externally. Fig
33.2.8.
7505 2372(1)
Wearmouth
D11.23 Cooking pot, published by Hurst (1969, fig 25 no.
1). The vessel has a simple everted rim and external wavy line decoration. It is fired unevenly, suggesting a less sophisticated kiln than D11.116.
Although hand made and perhaps trued on a simple turntable, it is probably made from the same
local fabric as D11. The fabric is very coarsely
gritted and hard. It is deliberately fired to give a
light buff oxidised surface and dark core. It has
two indentations on the internal surface which
could have been made by chaff, but are more
likely to be grits dragged along the surface.
Horizontal wheel marks can be seen on the internal surface.
Hurst places this vessel in the middle Saxon period (650850), suggesting that it is a middle Saxon
precursor of the Northern Gritty type of Ipswich
ware, although this type is a Grey ware, whereas
D11 is deliberately reduced with a light buff surface,
and this tradition can be seen right through to the
13th-century Reduced Green Glazed and Oxidised
wares. Vince places it stylistically in the 12th
century.
This suggests either a long-lived tradition from

hand to wheelthrown wares, or that hand and
wheelthrown pots were being made at the same time
in the 12th century. Certainly D11.17 is much
coarser and cruder than D11.1, which appears to be
more in keeping with a 12th to 13th-century date
and is not dissimilar to oxidised gritty and early
reduced traditions in Newcastle upon Tyne
(Vaughans fabric 3). Not illus.
Hurst 1969, 60 no. 1, 61 fig 25.1. Appendix 33.2.1,
V899
6402 1204(1)
Handmade Reduced ware with oxidised surfaces

10751200 (D12), 1.64% (Fig 33.2.61)
Fabric: A fairly dense matrix. Abundant white milky
quartz with rounded, angular and some subangular
grains. Moderate red iron ore and sparse small rounded specks of black iron ore. The surfaces are smooth
and pitted where the quartz grains break through.
Surfaces also feel rough and pimply. Thick oxidised
margins are red (2.5YR 5/8), reduced core dark gray
(2.5YR 4/0), and oxidised surfaces light red (2.5YR
6/8).
Forms: Bowls and jars. They are hand-made and
smoothed on their surfaces, but sometimes appear to
be finished on a simple wheel. The bowls have simple
everted rims. Many may have been made separately,
folded over and smoothed down on the external surface (as in D8.4, above). The rim of D12.1 was folded
over and pinched with the thumb and side of the index
finger. The bases appear to be hand-made, perhaps
moulded into a previous base and smoothed by hand.
Although these vessels were probably fired in a bonfire kiln, the body sherds are fairly uniformly fired,
with oxidised surfaces and few patches of reduction
other than light grey patches on a few base sherds.
Discussion: Many of the bowls catalogued appear to
have a pinkish-red staining. This may have been caused
by madder, known as a dye for wool. The stained
sherds all come from the south of the site or Jarrow
Slake, which is close to the River Don. Madder has
also been used in the past for medicinal purposes (see
Dawson 1934). Two recipes from A Leechbook or
Collection of Medical Recipes of the fifteenth century are
for bones broken in a mans head, to draw them out.
Here betony, vervain and rue are stamped together in
a mortar, with honey, rye and wheat flour and the
white of an egg. This is mixed to make a plaster and
applied to a wound (Dawson 1934, 41). Another
recipe for the same malady is for to make a drink
therefor. It was a drink with several other herbs added
to wine. If the bone protruded it was seen as a token
of death, if it did not and nor doth he vomit, it was
a token of life. The process then involved flour and
33: POTTERY
341
Fig 33.2.9 Handmade Reduced ware with oxidised surfaces (D12.1, 815). Scale 1:4
the milk of a woman that feedith a male child, which
was placed on a cloth and then used as a sort of poultice on the mans head (Dawson 1934, 43).
The pinched bowls are similar to Staxton-type ware.
It is just possible, although there is as yet no evidence to
support this, that a potter from the Lincoln area had
relocated to the north-east, making similar forms in the
local fabric (A Vince, pers comm). This type and D11
are both reminiscent of material from the South Curtain
Wall, which occurs there earlier than the late 12th
century (Edwards 1966; McCarthy and Brooks 1988,
238, fig 135.690, 693). Two TL dates were obtained for
this type: JA/TL/11 AD 1230 40, 65; JA/TL/40 AD
140030, 50. (The latter sample was burnt, which
could have affected the date, see Appendix G.)
D12.1 Bowl rim/neck/upper body sherds with ?madder
staining, hand-made and trued on a wheel. An elongated void shows that the rim has been made by
folding the clay out and then under. The join can be
seen as a line along the external rim/body angle. Fig
33.2.9.
JS76 Area V Layer 71(2), Layer 94(1) joins 7505
2372(1, sf 200)
D12.2 Bowl/jar with simple everted and thickened rim with
a slight rib on the upper internal edge. The rim is
crudely made and folded over externally. Not illus.
7505 2372(2, sfs 74 and 311)
D12.3 Everted rim of jar with a flattened edge. Pinkish
staining. Not illus.
6901 3063(1)
D12.4 Rim/neck/upper body sherds with a simple everted
rim and relatively fine walls. There is a line under
the rim on the external surface where the clay has
been folded and joined. One band of sooting
approximately 10mm deep occurs just under the
external edge of the rim. The pot has no other sooted areas. It is similar to D13.1. Not illus.
JS76 Area V Layer 12(1), Layer 13(1)
D12.5 Rim of finer walled bowl made in the same way as
D12.1, but slightly finer. Not illus.
7804 1033(1, sf 1)
D12.6 Rim of jar/cooking pot with an almost vertical,
slightly everted neck and rounded rim. Not illus.
7505 2372(1, sf 214)

D12.7 Rim of a small cooking pot which is sooted around
the external edge of the rim only. The walls are as
thin as D12.4, but the outer rim is more square. Not
illus.
7505 2378(1)
D12.8 Jar with typical folded rim. Oxidised buff/orange
surfaces. Fig 33.2.9.
6701 249(1)
D12.9 Cooking pot sooted externally with a simple rounded rim and buff internal surface. Fig 33.2.9.
7505 2372(1, sf 219)
D12.10 Jar. Fig 33.2.9.
6601 376(1)
D12.11 Jar with folded rim. Fig. 33.2.9.
7505 2372(2)
D12.12 Jar, sooted externally. Fig 33.2.9.
7505 2376(1)
7105 1533(1)
Wearmouth
D12.14 Jar with squared rim with ?thumbed decoration
round edge of rim. Sooted externally only, with
reduced core and thin brownish oxidised margins
and surfaces. Fig. 33.2.9.
7402 163(1)
D12.15 Jar/bowl with squared rim, probably made by folding the clay over as in D8.4, D12.8, D12.11.
Oxidised margins and surfaces with a reduced core.
Fig. 33.2.9.
6403 1425(1)
Hard Slightly Gritty ware 10751200 (D15), 0.27%

Fabric: Hard and slightly rough, with quite rough and
irregular fracture, 67mm thick. The matrix includes c
15% poorly sorted, sub-rounded to subangular
translucent quartz, 0.1250.25mm, very sparse, subrounded quartz sandstone, 0.250.50mm, very sparse
subrounded haematite, 0.1250.25mm, sparse, fine
mica plates and very poorly sorted, subrounded to
rounded, rock fragments, 0.502.00mm. The fabric is
mainly reduced to gray (7.5YR N6/) to very dark
342
gray (N3/), with a light gray (10YR 7/1) to dark

gray (10YR 4/1) internal surface. The external surface
varies from light red (2.5YR 6/6) or reddish yellow
(5YR 7/6) (weak red (2.5YR 5/2) where sooted), to
dark reddish gray (5YR 4/2) to gray (5YR 4/1).
Form: No rim forms have survived, but the vessels
appear to have been quite large jars, some of which were
used for food preparation. They are very competently
coil-built, and smoothed on a turntable or slow wheel.
Discussion: The fabric is similar to that of Hard
Sandy Grey ware (D8) (11th12th century), but the
method of manufacture is more primitive. This does
not necessarily mean that these types are any earlier,
particularly as they occur alongside D8 on site.
D15.1 Not illus. JS76 Area V layer 3 (3)
D15.2 Not illus. 7502 1162 (1, sf 43)
D15.3 Not illus. 7505 2372 (5, sfs 248, 322, 346, 403,
449)
D15.4 Not illus. 7505 2372 (6, sfs 1, 34, 66, 300, 495,
517)
D15.5 Not illus. 7505 2372 (4, sfs 205, 302, 364)
Hard Gritty ware 10751200 (D13), 0.19%

This type has not been observed on any other site in
the region. It is reminiscent of Tweed Valley Redwares,
particularly those recovered from Jedburgh Abbey and
probably dating to the later 11th century.
Fabric: Quite hard, though friable, with slightly rough
surfaces and fracture, 47mm thick. The matrix is
finely gritty with c 25% sand, consisting of well-sorted,
angular to subrounded, translucent quartz,
0.31.00mm, sparse, moderately sorted, subrounded
milky quartz and subangular quartz sandstone,
0.31.00mm, poorly sorted, subangular to subrounded
haematite, 0.31.2mm, and sparse mica specks. The
fabric is oxidised to redlight red (2.5YR 5/66/8)
with a reddish yellow (5YR 7/68) internal margin;
the external surface is discoloured and sooted to weak
red (2.5YR 4/2) in patches.
Form: The only form identified is a globular jar with
an everted, rounded rim, probably used for culinary
purposes. The vessel is wheelthrown, though the lower
walls are slightly uneven internally; apart from smoothing of the external surface, no treatment is visible. Two
sherds (2141, 2144) have been burnt and discoloured
after breakage, and one is completely reduced. Some
sherds are hand-made, particularly bases.
Discussion: A small quantity of this type was recovered from the two sites. At Wearmouth it is residual,
Fig 33.2.10 Hard Gritty ware (D13.1, 2). Scale 1:4

while at Jarrow it occurs primarily in 2144 and 2141,
and it is presumably contemporary with C1 and D1.
The closest parallels to the rim form and fabric are the
Tweed Valley Redwares found at Jedburgh Abbey in
1984 (unpublished). These seem to have preceded F11
Tweed Valley White wares, which are of similar form.
However, the globular form of D13 is quite different
from the straight-sided jars and may be a more local
variant.
D13.1 Globular jar with everted, rounded rim, and flat
base, sooted externally. This form is not dissimilar
to D12.4. Fig 33.2.10.
7304 2141(2), 2144(3), 2185(1), 7303 2535(1),
7505 2372(6), 7602 2859(1)
Wearmouth
D13.2 Rim. Fig. 33.2.10.
7102 533(1)
Very Hard Slightly Gritty ware 10751200 (D14),

0.12%
This type occurs only at Jarrow and has not been
recognised among any other assemblages. It is likely to
have been manufactured locally, but its source is so far
unknown.
Fabric: Very hard and slightly rough texture and fracture, 57mm thick. The matrix includes 1015% moderately sorted, subrounded to subangular translucent
and rosy quartz, 0.251.00mm, sparse, subrounded
micro-crystalline quartz, 0.51mm, poorly sorted,
rounded to subangular rock fragments, 1.002.50mm,
very sparse subangular haematite, up to 0.25mm, and
sparse mica flakes, up to 0.40mm. The fabric is mainly reduced to gray (7.5YR N6/) with a reddish yellow (5YR 7/68) external margin and surface (except
where sooted to weak red (2.5YR 4/2)), and a gray
(7.5YR N5/ to 10YR 5/1) internal surface.
Form: No rims have been recovered, but sherds indicate that the vessels were probably quite large, wide,
jars used for food preparation. They are wheelthrown,
though the lower walls may have been coil-built, and
33: POTTERY
may have been smoothed slightly on external surfaces.

There is an applied finger-impressed, vertical strip on
one sherd. No glaze is present on any sherd.
Date: Probably late 11th to mid-12th centuries.
Discussion: No parallels have been found for this
ware in the region, though the general form and decoration are not uncommon. There is a similarity in finish to D13, though the vessels in D14 are larger. No
source has been identified, but the type was produced
relatively locally during the 11th and perhaps 12th centuries.
D14.1 Large jar with applied, finger-impressed, vertical
strip decoration. Externally sooted. Not illus.
7505 2372(1), JS76 Area V Layers 3(3), 12(2),
23(1), 64(1), 68(1), 71(1)
D14.2 Not illus.
6702 445(1)
D14.3 Not illus.
7105 1666 (1)

Discussion: At Jarrow this type is found in a variety of
contexts, mainly in the southern part of the site and
particularly in the cut (3689). It occurs as the only
sherd in the robbed west wall of the Annexe of
Building A (589) along with Saxon glass, although the
TL date for this sherd, JA/TL/21 AD 154025, 40,
suggests contamination. The fabric is similar to
Thetford type ware, but it is coarser and has a distinct
temper of local permian sand and some coarser sandstone. Perhaps a local potter was imitating Thetford
wares using local clays. If not, potters from East Anglia
may have travelled to Jarrow to work. This pattern has
also been identified in York (Mainman 1990, 427).
D2.1
North-east Grey ware 11001250 (D2), 1.21% (Fig

33.2.61)
These wares have been found in Newcastle; from
Stockbridge, the Castle Ditch and Queen Street
(Bown 1988b, 424). They have also been found at
Hartlepool. The fabric, with its angular quartz and
burnt organic/carboniferous material and lighter margins, is similar to the later local reduced ware fabrics.
Petrological analysis places this group firmly in the
north-east (see Appendix 33.2.1)
Fabric: The fabric is almost always reduced, though
occasional sherds have oxidised margins. The surfaces
vary in colour from a very dark grey, though this is
probably due to subsequent heating/sooting to, more
commonly, a mid to dark grey and are sometimes light
gray (10YR 7/1). The core and surfaces are a light
gray (10YR 5/1) and occasionally, when the margins
are different from the core colour they are a lighter
grey, almost white. The matrix is quite fine with
abundant inclusions of angular quartz <0.2mm and
moderate black and red iron. Moderate tiny rounded
specks of mica can be seen on the surfaces. Occasional
white subrounded felspathic material and varying
amounts of burnt organic material are also present.
The fabric is abundantly gritted and therefore pimply
to the touch.
Forms: Cooking pots/jars with everted necks/rms.
They often have a raised rib at the upper, outer edge of
the everted, sometimes slightly concave, inward sloping neck and form a fairly sharp angle where the neck
turns outwards and into a straight/slightly rounded,
rounded or globular body. One vessel has a handle (see
below). Some forms are very similar to Thetford-type
ware (see D2.3 and D2.11).
343
D2.2
D2.3
Jar/cooking pot rim/neck sherd with an adjoining

strap handle, which has a central thumbed indentation on its upper surface. The rim is everted and
flattened on its external edge and forms a slight
hook in section, which gives the appearance of a collar. The neck is short and angled inwards, turning
out slightly into a straight to slightly rounded body.
The handle is attached at the edge of the rim and
secured with a pad of clay, which is crudely applied
to strengthen the handle/rim joint from below. As
the rim and handle sherds have separated at this
point this might be seen as a weakness in its construction and perhaps the reason for its discard. A
third sherd represents the rim and may have been
from the same vessel.
A similar, but not identical, piece can be seen in
Torksey-type ware from York (Mainman 1990, 422,
fig 170 no. 1991). These wares resembled the SaxoNorman East Anglian wares. They are present in
York from the late 9th century and peak in quantity
around 1000 and decline in the second half of the
11th century (ibid, 427).
Internal and external surfaces: gray (2.5YR N5/),
core gray (2.5YR N6/). Fig 33.2.11.
Appendix 33.2.1, V863
6901 2992(3)
Jar/cooking pot rim, neck and shoulder which is
slightly larger than D2.1 with a slight indentation on
the flattened upper/outer edge of the rim and a
raised rib on the inner edge. The neck is longer than
D2.1 and forms more of an acute angle as it turns
outwards into a globular body. Rough horizontal
ribs, particularly noticeable on the internal surface,
suggest that this vessel was possibly coil-built first
and then finished on the wheel, though it has very
distinctive wheelthrown marks.
Internal and external surfaces: gray (2.5YR N5/),
core gray (2.5YR N6/). Fig 33.2.11.
6701 203(1) joins 704(1)
Jar/cooking pot rim of very similar form to D2.2, but
with a slight concavity in its neck. Strong ribs can also
be felt on the internal surface of the body of the vessel and clear wheelthrown marks are visible. Sooting
is present mainly on the external surface of the neck,
diagonally across the rim and down the inner surface of the neck. Internal and external surfaces and
core: light brownish gray (10YR 6/2). Fig 33.2.11.
7505 2372(2)
344
Fig 33.2.11 North-east Grey ware (D2.15, 8, 1013). Scale 1:4

D2.4
D2.5
D2.6
D2.7
Jar/cooking pot rim/neck. This is the smallest and

perhaps most simply constructed vessel found here.
It has a simple rounded rim leading down into an
everted neck, which curves outwards into what
probably would have been a rounded body. It has
one spot of soot on the rim edge. The fabric is
slightly more oxidised than that of D2.13 and has
light brown/grey surfaces.
Internal surface light gray/gray (10YR 6/1),
external surface and core: brownish gray (10YR
6/2). Fig 33.2.11.
7505 2372(1)
Jar/cooking pot rim/neck, which is almost identical
in form to D2.3 but has been oxidised to give light
brown margins and surfaces, though the core is
reduced to the same colour as examples D2.14.
Internal and external surfaces: very pale brown
(10YR 7/3), core: light gray (10YR 7/1). Fig
33.2.11.
7505 2372(1)
Jar/cooking pot rim/neck of a very similar form to
D2.3, but without the indentation on its upper edge.
It has been fired more patchily than the above to a
fairly even light grey internally and on the external
body surface, but a light brown on the external neck
surface.
The external surface varies from light gray
(10YR 7/1) at the top to become light gray/gray
(10YR 6/1) further down. The internal surface is
gray (10YR 7/1), the core is lighter: light gray
(10YR 7/1). Not illus.
7803 2804 (1)
Cooking pot rim and shoulder. Everted/rounded
edged rim with an indentation on the upper surface,
a slight rib on the internal rim edge and slightly concave neck flaring out into a rounded body. The body
is ribbed as if coil-built and then thrown or trued on
the wheel. The neck is smooth and has wheelthrown
marks implying that this was made on the wheel.
The vessel is heavily sooted on the shoulder and the
upper rim surface, but not in a band around the
neck. Sooting extends down from the internal rim
D2.8
D2.9
D2.10
D2.11
D2.12
D2.13
edge for approximately 10mm. One broken edge

appears to be sooted across the fracture implying
burning during or after use, perhaps causing the
break.
Internal surface and core: light gray/gray (10YR
6/1), external surface and rim sooted. Not illus.
Rim of a small cooking pot. The rim is everted with
small finger-impressed decoration.
Internal and external surfaces gray (10YR 5/1),
core: light gray/gray (10YR 6/1). Fig 33.2.11.
6901 3051(1)
Body sherds of a jar, previously published as type 1,
Thetford-type ware, with a possible post-Conquest
date (Hurst 1969, 624, fig 25 no. 18). It is decorated with applied strips, which may have formed a
wide zigzag around its girth. Previously published
clockwise 90 from its true axis.
The sherds were found with Dog Bank kiln type
ware under hearth 2 and over the Saxon gravel floor
and stone debris. This suggests a 12th-century date.
Not illus.
6302 90(1), 86(1) and 72(1) join
Jar, similar in form to an example from the South
Curtain Wall (Edwards 1966, fig 11 no. 102), but
with typically pimply greyware fabric. Fig. 33.2.11.
6701 231(1)
Jar of same form as D2.10. Fig 33.2.11.
7305 1945(1)
Cooking pot, sooted externally. Fig 33.2.11.
6701 203(1) joins 703(1)
Cooking pot similar to D2.11 and D2.12. Fig 33.2.11.
6701 733(1)
Handmade Gritty ware (C7), 0.00%

Fabric: A very heavy, densely packed fabric, with
rounded grey and white lustrous quartz and more
angular flint. The matrix is short and rust/orange,
coloured by the moderate red iron ore. Moderate to
abundant flecks of mica are also present. The surfaces
33: POTTERY
are very rough, pimply and sandy to feel. The vessel is

coil-built and probably fired in a bonfire kiln as it is
oxidised and reduced in patches.
Date: Unknown
C7.1
Not illus. 7303 2570(1)
Gritty Micaceous Grey ware (D23), 0.00%

This type is published by Hurst as Pimply Ipswich
ware (Hurst 1969, 62, fig 25 no. 6). However, it has
been looked at by several specialists who assign it variously to the Roman period (A Vince, pers comm), and
post-Roman period (P Bidwell, pers comm). Vince
thinks it is unlikely to be Saxon because of the sophistication of its manufacture, both on the wheel and in
the kiln. He believes that the presence of yellow sand
temper suggests it may be locally made.
Form: Neck sherd of a ?globular jar with everted rim.
Fabric: A very gritty micaceous greyware with oxidised
margins and reduced, slightly burnished surfaces. It has
distinct wheelthrown grooves on its external surface.
Date: Unknown
Discussion: The sherd was found on the Saxon ground
surface over natural soil south of Building D. Hurst suggests that this piece is Middle Saxon as it was made on
a slow wheel; however, Vince believes it has been made
on a fast wheel. This sherd remains an enigma.
D23.1 Not illus. 6704 651(1)
Splash Glazed Reduced ware 11001200 (C8), 0.00%

Fabric: The matrix is fairly short and dense, vesicular
in places, perhaps where streaks of carboniferous material have burnt out. It is packed with subangular and
subrounded white, grey and translucent quartz (0.75
to 1.5mm). Moderate amounts of organic material and
mica specks characterise this fabric. The fracture is
quite rough and the surfaces are very rough and pimply where coarse quartz grains protrude. The surfaces
are very black, possibly due to sooting, their colour
varying from dark gray (5YR 4/1) to light brownish
gray (10YR 6/2). The margins are oxidised reddish
yellow (5YR 7/6) to pink (5YR 7/4). The core is
reduced to very dark gray (7.5YR 3/).
Manufacture: Possibly hand-made and trued on a
wheel. The external surface has yellowish orange splash
glaze. Some tiny spots can also be seen internally.
Date: 11001200. Splash glazing has not been found to
exist locally before the mid 11th century at the earliest.
C8.1
Bowl with thumbed rim. Not illus.

6601 5825(1)
345
Newcastle Dog Bank-type ware 11501200 (C1),

1.95% (Fig 33.2.61)
Besides Wearmouth and Jarrow, this type has been
found at the Castle Ditch, Newcastle upon Tyne
(Ellison 1981, 102). An excavation at Dog Bank,
Newcastle, in 1984 revealed a pottery kiln (the first of
this date to be found on Tyneside) in which were found
wasters of a fabric and form like the Jarrow sherds,
together with a quantity of similar material from the
area adjacent to the kiln (Bown 1988a, 3140, 44).
Although there was undoubtedly more than just one
kiln manufacturing this type of pottery, the Dog Bank
area was probably the production centre, and this ware
might, therefore, be more accurately described as
Newcastle Dog Bank-type ware.
Fabric: Hard to very hard, with rough, gritty surfaces,
even on the overfired vessels. Fractures are generally
very rough and irregular, either laminated or conchoidal; the fractures of overfired vessels are smoother,
due to near vitrification. The rims are 510mm thick,
with considerable uniformity. Walls vary more in thickness and are 39mm, while bases range from 59mm
thick. Three variations in fabric were identified in and
around the Newcastle kiln, the third of which was a
hybrid produced by wedging together the other two
clays (Bown 1988a, 33; Coleman-Smith 1988, 3840).
All three variations are present at Jarrow: there are also
examples, apparently absent from the kiln material, of
overfiring to the point of vitrification. Only fabric 2 is
present at Wearmouth and in smaller quantity than at
Jarrow, probably an indication of the limited local distribution of the type.
Forms: Jar/cooking pots, frequently with squared rims
and no glaze. Rows of rouletted square notches are a
common form of decoration on the surface of the
squared rims found at Jarrow. A similar form of decoration can be seen on examples from Dog Bank (Bown
1988a, 35, fig 14, no. 18).
Discussion: A curious form of sooting shows that
most, if not all, of these pots were used for
cooking/heating of some description. The vessels are
sooted externally up to an area around the neck, which
was perhaps protected from the heat by a band of
cloth, possibly used to tie the vessel and hang it up in
some way. Sooting appears above this unsooted band
on the neck, but then forms three patterns:
1. On some of the larger vessels, eg C1.2, sooting
occurs over the squared rim and down the internal
surface. This is interesting as it covers the decorated surface, which one might reasonably expect to
be displayed during serving (Fig 33.2.12).
Sometimes the line marking the edge of the sooting
on the rim extends to just above the upper internal
ridge at the inner edge of the rim and not down the
346
Fig 33.2.12 Newcastle Dog Bank-type ware; diagrams showing sooting patterns (C1.2, 5, 6, 8), drawings (C1.2, 4, 5, 9,
11, 12, 1517). Scale 1:4
inner surface eg C1.8 (Fig 33.2.12). This might
suggest that the substance contained inside was
added in greater or lesser quantities and that this
line marked its edge. Alternatively, the line could
mark the position of a lid/sealing agent which was
placed at different heights according to its size or
the volume it was designed to contain.
2. On the smaller vessels with shorter rounded edged
squared rims the same pattern can be seen on the
external surfaces, but only the external rounded edge
of the rim has been sooted, eg C1.6 (Fig 33.2.12),
or, as in C.1.5 (Fig 33.2.12) and C1.7, a sharp diagonal line marking the edge of the sooting can be seen
on the upper surface of the rim and internal surface. These may have been used inverted as lids.
3. Sooting can be seen on the inner surface of C1.4
and not on the rim, though the external surface also
shows evidence of sooting.
Unfortunately, not enough base sherds with distinct
sooting patterns are present to tell whether these were
placed in another larger vessel or hung directly over the
fire.
The dating of the Dog Bank kiln is described in full

elsewhere (OBrien 1988, 31). TL dating gave a date
of AD 1080180. Eight samples of kiln lining and one
sample from the pedestal gave an archaeomagnetic
mean age suggesting AD 115060, but the scatter of
sample directions suggested a date in the second half of
the 12th century, which is the generally accepted date
for this fabric. Three sherds from Jarrow were submitted for TL dating, with the following results: JA/TL/9
AD 104050, 80; JA/TL/23 AD 100055, 85;
JA/TL/39 AD 163520 30. While the last date is
clearly anomalous, the first two seem early, although
interestingly they are similar to the TL date from the
kiln (see Appendix G, Archaeological commentary).
Date: 11501200.
C1.1
Rim and upper neck sherd of jar/cooking pot. The

vessel has a sooted dark brown external surface with
a diagonal overlapping line marking the edge of the
sooting over the top of the rim. The edge of the
sooting appears to be scarred. Internally one patch
of the same dark brown sooting extends down the
inner surface. The rest of the inner surface is
33: POTTERY
C1.2
C1.3
C1.4
C1.5
C1.6
oxidised to a lighter brown/orange colour. The core

is a light to mid-grey. The vessel has a fairly narrow
rim which is squared off on the external edge and has
a slight ridge on its upper inner edge. Inner surface
where not burnt: light brown (7.5YR 6/4), external
surface is all burnt, so misleading, but brown (7.5
YR 4/2). Core gray (7.5YR 5). Not illus.
7303 2535(3)
Jar/cooking pot. Rim, body and base sherds which
do not all join, but which may well form part of the
same vessel and have been drawn as such. A
straight/slightly concave sided vessel in a lighter fired
fabric than C1.1, analogous to Bowns Fabric 1
(Bown 1988a, 34). It has buff/light brown surfaces
with margins and core oxidised to a light brownishred. The upper surface of the squared rim has a
series of diagonal rows of square notches rouletted
onto the surface. There is sooting on the external
surface, although it is absent in a band around the
neck. Sooting covers the top of the rim and extends
down the upper inner surface, ending in a distinct
line 15mm down from the top. The upper squared
surface of the rim has a marked diagonal zone of
sooting not dissimilar to that described above for
C1.1. The external edge of the squared rim is sooted along its length. Here too the rim is cracked at
the edge of the diagonal zone of sooting. Base sherds
are also sooted. There is a similarly decorated rim
sherd with sooting on the external upper edge only
of the rim from 7505 2383.
Internal surface and core: pink (7.5YR 7/4), external surface: reddish yellow (7.5YR 7/6). Fig
33.2.12.
7505 2372(26), 2383(3)
Jar/cooking pot, a simple squared rim with rounded
edge curving down into the body of the pot. The
fabric is a very gritty reddish-orange, analogous to
Bowns Fabric 2. Internal surface, external surface
and core: light red (2.5YR 6/8). Not illus.
7803 2797(1)
Jar/cooking pot body sherds and rim, which is decorated in the same way as C1.2, but the size of the vessel and the rouletted notches are smaller. The angle
between the neck and rim is less acute, but they both
appear to have been formed in a similar way with a
squared off rim and a slightly raised rib on the inner
edge of the rim. Sooting on the internal surface starts
just below this inner rib and extends diagonally
towards the rim. Possibly it would have continued
across the upper rim surface, but the sherd is broken
at this point. Internal and external surfaces and core:
light brown (7.5YR 6/4). Fig 33.2.12
7505 2372(4)
A small cooking pot with a small squared rim similar to that of C1.3, but with buff surfaces. Sooting
externally again ends in a distinct diagonal line
extending to 10mm at its widest over the upper edge
of the rim. Internal and external surfaces and core:
very pale brown (10YR 7/4). Fig 33.2.12
7004 3568(4),
Rim and neck of small cooking pot. The surfaces are
light to medium brown, with sooting only over the
external edge. It has slightly finer grits than previous
examples. Internal surface and core: pinkish grey
(7.5YR 6/2), external surface: brown (7.5YR 5/4).
C1.7
C1.8
C1.9
C1.10
C1.11
C1.12
C1.13
C1.14
347
Not illus.
6701 204(1)
Rim of cooking pot. The squared rim is undecorated. There is a sharp join where the rim meets the
neck of the pot. The internal surface and core of the
fabric are oxidised, light orange, the external surface
is a darker red/brown. There is no sooting on the
external neck, but sooting occurs on the exterior of
the rim and in a curved area over the top of the rim
and upper inner surface.
Internal and external surfaces and core: light reddish brown (2.5YR 6/4). Not illus.
6901 3143(1)
Undecorated cooking pot rim. The external surface
is a darker brown than usual and, like many of these
sherds, it is only sooted from the neck upwards, with
a distinct band of sooting over the upper surface of
the rim to approximately 2mm in from the edge.
The inner surface of the pot is oxidised to a light
orange until it meets the darkly sooted area on top
of the rim. Internal and external surfaces: reddish
yellow (5YR 5/2), core: reddish gray (5YR 5/2).
Fig 33.2.12.
7003 3836(1)
Cooking pot rim. This example is a lighter grittier
fabric with a slight patch of sooting on the upper
surface of the rim and a small patch of soot on the
lower edge of the rim. The rim was rouletted while
the fabric was still wet. Internal and external surfaces and core: very pale brown (10YR 7/4). Fig
33.2.12.
7505 2372(1)
Cooking pot rim. The fabric is very whitish and perhaps less gritty than the above. The rim was rouletted while the fabric was still wet. Internal surface
and core: white (10YR 8/2). The external surface
is sooted. Not illus.
7803 2811(1)
Cooking pot rim. The surfaces and margins are oxidised, the core is reduced. The rouletted pattern is
smaller than in previous examples. Sooting is present only in a line under the lower edge of the rim.
Internal and external surfaces and margins: reddish
yellow 5YR 6/6J, core: gray 5YR 5/1. JA/TL/39
(see above). Fig 33.2.12.
7803 2807(1)
Cooking pot rim. The fabric is reddish throughout.
The rouletting is sharper, as if executed when the
fabric was drier. Internal and external surfaces and
core: reddish yellow (5YR 6/6). Fig 33.2.12.
6302 77(1)
Cooking pot rim. The core of the fabric is dark
grey, the margins and surfaces are oxidised red.
The rouletted marks are very small, similar to those
of C1.11, but the rouletting is very close together
and overlapping. Internal and external surfaces:
light red (2.5YR 6/6), core: gray (2.5YR N5).
Not illus.
7601 464(1)
Cooking pot rim. This is a coarser variant with a very
different rim form. The fabric has the same inclusions
as Dog Bank type ware, but they are very coarse,
with large subangular inclusions on the surface,
some more than 3mm across, including haematite/
slag. The walls are finer than usual. Internal and
348
C1.15
C1.16
C1.17
external surfaces: reddish yellow (7.5 YR 7/6),

core: very pale brown (10YR 7/4). Not illus.
7602 2860(1)
Cooking pot rim, same form as C1.14. Fig 33.2.12.
7505 2383(1)
Jar with roller stamped decoration and a white fabric. It is reduced and sooted on the external surface
and upper rim surface. Fig 33.2.12.
Squared rimmed jar. Fig 33.2.12.
6901 3143(13)
Wearmouth
C1.18
Sagging base of jar/bowl described by Hurst as York

Type ware (Hurst 1969, fig 25 no. 13). He considers it to date from 850 to 1150, whereas we would
now think it unlikely to be earlier than 1150. Not
illus.
6403 1362(1)
Shell Tempered Gritty ware 11501200 (C2), 0.10%
Fig 33.2.13 Shell Tempered Gritty ware (C2.1). Scale

1:4
appearance are different. There are similarities in fabric with C1, which is, however, finer and of superior
manufacture. C2 may therefore be a local ware either
a little earlier than or contemporary with C1.
C2.1
Only one vessel of this type has been recognised at

Jarrow, and it has not been identified on any other site
in the region. It may have been an earlier version of or
contemporary with C1.
Fabric: Quite hard, but rather friable, rough (especially on internal surfaces), with irregular and laminated fracture, 69mm thick. The matrix is coarse, with c
20% poorly sorted, abundant subangular to subrounded translucent quartz 0.251.50mm, feldspar and
limestone 12mm, red haematite 1mm, minute mica
plates and very sparse rock fragments 12mm. The
fabric is oxidised to reddish yellow (5YR7.5YR
7/67/8), with discolouration to light reddish brown
(5YR 6/4) on lower walls.
Form: The only form identified is a large, shallow,
wide-necked jar; the rim form is unknown.
Discolouration on the lower walls and base indicates its
use in cooking. The vessel was coil-built and probably
wheel finished; horizontal smoothing marks are visible
on both surfaces. The lower walls are knife trimmed
and slightly burnished, perhaps during use. On the
shoulder there are two broad indentations with several
uneven diagonal nicks in them and, below these, three
finer, uneven incised lines.
Discussion: The vessel was recovered from a disturbed rubbish deposit at the western edge of the
monastic site in trench 7801. It has no particularly
close parallels in the form of other types from the site
or the region, though it is perhaps similar to some
large, squat cooking pots from the earliest period of the
occupation at Prudhoe Castle, albeit of a different type
(Bown forthcoming). The coarseness of the fabric and
the manufacturing technique are paralleled by the
splash-glazed wares of Period 3 (118770 AD) in
Saddler Street, Durham (Addis 1979, fig 27,
387/1655), though the clay type and the finished
Large, shallow, wide-necked jar with convex base.

The lower walls have been knife trimmed and are
slightly burnished. The shoulder is decorated with
two broad indentations with diagonal nicks, and
three finer, uneven incised lines below them. The
vessel is unglazed. Fig 33.2.13.
7801 2197(2), 2339(1), 2341(2), 2344(5), 2345 (7)
Newcastle Dog Bank-type ware, finer version

11501200 (C3), 0.08%
Fabric: A finer walled harder version of C1 with a
denser finer matrix and fewer inclusions, making the
surfaces seem smoother and slightly less gritty.
However, surfaces have a toadskin appearance like
that of York A wares.
Forms: Cooking pots
Date: 12th century
Discussion: A similar pattern of sooting over the
external edge of the squared rim and external surface
suggests a similar use to the smaller cooking pots in
fabric C1.
C3.1
C3.2
Rim/neck sherd of cooking pot. Internal and external surfaces and core: reddish yellow (5YR 6/6).
Not illus.
7803 2808(1)
Squared rimmed jar. Fig 33.2.14.
6601 362(1)
Fig 33.2.14 Newcastle Dog Bank-type ware, finer version

(C3.2). Scale 1:4
33: POTTERY
C3.3
Two jar rims in the same style as Dog Bank types,

one is rounded and everted and the other squared.
Not illus.
7802 5151(2)
E3.1
Wearmouth
C3.4
Jar. Not illus.

7101 616(1)
E3.2
Newcastle Dog Bank-tpe ware, glazed version

11501250 (E3), 0.12%
No rim forms of this type have been found elsewhere,
although the fabric could well be of local origin.
Fabric: The fabric is hard, with very rough gritty surfaces that are oxidised internally to reddish yellow
(7.5YR 7/6). The external surface is brown (7.5YR
5/2) to light brown (7.5YR 6/4). The fracture is
rough, gritty, and slightly laminated. The core of the
body is light gray (7.5YR N7/), while the handle is
reduced to a darker shade of very dark gray (7.5YR
N4/) with margins of light gray (7.5YR N7/). The
walls are between 1 and 15mm thick. The external surface is splash glazed and very rough and gritty. The
glaze is patchy, olive (5Y 4/3), thinning to strong
brown (7.5YR 5/8) at the edges. The matrix is fairly
densely packed, with abundant quartz which is poorly
sorted and varies in size from subangular fragments of
0.25mm to occasional rounded opaque white quartz of
approximately 4mm diameter. Sparse black and red
rounded iron ore from specks to 0.2mm and occasional burnt organic material.
Forms: Jugs, jars.
Date: 12th to 13th century on typological grounds,
since it reflects early Reduced Green Glazed wares
from Newcastle (RGG 1, Bown 1988b, 57) and Dog
Bank fabric types (C13).
Discussion: E3.2 has sgraffito decoration, resembling
that found on early gritty Buff wares from the
Newcastle area (see Vaughans fabric series held at the
Museum of Antiquities, Newcastle upon Tyne). These
appear in the late 12th to 13th centuries.
Fig 33.2.15 Newcastle Dog Bank-type ware, glazed version (E3.1, 2). Scale 1:4
E3.3
E3.4
E3.5
E3.6
E3.7
E3.8
E3.9
349
Jug with a strap handle attached to the rim and

secured with a pad of clay beneath and smoothed
surfaces. Collared, slightly bevelled rim, the broken
edge of which shows a smoothed area that probably
led into a pulled lip. The fabric is reminiscent of
Reduced Green Glazed type 1 found at The Castle,
Newcastle upon Tyne (Ellison 1981). Fig 33.2.15.
6901 2970(4), 3110(5), 3136(2)
Jug sherd with an applied vertical thumbed strip of
clay and faint sgraffito in a series of undulating lines
running horizontally around the body of the pot. Fig
33.2.15.
7802 5151(1)
Handle similar in form to 3.1. Not illus.
7303 2606(1)
Rim or edge of handle with a reduced core and oxidised internal surface. Not illus.
7302 2486(1)
Body sherd of jug, Not illus.
6302 77(1)
?Chafing dish. One sherd has an angular hole in it.
Not illus.
7505 2372(5)
Jar with sooting in a band around the rim and a
splash glaze. Not illus.
7803 2808(1)
Jar with a splash of accidental glaze on the rim. Not
illus.
7802 581(1)
Handle from jug/costrel with central groove and finger-nail indentations down the sides. This is reminiscent of handles in fabric E10. Not illus.
6901 3084(1)
Coarse Oxidised Gritty ware 11751300 (E6), 0.57%

A fabric closely related to Dog Bank Kiln ware (C1)
and its related glazed version (E3).
Fabric: A very similar fabric to E1, but coarser, with
less well sorted and less abundant, more angular
quartz, less mica and very occasional spots of a lemon
or lime-coloured splashed glaze. It is of fairly uniform
colour from the core to the surfaces, which are usually
pink (7.5YR 7/4) and lightly oxidised. Occasionally
the core is lightly reduced to light gray/gray (7.5YR
N6/). Moderate subangular quartz, translucent white
and grey, is approximately 0.75mm, with some grains
rounded up to 1mm. There are sparse mica specks,
sparse to moderate sandstone up to 1mm, and sparse
haematite inclusions. The surfaces are very coarse and
rough to the touch where quartz grains protrude
through the surfaces.
Form: Cooking pots, dairy pan. Crudely made, some
possibly hand-made then trued on a wheel, while on
others wheelthrown lines are clearly present. The bases
are slightly convex and rounded. Rims have a distinct
internal concavity and external rib/collar that leans
inwards, finished with a simple, slightly flattened rim
with an internal hook. Some rims have thumbed decoration which is folded over in a similar way to those of
350
from the rim into a broad shoulder. The external

edge of the rim is lightly sooted. Fig 33.2.16.
7302 2415(3), 7303 2463(1)
Coarse Oxidised ware variant 11001250 (E8),

0.06%
A variant of E6, again related to Dog Bank Kiln types
(C1 and E3).
Fabric: The fabric is unglazed and has a reduced core
and internal surface with an oxidised external surface.
On the external surface and down to approximately
30mm below the top of the rim on the internal surface
the fabric is oxidised to reddish yellow (5YR 7/6).
The internal surface and most of the core is reduced to
gray (2.5YR N5/). The fabric is rough to feel, with
angular grits protruding. Poorly sorted rounded and
subrounded quartz are white and grey from 0.25 to
2mm. There are inclusions of iron ore up to 0.75mm,
abundant quartz and large translucent grains of quartz
sandstone. The matrix is very vesicular with rounded
and elongated voids. It resembles C1 and E3 as well as
E6, although the latter is fired to a buff colour.
Fig 33.2.16 Coarse Oxidised Gritty ware (E6.14, 6).
Scale 1:4
the so-called dairy pans in the later Tyneside Buff tradition. Others have thumbed indentations on the
upper surface of the rim.
Form: E8.1 is a shouldered jar with occasional, perhaps accidental, spots of glaze, fine walls and a simple
everted and rounded rim.
Date: Late 12th to 13th century.
E8.1
Date: Probably late 12th to 13th century.

E8.2
Discussion: Almost certainly another Tyneside fabric,

this ware is very similar to D4, although coarser
and generally oxidised to a light pink colour. It is also
similar in fabric, particularly in terms of its coarseness
to the glazed version of Dog Bank Kiln type ware (E3).
A coarser version of Moderately Gritted ware (E1),
perhaps earlier and possibly a precursor of the
Tyneside Buff ware industry.
E6.1
E6.2
E6.3
E6.4
E6.5
E6.6
Cooking pot with patches of sooting externally. Fig

33.2.16
JS76 Area VI Layer 4? (JS76ME? code not clear) (1)
Dairy pan with folded thumb marks along the rim
(see Addis 1979, 83, fig 28 no. 68). Fig 33.2.16.
Cooking pot with patches of sooting and slight
thumb indentations on the rim. Fig 33.2.16.
Plain collared straight-sided cooking pot with
fine walls and spots of lemon/lime glaze. Fig 33.2.16.
7505 2376(2, 13.9513.65 and sf 26), 2377(2, sfs 4,
62)
One abraded, slightly sagging base. It has a thick
white deposit (kettle fur?) over a splashed glaze. Not
illus.
JS73 Area IV Layer 82(1)
Cooking pot with an everted rim which is squared
and hooked at the lower edge. The body splays out
Jar with strips of a whitish deposit inside. Fig 33.2.17.

7305 1994(13)
Jar with hammer-headed edge to squared rim. A ridge
on the external upper rim surface may have been
purposely made to keep a lid in place. Fig 33.2.17.
Fig 33.2.17 Coarse Oxidised ware variant (E8.14).

Scale 1:4
33: POTTERY
E8.3
E8.4
6701 850(1)
Jar with similar shape to E8.2, but with a fine
indented line around the flattened edge of the rim,
perhaps a precursor of the bifid rims in fabric E5
and E12a. Fig 33.2.17.
6701 204(1)
Rim of jar with sooting externally. Oxidised to a
light orange colour on the rim and whitish elsewhere. E8.2 and E8.4 are reminiscent of early gritty
buff wares from the Newcastle area. Fig 33.2.17.
6302 85(1)
Northern Gritty White ware 11501200 (D4), 0.45%

This type was first identified among material from a
group of pits excavated behind Silver Street in Durham
in 1960 (S Mills, pers comm). It has since been recovered in small quantities from other excavations in the
city (Lowther et al 1993, 86), but Jarrow and
Wearmouth are the only sites outside Durham where
its presence has been observed.
Fabric: Hard, with gritty or smoothed external surfaces and a slightly rough fracture, 312mm thick,
There are two variations, also present in the Durham
assemblage:
1. is grittier, the matrix including 15% very poorly
sorted,
subangular
translucent
quartz,
0.0622.00mm, very sparse, subangular quartz
sandstone, rock fragments and rounded haematite,
0.251.00mm, and sparse mica platelets. The fabric is creamy, with external surfaces yellow (10YR
8/6)reddish yellow (5YR 7/6), core very pale
brownyellow (10YR 8/38/6) and internal surfaces very pale brownreddish yellow (10YR
8/37.5YR 7/6).
2. is finer, and includes <10% subrounded quartz,
0.200.50mm, sparser quartz sandstone and rock
Fig 33.2.18 Northern Gritty White ware (D4.17). Scale 1:4
351
but more mica and very poorly sorted, well-rounded

haematite, minute specks 2.00mm. The fabric is
pink, but with external surfaces pinkish white
pink (5YR 8/27/4), core pink (7.5YR 8/4) and
internal surfaces whitepink (10YR 8/25YR 8/3).
A few sherds of each also contain very sparse, subrounded white grains, possibly grog or shale,
0.1251.00mm. The streaked colour of D4.6 indicates
that the two clays were sometimes wedged together.
Many sherds were discoloured and sooted externally.
Form: Cooking pots with upright (D4.1) or squared
(D4.2 and 3) rims, all in the finer fabric. No complete
forms could be reconstructed. The vessels were
wheelthrown, unglazed and sometimes smoothed
externally; some sherds have a sheen, probably
acquired during use. The Durham material included
partially glazed jugs, accidental splashes often being
present on the cooking pots.
Discussion: The influence of the continental white
wares reached Britain before the Norman Conquest,
with Stamford ware. The Durham Silver Street pitgroup material had no associated dating evidence, but
there are broad similarities with Scottish Border White
wares (F11), dated at Kelso to the late 12th century
(Haggarty 1984, 3957). Similar wares have also been
found at Saddler Street, stratified above D7 Durhamtype White wares. D4 is very similar to, and in the
same tradition as, Tyneside Buff White wares E11,
suggesting that D4 may be a precursor of E11 and
manufactured somewhere along the Tyne. Two sherds
were submitted to the TL dating programme, with the
following results: JA/TL/5 AD 125040, 65; JA/TL/7
AD 129040, 60; implying a 13th-century date.
Date: Mid 12th to 13th century
352
D4.1
D4.2
D4.3
D4.4
D4.5
D4.6
D4.7
Large cooking pot, probably with a globular body,

with upright rim and lid-seating in neck, diam
200mm. The folding over of the lip to create the rim
is visible in section. Externally sooted in patches and
finishing in a rough line half-way across the upper
rim surface. The edge of the sooting is softer and
less distinct than on D4.2, perhaps due to its rounded surface. Fig 33.2.18.
7505 2372 (1)
Large cooking pot with squared rim, diam
c 260mm, and thick, convex base. Externally
smoothed and discoloured/sooted. The sooting ends
10mm down from the upper outer edge of the rim
in a very distinct horizontal line. The upper surface
of the rim and interior surface are not sooted. The
lower wall has a distinct lower edge to the sooting
approximately 15mm up from the base/wall edge.
The bottom of the base is very lightly sooted and
water stained, implying that the vessel base may
have been placed in shallow water as in a bain
marie for making sauces or custards, for example.
None of these sherds join, although they look as if
they may have come from the same vessel. Fig
33.2.18.
7505 2372(8); 2376(2); 2383(1)
Large cooking pot with squared rim, diam
c 260mm. Externally sooted and discoloured. Fig
33.2.18.
Jug with pinched lip and rilled neck with one tiny
spot of yellow glaze. Fig 33.2.18.
6901 2992(1)
Jar with a base which is sagging around the edge
and raised in the middle. This is typical of the
Tyneside Buff industry (E11). Sooted externally.
The lower walls are knife trimmed and smoothed
with odd spots of yellowish splash glaze. Fig
33.2.18.
6902 3192(2)
Jar with a slightly smoother greyish white fabric,
perhaps due to heating/cooking. It is sooted externally and more heavily in a band along the upper
surface of the rim. Core and internal surface are
white (10YR 8/1), external rim is pinkish gray
(5YR 7/2) perhaps a coloured residue. Fig 33.2.18.
6601 5845(1)
A softer fabric than the above with less quartz and
spots of yellowish splash glaze. Elsewhere this
appears as a precursor/early version of the E11
series. Fig 33.2.18.
6302 86(1)
Fabric: A highly fired, hard, but very brittle and friable matrix. The external surfaces are often sooted and
have distinct wheelthrown ridges and grooves. The
matrix is short and has a streaky appearance. Both
internal and external surfaces are pink (7.5YR 7/4)
and the core is gray (7.5YR N5/). The fabric is fairly
well sorted, with moderate to abundant white and grey
quartz which is subrounded approximately 0.1 to
0.2mm, and occasional streaks of burnt organic material up to 2mm long (grass?) and others more rounded
approximately 0.25mm. Red iron ore from 0.25 to
1mm is rounded, sparse to moderate. Abundant specks
of white mica can be seen on the surface. There are
very occasional white subangular inclusions. The surface texture is pimply and self slipped. Sometimes the
fabric fires to a light buff/white colour throughout with
oxidised margins and surfaces.
Forms: Jars/cooking pots
Date: At Durham, this type was lumped together with
pottery of the 10th to 13th century (Lowther et al
1993, 86). Similar types are thought to be c 12th to
13th century in Newcastle. At Jarrow, the 24 sherds of
E1.1 came from the bottom of the well 4348.
Discussion: This fabric is reduced with oxidised surfaces in a way similar to that of the early Reduced
Green Glazed and Oxidised Gritty wares in Newcastle.
E1.1
E1.2
Shouldered cooking pot with everted squared rim.

Wheelthrown marks form undulating ribs. Heavily
sooted. Fig 33.2.19.
7002 4342(24)
Published by Hurst as York Type ware (Hurst
1969, fig 25 nos 16 and 62). Straight-sided cooking
pot with patches of sooting on the external surface.
Hurst suggests that it could be later than the
Moderately Gritted ware 10751300 (E1), 0.28%

This type is referred to elsewhere as Blue-grey/pink
ware (BGP) (Lowther et al 1993, 88) and is not soft,
but actually quite hard like the Queens Court,
Durham, material (Clack 1980). A similar type has
also been noted in Newcastle (J Vaughan, pers comm)
and also at Tynemouth Priory, where it came from the
cellar lying to the north of the North Transept (B J N
Edwards 1967, 71, fig 8 no. 1). It was also present at
Church Bank, Jarrow (Mills 1998, 83), where it was
thought to be 12th to 13th century.
Fig 33.2.19 Moderately Gritted ware (E1.1, 4, 5). Scale

1:4
33: POTTERY
E1.3
E1.4
E1.5
Norman Conquest as it was found over the Saxon

gravel floor of Building A, under hearth 2. Not illus.
6302 85(1)
A very similar form to E1.2 above. Not illus.
Bifid rim. Fig 33.2.19.
6901 3116(1)
Jar with squared slightly everted rim which has a
slight indentation. There is a band of sooting, mainly on the external vertical edge of the rim, and a
band at the neck that is not sooted. Sooting then
continues down the external wall. Internal and
external surfaces: strong brown (7.5YR 5/8), core:
brown (7.5YR 5/4). Fig 33.2.19.
6511 51(1)
Fig 33.2.20 Hard Finely Gritted Splashed ware (E5.7, 8,

10). Scale 1:4
Hard Finely Gritted Splashed ware 11001200

(E5), 0.27%
Fabric: A harder and finer fabric than E10, with similar inclusions and less carboniferous material.
E5.4
Forms: Jars with squared bifid rims and accidental spots

and splashes of bright thin lime-green glaze with amber
edges when oxidised. They are well potted and generally smoother, harder and finer than E10 jug sherds.
Date: 12th century
E5.1
E5.2
E5.3
Jar rim/neck/upper body sherd. A finer, smoother,

version of E10 Fabric 1 with a squared bifid rim,
which is rare. It forms a collar with a fine indentation or groove around its maximum girth. While the
function is unknown, the groove may have been
intended to hold a fine 1mm thick (measured on the
outer surface of the groove) string, no thicker than
cotton thread, used perhaps to tie a cover over the
rim, as it would probably have been too thin to suspend the weight of the vessel. The vessel has only a
small run of light lime-green glaze under the rim
along the collar/neck angle, with one spot on the
outer rim surface. The glaze has a bright orange
edge. The upper surface of the rim and interior are
unglazed reddish yellow (5YR7/66/6). The core is
reduced to light gray/gray (5YR 6/0). Not illus.
Rim/neck/upper body sherd of jar. An almost identical rim in a slightly grittier coarser fabric with a
wider groove (1.25mm depth). It is completely
unglazed apart from an occasional spot on the internal surface, and surfaces are oxidised to the same
colour as E5.1 (above). The core is reduced to dark
gray (4/0). Whitish marks on the external surface
may indicate a lighter slip. Not illus.
Jar with the same rim form as E5.1 and 2. The
groove around the rim is 0.5mm to 1mm in height
and hooks downwards. This may reflect the way the
bifid rim was made, either by pulling one rib out
from the top and one from the outer surface as the
pot turned on the wheel and then rolling them
slightly towards each other, or the groove may
reflect the shape of a fine sharp hook-shaped instrument used to form the groove. The upper surface of
353
E5.5
E5.6
E5.7
E5.8
E5.9
E5.10
E5.11
the rim has a few small spots of glaze of a similar

colour to E5.1 and 2, as well as diagonal grooves
which may represent impressions made by pieces of
grass. Not illus.
Jar with bifid rim and neck, and upper body. The
core is reduced to gray/light gray and surfaces are
more buff-coloured than E5.13, pink (7.5YR
7/4). The core is reduced to dark gray (7.5YR 4/0).
The height of the rim groove is 1.25mm. The external surface has a splash glaze which is similar to that
described above. Not illus.
7505 2376(2)
Jar with squared rim and accidental splash glaze in
lustrous yellow/green. Not illus.
JS76 Area V Layers 3(1), 38(1), 68(1), 96(1)
Jar with ?lid seating and simple rolled rim, no glaze.
Similar fabric to E5.15. Not illus.
7505 2372(1)
Jar with collared bifid rim. Fig 33.2.20.
6302 86(2)
Jar with collared rim. Fig 33.2.20.
6302 103(1)
Jar with collared rim and splashes of light green and
yellowish glaze. Not illus.
7305 1972(1)
Bifid rimmed jar. Fig 33.2.20.
7505 2372(1, sf 542)
Collared rim with external indentation and hook at
base of collar. Internally, an indentation may have
acted as a lid seating. Not illus.
7802 582(1)
Hard Finely Gritted Splashed ware variant

11001200 (E5a), 0.05%
The fabric shares features with locally produced E1 and
E5, but the forms relate much more closely to F11. The
reduced core and buff surfaces, along with the ill-sorted red iron ore, are common in local wares. However,
the well-sorted quartz and fineness of form are less
common here than in the Kelso material (F11 types).
Fabric: Buff to cream-coloured margins and surfaces
that are occasionally oxidised to a light pinkish orange
colour. The margins are usually reduced to light grey.
354
Fig 33.2.21 Hard Finely Gritted Splashed ware, variant

(E5a.1, 2). Scale 1:4
The surfaces are very pale brown (10YR N5/). Where
oxidised, the surfaces are reddish yellow (7.5YR 7/6)
at the darkest. Large inclusions of red iron ore (from 1
to 5mm) are visible to the naked eye.
Form: Jars with straight sides and pronounced horizontal wheelthrown ribs. The walls are very thin and
the rims are squared in the same manner as those from
Kelso (see F11.1).
Manufacture: Wheelthrown and usually very thin
walled (3 to 5mm) with spots of accidental splash glaze
or just left plain.
Date: Mid to late 12th century or earlier?
E5a.1
E5a.2
E5a.3
Jar with lid-seating and oxidised upper rim and

external surfaces and reduced core. Fig 33.2.21.
JS73 Area I Layer 4(2)
Jar, as above. Fig 33.2.21.
Jar with simple squared rim and concave lid seating
on rim/neck. Not illus.
7305 1905(1), 7604 979(2), 981(1), JS76 Area IV
N Layers 10(1), 25(1), 26(1), Area VI Layer 41(2)
Oxidised Gritty ware 10751300 (E10), 14.88%

This type is similar to Bowns Oxidised Gritty ware
from the Quayside (Bown 1988b). It also resembles
Early Reduced Green Glazed ware from Newcastle
upon Tyne type 1, although it has oxidised surfaces
(Ellison 1981).
Fabric 1: This fabric is broadly analogous with
Bowns Oxidised Gritty ware categories 1 and 2a. The
matrix contains abundant chips of white and occasionally opaque quartz 0.1 to 0.25mm and moderate to
abundant specks of mica, sparse black and red iron ore
and some organic material. The matrix is hard and
fairly dense with a brittle, coal-like appearance. It is
not always possible to tell what is clearly within the
matrix and what is a later inclusion, but it is assumed
that larger minerals were added to the basic clay at a
later date. There are a considerable number of voids in
the matrix which can be rounded and/or elongated.
They probably represent inclusions which have disintegrated during firing such as carbonised organics as
well as occasional pieces of grass. The clay may have

been tempered with individual grains of quartz which
are subangular and rounded, white and grey. They
vary from 0.25 to 0.75mm, the smaller grains generally subangular, the larger generally rounded. Sparse
rounded red iron ore approx 0.2mm to 1mm in diameter is present in the matrix and as inclusions. Sparse
to moderate conglomerates of subangular and rounded
quartz approximately 2mm diameter are found in association with subangular white limestone and surrounded by carbonised organic material.
Firing shows some variation in the degree of oxidisation and reduction, and therefore the colour, which
can be patchy, suggests a clamp or simple kiln type.
Generally, however, surfaces and margins are oxidised
red and cores reduced grey. Unglazed surfaces vary
from reddish yellow (5YR 6/6) to reddish gray (5YR
5/2). Cores range from gray (5YR 5/1) to black or
very dark gray (5YR 2.5/1 and 2.5YR 3/0) in the types
that resemble Reduced Green Glazed ware type 1.
Fabric 2: This fabric is broadly analogous with
Bowns category 2b as it has what looks like a bimodal
fabric with more small rounded red iron ore, giving the
external surfaces and margins a pinker colour and the
internal surface a lighter buff colour; light red (2.5YR
6/6) externally and reddish yellow (7.5YR 7/6) to
reddish yellow (5YR 6/6) on the internal surfaces.
The core varies from reddish yellow (7.5YR 7/6) to
light gray/gray (5YR 6/1). The fabric is softer and less
dense than Fabric 1, with less carboniferous material.
Occasional elongated voids indicate possible burnt
pieces of grass. The matrix is perhaps finer and surfaces feel slightly soapier and less gritty.
Forms
Fabric 1: Jugs or costrels with strap handles. Only one
handle sherd from a costrel is joined to a rim/upper
body. Handles are either plain with a central thumbed
groove or decorated with a series of combed scratches
and/or notches down the two external raised surfaces.
The scratched decoration, found on vessels in Fabric 1,
reflects that of Developed Stamford wares of the mid12th to mid-13th century (Hurst 1958, 41 and 43, fig 1,
nos 510). This stabbed decoration is common on this
type of pottery and can be seen on a number of examples from Jarrow and Jarrow Slake, Queen Street,
Newcastle, where it is probably 13th century (Bown
1988b, 51, fig 19 no. 86), Hart, Co Durham (Addis
1976, 105 fig 13), Blythe Priory, Nottinghamshire
(McCarthy and Brooks 1988, 278, fig 163 no. 974),
Lincolnshire (ibid 1988, 256, fig 146 no. 818), and at
York (Jennings 1992, 42, no. 42). It is perhaps an
attempt to copy Stamford Type ware, similar decoration
being found on material from the Stamford School Kiln,
thought to be of early 13th-century date (see McCarthy
and Brooks 1988, 256, fig 146 no. 826). The sherd decorated with a circular stamp with central cross motif
(E10.12) may reflect an earlier tradition, since these
33: POTTERY
motifs were used from the Anglo-Saxon through to the

medieval period. York Glazed wares found in the City of
York, dated 13th to 14th century, have similar round
and cross stamps (see Jennings, 1992, 40, no. 23).
Fabric 2: Jugs, jars, bowls, urinals. One jug has a rodshaped handle and bright glaze with areas of amber
and lime green. The fabric of this vessel is softer, and
has larger quartz grits.
Discussion: Similar types noted at Queen Street,
Newcastle, are primary in Horizon B (early to mid
13th century), predominant in Horizon C (early to late
355
13th century) and less common in Horizon D (early to

late 14th century). This type may therefore reflect a
tradition of pottery common along the east coast,
probably made in several different kilns working in the
same tradition from the 12th to 14th centuries. Two
TL dates were obtained from Jarrow: JA/TL/26 AD
141030 50; JA/TL/42 AD 120540, 70.
Fabric 1
E10.1
Jug rim, neck and upper handle. A simple, squared

off, uneven rim, which is fairly narrow, with a flattened surface and several rough grooves across it.
The vessel curves inwards down from the rim to what
would probably have been a very narrow neck. A
strap handle with a central groove runs from just
Fig 33.2.22 Oxidised Gritty ware (E10.18, 11-14, 16, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 29, 31, 33). Scale 1:4
356
E10.2
E10.3
E10.4
E10.5
E10.6
E10.7
E10.8
E10.9
below the rim (3 to 4mm). It is decorated in a very

similar way to a handle sherd in a similar fabric from
Queen Street (Bown 1988b, 51, fig 19, no. 86), with
square notches stabbed in roughly parallel rows down
both sides of the central groove and edges of the handle. These and the scratch marks across the rim were
probably all made with part of a bone comb. The vessel is very crudely made and has a number of kiln
scars where it has stuck to other vessels, sometimes
leaving red oxidised clay patches. Fig 33.2.22.
A similar strap handle, which is not quite as crudely made, has a smoothed central groove and one side
rolled over to form a raised rib which is decorated
with diagonal notches. The flatter side is decorated
similarly to E10.1 above. Fig 33.2.22.
A strap handle probably from a costrel, which also
has a central groove, but is smoother and more regularly shaped than E10.1 and 2. It has a similar covering of glaze, mainly over its outer surface, splashed
underneath. There is a series of horizontal short
parallel lines on its outer edge and two raised rounded areas of brownish glaze, which may have formed
part of a decorative scheme. Fig 33.2.22.
Part of a strap handle, probably from a jug. It has a
lustrous rich green glaze mainly over its external
surface, and there are bands of notches down its
length. Like E10.1 and 2, it was probably decorated
with a comb-like instrument in two bands down its
external edge. Fig 33.2.22.
6302 87(1)
A strap handle with a raised applied thumbed strip
down the centre with a thumbed groove on either
side. Fig 33.2.22.
JS76 Area IVN Layer 39(1)
Strap handle with central vertical thumb-impressed
groove and a series of parallel rectangular areas of
comb-impressed indentations. A twisted decorative
rod of clay has been applied on top of this central
groove. A similar handle can be seen on a large jug
with a bridge spout from Finchale Priory (Jarrett
and Edwards, 1961, 247 no. 36). Fig. 33.2.22.
6901 2970(1)
Strap handle with applied vertical thumb-impressed
strip down central groove. Fig. 33.2.22.
7802 520(1)
Strap handle with a series of parallel rectangular
areas of comb-impressed stab marks. There are two
thumb impressions where it has been joined onto
the body of a jug/costrel. Fig 33.2.22.
6901 2970(1)
A collection of strap-shaped jug handles with a central groove, but no other decoration, with splashes of
glaze underneath and a fuller cover on their external
surfaces. They are in the same tradition as those
above, joined to the body at the base with a central
thumb indentation, flanked by another on either
side (see example from JS76 Area IVN Layer 39).
Not illus.
7505 2372, JS73 Area IV W, Layers 4(1), 48(1),
JS73 Area IV E Layer 56(1), JS76 Area V Layers
22(2), 23(1), 31(1), 35(1), JS76 Area IV N Layers
24(1), 29(1) JS76 Area VI Layer 18(1)
E10.10 Fine lid-seated squared rim, possibly from a costrel,

with patches of light green/amber glaze. Not illus.
6901 2970(1)
E10.11 One rod handle in a coarser variant of the fabric
with five ribs down its length. Fig. 33.2.22.
E10.12 Handle from a bowl, which probably extended out
at a right angle from the rim/body. The fabric is a
coarser variant of Fabric 1 with a smaller amount of
rich brownish green glaze splashed over two
stamped roundels containing raised crosses. This
stamp was probably repeated down the length of the
vessel. While no direct parallels have come to light,
this type of decoration reflects an earlier tradition,
for example on Whitby-type wares from Wharram
Percy (Slowikowski 1992, 32, fig 16 no. 10) and
Late Saxon Shelly wares (see Vince and Jenner 1991
52, fig 2.25 no. 30). Circular cross stamps are
among the most common found on Anglo-Saxon
pottery. Fig 33.2.22.
7505 2372(1)
E10.13 Jug body sherds, decorated with an applied strip
which has a series of scratched lines in a similar
manner to E10.14 on a horizontally ribbed surface.
Fig 33.2.22.
7302 2388(1)
E10.14 Body sherd of jug with similar decoration to that on
applied strips as in E10.13, but scratched straight onto
the body of the pot with a series of straight parallel
lines running vertically adjacent to it. Fig 33.2.22.
JS76 Area V U/S(1)
E10.15 Jug body sherd decorated with a series of vertical
scratched slightly wavy lines, probably also made
with a comb-like instrument, and very similar to
E10.14. Not illus.
E10.16 Flared curfew? Perhaps similar in form to one from
Thornholme Priory, Lincolnshire (McCarthy and
Brooks 1988, 264, fig 153 no. 896, MPRG form
type 8.5.1). The external unglazed surface is light
brown (7.5YR 6/4), the core is gray (7.5YR 5/0),
the internal surface is pink (7.5YR 7/4), the margins vary from pinkish gray (5YR 7/2) to pink
(7.5YR 7/3). Fig 33.2.22.
Fabric 2
E10.17 Undecorated jug with rod handle. It is splash glazed
with areas of lime green and amber, in the softer
variant fabric 2. More abraded than E10 116. Fig
33.2.22.
7502 1190(1), 1193(2), 1194(1), 1201(5),
1203(20), 1204(8), 1211(11), 1213(1)
E10.18 Another smaller rounded jug of similar fabric, also
abraded. It probably had a rod handle and a slightly concave base. Three body sherds and one base,
which do not join. Not illus.
7604 981(4)
E10.19 Pedestal base with crude white slip on the external
surface and mottled suspension glaze with added
copper on the upper surface, which is very abraded.
Fig 33.2.22.
7502 1201(1)
E10.20 Bowls: several body sherds are glazed on the internal surface only, indicating possible use as bowls.
33: POTTERY
E10.21
E10.22
E10.23
E10.24
E10.25
E10.26
E10.27
E10.28
Not illus.
JS76 Area V Layers 3(1), 12(1), 21(1), 22(1), 23(1)
(sherds from layers 3 and 12 join)
Bowl. The fabric has similarities with reduced
wares. Fig 33.2.22.
JS73 Area IVE Layer 64(1), JS76 Area IVN Layer
26(1) (sherds join)
Urinal with fine walls 2.5 to 7.5mm thick, oxidised
margins and surfaces, the outer margin often finer
white under the glazed external surface. This is reminiscent of the early Reduced Green Glazed wares
from Newcastle and the fabric is clearly related, with
a reduced core. It is fairly well potted and finely
thrown with a partial glaze, rough and pitted, with
areas of relatively even coverage of a light yellowishgreen, with yellowish amber edges. Not illus.
7604 971(7) joins 981(16)
Urinal body/handle sherds. The glaze is quite thick
and even in places, but elsewhere partial and pitted
with brown spots of iron, although these appear
mainly to be iron from the surface showing through.
The vessel has a strap-shaped handle with a central
groove and there are three applied strips with three
thumbmarks each decorating the join between the
handle and body. The walls are thicker than E10.22
(5 to 7.5mm), but the fabric is very similar. There
appears to be a whitish slip beneath the glaze. Fig
33.2.22.
7604 981(5), 7805 4732(1)
Jug/urinal, base/lower body sherds which do not
join, but could be part of the same or a similar vessel and have a whitish concretion over most of their
internal surface (?urine). The external surface is
heavily knife trimmed with only splashes of glaze.
Not illus.
7604 979(2), 981(3), 7602 470(21), JS76 Area IVN
Layers 26(6), 27(1), 39(5), Area V AAA(2)
Jug rim/neck sherd in a finer fabric with thinner
walls (2.5 to 5mm) and finer potting. It is similar to
splash glazed E5 types with indented clubbed rims,
with a partial cover of finer, more lustrous, light
apple green glaze. Fig 33.2.22.
Jug with parrot beak bridge spout reminiscent of
Saintonge style and jugs in Reduced Green Glazed
ware from the Castle site, Newcastle upon Tyne,
and the example from Finchale Priory cited above
(see E10.6). Not illus.
JS76 Area VI Layer 18(1)
Jar with finer fabric and walls (less than 2.5 to 5mm
thick). Virtually no glaze other than accidental spots
of a yellowish colour on the rim. The vessel is similar to Tweed Valley White wares in form and fabric
as well as in its superior potting. It could be of a similar or slightly later 12th-century date. (See Tweed
Valley types F11 and F14.) It may be that this type
is a direct attempt at replicating these wares. Both
are found on the southern part of the site. Not illus.
7604 979(2), JS73 Area I Layer 4(1), Area IV Layer
78(1), JS76 Area IVN Layers 5(1), 10(1), 22(1),
25(1), 26(1), Area VI Layer 41(3)
Jug rim in coarse variant of Oxidised Gritty ware.
The shape is reminiscent of E10.27, but it is less
well potted and not as fine. It is also very hard and
although it has no glaze on the rim, the edge of a
E10.29
E10.30
E10.31
E10.32
357
dark brownish green glaze appears at the broken

edge, suggesting that this belongs to the partially
glazed E10 group. Not illus.
Small jar rim, partially glazed over a white slip. The
fabric is of the coarser type and similar to that of
the sherds decorated with stabbed notches. Fig
33.2.22.
7604 981(1)
Jar with a bifid rim, of similar form to E5.1, but with
a flattened surface on top of the rim and a whitish
slip externally. Not illus.
7502 1189(1)
Pipkin foot/base sherd with sooting and a series of
incised lines on the base and lustrous splashed glaze
with copper added. A body sherd has a scratched
horizontal wavy line on it, but although it is possibly
the same pot as the base, it does not join. There are
no rim sherds. Fig 33.2.22.
JS76 Area V Layers 0(2), 23(1), 55(1)
Bifid rimmed concave-necked jar with an oxidised
internal surface and a reduced core with even glossy
partially glazed external surface. This type is found
in fabrics E12a, E10 and E5, suggesting that these
categories overlap. Not illus.
7505 2372(1, sf 542)
Wearmouth
E10.33 Jar with squared rim and thumbed decoration
around the edge of the rim. Oxidised surfaces and
margins with an even lustrous green suspension
glaze externally. Fig 33.2.22.
6402 1237(1)
Buff Type variant 11001300 (E25), 0.02%

Fabric: A buff fabric that has oxidised. The surfaces
feel silty and soapy like E1 and it is made in a similar
way, with pronounced ribs. The surfaces are oxidised
from reddish yellow (7.5YR 7/4) to areas of staining
(perhaps soot) brown/dark brown; (7.5YR 4/4). The
core is mainly oxidised pink (7.5YR 7/4), but is occasionally lightly reduced light grey (5YR 7/0). It has
abundant to moderate rounded red iron ore up to
3mm from 0.25mm, mainly around 1mm, a small
amount of mica, moderate to abundant 1mm rounded
white quartz, sparse inclusions of haematite up to
1.5mm and some black iron ore. Occasional conglomerates of quartz or sandstone 2mm.
Forms: Jars, bowls. The pinched rim of E25.4 reflects
Staxton-type ware (McCarthy and Brooks 1988, 238,
fig 135 nos 690 and 693).
Date: Possibly 12th to 13th century
Discussion: The squared rim could be a 12th to 13thcentury form. Splash glazing, a gritty fabric and crude
manufacture suggest a 12th to 13th-century date. This
ware is not dissimilar to E11b from Jarrow, but it is not
the same, suggesting another relatively local smallscale buff ware industry.
358
glaze is almost always fairly thick, sometimes slightly

pimply and mainly yellow (2.5Y 7/6), but oxidised to
amber in places and with reduced patches sometimes
yellowish-green or pale olive (5Y 6/4). It is usually
splashed and applied as a bib of ground galena. Brown
stains are probably caused by iron staining from the
pyrites in the fabric. The surfaces vary from white
(10YR 8/2) to pink (5YR 8/3). The core is a creamy
white or very pale brown (10YR 8/3). The fabric is
fine and contains sparse transparent and rose-coloured
subrounded quartz 0.251mm, sparse specks of red
and black iron ore <0.5mm and occasional grains
<2mm. Sparse subrounded felspar ranges from 1.5 to
2mm and very sparse mica specks are visible.
Forms: Mainly jugs and occasional jars and so-called
dairy pans.
Date: 12001400
Fig 33.2.23 Very Coarse Oxidised ware (E25.14). Scale
1:4
E25.1
E25.2
E25.3
Neck of a jar with no glaze. Fig 33.2.23.

The upright neck of a jar in a similar, but finer fabric than E25.1 and E25.4. It is better made, harder
and finer. Fig 33.2.23.
7505 2372(1, sf 36)
The fabric is similar to E25.2. The form has a similar squared rim and a lid-seating concavity on the
internal surface. Fig 33.2.23.
7505 2380(2)
Wearmouth
E25.4
Bowl with wide squared rim that has regular thumb

impressions around its upper outer edge and occasional spots of light yellowish glaze, tinged with
amber at the edges and splashed on. The vessel is
wheelthrown. The crudeness of the rim suggests that
it may have been hand built first, but the
wheelthrown marks on the body are quite distinct.
Patches of sooting can be seen on the upper surface
of the rim and the upper interior surface. Fig 33.2.23.
6402 1089(1)
Tyneside Buff White wares (E11)

Some sherds of Buff White wares (E11aE11c) were submitted for TL dating, giving central dates ranging from
1290 to 1500, with one burnt sherd giving a date of 1610
(see Appendix G). Most of the dates seem significantly
later than those suggested below, on the basis of fabric
analysis and comparison with other sites in the area.
Tyneside Buff White ware 12001350 (E11a), 6.02%
(Fig 33.2.61)
Fabric: Quite smooth internally, but can be a little
rougher on the external glazed surface. It feels quite
soft and powdery, but can be harder as in E11a.1. The
E11a.1 An almost complete reconstructed pear-shaped jug

with a rod handle with thumb/finger impressed
ears/indentations on either side of the top and base
of the handle. The rim, neck and body of the vessel
are decorated with horizontal rows of rouletting in a
series of rectangular notches. These are sometimes
quite neatly executed though they can be uneven.
Although the double row closely spaced is the norm,
there are occasional rows of three, unfinished, rows
or a single row as below the rim. They are not uniform, making it difficult to tell where the roller
design begins and ends. It sometimes weaves
unevenly around the pot and was evidently executed
before the handle was attached, since this has
obscured the design. Figs 33.2.24, 33.2.61.
The base and lower walls have been knife
trimmed. Most of the vessel was dipped in a liquid
suspension glaze containing some iron, which has
coated just inside the rim and given the surface a
slightly pimply look. The glaze is sparser towards
the base, with a trickle which has come down from
the rim of the pot above. The vessels were probably
inverted when fired.
The pot shows signs of use as the base is worn
smooth and there are patches of a brownish concretion internally and externally. The vessel is quite
uneven, particularly at the base and has sagged just
below the handle. The remains of a stacking scar
survive on the base. This may have been a second,
but still used.
Capacity: 3.23 litres or 5.68 pints measured to just
below the beginning of the spout.
Date: 13th/14th century on stylistic grounds.
7305 1994 (reconstructed)
E11a.2 A rounded jug with a small pinched lip and rod handle. It has two ears at the top of the handle and a
bib of yellow glaze around its girth which is speckled
with brown spots, probably caused by black iron ore
or haematite in the fabric or glaze. This gives a rough
pimply feel to the glazed surface. The fabric is similar to E11a.1 but harder and grittier. Fig 33.2.24.
7105 1752(15) all join
E11a.3 A sherd from the rim and rod-shaped handle of a
larger jug than E11a.2, with a slightly inverted rim
33: POTTERY
359
Fig 33.2.24 Tyneside Buff White ware (E11a.1, 2, 6, 7, 1012). Scale 1:4
E11a.4
E11a.5
E11a.6
E11a.7
which is lid-seated. The fabric is soft and powdery

and the only glaze is a splash of yellow glaze beneath
and one above the handle. The rest of the rim/neck
and handle are unglazed. Not illus.
Context not known
A small rounded jug with a strap handle and a pool
of green glaze. The rest of the sherd has a yellow
glaze with brown spots of iron. A grittier fabric than
E11a.3. Not illus.
7502 1211(1)
Three sherds of a jug, very abraded, apparently decorated with an applied vertical strip, glazed green on
top of a strip of yellow glaze over some reddish selfslipping. Otherwise no glaze. This is a most unusual sherd. Not illus.
7502 1211(3)
Bowl in a soft fabric with sparse specks of red iron
ore and a rough fracture with a bimodal matrix with
white streaks of clay. There is a yellowish-green
glaze, quite worn and abraded, on both internal and
external surfaces. A red kiss mark on the external
surface suggests that it was fired with other vessels
made in a red firing as opposed to a white firing fabric. The glaze is very irregular and pimply, suggesting perhaps an accident in the kiln. This pot may
also have been a second. Fig 33.2.24.
7505 2372(1), 2378(1), 7602 2856(3), JS76 Area
IV N Layer 26(1)
Jar with a pattern of red-slipped crosses, which are
so crude that they could be accidental, under a yellow glaze. This type of slip application is clearly
intentional on Normandy gritty wares found at the
Castle site, Newcastle, occurring with local buff
wares with this cruder application of red slip. It may
be that local potters were attempting to emulate the
Northern French types in some way. Fig 33.2.24.
7002 4339(3)
E11a.8 Jug with speckled green copper spots on a yellow

glaze which has gone matt, probably during postdeposition. There is some evidence of reddish slip.
The fabric is soft with few visible inclusions. The
surface under the glaze is brown, but the rest of the
fabric is a uniform cream colour. Not illus.
7502 1193(2) and 1201(5) join 1211(1), 1214(1)
joins JS76 Area VI Layer 42(1), 7604 970(1)
E11a.9 Rod-handled plain rounded jug with ears at top and
bottom of handle/body joins. Glaze is matt, possibly
due to post-depositional decay. It extends around
the body/neck of the vessel as a bib and only a few
spots appear on the handle. Runs suggest that the
pot was fired upside down. The fabric feels rough,
but is fairly soft. The outer surface is creamy buff,
the core is a very light grey/white and the outer margin is just slightly darker, a light fawn/buff. The
main inclusions appear to be moderate subrounded
quartz and rounded iron ore, which is sometimes
visible through the glaze. Not illus.
7002 4339(10)
E11a.10 The neck and body sherds of a ?flask with a straightsided neck and very bulbous, short body curving
down and round into what is assumed to have been
the base. It may be that this is a skuomorph based on
the form of a glass vessel. The upper body has several rows of rouletting which are not dissimilar to,
though cruder in appearance than, E11a.1 above.
Some lines overlap and some of what were possibly
square-shaped indentations appear triangular as the
glaze has been applied on top. The vessel has a bib
of yellowish glaze that has turned to a matt colour in
places, possibly post-deposition. The edges of the
glaze have a darker amber/brown colouring and spots
of brown iron ore can be seen through the glaze. One
non-adjoining piece with the same decoration and
shape and therefore probably from the same vessel
360
has a much greener glaze with the same amber/brown

staining. The fabric is a pale buff/creamy white
colour with moderate fine sub-rounded quartz
<1mm and rounded iron ore <0.25mm. Although
similar to E11a, this vessel has a grittier fabric and
earlier form and style of decoration.
Date: ?Late 12th century on stylistic grounds. Fig
33.2.24.
Wearmouth
E11a.11 Squared off rim of large bowl/dairy pan, with lightly oxidised surfaces and reduced core. Fig 33.2.24.
6402 1208(1)
E11a.12 Jug rim and neck with spots of glaze, but otherwise
unglazed and quite highly fired. Fig 33.2.24.
5901 2208(3)
Tyneside Buff White ware 12001350 (E11b),

16.52%
Fabric: Similar to E11a, but finer, with smaller inclusions, often with a lemon-coloured glaze.
Forms: Jugs, including a pear-shaped jug and a baluster jug, a condiment dish, lamp and dairy pan.
E11b.1 Small pear-shaped jug, which has a thin yellow glaze
with lime green patches extending across the external surface of the base which shows signs of knife
trimming. There is an unusual accretion on the
inner surface. An unusual fold in the base gives it
the appearance of a second. Fig 33.2.25.
7502 1191(1) joins 7604 967(1)
E11b.2 A small jug/drinking jug. Not illus.

JS73 Area IVW 15(1)
E11b.3 A small jug/drinking jug, which is buff/almost biscuit coloured throughout. It appears to be selfslipped on the external surface with no glaze. The
fabric is fine with mainly small inclusions and a
slightly pimply surface. Not illus.
7502 1211(1)
E11b.4 Jug body sherd with an applied slab of clay formed
and slashed, perhaps to indicate a hand and fingers.
A dark greenish-brown scale beneath this suggests
that this type of decoration may have continued in a
row below the hand. The fabric feels gritty and
rough inside and only slightly smoother outside due
to a cover of yellowish-green glaze with tiny pinhead-sized specks of brown in it, probably caused by
iron in the fabric of the vessel. Fig 33.2.25.
JS73 Area IVW Layer 15(1)
E11b.5 One body sherd, probably from a small jug with lustrous yellow glaze with sparse brown spots and
streaks. It has a raised brown piece of applied clay
folded in the middle and reminiscent of a small lug
handle. The fabric is an even creamy brown colour
throughout with very fine inclusions. Fig 33.2.25.
7502 1208(1)
E11b.6 ?Jug with a fairly thin light olive green glaze with
brown iron-stained spots. The glaze is even and
smooth. There is a concavity immediately below the
rim, which may have been intended as a lid-seating.
A grittier fabric with a more hackly open matrix
which feels rough internally where there is no glaze.
Not illus.
E11b.7 The neck, rim and handle of a jug with a lustrous
splash glaze which has run down the rim/handle join
Fig 33.2.25 Tyneside Buff White ware (E11b.1, 4, 5, 713, 1518). Scale 1:4
33: POTTERY
and formed crude vertical bands of green and yellow. The yellow glaze covers an applied vertical strip
of clay. Fig 33.2.25.
E11b.8 Saucer lamp, fairly crudely made and not smoothed
when cut from the wheel. It is glazed on the upper
surface but not on the central shaft as if glaze has been
poured over it from the top, swilled round the upper
bowl and then poured into the lower bowl, swilled
round and tipped up to pour it out. During this
process some has stuck to the underside of the upper
bowl. The glaze is olive green/yellow with dark green
copper specks and splashes, suggesting that copper
was intentionally added to the glaze mix. The fabric
is rough textured and creamy white on the unglazed
surfaces. Form: MPRG 1998 8.2.5. Fig 33.2.25.
7502 1203(1, sf1)
E11b.9 Almost certainly a jug, but only one small decorated sherd with an incised line and triangular stab
marks was found. The glaze is greenish yellow and
lustrous and is slightly watery and thin with brown
iron stains and splashes. The fabric contains moderate subrounded quartz, rounded iron ore and sparse
white subrounded felspathic material. Fig 33.2.25.
JS73 Area IVE Layer 64(1)
E11b.10 Two adjoining rim sherds of a dairy bowl/dish
thought to be used for straining off cream. The rim
is very thick and squared with an indentation on the
upper surface, which may represent a lid-seating,
and another indentation internally. There is a
creamy buff slip on whiter external and internal surfaces created by dipping the outside of the vessel
into the slip and then swilling the slip round the
inside of the vessel. The process of pouring it out
has left diagonal drips across the interior walls.
Intentionally unglazed with two tiny spots of accidental yellow glaze. Fig 33.2.25.
7505 2378(2)
E11b.11 Jar in a very hard fired fabric with a squared everted
rim. Fig 33.2.25.
6302 86(1)
E11b.12 Condiment dish with splash glaze. Fig 33.2.25.
7604 971(1)
E11b.13 Jar with whitish external surfaces and margins and light
grey reduced core and internal surface. Fig 33.2.25.
6601 5904(1)
E11b.14 Jar, as above. Not illus.
7003 3865(1)
E11b.15 Jug rim. Fig 33.2.25.
7003 3865(1)
E11b.16 Jug rim and neck. The rim is plain and squared off
with three notches through the worn flat surface of
the rim. The fabric is quite gritty and resembles
sherds said to be from the Gateshead kiln (see
Manders 1973, 62). Fig 33.2.25.
7502 1201(1) joins 1211(1)
Wearmouth
E11b.17 ?Candlestick with pedestal base and green glaze. Fig
33.2.25.
7403 107(1)
E11b.18 Jar/cooking pot with one spot of green glaze on the
neck. Quite highly fired and similar to E11c, but
grittier. Fig 33.2.25.
6602 101(1)
361
Hard Fired Tyneside Buff White ware 12501400

(E11c), 3.49%
Fabric: Hard fired buff-type ware which has a direct
parallel with that from the Castle Ditch, Newcastle. It
has a creamy buff fabric with a slightly darker surface,
moderate haematite/iron inclusions which can be as
large as 4mm. It has less and finer quartz and is harder
and smoother than E11a and E11b, which are assumed
to be of an earlier date. The core can be reduced and
firing often leaves a patchy finish with some areas of
slight oxidisation. It is generally whiter, with smaller
iron inclusions than E11d. It is either splash/accidentally
glazed or has a mottled light green, yellow and brown
glaze. Decorated pieces have a fuller cover of mottled
glaze (E11c.4 and 5). Plainer jugs (eg E11c.2) are
splash glazed, while the dairy pan E11c.8 has an ?accidental splash glaze, with spots of glaze only (see Ellison
1981 and Bown 1988b for a fuller fabric description).
Forms: Jugs and jars, often with splashed glaze over
the maximum girth and spots and splashes elsewhere
eg on the handle area. Jars are often straight sided,
unglazed and ribbed with splashed or accidental spots
of glaze. Jugs are mainly shouldered and often very
large and probably for storage of liquids, though smaller ones are not uncommon. This particular type
appears to be of 14th-century date and often plainer
than the earlier grittier types.
E11c.1 A typical parrot-beak spout reminiscent of those
on similar jugs from the Castle Ditch, Newcastle
and also of their probable French precursors from
the Saintonge region. The glaze is splashed with
spots and dribbles and, where a white slip is present,
the glaze is a clear yellowish colour. One bright
green spot of glaze is on the unslipped surface. This
form has also been noted on early Reduced Green
Glazed wares (see E12a) The fabric is atypical,
reduced to a light grey and quite fine, with fewer
inclusions and only very fine spots of black iron ore.
It is quite hard and highly fired, but not as highly as
fabric E11d. Not illus.
E11c.2 Sherds from the lower wall and base of a large shouldered storage jug, again not uncommon from sites
along the north side of the Tyne e.g. Stockbridge
(Jenner and Cooper 2001, 176 fig 33.3). The fabric
is finer, whiter and softer than the others in this
group. The large rod-shaped handle has three
indented vertical lines down its external surface and
two thumb marks on either side of the top and bottom of the handle/body joins. Not illus.
JS76 Area IVN Layers 16(7), 25(1)
E11c.3 A large rod handle from a similar storage jug to that
above, with splashes of red slip on its external surface and one thumb mark down the centre. It has a
reduced core, which is very gritty and a little like
reduced green glazed ware, but without the glaze.
The fabric is similar to E11c.2. Fig 33.2.26.
362
Fig 33.2.26 Hard Fired Tyneside Buff White ware (E11c.35, 7, 8, 10, 11). Scale 1:4
E11c.4 The shoulder going up towards the neck of a jug
decorated with a stamped boss in the shape of a
raspberry with one central circle surrounded by six
others. A harder fired fabric with a mottled green
glaze. Fig 33.2.26.
E11c.5 One sherd from just below the belly/maximum
girth of a large, rounded, jug, decorated with
applied vertical strips which may have represented
part of a tunic and legs. The fabric is similar to
E11c.4, with a mottled green glaze. Fig 33.2.26.
7604 971(1)
E11c.6 One body sherd with applied vertical strips of brown
scales under a matt glaze, which has a rough feel
where it has been overfired. The hardness of the fabric makes it similar to fabric E11d. Not illus.
E11c.7 Dripping dish/frying pan with a squared rim and lip
and medium to thick walls getting thicker at the
base. It is fairly crudely slab-built and knife trimmed
but the rim is finished very neatly and looks as if it
has somehow been made on a wheel and then
straightened. The glaze is a light olive green internally on the base only. The external surface has only
accidental spots of glaze. It was possibly fired on its
side as it has diagonal drips across its interior walls.
Fabric: a light creamy yellow/buff outer surface and
margins with a light brownish-pink inner surface.
Moderate to abundant sub-rounded quartz <1mm,
rounded black iron ore <1mm and felspar <2mm
subrounded. Fig 33.2.26.
E11c.8 The rim/upper shoulder of a very large dairy pan
with rounded rim and upper rim surface sloping
down into the centre of the vessel. The external edge
of the rim has a continuous band of large thumb
marks. It appears to have been only accidentally
glazed with a string of yellow spots caught in a concavity just below the inside of the rim. It is otherwise
unglazed.
In some ways fabric and form are similar to

E11b.10, but the surface is a light buff/orange with
a creamy/buff core more in keeping with the
traditional Newcastle type E11c. However, there are
few inclusions and little haematite visible. Fig
33.2.26.
JS76 Area VI Layer 40(1) joins 51(2)
E11c.9 Four body sherds from a ?pear-shaped jug. A finer
fabric, with a matt oxidised surface, which has been
incised in a pattern of alternating groups of
three/four straight lines and the same number of
wavy lines vertically down the vessel. The fabric is
otherwise a finer version of the traditional Newcastle
type Buff ware with a red, oxidised core. It is similar
to E11c.4 & 5. Not illus.
7502 1191(1), 1193(3) do not join but are possibly
from the same vessel.
E11c.10 Jug with an indentation inside the rim, perhaps
intended as a lid-seating. Fig 33.2.26.
6901 3063(3)
E11c.11 Jug. Fig 33.2.26.
6901 3110(1)
Over-fired Tyneside Buff White ware 13001475

(E11d), 5.05%
Fabric: The fabric is generally fired to a higher temperature than that for other buff wares. This often
makes it very hard, almost vitrified in places, and gives
it a characteristic ring when tapped. The glaze is usually applied as a bib around the shoulder/maximum
girth area with patches on the external surface of the
handles and lower body. The glaze appears to have
been made up from a lead galena powder that may fire
greenish-yellow under lower firing conditions, but has
frequently turned to a purplish colour. Unglazed external surfaces are often oxidised yellowish red (5YR
5/8). The core is often reduced to gray/light gray (5Y
6/1).
33: POTTERY
Forms: Mainly fairly plain and functional jugs, larger

storage jugs and smaller drinking jugs which have
knife-trimmed lower walls and smoothed, sometimes
self-slipped surfaces where there is no glaze cover. The
aludel (E11d.44) provides evidence for distilling on the
site (Moorhouse 1972).
Date: 14th century mainly, but continuing into the
15th century.
Discussion: These fabrics and forms are found on
various sites in Newcastle, mainly from the 14th
century, and probably represent the latest fabric development within the Buff White ware group.
E11d.4648 are similar in many ways to North
Yorkshire Silty Buff ware (D16), although E11d.48 is
grittier. It may be that these buff wares from
Wearmouth are from a different source to the rest of
the E11d group.
It has been postulated elsewhere that at this time
potters local to Durham and Newcastle were moving
to purple glaze from green-glazed wares due to
changes in the symbolic dimensions of ceramic tablewares (Cumberpatch 2001, 98). This can be seen as a
widespread tradition from the 14th and mainly 15th
century onwards in the Midlands; the earliest examples
of Midlands purple wares being 14th century.
At Jarrow, Buff White ware fabrics and not
Reduced Green Glazed ware fabrics appear to follow
this trend. Are the Reduced Green Glazed cisterns and
jugs (E12b) and plain purple glazed Buff type jugs
(E11d) fulfilling contemporary and perhaps complementary function/fashion roles in the 14th/15th centuries? The former are decorated with applied
thumbed and slashed strips and stamps, while the latter represent a plainer variant of the buff tradition at
Jarrow. Perhaps one type was to be admired and the
other fulfilled a more functional role?
E11d.1 Large jug (possibly three handled), diam 110mm
with an upright, slightly inturned rim. The fabric is
variably fired, generally reddish buff on the surface.
A purple glaze has trickled over the rim in a number
of places, but is more liberally applied over the
shoulder of the vessel, with sparse coverage on the
lower walls and upper surface of the stabbed handle.
Fig 33.2.27.
7502 1188(4), 1190(1), 1198(2), 1201(2), 7604
967(7), 969(1), 970(7), 971(2) (joins 967, 970,
1190, 1198)
E11d.2 Large jug, diam indeterminable, with everted,
slightly lid-seated rim with pinched ?spout. The vessel has been knife trimmed around the lower walls,
there is very little glaze present here. The base is distorted and cracked, and thus is concave in shape,
probably a kiln second. There is pronounced
rilling on the shoulder of the vessel, a common feature of these jugs. Not illus.
7502 1188(1), 1199(4), 1200(1), 1206(2), 7604
967(1), JS73 Area1V Layer 46(2), 48(2), JS73Area
IVW Layer 4(1), JS73 Area IV Layer 40 (1), JS76
363
Area VI Layer 1?(1), JS76 Area VI Layer 18(1)

(joins 1190, 1199, 1206)
E11d.3 Large jug/storage jar. There is a glaze on the upper
and lower wall sherds, with splashes from another
jug present on the base. The fabric of the vessel is
reduced throughout. The glaze is mottled brown in
colour with greenish tinges. The base has a clear
impression of the rim and pulled lip of another jug
in the same fabric. The body sherds are grey in
colour throughout, while the base has an external
buff colour extending through parts of the walls.
The fabric of this vessel is similar to E11d.1 and is
not as overfired as the others. Not illus.
7502 1183(1), 1188(1), 1195(1), 1198(1), 1206(1),
7604 967(1), 970(2), JS73 Area IVE Layer 50(1)
E11d.4 Medium sized jug, diam 100mm, with slightly lidseated upright rim. The surface of the vessel, in particular the shoulder and upper surface of the handle,
are covered with a thick purplish pitted glaze, which
takes on a greenish colour in places. Fig 33.2.27.
7502 1193(1), 1197(1), 7503 1201(1), 7604 970(2)
E11d.5 Medium sized jug? This vessel is very overfired to
the point of vitrification, though there are still large
opaque quartz grains present, possibly a kiln second? The base has sagged from the weight of another vessel on top when fired inverted. This vessel was
probably rather broad based and squat in form. Not
illus.
7502 1188(2), 1190(1), 1193(5), 1194(1), 1198(5),
1199(1), 1206(1), 7604 966(1), 967(1), 970(1),
unmarked (1) (joins: 967, 970, 1193, 1199, and
between 1190 & 1194)
E11d.6 Small jug/jar, diam 110mm, with no close parallels
observed for rim form. The fabric is completely
reduced and vitrified. The surfaces are rather shiny
and vitrified in appearance. There are a few purplish
glaze splashes on the base and the lower walls, which
have been knife trimmed. Not illus.
7502 1195(1), 7604 967(1), 970(2)
E11d.7 Jug. This vessel is a very gritty, coarse version of the
local fabric with large blue/grey opaque quartz
grains. There are a substantial number of molten
iron blobs on the surface. There are splashes of
brownish glaze on both the base and on the upper
surface of the handle. The shape of the base and the
walls suggests a form similar to E11d.5. Not illus.
7502 1193(1), 1201(1), 1209(1), JS76 Area V
Layer 12(1) (joins 1193, 1209)
E11d.8 Jug. A completely distorted rim sherd; it seems most
likely that it was damaged during firing, rather than
afterwards, and perhaps transported accidentally to
the site. The sherd is completely vitrified. Fig 33.2.27.
7502 1193(1)
E11d.9 Jug, with a rim that has a pulled lip. Completely vitrified. The colour is dark grey, with externally a dark
red surface and a spot of glaze. The lower walls and
the base have a thin external oxidised margin. The
base is flat and the lower walls are discoloured and
sooted internally. The shoulder of this vessel also
has a dull reddened external surface, and is splashed
with a dark green/purple glaze. Not illus.
7502 1193(1), 1200(2), 1206(2), 7604 971(1),
JS73 Area IV W Layers 16(1), joins 30(1)
E11d.10 Jug, probably a large vessel, thick walled, with some
large impurities in the fabric (quartz and other).
364
Fig 33.2.27 Overfired Tyneside Buff White ware (E11d.1, 4, 8, 32, 34, 44-48). Scale 1:4
33: POTTERY
The reddish colour of the oxidised external margin

and surface indicates this may be a more iron-rich
fabric than usual. The internal margin and surface
are reduced. There are a few extended glaze splashes. Not illus.
7502 1206(1), JS76 Area IV N Layer 39(1)
E11d.11 Jug with an indentation on the upper surface of the
rim, which has only odd spots of a dark purplish
brown glaze, also present on the base of the sherd.
Distinct internal rilling marks can be seen inside the
base. The lower wall has been knife trimmed. Most
of the sherds have reduced core and internal surface
varying in shade, with blobs of iron on the surface.
The exact form of this vessel is uncertain. Samples
from the Gateshead kiln site are remarkably similar
to the base sherd, although a considerable variation
in colour and oxidation as well as kiln temperatures
exists within both the Gateshead and Jarrow material. This type is also common in Newcastle.
Whether several kilns were operating at the same
time or not is unclear, but quite likely, and certainly there appears to be a considerable amount of variation within this material. Not illus.
7502 1214(1), JS76 Area V Layers 12(1), 65(1)
E11d.12 ?Jug. The sherds are almost vitrified, reduced
throughout the core and internal surface. There is
some surface and external margin oxidisation. The
fabric of this vessel is very hard, and when tapped
has a clear ringing tone. The internal surface has a
number of iron blobs on it, and is slightly yellow
tinged in places. Externally, the lower walls are knife
trimmed and have only occasional spots of glaze.
These glaze spots are more frequent on the shoulder
of the vessel and in some places constitute larger
areas. The glaze is rather uneven and a yellowishbrown colour, with the surface rough to the touch.
Not illus.
7604 971(1) JS73 Area IV W Layers 12(1), 26(2),
JS76 Area IV N Layer 25(2)
E11d.13 ?Jug. The fabric of this vessel is virtually identical to
E11d.12; however, the internal surface is much yellower in colour. Otherwise it is possible that they
might be the same vessel. The glaze is more greenish
toned and is again confined to splashes on the base
sherd. The fabric of the vessel is very hard. Not illus.
JS73 Area IV W Layer 12(1), JS73 Area IV Layer
46(1), JS76Area V Layer 19(1)
E11d.14 ?Jug. The fabric of this vessel is virtually identical to
E11d.12 & E11d.13, except that internally the surface is much redder in colour and the shoulder,
where glazed, is a dark, purplish brown colour,
rather speckled in appearance. Not illus.
JS73 Area IV W Layer 9(2), JS76 Area V Layer 3(2)
E11d.15 Jug. The fabric is reduced internally, with iron
speckles present. There is external margin oxidisation, which is reddish toned, and splashed with reddish-green glaze spots. The base of the vessel, which
is rather thick, has glaze splashes. The fabric is quite
hard, but not vitrified. Not illus.
JS73 Area IV W Layer 12(1), JS76 Area VI Layer
10(1)
E11d.16 Jug. The fabric of this vessel is similar to E11d.15,
but it is slightly harder. There is a reduced core and
internal surface, with external margin oxidisation.
The surface of the vessel is mid to dark red, with
365
faint traces of rouletting over the shoulder, and

splashes of greenish red glaze over the shoulder and
down the walls. The base also has splashes on its
lower surface. Not illus.
7502 1208(1), 1209(1), JS73 Area IVW Layer 4(1),
JS76Area VI Layers 18(2), 36(1)
E11d.17 Jug. One tiny sherd (1198) and lower wall sherd
with thumbed base of a rod handle. The fabric is
variably fired, sometimes with reduced core, but
generally oxidised. The vessel is pale yellow internally and orange externally, with splashes of purplish brown glaze. In general appearance (hardness
etc) the fabric is similar to E11d.1. Not illus.
7502 1198(1), JS73 Area IV E Layer 64(1)
E11d.18 Base of a small jug, diam 180mm. Hard, fine, but
not vitrified fabric. The surfaces are quite rough,
especially externally. Reduced interior, oxidised
externally with a few spots of glaze present on the
base (brownish green and pitted). Thumb marks
occur in groups of three around the base. Not illus.
E11d.19 Jug. One shoulder sherd in an almost vitrified fabric, reduced throughout except on the outer surface,
which is a dark shiny brown, due to new vitrification. There are large splashes of glossy greenishbrown glaze externally. The fabric is similar to
E11d.4. Not illus.
7604 971(1)
E11d.20 Three small sherds of a very thin walled, completely vitrified vessel (for appearance of fabric see
E11d.8). Reduced throughout matrix, except for
surfaces, which are dark brown both internally and
externally (darker externally). Internally, the surfaces are also covered with a patchy whitish deposit.
Externally, splashes of purplish brown glaze are present. The form of the vessel is indeterminable, but it
is probably a thin-walled jug. Not illus.
7604 970(1), 971(1), JS76 Area VI Layer 18(1)
E11d.21 Jar/jug, basal angle of vessel. This vessel is quite thin
walled, reduced to pale grey internally, with oxidised
external margin and surface. The surface is quite
reddish in colour, and has been either knife trimmed
or smoothed. There is a single spot of glaze present.
Not illus.
E11d.22 Single sherd of jug. This vessel is thick walled, mostly reduced to pale grey, but with oxidised external
margin and surface. There is evidence of external
knife trimming. The surface is a light pinkish-brown
colour and rather vitrifed, and there are a few greenish-yellow glaze spots, usually pitted at the centre.
Not illus.
E11d.23 Small jug, diam 80mm. The fabric is similar to
E11d.11, with reduced interior and oxidised exterior margin and reddish surface. The fabric, however,
looks rather different in a number of ways, but the
rim form and the finish suggest that it is part of the
main tradition. Not illus.
E11d.24 Single sherd of thick-walled vessel, probably a jug.
Part reduced internally to pale grey, with oxidised
exterior and a sooted pinkish external surface. Not
illus.
7502 1188(1)
366
E11d.25 Single sherd, possibly of a jug. Similar fabric to

E11d.24, but less hard, with white grains. The
external surface is discoloured and brownish, with a
spot of glaze. Not illus.
E11d.26 Jug, small sherd in hard, rather grittier version of the
fabric. There are small quantities of white quartz,
but the grains are frequent though small, hence the
grittiness. Not illus.
Context unknown(1)
E11d.27 Single sherd of jug. Vitrified to pale grey throughout, with yellowish surfaces, a more golden colour
externally. There are splashes of dark, greenishbrown glaze externally. See E11d.13 for appearance.
Not illus.
E11d.28 One sherd of a ?jug. Similar to E11d.27, but with
large pale grains visible under the interior surface.
Externally smooth to the touch, with traces of red
?slip, randomly applied, and a few glaze splashes.
Not illus.
7604 967(1)
E11d.29 Jug/jar, sooted. A few sherds of a very hard fired,
almost vitrified vessel, reduced to pale grey, with
internally and externally oxidised margins and surfaces. The interior surfaces are orange/grey in
colour. Externally the colour is reddish/brown. One
base sherd is sooted just over the basal angle, the
other on the base itself. There are a very few spots
of greenish brown glaze. The walls are streaky as if
from a slurry. Not illus.
7502 1188(1), 1198(2), 7604 971(1)
E11d.30 One sherd of jug/jar, vitrified to dark grey, with
orange internal surface; externally the colour is a
dark reddish-brown where unglazed, but mostly
glazed with a dark, uneven, purplish-brown metallic
glaze. The appearance of this sherd is not wholly
typical of the type; however, it is possible that in this
case a more iron-rich clay was used, firing to dark
grey when overfired. Not illus.
E11d.31 Small jug/bottle, rim form unknown, probably a jug
for a particular function. Overfired to dark grey, with
an oxidised surface, margins also oxidised on the
upper surfaces of the vessel. Interior margin and surface is a deep orange in colour, fading to a thin
orangey-brown on the lower walls and the base.
External margin and surface are deep orange, shading dark orange and a dark red on the lower walls of
the base, which show signs of wire trimming. The
base (diam 100mm) is uneven and concave. The
upper vessel is generally glazed, but lower walls are
splashed with a greenish lead glaze, red on outer
edges. The walls of the vessel are quite thick in proportion to its size, and the fabric is rough on the surfaces, with at least one impurity of coal or iron slag.
The external finish and the handle indicate a close
similarity to Buff White ware vessels, but this may be
a different clay and manufacturing centre. Not illus.
7502 1190(1), 1193(1), 1195(1), 1198(1), 1199(1),
1211(1), 7604 966(1) 967(2), 970(1), 971(2),
(joins 970, 1190, 1198, 1199 and 966 1195)
E11d.32 Small jug/bottle, probably identical in form to
E11d.31, but with a narrower neck, widening into a
more curved central section. The base (diam
100mm) has a straighter wall profile than 31, but it

is also concave. Mainly reduced (nearly vitrified) to
dark grey, oxidised margin and the surface interior at
the neck are a dull orange, shading down the vessel
to a thin brownish orange very like E11d.31. The
external margin and surface at the neck are a dull
brown orange with occasionally a vitreous sheen,
shading to mid brown orange at the base. Neck and
shoulder are roughly scratched with random strokes
and are unglazed. The base has one glaze spot on the
wall, and splashes of dark, brownish green glaze on
the base. Lower walls are wire trimmed, and contain
occasional large impurities. The appearance and finish of the vessel is similar to E11d.31. Fig 33.2.27.
7502 1198(1), JS73 Area IVE Layer 37(1)
E11d.33 Small jug/bottle. Rim sherd, probably of a vessel
with the same form as E11d.31 and 32. Reduced,
nearly vitrified throughout, except for patchy thin
external and internal margin areas of oxidisation.
The internal surface is dark purplish brown with
orange mottles. There are glossy patches from surface vitrification on internal and external surfaces
and over the rim. Externally there are two spots of
dark greenish-brown glaze. Not illus.
7502 1201(1)
E11d.34 Small jug/bottle (diam 90mm), of similar form to
E11d.31, 32 and 33, but with a more tapered profile. Mainly reduced to mid grey, but with oxidised
internal and external margins and surfaces. Internal
margin and surface bright orange on upper part of
vessel, shading to a darker grey/orange on the base.
Externally, orange margin but the surface is a dark
red throughout, glossy in places from vitrification. It
is possible, since the underlying fabric is so orange,
that a very iron-rich slip has been applied externally. There are a few splashes of greenish glaze (with a
red halo) and the lower walls have been wire
trimmed. The base is, as usual, concave. The walls
are quite thick, and internal and external surfaces
are quite rough and finished in the typical Buff
White ware manner. Fig 33.2.27.
7604 970(2)
E11d.35 Small jug, diam 90mm. This vessel is the same form
as E11d.31-34. The body of the vessel is unglazed;
however, there are a few splashes of greenish-brown
glaze on the base. Reduced to mid grey internally,
except at the neck, which is oxidised to a pale golden orange colour throughout. The external margin
and surface are oxidised to a pale golden orange,
with a darker orange and/or red in patches at the
surface. The lower walls and the base of the vessel
are wire trimmed, and are a darker, reddish-brown
in colour. The walls are quite thick, rough to feel
internally, and have pronounced internal rilling.
The fabric is similar to E11d.34, with fairly fine
inclusions. Not illus.
7502 1193(1), 7604 967(2), 970(1)
E11d.36 Base of a large jug, which is probably a second. It
is very highly fired and beginning to warp. It has a
knife trimmed and smoothed external surface, with
spots of purplish glaze. The base has an off-centre
concavity and the fabric has a crack approximately
30mm long where the fabric has stretched further
than its plasticity would allow. Not illus.
7505 2372(1)
33: POTTERY
E11d.37 Small ?jug diam 80mm, probably from a similar vessel to the others. Patchily fired, core reduced to dark
grey, thin oxidised margins, except internally towards
the base where the surface is reduced. The margins
are pink in colour. The internal surfaces are pinkish
to grey. The external surface is reddish, possibly the
result of slip, but more likely just the firing colour.
The base of a small thumbed handle (rod?) is visible.
There is one spot of yellow glaze present. The fabric
of the vessel is hard, but not vitrified. The walls are
thinner, but the general surface finish suggests that
this vessel is of the same type as the others. Not illus.
7502 1201(1), 1211(1)
E11d.38 Small jug/bottle, similar to E11d.31 etc. There is no
evidence to suggest that this is a jug, but the form is
similar, and the walls are thick as usual. Very hard,
almost vitrified, reduced to a dark grey in core, with
thin, dark, reddish orange margins. Distinctive
internal throwing rings. The internal surface is reddish orange, the external surface is darker, sometimes a reddish brown. There is also a splashed
streak of reddish glaze. Not illus.
7502 1188(1)
E11d.39 Small jug, similar to those above. The vessel is thick
walled, very rough on the surfaces, virtually vitrified. The core is generally oxidised to a dark red,
with occasional patches of reduction. The external
margins and surfaces are dull, dark reddish brown,
occasionally slightly glossy from vitrification. The
springing of the handle is visible. There are occasional spots of glaze externally. Not illus.
6503 1193(1), 7604 970(1)
E11d.40 Small jug? Probably the same form as the others,
but the fabric is completely vitrified and reduced, so
it is impossible to be certain. Reduced throughout
to black, the external surface is dark brown, with a
large splash of dark brown glaze. The internal surface is grey, with a thick, lumpy, soft, sometimes
rather metallic deposit. Very thick-walled sherd,
with distinctive internal rilling, very rough to the
touch. Not illus.
7604 970(1)
E11d.41 Small ?jug similar to E11d.39, but the fabric seems
slightly less gritty. Reduced to black, but with very
thin pale orange margins. Internally the surface is
pale, buffish-orange in colour. The external surface
varies from dull orange to red. There is one external
splash of orange-brown glaze. Thick walled, uneven,
slightly rough to feel. Not illus.
7604 970(2)
E11d.42 Small jug ?handle. The fabric is rather similar to
E11d.35 and 36, very hard, reduced to black, with
deep orange oxidised margins. There is one possible
patch of glaze, decayed, and the surface is generally
patchy, covered with a yellowish deposit. It is rather
sandy, but not rough to feel. Not illus.
7502 1188(1)
E11d.43 Small jug (diam 80mm). This vessel is of a broader
and larger form than E11d.3142, the rim form being
generally much closer to jugs of Buff White form than
those of the smaller narrower jugs. All the sherds
except for the base join. The finish is very like the
usual Buff White ware, especially internally. The fabric is generally oxidised except on the handle and the
lower walls around the handle, where there is a mid
367
grey reduced core. The margins and throughout in the

upper walls are dark orange. Internally the fabric is a
dark orange shading to reddish-orange at the neck and
rim, and externally the whole surface is a mid-reddishorange, giving the slip effect noted on other vessels.
There are a few dark brown, pitted glaze splashes
externally, with occasional large splashes on the base.
The base, a darker brown-red colour, is rather uneven
with external evidence of trimming. The fabric of the
vessel is hard and rough to feel, especially internally.
Externally, throwing lines are quite pronounced. On
one of the sherds (lower wall) there is external sooting
and an internal thick white deposit. The fabric is generally grittier than some of the other vessels, but it is
quite like E11d.36. Not illus.
7502 1206(2), 1209(15), 7505 2380(1), 7803
2808(1), 7805 997(1)
E11d.44 Aludel. The vessel has extremely thick walls at the
top and a rough uneven rim. The fabric of the vessel is rather hard, almost vitrified in places and contains both white quartz grains and some large quartz
sandstone grains (almost iron slag). In this sense it
is similar to E11e. It is reduced to mid blue/grey,
generally with oxidised margins, of light brown to
deep orange in colour. The internal surface is rough,
with pronounced throwing lines further down the
walls, and it is lumpy and uneven towards the top. It
is a bright orange colour near the top shading to pale
yellow brown on the lower walls. There is a broad
band of sooting internally, perhaps where it was
stacked on top of another similar form, and there
are slight patches of sooting externally. Externally,
the surface is rough and scratched, generally a dull
brown, with patches of dark red. There are a few
splashes of greenish brown glaze. Form: MPRG
1998 9.2. Fig 33.2.27.
7502 1195(1)
E11d.45 Medium-sized jug with a slightly lid-seated rim. The
fabric of this vessel is typical of this variant, fired
almost to the point of vitrification, with an external
sheen on unglazed areas. The glaze is confined to
shoulder areas and is very haphazard. The external
surface is generally brown, and the lower walls have
been either smoothed and/or knife trimmed, exposing the large opaque grits in the matrix. Internally
the surface is a dull purplish-brown with globules of
iron slag. Fig 33.2.27.
6905 2946(1), 2967(4), 2993(1), 2996(11), 3061(8)
Wearmouth
E11d.46 Barrel-shaped jar with a horizontal strap handle at
the upper neck level. It has a flat base and internal
coating reminiscent of kettle fur. The external surface is glazed to a brownish purple colour. The glaze
extends over the rim and down the internal surface
to approximately 30mm. There is a complete profile. Fig 33.2.27.
7403 135(1), 137(9), two unmarked sherds.
E11d.47 Barrel-shaped squat jug with a bulbous belly.
Crudely made with brownish-green glaze, horizontal grooves around the neck and a short, slightly flattened rod handle, with thumb impressions at the
base. The soapy texture of the fabric is reminiscent
of D16. Fig 33.2.27.
7403 142(14)
368
E11d.48 Rim of a ?barrel-shaped jar. The fabric is harder and

grittier than the above, but the manufacture and
glaze are similar. Fig 33.2.27.
7403 124(1), 127(1), 130(1)
Oxidised Tyneside Buff White ware 13001500

(E11e), 2.90%
E11e is an oxidised Buff-type ware. In most cases the
oxidation appears to be intentional, although in some
the fabric is so similar to E11c that the colour is probably a reflection only on the areas that were curated
rather than the whole vessel. E11e.8 and 9 represent a
higher fired, much harder, finer walled variant, included in this category as it is oxidised, but it is very distinctive. It includes pipkins and small jugs.
This type also overlaps significantly with E13 in
fabric and form. It is likely that these categories all
overlap slightly. Perhaps oxidation was patchy initially
and then later in the industry/tradition was executed
for a specific fashion or taste for red wares.
Fabric: External and internal surfaces vary from reddish brown (5YR 5/3) to light reddish brown (5YR
6/4). The core is often oxidised throughout, but when
reduced approximates to gray (7.5YR N6/).
Moderate chips of white quartz, rounded red and black
iron ore and occasional large inclusions of slag up to
3mm across (mainly where the fabric is reduced).
Forms: Handled jars, drinking jugs, larger jugs and
occasional pipkins.
Discussion: Fairly functional looking wares which
may reflect Buff types found in the Newcastle area. At
Stockbridge it was thought that handled jars and large
jugs were used in conjunction with each other (Jenner
and Cooper 2001, 166).
E11e.1 Drinking jug with rod handle and occasional, accidental spots of dark red/brown glaze internally and
externally, but otherwise intentionally left unglazed.
The fabric is predominantly oxidised throughout,
but the core is occasionally reduced. Moderate large
<0.75mm subrounded inclusions of haematite,
felspar and quartz which have sometimes blown
out of the matrix, leaving holes in the otherwise fairly fine sandy orange fabric.
The vessel resembles a small narrow drinking jug
in an overfired orange fabric found with material
from trench 1, the medieval town defences,
Newcastle upon Tyne (Nolan et al 1989, 63, no. 42,
fig 16). But while E11e.1 is similar, it contains
much coarser quartz and felspar and haematite.
Exact parallels can be found in unpublished
material from the Castle, found alongside
traditional Newcastle Buff wares eg E11c. Fig
33.2.28.
7502 1206(1), 1209(14), all join
E11e.2 A strap-handled jar. The handle has four vertical
grooves on the external surface and two stabbed
holes. There are thumb impressions where the handle attaches to the body. The body of the jar is bulbous and carinated at the shoulder/maximum girth.
It has a lid-seated rounded rim. There is a bib of
glaze, mainly greenish-yellow, but turning slightly
purple where it has been overfired. The external surface is oxidised red and the internal surface is a
brownish-red. There are occasional, accidental
spots of glaze inside. Fig 33.2.28.
7604 170(1), JS76 Area IV N Layer 10(1)
E11e.3 Dairy pan/wide bowl. The rim is squared off, with a
thumbed edge. Fig 33.2.28.
6903 4456(6)
E11e.4 Dairy pan/wide bowl decorated in the same way as
E11e.3. Not illus.
7604 966(3)
E11e.5 Dairy pan as E11e.3 and 4. Fig 33.2.28.
7604 970(1)
E11e.6 Jar with flat rim. Not illus.
Fig 33.2.28 Oxidised Tyneside Buff White ware (E11e.13, 5, 7). Scale 1:4
33: POTTERY
E11e.7 Jug with heavy strap handle decorated with incised

lines down its length and ears on either side of the
upper handle/body join. This vessel is buff inside
and oxidised outside. It would fit as well into category E11c. It is reduced in places and is denser and
heavier than the others in this type. Fig 33.2.28.
6901 3063(4)
E11e.8 Small jug. Not illus.
7505 2365(2)
E11e.9 Pipkin with a bib of splashed glaze and occasional
spots of accidental glaze. It is sooted and was obviously used for heating. Not illus.
7305 1869(1), 1906(6), 1919(1), 1972(2), 1987(1),
1994(1), JS73 Area IV W, Layer 4(1) (join 1919,
1972)
Reduced Green Glazed wares (RGG) (E12)

Fabrics fall into six types at the Castle Ditch, Newcastle
(Ellison 1981, 10722). Bown suggests that types 1, 2
and 5 are probably of the same clay source and that type
3 may be related to type 1 (Bown 1988b, 57). Reduced
Green Glazed ware type 4 is finer and generally accepted as from a different clay source (Ellison 1981; Bown
1988b; Vaughan 1994). Experimental firings of samples
of clay from the Castle Ditch, Newcastle, produced
vessels similar in fabric to Reduced Green ware type 4
(Ellison 1981, 57), but not the earlier types 1, 2 and 3.
There appear to be two main fabric groups from Jarrow
that relate to these types. These are E12a (RGG types
1, 2 and 3) and E12b (RGG types 4 and 5). A further
group of roof furniture/tiles (E12c) relate to fabric E12b
but have more added sand.
Large quantities found in Newcastle suggest this as
the most likely source, although no production site as
such has been found.
Early Gritty Green Glazed ware/RGG types 1, 2
and 3, 11751350 (E12a), 8.59%
369
Discussion: All the material in this fabric from

Jarrow was broken into small sherds, probably, but not
conclusively, from jugs as they are mainly glazed externally. There are only a few sherds large or distinctive
enough to be certain of their form. These are described
below.
E12a.1 Top knop of a money-box. It has a light grey core
with a white margin similar to RGG 2/3. However,
the fine nature of the matrix and well-sorted nature
of the inclusions might indicate a buff type. A light
green/yellow glaze covers the external surface. Fig
33.2.29.
7803 2804(1)
E12a.2 A rod handle in a darker grey/black fabric with more
black organic inclusions and moderate subangular
quartz sand. It has buff margins and a light green
glaze. There are three thumb marks at the base of
the handle and two thumb indentations at the top
on the sides of the handle where it joins the body.
Not illus.
7505 2378(1)
E12a.3 ?Crucible. The fabric is very similar to RGG type 1,
but has clearly been heated several times during use
and has become very brittle in texture. The fracture
is laminar and quite open. There is a very rough,
patchy splash glaze on both internal and external
surfaces The glaze on the outside formed globules
that ran down the external surface. There was also a
whitish deposit in the base and in patches on the
external surface.
The vessel was initially thought to be a cruet or a
crucible. Analysis did not conclusively prove the latter, but this was considered its most plausible use
due to the overfired nature of the vessel. It was
thought that the small hole in the centre might have
been used to melt precious metals (A Vince, pers
comm). The analysis failed to confirm this, but
traces of antimony, tin and lead were found. Fig
33.2.29.
6902 3209(1)
This type includes the category formerly classified separately as E16.

Fabric: Abundant large rounded quartz, pockets of
burnt rounded white quartz (approx 0.5mm diameter)
and burnt organics used as temper. It is usually
reduced to a dark grey or black under an uneven
splashed lead galena glaze which varies in colour from
dark to light green/yellow.
Forms: Characteristic thick-walled conical jugs. There
is also a dripping dish, fragments of a lid and a money
box, and what is probably an industrial vessel (E12a.3).
Date: This type is found in horizons C and D, mid
13th to late 14th century at Queen Street (Bown
1988b, 58) and in phases 1 to 3 (13th to early 14th
century) at the Castle, Newcastle upon Tyne (Ellison
1981). It is at the earliest late 12th century and predominant in the 13th century.
Fig 33.2.29 Early Gritty Green Glazed ware (E12a.1, 3,

58). Scale 1:4
370
E12a.4 One sherd from a jug with incised horizontal lines

and a mid to light grey core. It has a watery partial
glaze with small flecks and black dots caused by the
iron in the fabric/glaze. Not illus.
6701 242(1)
E12a.5 Lid with a series of approximately four incised
zigzag lines around its girth. It was probably decorated with an applied band of clay on its upper outer
edge. This has since fallen off, leaving an unglazed
scar around the edge. The fabric is quite gritty and
black, reminiscent of RGG type 2, but finer. The
internal surface is black and smooth, resembling
RGG type 3/4. The glaze is even, a light olive green
with occasional brown spots where iron in the fabric
has come through. Fig 33.2.29.
E12a.6 Dripping dish with pinched lip. The fabric has buff
margins and a reduced core. It resembles Reduced
Green Glazed ware type 3/4. Fig 33.2.29.
6901 2992(2)
Wearmouth
E12a.7 Base/lower wall of a conical jug in gritty course fabric with fairly thick walls and uneven pimply glaze,
perhaps caused by an accident during firing. Fig
33.2.29.
6401 1261(1), 6402 1071(1), 7401 203(1), 247(1),
248(3), 271(1)
E12a.8 Conical jug with a curious stamped decoration
resembling a leaf/wheat ear in the lower wall/base
area. Fig 33.2.29.
6402 1220(1)
Later Green Glazed ware/RGG Types 4 and 5

1375 (E12b), 5.77%
Later Green Glazed ware (E12b) may be equated with
RGG types 4 and 5 from Newcastle (see above).
RGG4 is a much finer fabric than E12a, with smooth
surfaces fired from mid to dark grey/black, though oxidised in patches or more completely to a reddish
colour. Where this fabric appears to have been intentionally oxidised throughout it has been catalogued
as E13. The type occurs in Horizons E and F, early
15th to late 16th century, at Queen Street (Bown
1988b, 58), Phases 4 onwards, dominant in Phases 5
to 8 at the Castle Ditch (late 14th to early 15th
century; Ellison 1981, 108) and from phase 4 (mid14th century) onwards at the Swirle (Ellison 1993a,
185).
RGG5 shares characteristics with RGG4 and
appears on cisterns in particular, where the bases are
closer to RGG 5 and the upper parts closer to RGG 4.
The fabric can be oxidised, but it is usually mainly
reduced.
Forms: Mainly cisterns but also jugs and one example
of a bowl/dripping dish and a costrel.
Date: Late 14th century onwards. The cisterns closest
in type to those found at Jarrow are thought to be late
14th to late 15th century at the Castle Ditch.
E12b.1 Costrel. The fabric is fine with few inclusions, other

than subrounded quartz (58mm) and specks of
mica. Since this vessel is almost complete, it is not
possible to examine a fresh fracture. It is fired
unevenly and is partially oxidised and partially
reduced. The vessel was wheelthrown, then turned
on its end and a hole pierced through its side and
pouring spout and lug handles applied in one piece.
Signs of knife trimming can be seen on unglazed
surfaces and the surviving end has wire marks on it,
presumably where it was cut from the wheel. It was
probably dipped in liquid glaze that has fired to an
amber on slipped areas and green on reduced areas.
It is crudely made and roughly finished. Fig
33.2.30.
7502 1179(1)
E12b.2 Body sherd of a large jug/cistern with walls approx
5/6mm thick. It is decorated with applied vertical
strips of clay with thumb marks at approx 10mm
intervals. In between these are long leaf-like motifs
made either by stamping or stabbing, with a central
groove surrounded by oval stabbed indentations.
Above each of these are a series of three similar
stabbed oval indentations in a clover-leaf arrangement. The closest parallel (though by no means the
same) is from Queen Street (Bown 1988b, 56 and
55, fig 20 no. 98), but it is in an earlier fabric, RGG
type 2, from horizon C (mid to late 13th century).
The core is reduced, mid to a dark grey throughout,
with a slightly lighter grey external margin below the
glaze. It has a lustrous, even cover of green glaze
with streaks of iron staining and darker areas where
reduced. The closest parallel is with Ellisons types
4 and 5. Fig 33.2.30.
7502 1188(2) joins 1190(1)
E12b.3 Approx 80% of the rim/neck and the upper 25% of
two handles, probably from a three handled cistern.
The strap handles have four incised vertical lines on
their external surfaces. Approximately 15mm down
from the top of the rim there is a horizontal
thumbed applied strip of clay. These features make
it similar to an example from the Castle Ditch
(Ellison 1981, 114 and 117, fig 14 no. 53) in fabric
type 5, from phase 13 (mid 16th century). The
Jarrow example also has a zigzag line incised immediately above the thumbed strip. This type of decoration can also be seen in examples from the Castle
Ditch (Ellison 1981, 115, nos 457). These are all
found in type 4 fabric from phases 5a, 5a and 7
respectively. This type is also found, made in RGG
type 4 fabric, at the Swirle (Ellison 1993a, 184, fig
17 no. 10). Here it was in phase 5A, associated, as
at the Castle phase 5A, with Low Countries and
Rhenish imports and post-dating the completion of
the town walls in 1370, therefore thought to span
the period from 1375 to mid 15th century (Ellison
1993a, 179). Recent excavations at Leazes Bowl,
Durham have revealed similar forms (Cumberpatch
2001, 89). This is thought to be a common northern type, probably being produced in a number of
production sites, including those from Yorkshire and
Humberside, which share similar features. The
nearest parallel for the fabric is type 4/5 at the Castle
Ditch. It has few inclusions and appears like RGG
type 4 at the neck where the walls are approx 4mm
33: POTTERY
Fig 33.2.30 Later Green Glazed ware (E12b.17, 12, 13, 16, 18, 2026). Scale 1:4
371
372
E12b.4
E12b.5
E12b.6
E12b.7
wide, but coarser and more like type 5 where it

thickens out into the rim. The internal surface is
very dark grey/black and smooth, though in places
where there is no glaze on the rim and handle the
surfaces have oxidised to a buffish colour. The
external surface is covered with a streaky green lead
glaze that has turned to a light matt colour as it has
degraded during use/deposition. Fig 33.2.30.
7502 1189(5)
Probably a sherd from the shoulder of a cistern.
Although abraded, the decoration appears to consists of an applied thin strip of clay/slip in a curved
line representing a tendril/spiral ending in a circle,
with a cluster of four oval indentations, probably
stabbed into the clay with a round ended implement, perhaps to look like fruit/berries. Decoration
of a similar nature, but different style, can be seen
on an example from the Castle Ditch (Ellison 1981,
112, 115, fig 13 no. 45), in RGG type 4, phase 5a.
The fabric is fine, more like RGG type 4, with
smooth surfaces and fewer inclusions. Reduced to
an even dark grey throughout with smooth dark
grey/black internal surface and a brownish-green
glaze externally. Fig 33.2.30.
6904 3102(1)
This vessel may be part of a urinal or jug. It has two
horizontal lines of zigzags incised into it before glazing. Similar incised decoration can be seen on a urinal from the Castle Ditch (Ellison 1981, 119 and
122, fig 16 no. 104), in type 4 fabric from phase 5.
However the sherd from Jarrow is too small to identify its form with any confidence and this kind of
decoration could have been applied to any other
type of vessel. The vessel walls are approx 10mm
thick, possibly rather thick for this form type. The
fabric is reminiscent of Ellisons type 5, a light to
mid grey core with thick white margins 0.5mm thick
on both internal and external surfaces under an
even green glaze which has since become lighter and
more matt after deposition or use. There is evidence
of some patchy glaze internally. Fig 33.2.30.
7305 1876(1)
Jug/cistern with a series of faint horizontal grooves
along the wheelthrown lines in groups of four across
the body, above which, at the shoulder/neck, a series
of closely spaced diagonal slash marks. No parallel
has been found for this yet. The fabric is probably
type 5 with a light grey core throughout and a mid
grey internal surface. It has an iron-rich glaze that is
atypically rough and lightly pitted with tiny wellsorted specks of brown rounded iron pellets. Fig
33.2.30.
6903 3047(3)
A large number of sherds, all from a jug/cistern (no
bunghole present). Possibly from the same vessel,
but not joining. There is a strap handle with three
thumbed grooves down its external surface. One
sherd (illustrated) has an applied oval shaped knob
of clay, approx 50mm wide by 15mm tall and protruding about 15mm from the wall of the vessel,
reminiscent of a nose or beard on a bearded face
jug. It is triangular in section and has vertical incised
lines, possibly indicating the hair in a beard. Below
it the remains of a vertical applied strip can be
detected, although somewhat abraded. Another
similar sherd (illustrated) has an applied horizontal

thumbed band with incised zigzags above it and a
smaller applied knob of clay with fainter, shallower
incisions similar to that described above. The fabric
is type 4. Fig 33.2.30.
7007 3664(50)
E12b.8 Jug with a strap handle sherd with two or three vertical incised lines. The body of the jug is decorated
with incised horizontal lines just below the
neck/shoulder join. The fabric is hard and highly
fired, more like type 4, but with similarities with
type 5. Where the external glaze is missing, the surface is fired to a reddish-brown colour. It has a fairly even cover of green/brown extremely lustrous
iron-stained glaze. The internal surface is reduced
to a very dark grey/black and is smooth. Not illus.
7502 1170(1), 1179(1), 1188(2), 1190(1), 1191
handle(1), 1193(2), 7604 967(2) (1188 joins 1190)
E12b.9 Cistern a bunghole in fabric type 5, very abraded,
but probably glazed evenly on the external surface
only. Similar to two bungholes from the Castle
Ditch (Ellison 1981, 114, 115, fig 13 no. 51)
recorded as of type 4/5 from phase 8. Not illus.
7504 1082(1)
E12b.10 The base and lower walls of a jug which may have
been overfired as the glaze has a very rough texture
with small flecks of added clay and glaze. This may
have been saved from a kiln disaster. The base looks
as if it had stuck to something below it in the kiln. It
has scratch marks and a broken edge to the glaze,
which had flowed under the body/base join and
appears to have been scraped off subsequently.
There is a small kiss-mark where it has stuck to
something else in the kiln and an area of oxidisation
in an area where there is no glaze. This must have
been a second/waster. Although no exact parallel
has been found, it is not dissimilar to the most common jug type in type 5 fabric at the Castle Ditch
(Ellison 1981, 110, 111, fig 11 no. 29), where it
occurs in phase 16 and is thought to be a 16thcentury type, not occurring in any other fabric. The
fabric is type 4. The glaze and internal surfaces are
a very dark grey/black and the glaze is an olive green
with flecks of brown from iron-staining. Not illus.
7106 1274(3)
E12b.11 The base of a cistern which has a concavity just
inside its outer edge and a convex centre. A similar
sagging base can be seen on a two-handled cistern at
the Castle Ditch (Ellison 1981, 115, fig 13 no. 47)
in type 4 fabric from phase 7. The fabric is type 4/5,
with a dark grey/black smooth internal surface. It is
oxidised on one side of the edge of the base and
reduced black in the centre. This could be the result
of sooting/heating after firing. Not illus.
7502 1191(2)
E12b.12 A lug-shaped protrusion made from an added pad
of clay, decorated with a closely spaced series of
diagonal slash marks covered in a dark green glaze.
An oxidised area where the glaze is not covering the
body clearly shows that these incisions were made
before glazing. Fabric type 4, with very dark
grey/black internal surfaces, lighter in patches where
it is oxidised. Similar pads appear across the upper
handle joint on cisterns. Fig 33.2.30.
7604 967(1)
33: POTTERY
E12b.13 The bunghole from a cistern, probably pushed

through from the outside with a stick. The diameter
of the bunghole is 65mm and the internal opening is
25mm. The fabric is evenly grey coloured with a
smooth internal surface like type 4, but also grittier
areas closer to type 5. Fig 33.2.30.
7502 1189(1)
E12b.14 A large, wide, strap handle, probably from a cistern or
very large jug (diam 70mm) with faint impressions of
two thumb marks at the base and one vertical central
groove between them. The fabric is smooth and fairly fine, with black/dark grey internal surfaces like type
4, but with a sandier fabric and a lighter grey core.
The handle is oxidised reddish on the margins, particularly where there is no glaze underneath. Not illus.
7502 1195(1)
E12b.15 Finely potted jug with pronounced decorative
throwing ridges. The closest parallel is from the
Castle Ditch (Ellison 1981, 111, fig 11 no. 20).
Fabric type 4/5, but closer to type 5. The fabric
varies considerably in colour across the vessel. One
sherd is reddish-brown and looks sandier than the
others although it joins. The thinner areas are light
grey throughout and the thicker areas darker grey or
brown throughout. The glaze is a yellowish-green
colour. Not illus.
7604 967(4)
E12b.16 Jug rim/neck and handle sherds from a two-handled
cistern, with a collar of undulating applied clay with
small thumb/finger indentations along its edge.
Their size suggests that a child made them. (It has
been suggested before that a master potter might
work with a young apprentice in this way; the potter
concentrating on the highly skilled task of wheel
throwing, while his/her junior performed more simple, but time-consuming decorative/finishing tasks.)
On the upper edge of the collar there is a series of
closely spaced diagonal incised lines. Although similar vessels from the Castle Ditch have incised decoration above the collar, it is usually in the form of a
zigzag (see Ellison 1981, 112, 115, nos 457). The
glaze extends almost to the edge of the rim, but it is
partial on the upper surface of the handle with only
a few splashes and spots on the under-side of the
handle. It was probably a liquid suspension glaze
that was poured on, and it is fairly thick and even.
The vessel has thin walls (<5mm) and a slightly lidseated rim which was possibly for a wooden stopper,
since these have been found in close association with
this type elsewhere (Ellison 1981, 112). At the
neck/body join is the top of an applied thumbed vertical strip, suggesting that the vessel was decorated
in this way around the body. The wide strap handle
is decorated with seven incised vertical lines down
its length.
The fabric is very similar to type 4 but slightly
more open textured, with a more sandy feel. Where
the glaze does not cover the external surface, it is
oxidised, while the internal surface is reduced to a
dark grey/black and very smooth to touch. The handle appears to be grittier than the body. The glaze is
a green/brown colour with iron-staining and in
places there is a grey/white margin underneath. This
type of cistern is the most common in fabric type 4
at the Castle Ditch. Fig 33.2.30.
373
7502 1179(1) joins with 1188(1). It is probable that

two identical handle sherds, which join to each other
but not to the rest of the vessel, are from the same
vessel: 7502 1189(1) and 7604 966(1)
E12b.17 Two strap handles in type 4 fabric, probably from
cisterns. They are decorated with varying numbers
of incised vertical lines. Not illus.
7502 1185(1), 1190(1)
E12b.18 Dripping dish, probably made from slabs of clay
rather than being wheelthrown. It has a slightly lidseated rim and a small lug handle at one corner, the
upper surface of which is decorated with a zigzag
incised line. No exact parallel for this form has been
found, although similar crudely made dripping dishes in this fabric type were found at the Castle Ditch.
The fabric is similar to RGG type 5, with white
internal and external margins and a light grey core.
It was probably dipped into a suspension glaze as
the glaze is fairly thick and even on both surfaces.
Fig 33.2.30.
7502 1190(3), 1191(4), one sherd unmarked.
E12b.19 The base of a large, wide-based vessel, perhaps a
bowl, glazed on both sides and covered with small
red clay blobs. These sherds appear to have been
involved in a kiln accident. Perhaps the clay blobs
are the debris from another pot, exploding in the
kiln next to it. Several look like kiss marks where
the pot has stuck to something else in the kiln. This
may be a second rather than a waster as the glaze
does not cover the broken surfaces. Not illus.
6901 2977(25)
Wearmouth
E12b.20 Large jug in fabric resembling RGG type 4 with
elaborate incised decoration, a ?boat, between vertical thumbed strips with applied roundels of clay. Fig
33.2.30.
7101 634(2)
E12b.21 Barrel-shaped jar with streaked brown/green glaze
and fine walls, possibly a horizontal handle. Fig
33.2.30.
6602 1833(1)
E12b.22 Large jug, 254mm high. The jug has been restored
and is now virtually complete, six areas of missing
sherds having been filled with conservation compound. Only two small areas are empty. The jug has
a typical upright rim with a small pulled spout, short
wide neck and broad, globular body. There are two
groups of incised concentric combing below the
neck and on the shoulder. The strap handle is also
decorated with incised grooves. The base is slightly
convex, and may have been luted on, as there are
signs of knife trimming around the edge. The fabric
is typical, slightly sandy, and the vessel is reduced to
black internally, with a light grey outer margin. The
jug has a virtually full cover of external glaze, light
olive green through to dark olive in patches, variable
from sherd to sherd due to post-depositional decay.
In one or two areas where the glaze has only trickled
over the walls the fabric is unglazed and oxidised to
reddish yellow. The vessel was fired inverted, and a
stacking scar and reduction area are present on the
base. The walls of the vessel are rather battered, presumably as a result of use. Fig 33.2.30.
7403 142(29)
374
E12b.23 Base of a medium-sized jug. Partly reconstructed,

but the upper half of the vessel is missing. The fabric is typical, though quite friable in section. The
internal surface is coated with a cream deposit,
probably limescale, the vessel presumably having
been used regularly as a water jug. The full external
cover of light olive glaze has been broken away and
the entire base has lost its original surface; the few
patches of surviving glaze are dull and decayed.
Some of the damage may be post-depositional. Fig
33.2.30.
7403 116(9), 127(1), 135(3)
E12b.24 Medium-sized jug, partly reconstructed. Neck, rim
and handle are missing. The vessel is quite thickwalled, well made with distinctive rilling. The fabric
is typical with the usual colour variation, and the
internal surface has a creamy to light brown coating
similar to that of E12b.2. The jug has had a full,
even, glossy external cover of very dark olive glaze,
heavily iron-stained, but this is badly decayed and
broken away. The base is slightly concave, with a
stacking scar. Fig 33.2.30.
7403 116(3), 127(3), 135(2)
E12b.25 Small drinking jug. The neck and shoulder are fully
glazed with a thick light to dark olive glaze. Related
to E13, the lower walls are fully oxidised to light reddish-orange over an uneven surface. Fig 33.2.30.
7401 250(1), 7403 198(5)
E12b.26 Slightly inturned, lid-seated rim of jug, diam 80mm.
Slight handle-springing. Typical fabric, with external metallic olive to brown glaze. Fig 33.2.30.
6604 829 (1)
Oxidised Green Glazed ware 1375 (E13), 5.13%

This type includes pottery formerly classified as E14,
E15 and E22.
Form: Mainly jugs.
Fabric: A possibly intentionally oxidised fabric which
in every other way corresponds to that of Reduced
Green Glazed ware type 4 from the Castle Ditch (see
Ellison 1981). External and internal surfaces reddish
yellow (5YR 7/6) to red (2.5YR 5/6). The core may
be the same or reduced to gray (10YR 5/1).
E13.1
E13.2
A small jug with a rod/strap handle, which has two

thumbed indentations on its external surface. It was
probably dipped into a suspension glaze and is very
even, smooth and shiny. The glaze is golden brown
with a greenish tinge and is mainly on the handle.
The rim is slightly lid-seated and is ribbed, with a
further rib below the upper handle/body join. The
body is oxidised throughout, but the handle is
reduced to a medium grey core with lighter grey
margins. Accretions inside have eroded the internal
surface. Fig 33.2.31.
7502 1185(1) joins 1190(2)
An unglazed drinking jug with accidental spots of
yellowish brown glaze. The fabric is fine, smooth
and almost powdery with stretch marks inside, suggesting poor plasticity of the clay. Fig 33.2.31.
7502 1193(2), 1198(1), 1199(1), all join
E13.3
A similar sized jug to E13.1 but with a splash glaze,

which amounts to a few spots on the rim and the
edge of the handle. The top of the rounded strap
handle has four parallel vertical slash marks. Fig
33.2.31.
7502 1198(10)
E13.4 One sherd from the base of a ?pipkin with a similar
splash glaze and fabric to E13.3. There is a scar
where perhaps a foot was attached. Not illus.
7502 1193(1)
E13.5 A jug similar to E13.1, but with a thinner and patchier glaze, less glossy and greener, with a rough pitted
surface. There is a line of brownish coloured slip
along the top of the rim. It also has a rod handle flattened into a strap with ears at the upper body/handle join and a lid-seated rim. Fig 33.2.31.
7502 1170(1) joins 1190(2)
E13.6 Lip and simple rounded rim of a jug, with a yellowish glaze that has turned amber/brown at the edge
and dripped down from the rim. Probably a larger
jug than E13.1, 2, 3 and 5. Not illus.
7604 970(1)
E13.7 Chamber pot. The strap handle has three vertical
incised lines down the external edge and three
thumb marks where the base of the handle joins the
body. There is a patch of green glaze inside the base
with dribbles going towards the rim, indicating that
the vessel was fired upside down. Externally there is
a lustrous slightly patchy olive-green glaze, extending to just over the rim, but not down the internal
walls. The rim is reduced to a dark grey core with
white margins, but the body has a red oxidised core.
Where the walls are thinner they appear oxidised
throughout, but where thicker they reduce at the
core. Not illus.
6905 3065(4)
E13.8 Jug with a rod handle. There is virtually no glaze on
the handle, but some on the body and base of the
handle, where three indentations are central. The
fabric is oxidised throughout the body, but the handle has a reduced core. Not illus.
7604 981(3)
E13.9 Drinking jug with a small rod handle. A very finewalled variant fabric with a very dark grey core
and red surfaces and margins with no glaze. Fig
33.2.31.
7604 967(1), 970(1)
E13.10 A fine-walled jar with lid-seated rim expanding out
into a bulbous body. The internal edge and upper
part of the rim is concave, curving inward at the
neck to an acute angle and then out to form the
globular body. The core is dark grey and the surfaces and margins are oxidised to a reddish orange.
Fig 33.2.31.
7604 967(4) joins 969(3)
E13.11 Bowl with olive green glaze similar to oxidised
Reduced Green Glazed types. Fig 33.2.31.
7502 1193(1), 1198(1), 7604 970(2), 971(1), 7502
1211(1) joins 7604 967(5)
E13.12 Handled jar (possibly two handles). Squared rim
and strap handle with three vertical incised lines.
There is a bib of mottled olive green glaze opposite
the handle. The handle is sooted to approximately
half-way up. Fig 33.2.31.
7502 1193(4) joins 1194(5)
33: POTTERY
Fig 33.2.31 Oxidised Green Glazed ware (E13.13, 5, 925). Scale 1:4
375
376
E13.13 A small jug with a rod handle which echoes the baluster form and has a bib of splash glaze mainly around
its girth with a few spots elsewhere. Fig 33.2.31.
7305 1919(1) joins 1972(24) and 7505 1919(1) and
2372(10), 7505 2374(1)
E13.22
Wearmouth
E13.14 Base and body sherds of a bulbous small jug similar
to those in Sandy Green Glazed ware (E18). Fig
33.2.31.
7401 272(1), 276(1)
E13.15 Barrel-shaped jar with rounded rim and matt
brownish-green external glaze. Fig 33.2.31.
7104 387(1)
E13.16 Small jug with neck and rim missing, 102mm high.
The fabric is typical, oxidised to pale buff-orange
internally, the internal surface coated with a brownish deposit. The external surface is dark reddishpurple where unglazed. The shoulder area is
covered with a patchy, decayed brown glaze. The
handle is missing, though its base is just visible, and
the lower walls are extremely battered, the surface
broken away in places, presumably through use or
from post-depositional decay. The vessel may well
have been re-used after the neck and rim were broken off, as the upper edge seems to have been
smoothed off. This is a typical small jug of E13, and
is probably related to the series of narrow jugs recovered at both Wearmouth and Jarrow. Fig 33.2.31.
7403 142(1)
E13.17 Small drinking jug, partly reconstructed, height
indeterminate. c 60% of the pot, including neck, rim
and handle, is missing. The fabric is typical,
reduced through core and oxidised internally and
externally. Where unglazed, the external surface is a
dark reddish-orange with dull reddish patches. The
upper walls of the jug are splashed with a pale, yellowish-green glaze. The base is very thick and slightly splayed. The jug is rather larger than most of the
small drinking jugs, but is otherwise typical of the
form. Fig 33.2.31.
7401 198(14), 248(1)
E13.18 Small drinking jug, diam indeterminate. The fabric
is typical, orange internally and externally very dark
red to black where unglazed, though it is virtually
covered with an overfired, metallic purplish brown
glaze, quite blistered over most of the surface. Fig
33.2.31.
7401 198(1)
E13.19 Base of small drinking jug, height 166mm. The fabric is typical and could equally well be categorised as
E12b, since the vessel is reduced internally. The vessel is very thick walled, though the base itself is quite
thin. The lower wall is slightly narrowed and the
base splayed. Where unglazed the surface is light
orange with dark reddish patches; the patchy
splashed glaze is a dark metallic brown. Fig 33.2.31.
7401 198(2), 247(1)
E13.20 Everted, flanged, lid-seated rim of jug/jar, diam
88mm. The fabric is typically fine, dark red internally, externally very dark red, but with virtually a full
cover of even, glassy speckled olive glaze. Fig 33.2.31.
6604 829(1)
E13.21 Small jug, base diam 65mm. The fabric is typical,
the vessel is thin walled, evenly thrown, with incised
E13.23
E13.24
E13.25
lines on the shoulder. It is virtually oxidised to light

buff/orange, and the base has a stacking discolouration. Fig 33.2.31.
7401 266(1), 7403 142(18)
Upright, rounded rim of jug, diam 60mm. The fabric is very hard, dark brown internally, with a full
external cover of very glossy, dark olive and brown
glaze. Fig 33.2.31
6602 1880(1)
Crudely made urinal with bulbous body and a high
horizontal strap handle at the rim, with thumb
indentations at either end. It appears to have been
dipped into a greenish-brown suspension glaze that
covers the external walls and reaches down to a
maximum of 50mm from the rim on the internal
surface. There is a whitish deposit on the internal
surface. The lower walls and base are knife
trimmed. Fig 33.2.31.
7403 142(7)
Urinal. Similar to E13.23, but with a more reduced
fabric, particularly internally. The external surface
is mainly oxidised with a whitish concretion, possibly remnants of decayed glaze. The neck is slightly
larger and unlike E13.23, the lower wall/base join is
quite thick and no knife trimming is apparent. Fig
33.2.31.
7403 127(5), 135(53)
Jar or urinal with upper central hole, diam 193mm.
The vessel has an upright, rounded and slightly
inturned rim. The fabric is variably fired. Most of
the internal surface is coated with a cream deposit.
The external surface is a dark, slightly metallic red
where unglazed, but most of the surface is covered
with a light olive to yellow splashed glaze, quite thick
in places. Fig 33.2.31.
7403 121(1), 129(1), 135(4)
Oxidised Green Glazed ware, finer variant 1375

(E13a), 0.24%
A series of small smashed sherds, mainly from the rubbish deposits in trenches 7502 and 7604, ranging from
15mm to 70mm, but mostly approximately 30mm.
They represent at least one small drinking jug (one
handle in context 967) and at most ten vessels (ten rim
sherds, which do not join); small drinking jugs, bottles and at least one pipkin (sooted handle from 767).
They may have been used and discarded at much the
same time.
Fabric: A very fine fabric, usually oxidised to a reddish orange colour throughout. The internal and external surfaces and core are oxidised to light reddish
brown (5YR 6/4). The external surfaces are glazed
with an olive green and orange lustrous suspension
glaze or dark reddish gray (5YR 4/2) when overfired
(E13a.1). Inclusions are barely visible to the naked eye.
Surfaces are smooth and slightly soapy. The matrix is
packed with small quartz chips and tempered with
moderate rounded white quartz. A moderate amount
of red iron ore and sparse haematite may have been
added as temper.
33: POTTERY
Manufacture: Wheelthrown and fairly fine walled.

The vessels are quite finely made, compared with the
rest of the E12b/E13 assemblage, and they look as if
they may have been mass produced, perhaps to be
thrown away shortly after use. Drinking jugs have a bib
of glaze around the body and neck. The glaze goes over
the rim and down inside the rim to approx 10mm, suggesting that these vessels have been dipped. The pipkins have splashed glaze. The glaze is even, thin and
lustrous on the drinking jugs and bottles and varies
from mottled green, yellow and brown.
Forms: Small drinking jugs with small rod/strap handles, pipkins and bottles. The drinking jugs are similar
in form to those made in German stoneware (see
Gaimster 1997) mainly exported in the 16th century.
In local fabrics, these are common from the 14th
century onwards. Drinking jugs and pipkins have very
fine walls and lid seating. Bottles are only represented
by narrow ribbed necks and drinking jugs by rim/neck
sherds.
Discussion: Drinking jug is a rather misleading term,
since the vessels were not necessarily only used for
drinking. Elsewhere it has been suggested that drinking
jugs, and perhaps also bottles, were used as measures in
conjunction with pipkins, which were used for heating
and mixing the ingredients from them to make sauces
(Pearce et al 1985). Plainer unglazed or sparsely glazed
14th-century types may have been used as measures
and 16th-century types as drinking vessels, or both.
There is no reason why measures might not be used for
drinking purposes too. Certainly German stoneware
drinking jugs were imported in large quantities into this
country in the 16th century. It is known from paintings
and documentary evidence that these forms were used
for drinking (Gaimster 1997, 11517). This tradition
may have influenced local manufacture at this time,
although the forms, while being of similar size, do not
exactly parallel the German imports.
E13a.1 Rim and body sherd of a drinking jug with straightsided neck. Fig 33.2.32.
7502 1190(2)
E13a.2 Handle of pipkin, with spots of glaze and sooting
near break. Not illus.
7604 967(1)
E13a.3 Ribbed neck of bottle. Not illus.
7604 967(4)
E13a.4 Strap handle of drinking jug. Not illus.
7604 967(1)
Fig 33.2.32 Oxidised Green Glazed ware, finer variant

(E13a.1, 25). Scale 1:4
377
E13a.5 Rim of pipkin? The fabric is reduced at the core to

resemble Reduced Green Glazed type 4. The glaze
is thicker than usual and a duller green colour. Not
illus.
7502 1188(1), 1189(1)
E13a.6 Neck sherd of small drinking jug. Not illus.
7502 1189(1)
E13a.7 Abraded pipkin rim. Not illus.
7502 1165(1)
E13a.8 Abraded rim and lip of a small jug. Not illus.
7502 1191(3)
E13a.9 Drinking jug rim. Not illus.
7502 1191(1)
E13a.10 Bottle. Not illus.
7502 1169(1)
E13a.11 Pipkin. Not illus.
7604 965(1)
E13a.12 Drinking jug. Not illus.
7502 1183(1)
7505 2372(1)
E13a.14 Drinking jug/bottle. Not illus.
7502 1188(9)
7502 1185(1)
E13a.16 Small jug with pinched lip. Not illus.
7502 1190(9)
7502 1185(9)
E13a.18 Bottle. Not illus.
7604 964(2).
E13a.19 Small jug. Not illus.
7502 1211(1)
E13a.20 Small jug. Not illus.
7502 1190(7)
E13a.21 Small drinking jug. Not illus.
7502 1198(2)
E13a.22 Small drinking jug. Not illus.
7502 1188(1)
7502 1195(1)
7502 1188(1)
Wearmouth
E13a.25 Everted, rounded rim of a tiny jar or bottle, diam
37mm. Fully oxidised to dark orange, with a full
external cover of dark amber glaze with a few green
patches. Fig 33.2.32.
7401 247(1)
Sandy Green Glazed ware/RGG type 6 1400

(E18), 0.27%
Fabric: A very fine sandy fabric with abundant mica
and moderate rounded and elongate black carboniferous material. Although the fracture looks slightly
uneven, the fabric looks crumbly. The surfaces feel
smooth and soapy. Few inclusions are visible by eye as
the fabric is quite fine. Internal margin and surfaces are
pink 7.5YR 7/4) to light brown (7.5YR 6/4). External
margin and surface is reddish brown (5YR 5/3) to
reddish yellow (5YR 6/6). Core is gray (5YR 5/1).
378
Occasionally the fabric appears to be poorly wedged

(this is common in Siegburg stonewares of a similar
date) and large air bubbles occur (see E18.1). The clay
may be from a different source to the other sub-groups
or types of Reduced Green Glazed ware (Ellison
1981, 108).
E18.1
E18.2
E18.3
Forms: Almost all are bulbous-bodied drinking

jugs/small jugs with small strap handles.
E18.4
Manufacture: Greenish-brown glaze is applied as a

bib around the maximum girth, fired upside down so
it trickles down to the rim. These crudely made forms
look as if they were made like the Siegburg stonewares;
poorly wedged, mass produced, functional rather than
decorative and perhaps thrown using a bone or wooden tool which has left strong horizontal wheelthrown
marks on the internal surfaces and base. Stretch marks
(diagonal) show that the matrix was short and
stretched to the limit of its plasticity. Perhaps made on
a wheel type depicted in the 15th/16th century (Jenner
1985, 133, fig 2).
Date: 15th to 16th century. The fabric is found in
phase 11 onwards (second quarter to mid 16th century)
at the Castle Ditch, Newcastle (Ellison 1981, 108).
Discussion: At the Castle Ditch, Newcastle, Ellison
notes that Reduced Green Glazed wares appear to be
from the same tradition but that there is a gradual
development from one type to another as well as
many transitional variations (Ellison 1981, 107).
Experimental firings were made with clay that resembled oxidised versions of type 4 but not for the other
fabric types. It would be of great interest to compare
what appear to be transitional types 3/4 and 4/5 to see
whether the matrices of the clay used are similar and
whether these divisions actually reflect the quantity
and type of inclusions added in some cases.
Later Reduced Green Glazed ware 1475 (E17),

0.09%
Mainly found at Wearmouth.
Fabric: Softer and lighter coloured than types 4 and 5,
with thick white margins reminiscent of early reduced
wares. It is, however, finer and smoother/soapier to feel
and shares characteristics with Buff wares. In places
the core is gray (2.5Y N5/), but, where not reduced,
it is a similar colour to the external margin and surface,
reddish yellow (7.5YR 7/6). The internal margins are
pinkish white (7.5YR 8/2). There are sparse subrounded white limestone inclusions up to 1mm and
moderate iron ore up to 0.25mm. Occasional grass/
straw-shaped voids and rounded haematite/slag.
Forms: Often thick-walled jugs and cisterns which are
usually quite plain, but sometimes decorated with
applied thumbed strips of clay.
Date: Late 15th to 16th century?
Wearmouth
E17.1
E17.2
E17.3
Fig 33.2.33 Sandy Green Glazed ware (E18.13). Scale 1:4
Small bulbous jug with pronounced internal

wheelthrown marks and an air bubble on the internal surface. Fig 33.2.33.
7502 1185(2) joins 1188(2) & 1190(1)
Body and lower handle join of a similar form to
E18.1. Fig 33.2.33.
7502 1188(1)
Similar jug to E18.1 and 2 with a strap handle. Fig
33.2.33.
7502 1190(1), 1190(7) joins 1191(1)
A slightly larger form than E18.13. Not illus.
7502 1190(5)
Jar/cooking pot. Fig 33.2.34

7402 163(6), 169(2)
Cistern/large jug with applied thumbed horizontal
strip around the edge of the rim. A thick green glaze
covers both internal and external surfaces. Fig 33.2.34
6701 2075(1)
Tall, narrow jug with bulbous body, 265mm high.
The jug has been reconstructed, although about
25% is missing. The form is quite unusual in this
type; the jug has a very thin upright rim with a tiny
pulled spout, a wide neck which narrows slightly
above the bulbous body, the lower walls narrowing
again into a flat, frilled footrim. The handle springing is visible, but the handle is missing. The fabric is
typical, reduced to black through the core, with
white margins of variable thickness. The jug has a
full cover of internal and external glaze which varies
in colour from very light, particularly around the
base, to deeper yellowish-green around the middle,
through to dark olive near the rim, where it is also
streaked with iron. The condition of the glaze varies
from one sherd to another, and in some cases it is
very decayed, probably due to post-depositional
damage. Fig 33.2.34
7403 142(11)
33: POTTERY
379
Fig 33.2.35 Local Red ware (E19.2, 3). Scale 1:4
Forms: Chamber pots and jars with flat bases.

Date: 15th to 16th century (probably 16th).
E19.1
E19.2
Fig 33.2.34 Later Reduced Green Glazed ware (E17.14).

Scale 1:4
Wearmouth
E19.3
E17.4
Upright, lid-seated rim of small jar, diam 80mm.

The fabric is mainly reduced, but with some oxidation, and the vessel has a typical full cover of glaze,
dark brownish olive externally and dull on both surfaces. Fig 33.2.34
7403 142(1)
Jar with flat base and spots of brownish glaze externally. The internal surface of the base has an even
glossy coating of suspension glaze. Not illus.
6506 5526(1)
Chamber pot/jar. Fig 33.2.35.
7105 1631(1), 1636(22)
Jar/cooking pot with ridges on the shoulder and a

lid-seated rim. It has a lustrous orange/chestnut
glaze over the internal and external surfaces with
darker iron splashes. Fig 33.2.35.
7403 116(1)

13001500 (E11f)
Local Red ware 1400 (E19), 0.19%

Fabric: Brick red matrix, which reduces at the core at
the thickest areas of the wall. The matrix has moderate
to abundant black and red iron ore and moderate white
and translucent angular quartz. It can be quite vesicular, giving a honeycomb appearance. More rounded
quartz is perhaps added to the temper. One very large
conglomerate of slag is 3.5mm across. There is a fine,
even, glossy suspension glaze, bright orange/brown,
with a greenish tinge and occasional brown spots over
the iron inclusions. The core is mainly oxidised red
(10R 5/6), but occasionally reduced to dark reddish
gray (10R 4/1).
Discussion: This may be a later local red ware than
the splash glazed E13. It is perhaps a local copy of Low
Countries Red wares (G12), which are most common
in the north-east in the 16th century.
E11f.1 One corner of a hand-made, probably flat, roof-tile.

The fabric is typical of E11d/e, but with added sand
and occasional large grains of haematite/slag and
rock. Part of the lower surface is coarse and gritty,
presumably from being laid on a bed of sand, while
the rest is smooth and probably knife trimmed.
There is one spot of yellowish to red glaze on the
lower surface and a few splashes on the upper reddish-brown surface. Not illus.
7604 970(1)
E11f.2 Part of either a ridge tile or a curved roof tile of a
similar fabric to the above, with a sandier lower surface. The edge is roughly finished with a groove
along its length. The fabric is oxidised to a dark reddish-orange except beneath the glaze, where it is
reduced to a pale grey. Where glazed it is a glossy
smooth mid-olive colour with brown iron streaks.
Probably most of the main part of the tile was
glazed. Not illus.
7502 1195(1), JS73 Area IVE Layer 56(2)
380
Green Glazed ware, roof furniture, 13001500

(E12c)
E12c.1 Crested ridge tile. Large fragment of ridge tile with
either a crest fitted into it, or with an aperture for a
peg to be fitted. The tile has a pronounced curve, is
very thick (up to 15mm), and is very rough and
sandy on the underside, from being laid on sand.
Fabric is probably the same clay as E12b, but with
a considerable amount of added quartz sand (or
possibly unrefined clay). It is reduced through the
core, oxidised to buff/orange on the internal margin
and surface, and reduced to pale buff/brown/grey
on the external margin. Within the aperture, the
clay is fired to white, possibly due to the application
of a different clay/slip. Externally, except for the
aperture, there is a full cover of dark olive glaze with
iron streaking. No exact parallels for the position of
the aperture have been found. In the Northampton
report (Williams and Williams 1979, 324, fig
144.1) a similar tile is illustrated, but the crest aperture is situated on the edge of the tile, whereas in
this case it seems that the aperture was placed more
centrally. Perhaps the aperture was merely for a
peg, but the hole seems large for this purpose.
However, ridge tiles with quadrupeds positioned
centrally are known from Southampton (Dunning
1975, 194, fig 215, no. 415), though the applied
crest usually extends solidly from the ridge, rather
than being hollow as in the present example. Not
illus.
7604 970(3)
E12c.2 Crested ridge tile. Large fragment of ridge tile,
reduced to dark grey with dark orange oxidised
internal margin and surface and light grey reduced
external margin. Externally there is virtually a full
cover of mid green glaze with slight iron streaking.
As with E12c.1, there are the remains of an aperture
for a crest or peg, in this instance more distinctly circular, and once again it seems to have been positioned centrally along the length of the tile.
1013mm thick. Fig 33.2.36.
JS76 Area IV N Layer 22(1)
E12c.3 Crested ridge tile. Fragment of tile, very similar to
E12c.1 in colour and glaze, except for the presence
of patches of a whiter clay (?grog) visible on the
coarse, sanded underside. The edge of an aperture
is just visible on the edge of the tile. 915mm thick.
Not illus.
7502 1211(1)
Fig 33.2.36 Green Glazed ware, roof furniture (E12c.2).

Scale 1:4
E12c.4 Roof tile. Fragment (corner) of a flat roof tile.

Typical fabric (ie as in E12c.1), with sandier underside, reduced to dark grey, with dark orange margins
and underside, and reddish upper surface, with
paler patches, as if a slip had been used (?just differential firing). Mainly unglazed, but there is a patchily glazed area towards the centre of the tile.
1013mm thick. Not illus.
7502 1188(1)
E12c.5 Roof tile. Three fragments (no joins) of a roof tile,
probably intended to be flat, though there is a slight
bevel on the edge. Two fragments seem to have been
overfired (virtually vitrified), perhaps reheated/
burnt; the fabric is reduced to mid-grey through
core to paler grey near surface, and oxidised to
orange (dark brownish-orange in overfired sherds).
The external surface is pale brown where unglazed.
Where present, glaze is quite even, mid-olive with
some iron streaking and reddish at edges over oxidised areas. This may be part of a ridge tile.
1012mm thick. Not illus.
7502 1198(2), JS73 Area IV W Layer 50(1)
E12c.6 Roof tile (or ridge tile). Three fragments of roof tile
(two join), giving one edge of the tile. Core reduced
to dark grey, upper surface and internal margin and
surface oxidised to light orange. The glazed areas of
the upper surface cover a reduced external margin.
The glaze is patchy and splashed, pale to mid green,
slightly iron-stained and yellowish around the edges
over oxidised areas.
Like E12c.5, though rather uneven, this is probably a flat tile, although it is always possible that it
may be the fairly flat edge of a ridge tile. 1113mm
thick.
NB There are, as on E12c.1, 2 and 8, whitish patches on the edges of tile, as from a slip. This may perhaps be connected to the method of manufacture.
Not illus.
7604 966(1), 967(1), 970(1)
E12c.7 ?Ridge tile. Four fragments (three of which join, all
quite freshly broken) of a ?ridge tile. The fabric is
quite typical ie like E12c.1, but the tile is much thinner, 69mm and the glaze seems slightly different,
lighter green with some copper staining. The fabric
is reduced in core to mid-grey, oxidised to reddishorange through underside margin and underside,
over edge and on edge part of upper surface where
unglazed. There is again the whitish slip-like colour
on the unglazed edge area of the tile and one streak
underneath the glaze. The curve of the tile suggests
that it may be a ridge tile, but it is much thinner
than the others. A different batch, source or purpose? Not illus.
6903 3047(4)
E12c.8 Roof (?or ridge) tile. Three fragments (two join) of a
possible ridge tile (again with a slight curve). Fabric
typical, reduced to dark grey through core, oxidised
to buff-orange on internal surface, over edge and
unglazed area of the tile. Whitish surface in patches
again. Glaze is a dark, brownish-green shading to
brown over oxidised areas, and is slightly speckly.
One sherd is very worn. 811mm thick. Not illus.
JS73 Area IV Layer 68(1), Area IVW Layer 36(2)
E12c.9 ?Ridge tile. One fragment of a probable ridge tile (ie
curved) in fairly typical fabric, with reduced core,
33: POTTERY
margins, internal surface and external surface where

unglazed oxidised to reddish orange. Underside
sanded as usual. Edges missing. Externally whitish
patches as on other tiles. Glazed area mid-olive
green, with yellowish-orange halo around edge
over oxidised area. Not illus.
E12c.10 Roof or ridge tile. One fragment of tile, unglazed,
very similar to E12c.9 (possibly part of the same
tile), reduced to dark grey, margins and surfaces oxidised to reddish orange. Evidence, especially on
underside, for use of an iron-low clay as grog or just
incompletely mixed into the body of the tile. Whitish
external patches. This is probably part of a partly
glazed roof or ridge tile. 1011mm thick. Not illus.
7502 1201(1)
Wearmouth
E12c.11 Crested ridge tile similar to E12c.2 with a full cover
of green glaze externally and dark grey reduced core
with thick buff margins and internal surface. Not
illus.
6701 2058(3)
Miscellaneous industrial vessels (E26), 0.01%

Several possible industrial vessels are grouped together
here though they do not belong to one distinct fabric
group. (See also E11d.44 and E12a.3 above; probable
industrial vessels described under their fabric type.)
E26.1
E26.2
The form resembles that of a cupel (MPRG 9.7a),

but the fabric is oxidised and does not look as if it
has been used for metal refining. It appears to be
made from a ball of clay crudely pinched into a shallow, extremely thick-walled vessel. One area of the
wall appears to have been heated as it is more
reduced on the surface. It is very heavy to feel, perhaps related to the use of a heavy metal? The fabric
is laminar, poorly wedged with elongated voids. It
contains moderate rounded white quartz and
lozenges of whiter clay, with a moderate amount of
mica, and it feels sandy. Fine grained (0.2mm
grains) white sandstone similar to Humber type
wares. It has no glaze.
Date: Unknown, 15th/16th century? Fig 33.2.37.
Base of ?candlestick. With worn under surface, perhaps used for grinding. The fabric is similar to
E26.1, but wheelthrown. Unknown use.
Fig 33.2.37 Miscellaneous industrial (E26.13). Scale 1:4
E26.3
381
Date: From the robber trench of the well house wall,

so it could be 14th century. Fig 33.2.37.
7002 4339(1)
Unknown fabric and form with local sand and
abundant mica. Oxidised throughout with abundant
angular quartz protruding through the surface. The
vessel has been thrown on a fast wheel with fine horizontal wheelthrown marks on the internal surface.
Occasional red iron ore. A similarly coarse fabric
with a rough feel. Local sands were probably used to
temper the short clay matrix.
Date: Unknown, it was found in a Saxon context on
the ground surface outside the west wall of Building
D. Fig 33.2.37.
7304 2192(1)
Medieval pottery regional

Very Fine Sandy Grey ware 10751150 (D5), 0.08%
This type has also been found at Hart, Co Durham
(Addis 1976, 101), where it was dated to the period
late 10th to early 12th centuries; Lumley Street,
Hartlepool (unpublished) and on the Newcastle
Quayside (Bown 1988b, 424), where it was found in
similar deposits to D3.
Fabric: Very hard, finely gritted, with slightly rough
fracture, 57mm thick. The matrix includes 1015%
moderately sorted, subangular to subrounded translucent quartz and quartzite, 0.10.4mm, and poorly
sorted, angular to rounded haematite, minute specks
to 0.5mm. The fabric is reduced to light gray (7.5YR
N7) at the core to dark gray (N4/) at the margins,
with gray (10YR 5/1) to dark gray (4/1) surfaces.
Form: The only form present is a large storage jar with
an upright, but slightly out-turned rim. Most of the
sherds are from one vessel and none are sooted, suggesting storage rather than cooking as a function.
Vessels are wheelthrown and unglazed; there is a slightly metallic sheen on the external surface of some
sherds. An applied, vertical strip decoration has been
added to one rim sherd and a body sherd.
Discussion: The fabric is identical to type 5ii at Hart
(Addis 1976, fig 14 no. 54, fig 15 no. 84), where it was
called Grey Sandy Thetford-type ware, and to the
type 2 fabric in the Quayside material (Bown 1988b,
42). The surface appearance is similar to a few harderfired sherds among the Norwich Thetford-type ware
kiln material, and to overfired sherds of Torksey-type
ware from Coppergate, York. Mainman has focused
recently on the homogeneity of fabrics among the various grey wares which dominated eastern and central
England from the later 10th to early 12th centuries,
distinctions between them being more easily discernible in vessel form and manufacturing technique
(Mainman 1990, 42244). While D5 may be related to
382
Fig 33.2.38 Very Fine Sandy Grey ware (D5.1). Scale 1:4
one of these wares, no parallels for the rim form have
been found in the published assemblages, including
those from Hart and Newcastle. An East Anglian origin is thought most likely (A Vince, pers comm).
D5.1
D5.2
D5.3
D5.4
Large storage jar with upright, slightly out-turned

rim with an internal rib, distorted in one area. This
is made in a similar way to D8.4. It also appears to
have been joined/folded over, leaving a line along the
rim/neck area. One rim sherd is distorted and perhaps a slight second. It has a vertical smeared mark
on the external surface. Sherds that are similar, but
do not join, have vertical strip decoration applied
from just below the rim and upper body of vessel.
Fig 33.2.38.
7505 2372 (3), 2376 (3), 2377 (1), JS76 Area V
Layer 12(1), Layer 23(1)
Body sherd of storage jar with applied vertical strip
decoration. Not illus.
Not illus. JS76 Area V Layer 3(1)
Not illus. 6302 91(1)
Worcester-type ware 10751200 (D24), 0.00%

Form: Jar/cooking pot
Fabric: A vesicular matrix with rounded holes where
?quartz has fallen out. Packed with abundant white
and grey rounded quartz. The fabric is reduced to a
light grey core with thick sandy coloured margins, a
dark grey external surface and a slightly lighter internal
surface. The fracture is hackly and very uneven, with
streaks of a light sandy colour in an otherwise light grey
reduced fabric. A slightly soapy and pimply surface.
Moderate to abundant mica.
Discussion: Although only one sherd has been recognised, it is interesting to note that Aldwin came from
Winchcombe and travelled up with two monks from
Evesham. Though only pure conjecture, one could speculate that this vessel may have travelled with them in
1074, when Aldwin came to revive monasticism in the
north-east, as Evesham, Winchcombe and Worcester
are all within twenty miles (32km) of each other.
D24.1 A jar/cooking vessel with a band of sooting on the
upper/outer rim surface. It has incised zigzag line decoration on the concave internal neck surface. It is of a
similar form to a rim sherd from the building of the
wall foundations at the South Curtain Wall, for which
a West Country origin was postulated (Edwards
1966, 83, 88, fig 4). The nearest parallel form was
Fig 33.2.39 Worcester-type ware (D24.1). Scale 1:4

thought to be Ascot Doilly and it was thought to be
12th century or earlier at the Castle (Edwards 1966,
119, fig 11). The profile of the rim resembles two
groups illustrated from Worcester (Morris 1980, 239
fig 69TV 149 and 150a). They are thought to be late
11th to 12th century. Fig 33.2.39.
JS76 Area V Layer 71 (1)
Shelly Sandy ware 11501200 (D9)

This type occurs only at Wearmouth. Shelly wares are
very rare in the north-east; one vessel was found in
residual deposits in the Newcastle Quayside excavation
(Bown 1988b, 42), and a small quantity was identified
at Hart (Addis 1976, 101). They probably all arrived
from Lincolnshire or London as a by-product of trade
along the North Sea coast. Recent research suggests
that they emanate from London (see Appendix
33.2.1).
Fabric: Slightly soft, with powdery surface texture and
rough, irregular fracture, 49mm thick. The bimodal
matrix includes c 20% poorly sorted, angular flakes of
shell, 0.1250.25mm and many 0.502.00mm (the
shell is sometimes burnt or leached out, particularly on
the surfaces), <10% moderately sorted, subrounded
translucent quartz, 0.1250.050mm, sparse, minute
mica flakes and very sparse, rounded haematite,
0.1250.25mm. Surfaces are light red (2.5YR 6/6)
reddish brown (2.5YR 5/4) and core gray (10YR
5/1). Most of the sherds are discoloured due to burning/sooting both during and after use. Sparse fragments of angular flint (0.3mm) and rounded
glauconite (0.2mm)
Form: Globular jar/cooking pots with everted, slightly
flanged rims and longish necks. No complete profiles
could be reconstructed. The vessels were probably
wheelthrown, though they were slightly uneven, and
were perhaps smoothed externally and unglazed.
Date: Last half of the 12th century.
Discussion: The ware is similar to the shell-tempered
ware from the Newcastle Quayside, which has been
compared with the 10th and 11th-century forms in
Lincoln (Bown 1988b, fig 16, no. 21). The
Wearmouth sherds contain more shell and the rim
form is different from the published examples, but an
unpublished sherd from the Quayside (QQS 553) is
33: POTTERY
383
Haggarty argues for a date of mid/late 12th century

for those found at Kelso Abbey (Haggarty 1984), as
they pre-date the building of the stone infirmary in the
third to fourth quarter of the 12th century. Similar
material has been found at Colstoun and at the Hirsel
(V Dean, pers comm).
Kelso-type ware 11501250 (F11), 0.12%
Fig 33.2.40 Shelly Sandy ware (D9.1, 2). Scale 1:4

identical to those from Wearmouth. No rim forms
were recovered at Hart, and the fabric is different from
D9 (Addis 1976). The Wearmouth fabric is similar to
shelly wares from Coppergate, York, and comparable
with Lincoln early shelly wares: these wares continued
to be used in both towns in the late 11th to early 12th
centuries (Gilmour 1988, 7782; Mainman 1990,
4201). Shelly Sandy wares (SSW) have also been
recovered in London where they often occur with
coarse London-type wares in the late 12th century
(Vince 1985, 44). However, no parallel has been found
among the published assemblages for the rim form of
the Wearmouth material. It is unlikely that the ware
was manufactured locally, and its presence in such
small quantities in the region may have been a result of
the growth of Wearmouth and Newcastle as ports during the same period.
Form: Straight-sided jar with everted squared rim

(similar in form only to F14). The rim has a distinct
band of sooting along its external squared edge. The
base is sooted to approximately 40mm up the wall.
The sides are ribbed with distinct wheelthrown marks.
Fabric: A gritty but fine fabric with a fairly dense
matrix tempered with abundant rounded and subangular quartz, which is mainly white but occasionally
grey and rose coloured. Moderate rounded red and
black iron ore and mica. The whitish cream selfslipped surface feels sandy and the various coloured
grits can be seen protruding through this. The outer
surface has a sparse watery light lemon/green splashed
glaze on the body. The core is pink (5YR 7/3) and
surfaces pinkish white (7.5YR 8/2).
Date: Late 12th to early 13th century.
F11.1
F11.2
Wearmouth
D9.1
D9.2
D9.3
Large, globular jar with everted, slightly thickened

rim, diam c 223mm and convex base. Externally
sooted and discoloured. Fig 33.2.40.
7102 533(6), 534(3)
Large, globular jar with everted, slightly thickened
rim, diam c 130mm. Externally sooted. Fig 33.2.40.
7102 534(1)
Large globular jar with convex base. Not illus.
7403 118(1)
F11.3
Jar/cooking pot with a concave internal neck area

and squared rim. Fig 33.2.41.
7604 971 (1), JS73 Area IV W Layer 61 (1),
JS76EY (1), JS76 Area VI Layer 56 (1)
Jar/cooking pot with a concave internal neck area
and a more rounded rim, with a sooted rib on the
external rim area. Fig 33.2.41.
7006 4021 (1)
Straight sided jar/cooking pot with fine walls and a
squared rim. High fired to a biscuit colour and texture, with sooting in a line up to approximately
20mm from the base. Fig. 33.2.41.
7305 1988(2), 1994(4)
Kelso-type wares (F11, F11a) and Tweed Valley

Fine Grey ware (F14)
Introduction: Straight-sided jars in a white gritty fabric, recognised by Laing as a Scottish regional type
(Laing 1973a), but also common in the north-east in
the Newcastle Buff type ware industry (E11), which is
usually thicker walled and has less well-sorted quartz.
White wares are found along the north-east coast and
as far north as Norway (Dunning 1968, 3558). It is
possible that those catalogued as F11 and F11a are
contemporary and even confused with the early local
buff type wares (E11a).
Fig 33.2.41 Kelso-type ware (F11.13). Scale 1:4

Kelso-type ware, variant 11501300 (F11a), 0.02%
Form: Straight-sided jars with squared rims that are
very similar to Buff type ware, E11a, and are much
thicker walled than F11.
Fabric: A finer hard fired matrix similar to F11, but with
less abundant and less well-sorted quartz, moderate
384
F14.2

6302 85(12)
Hard Tweedale-type ware 11001300 (D21), 0.02%

Fig 33.2.42 Kelso-type ware, variant (F11a.4). Scale 1:4
rounded larger red iron ore inclusions up to 1.5mm
diameter. Occasional inclusions of burnt sandstone conglomerates of quartz. Surfaces are smoother than F11
and resemble E11a. They are pinkish white (7.5YR
8/2). The margins are pink (7.5YR 8/4) to very pale
brown (10YR 8/3). Sometimes the core is the same
colour, but where reduced it is light gray (10YR 7/1).
Fabric: A very highly fired hard fabric with a brittlelooking highly reduced core and a very uneven fracture.
The surfaces are very smooth and feel soapy. The fabric is highly micaceous and has been tempered with fine
sand. The core is very dark gray (7.5YR N3/). The
external margin is thin and oxidised to reddish yellow
(7.5YR 7/6). The internal margin is reduced to the
same colour as the core. The external surface is brown
(7.5YR 5/2). There is translucent quartz, moderate to
abundant and subrounded. It is difficult to see other
inclusions since the fracture is so rough and black.

F11a.1 Rim. Not illus.
7003 3861(1)
F11a.2 Rim. Not illus.
7001 4947(1)
F11a.3 Rim, with light yellow glaze. Not illus.
7001 4888(1) joins 4908(1)
F11a.4 Jar with indented squared rim, sooted internally. Fig
33.2.42
7105 1666(1)
Form: A globular cooking pot with simple everted

rim.
Manufacture: Wheelthrown, with no glaze apparent.
There is a rough, faint line at the join between neck
and body.
Date: Probably 12th century.
Tweed Valley Fine Grey ware 11001250 (F14),

0.05%
D21.1 Globular cooking pot rim. Not illus.

6901 3110(2)
D21.2 Cooking pot with rounded rim and concavity on the
interior neck surface. Not illus.
6511 55(1)
Form: Straight-sided thin-walled (24mm thick) jar

with everted squared rim and a slight concavity inside
the neck. It has very distinct wheelthrown ribs on the
inner surface.
Fine White ware 11501300 (D22), 0.00%
Fabric: A very dense fine reduced ware with very fine

specks of sand and mica, red and black iron ore.
Tempered with poorly sorted subrounded and rounded white quartz up to 1mm long. The surfaces are
rough and pimply. The vessel is fairly highly fired.
Occasional elongated voids occur where organic material may have been burnt out. Sparse areas of light grey
grog. Internal surfaces gray (7.5YR 5/0) to dark
gray (7.5YR 4/0). The external surface varies from
pinkish gray (7.5YR 7/2) to dark gray (2.5YR 4/0).
F14.1

7502 1211(1, sf 1), 7505 2372(5, sfs 32, 294, 416,
530), 7604 971(1), 975(1, sf 2), JS76 Area IVN
Layer 17(1), Layer 25(1), Area V Layer 83(1)
Fabric: A hard-fired fine fabric whose inclusions are

almost invisible to the naked eye. Surfaces are very
smooth very pale brown (10YR 8/3) to white (10YR
8/2). The fracture is rougher, pink (7.5YR 8/4). The
core is reduced at the rim to gray (5YR 6/1 and 5/1).
There is abundant small subrounded quartz, 0.1mm,
sparse to moderate quartz and quartz sandstone up to
1.0mm, moderate rounded red iron ore and moderate
specks of mica. Moderate slag inclusions.
Form: Cooking pot with rounded rim and concave
internal surface curving out into a rounded body.
Date: Initially published as Saxo-Norman 8501150
by Hurst (Hurst 1969, fig 25 no. 17), but now considered to be late 12th to 13th century.
Discussion: This is not a Northern Stamford Type
ware as described previously (Hurst 1969). Its hardness, fine even potting and fast wheel marks suggest an
import.
Wearmouth
Fig 33.2.43 Tweed Valley Fine Grey ware (F14.1, 2).

Scale 1:4
D22.1 Cooking pot rim with slight sooting externally. Fig

33.2.44.
6104 682(1)
33: POTTERY
385
Scarborough/North Yorkshire-type ware

11501350 (F1), 1.68%
Phase I fabric
Fig 33.2.44 Fine White ware (D22.1). Scale 1:4

White Gritty ware (G9), 0.00%
Originally it was thought that this might be E ware, but
this now seems unlikely, and further analysis will be
necessary before this sherd is positively identified.
Ewan Campbell contributed the following description
and discussion.
Description: Rim of jar with upright rim. Slightly
everted with rectangular rim profile, ridge below rim.
Fabric hard, buff with abundant quartz temper which
gives a pimply texture. Temper mainly quartz, subangular to subrounded, up to 1mm, with occasional
black minerals. Texture laminated.
Discussion: The general appearance of this sherd is
superficially similar to E ware, but detailed examination suggests it is not the same fabric. There is none of
the red iron ore that is often found in E ware, and the
quartz is more rounded, smaller and more varied in
colour, and it has additional minerals present. In addition, the rim form is not matched in detail by any of
the corpus of E ware (Campbell 1991). It seems possible that it could be a later French import, possibly one
of the many types found at Southampton. The rim
form can be matched with several from the Hamwic
assemblage (Andrews 1988, fig 11, 211). The fabric
can perhaps be equated with wares that may be from
northern France, such as Hamwic Fabric 127. These
wares are found throughout the sequence from the late
7th to early 10th centuries (ibid, 114).
There has to be doubt over the identity of this
sherd, especially as E ware is very variable in rim form,
though less so in fabric. If it was E ware, it would be of
great interest, as the first find from an Anglo-Saxon
site. Only detailed petrographic and chemical analysis
will allow certainty in saying it is definitely not E ware,
but in my opinion it is more likely to belong to another ware.
G9.1
Rim diam c 160mm, thickness 79mm. Fig 33.2.45.

6302 96(1)
Fig 33.2.45 White Gritty ware (G9.1). Scale 1:4
This type corresponds to Farmers Phase I fabric

(Farmer 1979, 28). It is a fine sandy pinkish-red in
colour with sparse to moderate specks of red iron ore
and larger rounded pieces from 0.25 to 0.75mm long.
The fabric is usually fairly soft. There are occasional
flecks of black iron ore, sparse rounded aggregates of
iron-stained quartz of up to 2mm, moderate subrounded white and opaque quartz grains 0.5mm. The
unglazed surface has a gritty feel. The broken surface
has a fine honeycomb look. It occasionally has lenses of
white firing clay.
Phase II fabric
This fabric is broadly related to Farmers Phase II fabric (Farmer 1979, 28) and is harder and lighter in
colour than the Phase I fabric. It has a harder denser
matrix with a smoother broken surface and fewer
inclusions; sparse quartz >0.25mm, moderate to abundant flecks of red and black iron ore, some black possibly carboniferous material and sparse to moderate
flecks of mica. Occasionally vessels made in this fabric
are decorated with applied clay which looks as if it is
made from Phase I fabric (see F1.15 and F1.16).
Forms: Mainly jugs, some possible cooking pots/jars.
Terminology: Although the term Scarborough ware is
used to describe this type of pottery, similar forms and
decorative techniques are used elsewhere, for example
at Winksley, near Ripon, N Yorkshire (Bellamy and Le
Patourel 1970). Similarities between jugs ascribed to
York and Scarborough have been noted before
(Watkins 1982, 94) suggesting some relationship
between them.
Provenance: Traditionally Scarborough (see above),
although similar white-firing coal measure clays can be
found from the Midlands to Scotland and therefore
these wares may not have their provenance in
Scarborough alone.
Distribution: Mainly, but not exclusively, found
along the north-east coast of England and Scotland
(Dunning 196263; Coutts 196466; Laing and
Robertson 19691970; Laing 1973a, 1936).
Date: Originally dated from 1135 to 1350 (Farmer
1979, 289). Phase I fabric is traditionally dated to
1135 to 1225, before Phase II fabric which is dated to
1225 to 1350. However, at Queen Street (OBrien
1988, 76), Stockbridge (Jenner and Cooper 2001,
171), Hull, Aberdeen and Bergen (Watkins et al 1982,
9499) Phase II fabric vessels occur before and/or in
conjunction with Phase I fabric and sometimes Phase
I decoration occurs on vessels made in Phase II clay.
386
Discussion: The traditional dates given above were

derived from the documentary and excavated evidence
from Scarborough (Farmer 1979). However, the
earlier dates of the Phase I material have proved controversial at a number of sites outside Scarborough.
This is mainly due to the unexpectedly early occurrence of highly decorated vessels in the earlier Phase
I fabric and the later date of contexts containing
Phase I fabrics at a number of other sites outside
Scarborough.
Farmer has since adjusted his initial dates and postulated the following: Phase I, 11351198; Phase II,
12151225 (Farmer and Farmer 1982, 834). The
production of the highly decorated vessels coincided
with the beginning of Scarborough ware as an export
industry c 1200.
Pearson (1982, 8893) argues for the earliest date
for Phase II fabric, and possibly Phase I fabric, starting
as late as 1250, both ending in 1350. He questions the
existence of two phases and suggests that the wares
were traded in the 13th and early 14th centuries, as it
was not until 1253 that Scarborough became established as an important national and international port
and the end date fits with the decline of the port
(Pearson 1982, 92).
More recent evidence from Newcastle upon Tyne
also contradicts Farmers original dating scheme. At
the Quayside, Phase I fabric occurs in Horizons C and
D (mid-13th to 14th century) and is residual in
Horizon E. Phase II fabric occurs in Horizons B and C
(early to mid-13th century) and D (early to late 14th
century) and is also residual by E. This makes the first
occurrence of Phase II fabric slightly earlier than Phase
I fabric (Bown 1988b, 52). At Stockbridge, Newcastle
upon Tyne, both fabrics occur together on the same
vessel (Jenner and Cooper 2001, 173). However, it is
possible that Scarborough wares were being copied by
the local potters, using similar white-firing clays. This
material must be revisited before further conclusions
can be drawn.
Scarborough wares are distributed across the site
with a concentration of sherds in the south cloister
area. The sherds from the robber trenches of the well
house walls, all Phase I, indicate that this fabric predates the South Cloister Building, possibly built in the
early 14th century (see Vol 1, Ch 20), sealing levels
associated with the well and well house. Phase I
Scarborough ware is found here alongside other
Medieval I fabrics; Oxidised Gritty ware (E10), Early
Gritty Green Glazed ware (E12a) and Early Buff
wares (E11a and b). These sherds were very abraded
and water-worn, suggesting earlier use, perhaps in
conjunction with the well. Phase I and II fabrics were
both found in layers associated with the construction
of Well 2 (3136 and 3152), while in the area of dumping in trenches 7502 and 7604 both fabrics are represented, but there are more sherds of Phase II fabric
than of Phase I.
Farmers Phase I fabric

F1.1
F1.2
F1.3
F1.4
Jug with small lip, thickened rounded rim, decorated

with a clear lead glaze over iron-rich ovoid pellets.
The iron has run vertically down the vessel in streaks.
The base has a kiln scar where the rim of another vessel has been resting on it during firing. This is a common feature on Scarborough wares, which appear
mostly to have been stacked and fired upside down
and offset above each other (P Farmer, pers comm).
The rich dark green suspension glaze has run down
from the rim of the vessel above and over the base of
this vessel, cementing them together. The rim has
clearly been prised off in order to separate the vessels
and this has left an unglazed scar. The neck has a
wide rib half-way down it, but otherwise corresponds
to Farmers type C (Farmer 1979, fig 8).
The rod handle is decorated with a series of vertical roughly parallel incised lines and has thumbed
impressions on either side of the top, where it was
joined to the body of the jug. This joint must have
been made without roughing or scoring, as the area
that would have been stuck to the body of a vessel is
completely smooth. This again is a typical feature of
Scarborough wares, the clay being so fine and
absorbent that it bonded fairly easily. One thumb
mark half way down the handle indicates where the
potter held the handle while fixing it to the vessel wall.
The base must have been thumbed when the vessel was still fairly shallow as finger-nail impressions
can be seen inside the base, suggesting that it was
pulled up to its full height afterwards. Alternatively, a
small person or child might have put one arm down
inside the vessel and pushed the clay out from the
inside at the same time as thumbing from the outside.
Possibly the earliest context in which sherds of
this vessel were found is JS Area V layer 71 (CS)
which also yielded E10 and E12a pottery of 12th
and 13th-century date. Fig 33.2.46.
7301 2574(1), 7305 1919(2), 7501 2248(1), 7502
1193(1), 1201(3), 1207(1), 1211(7), JS73 Area IV
E, Layer 64(1), JS73 Area IV W, Layers 9(1), 12(4),
16?(1), 42(1), 45(1), 46(2), 68(1), JS76 Area V
Layer 3(1), 12(4), 23(5), 29(1), 36(1), 41(1), 67(1),
71(1), JS76 Area VI Layers 18(3), 41(4), 44?(1)
Bulbous-bodied jug with a series of evenly spaced
parallel vertical strips of the same clay as that used
for the body of the vessel. These are alternately
coloured green (copper) and brown (iron).
Although the two sherds look as if they are from the
same vessel they do not join. Not illus.
6509 179(1), 7004 3578(1)
Moulded dummy handle in an upside down L
shape which would have had a shield attached to the
unglazed area at the front and a knights head on the
unglazed area at the top. It would have been
attached to the body of a jug via the smaller horizontal foot of clay at the back. It is covered in an
even, thick and lustrous dark green glaze. Not illus.
6901 3168?(2)
Body sherd from a knight jug with two applied strips
of clay; one vertical and one horizontal, punctuated
by applied ring and dot stamps under a mid-green
glaze. Not illus.
6905 2946(1)
33: POTTERY
F1.5
F1.6
F1.7
F1.8
F1.9
F1.10
F1.11
F1.12
F1.13
A plain, crudely made base of a jug from the

robber trench of the well house wall. It is very
abraded and pitted in a similar way to material from
Well 2, suggesting that perhaps it had also been
water worn. There is evidence of yellow and green
glaze on the underside of the base and groups
of thumb marks around the edge of the base.
The bases of these vessels are not well made, being
thick at the base/body edge (approx 12mm) and
then tapering to approx 3mm towards the centre
of the base. The potters clearly do not have the
skill and finesse of those involved in making
perhaps later Phase I and certainly Phase II vessels.
Not illus.
6510 160(1), 7002 4338(5), 4339(11), 4353(2),
4358(1), 5000(1). 4339 joins 5000
Crudely made vessel. Soft fine fabric with lenses of
white clay. It has a very thick base corner (18mm)
tapering into the centre of the base (4mm). Thick
green glaze has been spilt onto the bottom of the
base, probably from another vessel upturned above
it. The thumbing only shows on the outside, with no
nail/finger impressions on the inside, suggesting that
it was made in a different way, perhaps by different
potters to those making the later Phase II vessels.
The joining sherds, which are not abraded, come
from the primary infilling of Well 2 and the robber
trench of the well house wall. Not illus.
6510 890(1), 7002 4339(1), 7007 3672(1). 3672
joins 4339
Part of a jug handle, not abraded, with a glossy dark
green glaze which has turned yellowish at the edges.
Not illus.
7002 4397(1)
Small wheat-ear stamp boss with a well-defined central vertical rib (approx 2mm wide) and short
(34mm long and 2mm wide) ovoid grains with
dark green glaze which is thinner and more yellow in
colour on the raised areas. Not illus.
Wheat-ear stamp boss, which is larger and less well
defined than F1.8,with longer, thinner, grains and a
wider central raised rib. Not illus.
Several small sherds with partial raspberry-shaped
stamp bosses covered with green glaze or more mottled mid-green and yellow glaze. Not illus.
JS73 Area IVE Layer 64(1), JS76 Area VI Layers
18(2), 35(1)
Body sherd with applied pad of clay incised to form
part of a hand, possibly from a similar vessel to
F1.22 and F1.23 (below). It is covered with a dark
green glaze. Not illus.
Plain very abraded vessel, with a dark green and yellow glaze and a rim scar on the base. One sherd
(3136) comes from the infill of the construction of
Well 2, while others are from the infill of the well
itself. Not illus.
6509 870(2), 6901 2965(1), 2970(4), 2971(1),
2992(14), 3016(3), 3051(1), 3069?(1), 3084(2),
3112(1), 3136(1), 3144(3), 3185(1) and 2 illegible
Body sherds of a bulbous jug with vertical scars
where applied strips have fallen off. Above these is a
horizontal band around the neck. Not illus.
F1.14
387
6508 840(1), 6509 176(2), 6510 169(1), JS76 Area

VI Layer 18(1)
Small body sherds of a jug with vertical scale and
strip decoration and a horizontal band around the
neck. Not illus.
7105 1704(1), JS76 Area V Layer 75(1), 1 unmarked
Farmers Phase II fabric:

F1.15
F1.16
F1.17
F1.18
F1.19
An abraded and fairly unusual sherd, possibly from

an aquamanile. The fabric is fine, quite light
coloured, hard and highly fired. It is decorated
externally with two vertical series of applied scales
on either side of an applied strip, which has the
traces of diamond-shaped rouletting down its length
and tapers to a point at the base. The applied decoration is in a different clay (red firing Phase I clay)
from the body of the vessel (white firing Phase II
clay). The whole sherd is covered with a clear lead
glaze which gives the body a yellow/amber colour,
contrasting with the brown, iron stained decoration.
Not illus.
Jug sherd with abraded upper rim surface, probably
caused by it being stuck to the base of another vessel in the kiln and separated. It is covered with a
clear lead glaze which is a light yellow colour and
decorated with Phase I fabric red iron-rich scales in
two horizontal rows, above and below a ribbed area.
The fabric of the body of the vessel is a light buff
colour and remarkably similar to that of F1.15. Not
illus.
Illegible finds code (JA 7? RW/FW)
The lower section of a beard from a bearded face jug
decorated with a series of short parallel incisions on
either side of a central indentation. It is covered
externally with a slightly speckled copper glaze
which laps around the sides, leaving the underside
almost entirely free of glaze. This sherd is very
abraded suggesting that this might not be a primary
context. Not illus.
6901 3152(1)
Bearded face jug of a similar type to Farmer 1979,
27, fig 8. Rim diam 100mm. A parrot beak spout,
similar in shape to those of the Saintonge industry,
is applied to the outside of the jug and a finger
pushed through the wall to create an opening. The
vessel has very fine walls with a simple squared off
rim and a fairly thick, lustrous dark green glaze. The
rim has no glaze on part of it where it appears to
have been cemented to the base of another vessel,
presumably when it was fired standing upside down
in the kiln.
The beard is decorated with tooth-shaped triangular indentations down its sides. The eyes are
incised circles with dots in the centre. The nose is a
triangular pad of clay flattened at the end. Fig
33.2.46.
JS76 Area IVN Layers 26(2), 27(1), 39(7), 40(1),
Area VI Layer 36(1). Joins between Area IVN
Layers 26 and 27, 26 and 39
Rod-shaped handle from an aquamanile with
incised vertical lines down its length. It has two
indented thumb impressions on either side of one
end. The dark green glaze covers the outer/upper
surface, turning yellowish at the edges where it laps
388
F1.22
F1.23
F1.24
Fig 33.2.46 Scarborough/North Yorkshire-type ware (F1.1,

18, 21, 35). Scale 1:4
F1.20
F1.21
round the sides, while the under surface has only a

few speckles. The handle was attached by pushing a
finger or stick out through the body into the handle
from the inside of the pot at the same time as pushing the handle on from the outside. This has left an
indentation of approx 10mm into the end of the
handle. This is a method of attachment commonly
used on Scarborough ware aquamaniles (P Farmer,
pers comm). Not illus.
Sherd, possibly from the top of an aquamanile, or
the upper back of an animal, roughly where the handle and hole for fitting occurs. The glaze has blistered and bubbled during firing and is a matt green
colour. Not illus.
7505 2372(1)
Base and lower body of a jug. Groups of four thumb
impressions around the outside of the base may have
been made before the jug was pulled up to its full
height as nail marks can be seen on the inside.
Alternatively, they could have been made by a small
F1.25
person or child (see F1.1). The thumb impressions

are approx 15mm wide 18mm.
The diameter of the base is 140mm. It has a kiln
scar where the rim of another vessel, which probably
had a radius similar to that of F1.18, has dripped
pools of dark green glaze onto the base and stuck to
it before being prized off, again showing that it was
fired upside down. This glaze has then run down one
side in a stream over the unglazed area of the lower
walls of the vessel, to merge with the lower edge of the
glazing on the body of the jug, which starts about
130mm up from the base. The body of the jug is decorated with a series of roughly parallel vertical applied
strips covered with a speckled light green glaze.
The lower walls are knife trimmed and smoothed
to approx 80mm up from the base. Fig 33.2.46.
7305 1836(1), 7502 1201(4), 1203(2), 1204(3),
1211(3), 7604 971(6), 974(2), JS73 Area IV Layer
1(1), Area IVE Layer 64(3), JS76 Area IVN Layer
24(1)
Body/neck sherds from a bridge-spouted vessel
where the bridge spout has sheared off, but the scar
left on the body indicates where it would have been
attached. At the side of this is an attached arm,
made from a sausage of clay, which would have terminated in a hand, the latter also missing. It is covered with a mottled medium green glaze. Not illus.
7604 975(1), JS76 Area IV Layer 62(1) joins Area V
Layer 47(1), Area VI Layer 40(1) (and 1 sherd JS
illegible)
Small sherd from a similar jug to F1.22. The area
where the arm was smoothed out as it was attached
to the body of the vessel is roughly shaped to form a
roundel, and could have been reused as a counter,
moved by holding the remaining portion of the arm.
As with F1.22, the handle was probably wet when
stuck on to the body, but without roughing either
surface as the area of the join is completely smooth.
Not illus.
6701 702(1)
Rod-shaped handle with incised vertical line decoration. The handle is reduced at one end. The other
end, oxidised, has cracked during firing and the
glaze has crept in around the edges of the break.
This may have been caused by a large sandstone and
haematite inclusion which has blown, leaving a hole
in the centre of the break. Not illus.
7502 1201(1) joins 1207(1)
Sherds from a small jug/drinking jug with lustrous
green glaze and a rounded simple rim (diam 80mm)
above a fairly straight-sided neck. The glaze on the
inside of the rim goes down to approx 10mm from the
top, although one sherd has glaze over the whole of its
internal surface, suggesting that it went down further
than 45mm. The neck is faintly ribbed with a distinctive rib where it curved out into the body of the vessel.
The rod handle is 20mm diam and the top has
three thumbed indentations on the front and sides
where it was luted onto the body of the vessel. There
are two applied pads of clay at the sides of the handle. Not illus.
6901 2969(1), 6903 4453(1), 7502 1193(3),
1195(1), 1198(3), 1201(1), 7504 1123(2), JS73
Area IVE Layer 64(4) joins JS76 Area IVN Layer 25
(1), Area VI Layer 18(1). 1195 joins 1198
33: POTTERY
F1.26
F1.27
F1.28
F1.29
F1.30
F1.31
F1.32
F1.33
F1.34
Jug, diam c 90mm, with a thickened, squared-off

rim with a pulled and pinched spout and a scar
where the handle is missing. The rim has a scar
where it has been prised off another vessel after firing. The external surface is covered with a thick
dark green glaze. Not illus.
JS73 Area IVW Layer 16(1), JS76 Area V Layers
0(1) 21(1)
Jug with groups of three thumb impressions around
the base and clear wire marks where it has been cut
off the wheel. There are speckles of glaze on the
base, but no rim scar. The rim and neck are only
partially glazed with a thinner medium green glaze.
The rim is thickened and squared off at the top to
form a rib approx. 10mm in height. A neck sherd
with a convex curve half-way up is probably part of
the same vessel. Not illus.
7502 1201(1), 1204(4), 7604 971(1), JS76 Area V
Layer 0(1), Area VI Layer 40(2). 1204 joins 971.
A plain, unglazed base with groups of three thumb
indentations approx 13mm and 28mm tall. Diam
140mm. Not illus.
7505 2372(1), 2375(1)
Plain rod handle with thumb impressions on either
side at the top. It is covered in a rich lustrous glossy
green glaze. Not illus.
Rod handle with incised grooves with an unusual
light apple green glaze turning yellowish and patchy
underneath. One sherd, presumably from the same
vessel, has a similar glaze and fine brown applied
strip and dot decoration. Not illus.
JS73 Area IVW Layer 4(1), JS76 Area V Layer 0(1)
Rod handle with incised vertical line decoration and
three thumbed areas in the centre and sides where it
was smoothed out and attached to the body of the
vessel at the top. It is covered with a thinner more
watery glaze. Not illus.
Jug sherd with green applied strip and yellowish
glaze on the body. Not illus.
A very abraded rod handle with incised vertical parallel line decoration. Not illus.
Sherd from the body of a fine-walled jug with green
and yellowish-green glaze and two applied vertical
strips. Not illus.
JS73 Area I Layer 1(1), Area IV Layer 45(1)
Tees Valley ware 11751350 (F10), 0.73%

Fabric: A fine sandy red/orange earthenware with
streaks of whiter clay mixed into it. It has a distinctive
self-slipped appearance and is usually oxidised to reddish orange, but can be partially reduced, sometimes
with a light grey reduced core.
Forms: Jars and jugs
Manufacture: One jar has an incised waved decoration, possibly part of a zigzag, on the upper body and
shoulder area and is similar to an example from
Wharram Percy (Andrews and Milne 1979, 91, fig 39
no. 65). Jugs have a mottled green glaze.
Date: 12th to 14th century
F10.1
F10.2
F10.3
F10.4
F10.5
Wearmouth
F10.6
F1.35
Shield from knight jug in soft pinkish Phase I fabric

with incised cross decoration with stabbed holes at
the end and centre of each arm of the cross. A central cross is decorated with a series of parallel roughly rectangular stab marks, perhaps made with the
teeth of a comb. There may have been a further horizontal division lower down the shield which, unlike
the central cross, does not appear to have been
delineated on either side by parallel incised line decoration. The sherd is covered in a lustrous midgreen glaze that has turned amber in patches where
it is thinner. Fig 33.2.46
7402 182(1)
389
F10.7
F10.8
F10.9
The base of a jar with its external surface fired to a

dark red possibly from iron-rich slip/slurry. It is
unglazed apart from a few pitted reddened spots. The
entire external surface is heavily blackened and the
internal surface is heavily sooted. As the base is partly burnt over a fracture, this vessel may have been
burnt after rather than during use. However, burning
could have been the cause of its breakage. The form
of the base is common in this fabric. Not illus.
6903 4453(1), 6905 2946(1), 3061(2), 7106 1435(1)
The upper part of a vessel in a similar fabric and
form to that described above; shoulder has two horizontal bands of incised undulating decoration (see
above). Not illus.
7502 1188(1), 1189(1), 1193(1), 1195(1), 1198(3),
1200(1), 1206(1) and 1208(1)
Seven shoulder sherds of a small to medium-sized
jug with a mottled, slightly copper-stained, green
glaze externally with a slightly more bimodal fabric
and fired to a mid-orange colour. Not illus.
7502 1201(1), 1204(1), 1211(1), 7604 967(1),
974(1), 975(1), JS76 Area VI Layer 41(1)
Small jug with a rod handle, in a slightly coarser fabric with larger quartz grains. It has a creamy slip on
the external surface and a typical yellowish glaze,
mottled with brown/orange in places. Not illus.
7502 1201(1), 1211(1)
Jug represented by one small shoulder sherd that is
very fine, but otherwise similar to F10.1. The fabric
resembles E11C. Deep reddish-orange with darkened external surface and dark glaze spots. Not illus.
7006 3983(1)
One small lower wall sherd in a fine version of the
fabric. It is reddish-orange burnt/sooted externally
with abraded dark, reddish-brown internal glaze as
F10.4 above. Not illus.
7006 3988(1)
Jar/cooking pot one small sherd of orange/buff fabric with a paler core and some external sooting. Not
illus.
7006 4035(1)
Cooking pot orange fabric typical of this ware with
some external sooting. Not illus.
6903 3047(1)
Jug/storage jar the fabric is quite different from the
above and is fired to a pinkish-orange externally and
390
yellower pinkish-orange internally. It is rather abraded with the trace of a finger impression internally.
Not illus.
6904 3191(2)
Northern Glazed White ware 12001300 (D20),

0.05%
This type occurs in very small quantities only at Jarrow
and has not been recognised in excavations elsewhere
in the region.
Fabric: Hard, slightly rough, with irregular fracture 45mm thick. The matrix includes 1015% poorly sorted, subangular to rounded translucent and microcrystalline quartz, 0.21.5mm, with very sparse
haematite and quartz sandstone, 0.33.5mm. The fabric is mainly reduced, with internal surfaces very pale
brownlight yellowish brown (10YR 7/46/4) and
core and outer margins whitelight gray (10YR
8/17/2). D20.1 is evenly fired to light gray (10YR
7/2), while both D20.2 and D20.3 are discoloured and
burnt, probably after breakage.
Form: The only rim identified is that of a costrel with
an upright rim and a very narrow neck, the handles
springing from the rim (D20.1). D20.2 and 3 may be
jugs or jars, but only body sherds are present. The
costrel form is reminiscent of that found in Oxidised
Gritty ware (see E10.1). Vessels were wheelthrown and
covered externally in the evenly applied, crazed, lustrous light to dark olive glaze.
Date: 13th century.
Discussion: The type occurs only residually at Jarrow,
and its absence from other sites in the area makes a
precise dating difficult. D20.1 is similar in form and
glaze to a costrel of Early Glazed Type 1 from York
(Mainman 1990, fig 192, 2219), although without the
elaborate stamped decoration which was a distinctive
feature of the York ware. The coarse gravel temper
places it in the tradition of northern white wares.
D20.1 Neck of costrel, with handle springing from the rim.
Full external cover of thick, glossy olive glaze. Fig
33.2.47.
6511 53(1)
D20.2 Body sherds of a ?jug with full external cover of
glossy, dark olive glaze. Not illus.
6511 53(2), 62(1), 5332(6)
D20.3 Two body and one basal angle of a storage jar. Body
sherds are covered with a pitted, dark olive glaze.
Not illus.
7603 926(1, sf 1), 928(2, sfs 19, 20)
Wearmouth:
D20.4 One body sherd of a ?bowl glazed inside and out.
Covered with an even matt greenish glaze with
brown specks of iron showing through from the
body. Not illus.
7401 238(1)
North Yorkshire Silty Buff ware 12001400

(D16), 0.21%
A silty sandy soft fine ware which is unique so far,
occurring in small quantities at Jarrow and
Wearmouth. It possibly reflects contact with North
Yorkshire.
Fabric: A fairly soft fabric that can be scratched with
a knife. The matrix is fine and fairly dense with very
few inclusions. It contains sparse rounded and subrounded quartz varying from a milky white to rosestained, 0.02 to 2.5mm. Moderate poorly sorted
subrounded black iron, varying from specks of
0.01mm to grains of 0.2mm. There is occasional red
ironstone, subrounded, up to 3mm. There are sparse
rounded holes coated with the surfaces of oolites.
The closest match for internal margin and surface
is pink (7.5 YR 7/4). The core ranges from gray (7.5
YR 6/0) to light gray (7.5 YR 5/0) and the outer part
of the core is oxidised to light brown (7.5YR 6/4).
The outer surface is sooted, but was probably a similar
oxidised colour.
Form: Wide-mouthed bowl with deep, slightly concave, collar which has been made by folding the clay
over and smoothing it while on a wheel/turntable with
the thumb to form a horizontal indentation. The internal surface of the rim is chamfered to form a shallow,
very slightly concave lid seating of approximately
10mm depth. As sooting ends in a marked horizontal
line along the outer edge of the rim, it is likely that the
contents were protected by a lid while being heated.
Sherds are mostly unglazed, with only a few spots of
glaze and a slight puddle inside the convex/curved
base. The only decoration consists of thumbing around
the upper outer edge of the rim and applied thumbed
vertical strips on the body.
Date: 13th to 14th century
Fig 33.2.47 Northern Glazed White ware (D20.1). Scale

1:4
Discussion: The fabric is quite different to the local

buff wares (see E11) as it has less quartz temper and
no iron pyrites. It was not made from local coal measure clays and might fit better with a North Yorkshire
provenance, for example Rushope (A Vince, pers
comm). Nearly all the Jarrow sherds are from layers in
the dump in trenches 7502 and 7604. Most, possibly
33: POTTERY
391
D16.8 Harder fired version of D16, with similar wide collar which appears to have been made by folding over
the body of the vessel at the rim. Fig 33.2.48.
7102 532(1)
Harder Oxidised Version of North Yorkshire

Silty Buff ware 12001400 (D19)
Wearmouth
D19.1 Collar rimmed bowl of same form as D16.1, but
higher fired with oxidised surfaces. Not illus.
7402 179(1)
Tudor Green ware 1450 (F4), 0.02%
Fig 33.2.48 North Yorkshire Silty Buff ware (D16.58).

Scale 1:4
all, of the sherds of D16.1 and D16.2 may have
emanated from one bowl, suggesting a casual link or
social visit from North Yorkshire rather than trade on
a more regular basis. D16.4 may have been a lid for
D16.1 or D16.2 which sat inside the internal bevelled
rim edge. The sooting pattern fits this explanation.
D16.1 Rim of a collared bowl with small thumb marks,
made by someone with small digits, perhaps a child,
along the upper outer edge of the rim. As only part
of the rim is present, it is not possible to say whether
this form of decoration continued around the whole
pot. Heavy sooting on the external surface stops at
the outer upper rim edge. Not illus.
7502 1211(1)
D16.2 Collared bowl with no apparent thumbing on the
rim and a convex curved base. There are two body
sherds decorated with applied vertical thumbed
strips. (The thumbing is similarly small, and may
have been done by the same hand/thumb). Like
D16.1, it is heavily sooted. Not illus.
7502 1193(3), 1201(26), 7604 967(1), 971(3)
D16.3 Collared bowl with very light grey reduced internal
surface and light buff oxidised external surface. The
top of the squared rim is also buff. Not illus.
JS76 Area V Layer 64(1) joins Layer 71 (2), Layer
23(1)
D16.4 Rim of small jar/lid with triangular-shaped thickened rim, slightly sooted on the external edge of the
rim. Not illus.
D16.5 Collar rimmed jar with one spot of lustrous yellow/green glaze. Fig 33.2.48.
6302 89(1)
Fabric: Buff/pale grey to white fabric with a smooth

feel and a fine texture. Rounded to subangular quartz,
iron-stained, white, milky and grey in colour, only just
visible under the microscope at 20. Sparse red and
black iron ore <0.5mm. Sparse limestone. The fabric
is covered with an even, thick, glaze which is sometimes crazed and often mottled green. This type is
described elsewhere in detail (Pearce and Vince 1988;
Pearce 1992; Rackham 1952; Holling 1977;
Moorhouse 1971).
Provenance: The border area of north-east
Hampshire and west Surrey (Orton and Pearce 1984,
1). The clay is typical of the Reading beds and the
Farnborough area where there was a post-medieval
pottery industry (Holling 1971).
Date: 1380 to 1550 (Orton 1988, 297; Pearce and
Vince 1988, 17, 88), but made mainly in the late 15th
century in the various Surrey White ware industries
(Pearce 1992, 2).
F4.1
F4.2
F4.3
Jar. Not illus.

6601 5845(1)
Jug with green glaze externally and a fine fabric. Not
illus.
6601 5875(1)
Bowl with green glazed interior. Not illus.
6601 310(3)
Wearmouth
F4.4
Base of a bulbous drinking jug with mottled apple

green glaze and a ribbed foot similar to stoneware
drinking jugs. This could be German White ware
rather than Tudor Green. Fig 33.2.49.
7403 127(3)
Wearmouth
D16.6 Collared rim of bowl/jar. Fig 33.2.48.
6402 1089(2)
D16.7 Collared rim of bowl/jar. Fig 33.2.48.
7402 163(7)
Fig 33.2.49 Tudor Green ware (F4.4). Scale 1:4
392
Cistercian ware 1500 (F12), 0.16%

Fabric: The fabric varies from fairly soft red (2.5YR
5/8) (F12.2) and red (10R 5/8) (F12.5) to hard dark
reddish gray (10YR 4/1) (F12.4) and is often partially reduced to a dark purplish-grey.
Forms: Posset pots
Date: The first reliable evidence for its date at the
Castle Ditch, Newcastle, is in phase 7 (late 15th
century). It occurs in increasing quantities from phase
8 (early 16th century) and peaks in phases 16 and 17
(second half of the 16th century).
Discussion: Only very small sherds (no larger than
30mm wide) have been found at Jarrow and Jarrow
Slake. These are all softer and presumably fired at
lower temperatures than the F12.4 sherds from
Wearmouth. Despite the small quantity found, the
above sherds may be split into three groups; soft, medium and hard according to their firing. This may well
reflect three different traditions. The soft and mediumfired fabrics may suggest a source more local to
Newcastle (Ellison 1981, 156). A saggar and wasters
have been noted among chance finds from a site
near St Marys College, South Road, Durham
(Lowther et al 1993, 43.73). These may all occur later
in the 16th century than the originally identified
Yorkshire types.
F12.1
F12.2
F12.3
F12.4
F12.5
F12.6
F12.7
Brears type 1 posset pot with applied vertical strips

of white clay rouletted into place (Brears 1971, 2021, fig 20 no. 1), with horizontal rouletting marks.
The fabric is not fused, but is fairly hard weak red
(10R 5/2). The glaze is slightly metallic and brown.
Not illus.
7004 3568(1)
Brears type 1 posset pot in softer red lower fired
fabric, with a slightly thicker wall (8mm), cruder
vertical strips and one horizontal with no rouletting.
The glaze has a greenish tinge, perhaps a local variant. Not illus.
Brears type 1 posset pot with finer parallel vertical
line decoration in a similar fabric to F12.1. Not
illus.
7302 2415(1)
Posset pot with decoration like that on F12.11. It is
interesting to note that a similar vessel/decorative
type was found at both Wearmouth and Jarrow. Not
illus.
6503 430 (1)
Posset pot decorated in a similar style to F12.4 and
11. Medium fabric reddish brown (2.5YR, 5/4 and
4/4). Not illus.
7301 2504 (1), 6302 83 (1)
Same form as F12.11. Not illus.
7802 590(1)
Body of a type 1 posset pot with similar decoration
to F12.11. A medium/hard fine fabric. Not illus.
6601 355(1)
Fig 33.2.50 Cistercian ware (F12.11). Scale 1:4

Several plain undecorated sherds which have been overfired
and whose surfaces are pitted and bubbling are listed below
(F12.810). They are too small to be able to identify the
exact form that they are from.
F12.8
Burnt handle from a posset pot, beaker or cup.

Hard, high-fired fabric. Not illus.
6902 2972 (1)
F12.9 High-fired fabric. One sherd from a ?cup with
orange skin appearance internally and extremely
uneven bubbled and pitted surface externally. Not
illus.
7304 2494 (1)
F12.10 Overfired sherds, possibly Cistercian, and one
underfired soft sherd. Not illus.
6302 74(2), 6701 204(1)
Wearmouth
F12.11 A very high-fired almost stoneware with standard
brown speckled glaze. Type 1 posset pot decorated
with parallel vertical lines, which are rouletted with
pellets of clay at their upper ends. There is a horizontal wavy line below two straight lines. The decoration is very similar to Brears type 1. Fig 33.2.50.
6603 1761(2)
F12.12 Type 1 posset pot that is quite soft and red like
F12.2. Two sherds have applied vertical rouletted
line decoration. Not illus.
6603 1731(4)
Medieval pottery imported

Fine Sandy Grey wares 11001200 (D3), 0.35%
This type has been recovered in small quantities at
Wearmouth, Lumley Street, Hartlepool (unpublished), the South Curtain Wall of the castle in
Newcastle (Edwards 1966, nos 34, 126) in deposits
related to the building of the wall in the later 12th
century, and most recently on the Newcastle Quayside
(Bown 1988b, 4244) where it was found in deposits
dated to the early to mid-13th century. Recent research
has shown that this group is less homogeneous than
the original studies suggested.
Fabric: Quite hard, with finely gritted or smoothed surface texture and an irregular surface fracture, 38mm
thick. The matrix includes 1525% moderately sorted
subangular to round translucent quartz and quartzite,
0.250.50mm, with occasional larger grains up to
1.2mm, sparse red haematite 0.251.5mm and a few
33: POTTERY
black grains, possibly coal 0.51.5mm and moderate

mica. The fabric is mainly reduced, with surfaces gray
(10YR 5/1) to dark gray (10YR 4/1) or, rarely,
browndark brown (7.5YR 5/4), and core and margins
light brownish gray (10YR 6/2) to gray (10YR 5/1).
Form: Globular jars with long necks and a small,
squared rim (D3.1) or upright, rolled rim (D3.2,
D3.3). No complete profiles could be reconstructed.
The vessels are wheelthrown, though some thicker
walled sherds indicate that lower walls and bases may
have been coiled. They are unglazed and occasionally
smoothed externally. Several sherds are sooted and on
the internal base of one (D3.6) is a creamy, waxy
residue.
Date: 12th century.
Discussion: This ware was recovered mainly from
contexts 2372, 2376 and 2377 associated with feature
3689. The closest parallel in fabric, but not form, is
Thetford and related wares; some kiln material from
Norwich (Jennings 1981, cat no. 70), is particularly
similar. It is equivalent to the Type 1 fabric in the
Quayside assemblage (Bown 1988b), where it was suggested that the type might be a Flemish import of the
early 13th to 14th centuries. There is a parallel for the
D3.2 rim from Hart (Addis 1976, fig 15 no. 84), but
in a fabric identical to D5. One sherd (D3.4) was submitted later than the main TL dating programme for a
survey date, with the following results: JA/TL/21/4 AD
1310135. There are parallels with several Quayside
rim forms, and a close match for the D3.2 rim form
among later grey wares recovered from Flemish coastal
sites (Verhaeghe 1983a, 8385, fig 7.10:10). The fabric, however, is closer to the coarser Flemish Grey
wares of the 11th and 12th centuries.
D3.1
Globular jar with long neck and small, upright,

squared rim, diam 160mm. Extenal sooting on neck
up to 5mm down from top of the rim. Crudely made
and possibly coil built, then turned on the wheel.
There is evidence of knife trimming inside the lower
D3.2
D3.3
D3.4
393
walls and also externally. Petrological analysis of one

sherd suggests that it resembles Low Countries
Grey wares (G13). Fig 33.2.51.
7505 2372 (8), 2376 (2), 7802 585 (1)
Jar with upright, slightly rolled rim, diam 167mm
(cf Addis 1976, fig 15 no. 84). Some external sooting on body sherds. Fig 33.2.51
7505 2372(5)
Jar with upright, slightly rolled rim, as above, diam
c 180mm. Not illus.
TL date (see above). Not illus.
7505 2372(1)
Low Countries Grey ware 13501500 (G13), 0.11%

Fabric: A crumbly vesicular matrix fired to a light grey
with darker grey thick margins. Moderate subangular
quartz 0.1 to 0.2mm and sparse rounded white quartz
0.4mm are present with moderate mica flecks less than
0.1mm and sparse black iron ore. Petrological analysis
suggests that this fabric is similar to D3.1 and is from
the Low Countries (see Appendix 33.2.1), but perhaps
later in date.
Date: Grey wares can range from 1350 to 1600. (It is
difficult to tell those of British origin from those from
the continent.)
G13.1 A squared-off rim with indentation on the inside of
the neck. This shape is similar to the fine white ware
jars from Kelso. Not illus.
7304 2127(1), 7604 979(1), 7803 2809(1)
G13.2 Not illus. 7503 1113(1)
G13.3 Not illus. 7505 2372(1, sf 533)
G13.4 Not illus. 7302 2547(1)
G13.5 Not illus. JS76 Area V Layer 26
G13.6 Not illus. 7604 981(1)
G13.7 Not illus. JS76 Area V Layer 3(1)
G13.11 Not illus. Appendix 33.2.1, V864
Low Countries Highly Decorated ware 12501325

(G11), 0.15%
Fabric: A fine earthenware which is almost entirely
oxidised to a brick red, but very occasionally has a
blue-grey core. It is fairly hard with thin walls (approx
4mm thick). The matrix is fine and vesicular and contains evenly sorted milky white rounded quartz grains
in moderate amounts of up to 0.5mm diameter and
sparse flecks of red iron oxide. More quartz has been
used to temper the clay used to make the rod handle
which has been attached after the application of slip to
the body of the pot.
Fig 33.2.51 Fine Sandy Grey Ware (D3.1, 2). Scale 1:4
Manufacture: The outer surface is covered with a

thick layer of fine, white, iron-free slip under a fairly
thick mottled green and yellow lead glaze in vertical
394
bands down the vessel. These are splashed with small

patches (approx 10mm across) of bright copper green.
The interior has an overall thinner glaze of rich lustrous chestnut orange. This is also splashed liberally
with bright copper green areas and has occasional dribbles of white slip beneath it. Glaze covers a crack suggesting that this was perhaps a waster or second.
Form: Jug most of the sherds of this type found at
Jarrow are almost certainly from the same single vessel
(G11.1) and although both the rim and the general
form, with the long gently sloping neck/body of a pearshaped jug, are unusual, it was felt that the fabric and
decoration was of Aardenburg type (F Verhaeghe, pers
comm). Only one other jug is represented (G11.2) and
all sherds of this fabric have been added to the catalogue.
Provenance: Flanders and western Netherlands
(Verhaeghe 1983b, 7). Production is thought to be
linked particularly with western and coastal areas of
the Low Countries. Brugge and its ports had welldeveloped trade connections, but it may equally have
been imported from other parts of Flanders, eg Gent,
or Northern France, eg Lille (Verhaeghe 1982, 165).
Date: Dating is somewhat subjective, but broadly
12501325 (F Verhaeghe, pers comm). Aardenburg
types disappear around 1325/50.
G11.1 Jug. The fabric is hard, generally oxidised to brick
red, but with an often thick external white margin,
probably due to the application of iron-free slip. The
vessel is fully glazed internally and externally.
Externally the glaze appears lemony over a white
slip, but there is liberal copper staining on part of
the vessel. The glaze is dulled, flaky and decayed in
places and blistered on parts of the vessel due to soil
conditions. There is a blue-grey core. The internal
glaze is mainly clear, but patches of dribbled slip
occur and there are patches of copper staining
generally the internal glaze is quite thin and speckly.
The fabric has quite an evenly sorted matrix of
rounded quartz grains. Discussion of this vessel with
Frans Verhaeghe in April 1983 confirmed that it was
Low Countries Highly Decorated ware, although he
agreed that both the rim and the gently sloping
shoulder are unusual. Fig 33.2.52.
Fig 33.2.52 Low Countries Highly Decorated ware

(G11.1, 2). Scale 1:4
7502 1201(5), 1203(3), 1204(4), 1211(2), 7604

970(1), 974(4), 975(9), JS73 Area IV E 64(3)
(joins between JS73 Area IV E 64, 974, 1201 and
1211)
G11.2 Jug in a similar red fabric, decorated with copper and
iron-stained glaze over a thin white slip. Horizontal
bands of impressed rectangular and triangular
shapes were probably made with a roller stamp.
Vertical bands of incised carved lines were probably
made with thumb/finger-nails. Fig 33.2.52.
7102 3437(2)
G11.3 One very abraded sherd, possibly from jug G11.1 or
a similar vessel. Not illus.
6501 5429(1)
Low Countries Red wares 1350 (G12), 2.18%

Fabric: Light red to reddish-buff and slightly sandy,
with abundant quartz, moderate iron oxide and sparse
whitish subrounded inclusions. It can vary from quite
soft to hard depending on firing and is usually oxidised
throughout. The glaze is often reddish orange, but can
have brown and green patches. It varies from splash
glaze to partial and more even coverage.
Provenance: The ports of the Rhine/Maas delta were
thought to be the most likely source for the red wares
at the Castle Ditch, Newcastle (Ellison 1981, 130).
However, red wares were made in a number of places
in the Low Countries as well as in England by immigrants or local potters copying Low Countries traditions (Dawson 1979; Jennings 1981, 1346) using
similar red-firing clays and forms (Ellison 1981, 130).
This means that it is not always possible to tell the local
from the imported wares.
Date: Low Countries Red ware occurs from the 14th
century onwards at the Castle Ditch, Newcastle upon
Tyne, where it reaches a peak in the 16th century.
Forms: Tripod cooking pots and pipkins, frying pan,
bowls and dishes, chamber pot and a goblet/beaker.
G12.1 Tripod cooking pot with lid seating and pinched rod
handles, of a similar form to one from the Castle
Ditch, Newcastle (Ellison 1981, 131, no. 164). Lid
seated rims and pinched handles are thought to
occur first in the Low Countries around 1400, so
they might be expected to occur here some time
immediately after this, perhaps the early 15th
century. The vessel is sparsely glazed on the rim and
the shoulder and has splashes of glaze inside the
base. It is sooted on the external lower walls and
base. Fig 33.2.53.
7502 1169(3), 1175(1), 1179(2), 1185(5),
1188(23), 1189(2)
G12.2 Tripod cooking pot with an exact parallel from the
Utrecht kiln site (Janssen 1983, 147, Fig 9.11.3)
dated to the late 14th/early 15th century. This form
was common in Phase 5 at the Castle, Newcastle
(Ellison 1981, nos 161, 162). Its claw-shaped feet are
similar to those of metal forms. It has pronounced
33: POTTERY
G12.3
G12.4
G12.5
G12.6
G12.7
G12.8
G12.9
G12.10
G12.11
rilling on the shoulders and a rod handle. The glaze

is splashed quite liberally all over the internal surface,
sparsely over the shoulder and on the internal base.
The base is heavily sooted externally. Not illus.
7006 3983(1), 7106 1278(2), 7502 1169(1),
1179(4), 1185(6), 1188(26), 1189(2), 1194(1),
7604 965(1), 966(1), 967(2)
Body sherds of tripod ?pipkin. The external surface
is a dull red colour, the shoulder is splash glazed
while the lower walls are unglazed. The internal surface is also a dull red, with sparse glaze splashes.
Not illus.
7502 1169(2), 1185(1), 1188(6)
?Pipkin. The closest parallel to this rim form is
Ellison 1981, nos 161162 (see G12.2 and 3 above).
The vessel is in a much harder fabric than usual,
very sparsely splash-glazed externally and internally.
The glaze is mainly on the shoulder and internally
on the base area. Unsooted on the lower walls,
which are rather cracked. This is a much thicker
walled vessel than G12.13, slightly rilled on the
shoulder. Not illus.
7502 1179(2), 1188(5), 7604 966(1), 967(1)
Tripod ?pipkin, no close parallel so far observed (see
Ellison 1981, no. 162 for similar). In effect probably
a smaller, squatter, form of vessel than G12.2,
sparsely glazed, the glaze confined to the external
shoulder, internal rim surface and a few internal
spots. Not illus.
7502 1175(1), 1179(1), 1188(2)
Chamber pot? See Ellison 1981, no. 238 for similar,
possibly late 16th century. Not illus.
Unmarked (1)
Frying pan (diam 180mm), thick walled with patches of soot over the rim and external surface. Glaze is
splashed liberally on the internal surface on the
walls and up to the rim, with a full cover of glaze
inside the base. The surface is dark red with no glaze
other than accidental splashes. The closest parallel
is Ellison 1981, no. 196, which is a late 14th to 16th
century type. Not illus.
7502 1188(11)
Bowl (diam 130mm), which probably had a full
internal cover of clear lead glaze that has since
chipped off along the rim. It is heavily sooted, externally quite black. Not illus.
7502 1188(1)
Shoulder sherd of tripod cooking pot/pipkin.
Typical in appearance, from a vessel like G12.1.
This sherd is probably not from that vessel, but is of
very similar appearance and fabric. Not illus.
7006 3983(1)
Tripod/pipkin/jug? Small shoulder sherd of typical
appearance with three spots of glaze on the internal
surface, and a full cover on the external surface. The
fuller cover of glaze might suggest a slightly later
date, but probably no later than the 15th century.
Not illus.
6904 3165(1)
Bowl (diam 280mm). Fully glazed internally and
over the rim, heavily sooted and burnt externally and
through part of the fabric. There are a few external
glaze spots. There is a slight lid seating on the rim.
An almost exact parallel for the form is a bowl from
the Castle Ditch, Newcastle (Ellison 1981, 140, 143,
G12.12
G12.13
G12.14
G12.15
G12.16
G12.17
395
no. 227), thought to be from a phase dated to the

second half of the 16th century. Not illus.
6903 1(1), 2994(1)
Large bowl (rim 220mm diam), thick walled, particularly at the base. Fully glazed internally with spots
of glaze externally. The external surface varies from
reddish-brown to darker brown nearer the base. The
lower walls are sooted externally. The closest parallel
is from pit 1 (dated to between 1645 and 1675),
Black Gate, Newcastle (Ellison et al 1979, 1613, no.
10) which although not as tall has a similar diameter
and horizontal handles. The decoration on the Black
Gate example is also similar to the decoration found
here above the handles. These handles are considered to be a typical Low Countries feature. The vessel is discoloured and partially covered with a
yellowish deposit on sherds around the rim, presumably as a result of deposition. Not illus.
6904 2942(2), 2953(2), 2964(2), 2976(1), 3033(3),
3078(1), 3373(1), 3390(9), 6905 2949(1)2942
joins 3390, 2949 joins 2953, 3033 joins 3373, 2964
joins 3390.
Bowl (diam 190mm) with a slight lid seating. The
fabric is typically sandy, dark orange in colour and
has a full internal and external cover of glaze. No
parallels recognised. Not illus.
6903 1(2), 2954(1), 2994(1), 6904 2974(1)
Plate, dish or bowl (diam 250mm). The fabric is
dark orange with a full internal cover of glaze, which
has lapped over the rim and trickled down the outside of the vessel. The external surface is dark red
where unglazed. No exact parallel has been found
for this, but the closest form is that of a porringer
from a late 16th-century context at the Castle Ditch,
Newcastle (Ellison 1981, 1423, no. 231). Not illus.
6903 2954(1)
Plate/dish similar, but thinner walled than G12.14
above. The fabric is much less sandy and therefore
presumed to be from a different source within the
Low Countries. It is dark orange with a buff/pink
internal surface under the glaze the glaze is consequently a golden yellow. The glaze has lapped over
the rim in patches, otherwise leaving the external
surface unglazed and a dark red colour. This may be
16th or 17th century. Not illus.
6904 2953(2)
Chamber pot/jar (160mm diam). The fabric is finer
than G12.13 and G12.14 although still quite sandy.
Generally it is not like G12.17 below and may, as
G12.15 above, be of a different source within the
Low Countries. The vessel is orange with yellowishorange margins. Externally the unglazed surface is a
reddish-orange. The internal surface is fully glazed
and a deep orange/amber colour. Not illus.
6904 2949(1), 3390(3), 7008 3318(1)
Chamber pot/jar (120mm diam) Fabric more micaceous, but similar to G12.16. Unglazed externally with
distinct throwing rings on the shoulder. The glaze laps
over the top of the rim and internally the vessel is fully
glazed with a pale amber to greenish yellow colour over
areas of slight reduction. The fabric is yellowish-orange
except at the core of the rim and the external surface is
yellow to reddish-orange. The presumed base sherd is
flat and fully glazed on its internal surface. Not illus.
6904 3139(1), 7006 4041(2)
396
Fig 33.2.53 Low Countries Red wares (G12.1, 20, 257, 29, 31, 3353). Scale 1:4
33: POTTERY
G12.18 Bowl/porringer in a harder finer fabric than the

other post-medieval Low Countries vessels. The
fabric is bright to dark orange and the external surface is unglazed and orange to reddish-orange. The
internal surface is dark red where unglazed and covered with a patchy dark amber to greenish-brown
glaze. There are two accidental random splashes of
white slip on the rim. The closest parallel is a porringer from the Castle Ditch, Newcastle (Ellison
1981, 1423, no. 230). The rim is virtually identical, although there is no evidence for an internal slip
coating on the Jarrow example. In Newcastle this
form is early to late 16th century. Not illus.
6903 3031(1)
G12.19 Bowl/porringer. The fabric is similar to G12.18 but
finer. It is bright orange with a duller buff/
brown/orange external surface and a few glaze spots.
The vessel has a full cover of internal glaze which is
dark amber and slightly speckled. Several similar,
but not identical examples were found at the Castle
Ditch (Ellison 1981, 1401 nos 222 and 223), from
an early to mid-16th-century phase, and at Norwich
(Jennings 1981, 139-40, no. 967). Not illus.
6903 2954(1)
G12.20 Bowl (diam 190mm). The fabric is more typical of
the Low Countries than G12.19 and similar to the
earlier examples, with a fine sandy texture. It is oxidised on both internal and external surfaces to a
darkish brown/orange. The core throughout and the
interior margin at the base are reduced to a brownish-grey. The external surface is worn in places, but
generally a reddish-brown with occasional amber to
copper stained glaze patches. The base also has glaze
splashes. One area of the base has sooting which
could be pre- or post-depositional. Where unglazed,
the internal surface is dark red. The base and lower
walls have been coated with white slip internally and
covered with a copper-stained glaze which appears as
rich copper green over the slip, but as a darker
amber/brownish green over the unslipped areas. The
closest parallel, but not exact, is from the Black Gate
Pit (Ellison et al 1979, 1601, no. 5) although that
example was not copper stained. Possibly of a mid17th-century date. Fig 33.2.53.
7503 1081(33), 1083(1)
G12.21 Pipkin/cooking pot/bowl? The fabric is sandy and
typically bright orange. The vessel is fully glazed
with a dark amber glaze. There is no evidence of any
sooting. Too little of the rim survives to be certain of
the form. Not illus.
6904 3033(1)
G12.22 Bowl? One small sherd in a similar fabric to above.
The colour of the fabric is dark orange, the external
surface has a dark amber glaze. Unglazed internally,
with a whitish deposit. Not illus.
6903 1(1)
G12.23 Cooking pot/dripping pan/frying pan? One small
sherd in a similar fabric to G12.21 and 22. Dark
orange in colour, internally glazed to dark amber,
external surface possibly glazed originally, but worn
off. The form is uncertain. Not illus.
6903 3023(1)
G12.24 Plate (diam 280mm) in a hard, not very sandy
orange fabric, rather untypical of G12. Full internal
slip coating with a few external trickles from the rim.
G12.25
G12.26
G12.27
G12.28
G12.29
G12.30
G12.31
397
Internal rich copper-stained glaze. Externally there

is an almost full coverage of glaze, except perhaps
for the base and parts of the lower walls. It is thick
and clear, appearing chestnut over the fabric. No
other decoration is visible internally, much of the
internal glaze and slip have, however, been broken/worn off. The closest parallel is Ellison 1981,
no. 215, 1401. Although this is not identical, ie different rim form, and the Newcastle plate has ?sgraffito decoration, the fabric and slip and the glaze
application are all the same. It is suggested that the
vessel dates from the 17th century. Not illus.
6903 3031(2)
Goblet/beaker. Fig 33.2.53.
7105 1635(1)
Tripod cooking pot. Fig 33.2.53.
7105 1635(48)
Strainer/colander. Fig 33.2.53
6703 661(1), 666(7)
Tripod cooking pot, similar to G12.2 and 26. Not
illus.
7105 1635(2)
Bowl sooted externally and glazed internally. Fig
33.2.53.
7504 3840(1)
Tripod cooking pot. Not illus.
7105 1500(13)
Deep-handled bowl with straight sides and horizontal loop handles. Fig 33.2.53.
6902 2982(13), 3002(7)
Wearmouth
G12.32 Tripod/pipkin/cauldron base with sooting and an
even lustrous glaze with a whitish deposit. Not illus.
7403 116(2)
G12.33 Bowl with horizontal ?handle at the rim. There is a
lustrous golden glaze on the rim and a dark green
glaze on the neck/body. Fig 33.2.53.
7105 712(1)
G12.34 Large jar/pancheon. Fig 33.2.53.
6601 1600(1)
G12.35 Pipkin with a short handle and brownish-green
speckled glaze. Fig 33.2.53.
7105 715(1)
G12.36 Large bowl with golden glaze. Fig 33.2.53.
7104 351(1)
G12.37 Base and lower wall of a jar/cooking vessel with a
pedestal base. Green glazed internally. Fig 33.2.53.
7401 229(2), 231(8), 238(1)
G12.38 Jar (diam 160mm) with fairly straight neck, gold
lead glaze internally over a white slip. The glaze continues over the rim and to approximately 10mm
down the external surface. The external neck surface is rilled and sooted. Fig 33.2.53.
6602 1826(1)
G12.39 Thick-walled frying pan with folded rod handle.
Glazed golden internally. Fig 33.2.53.
7104 410(2)
G12.40 Small handle, probably one of two opposing rod
handles. External and internal surfaces are covered
with a greenish brown suspension glaze. Fig 33.2.53.
6401 1327? (not clearly legible) (2)
G12.41 Small pipkin neck/rim (diam 110mm) with lid-seating and gold/brownish green glaze internally only.
Fig 33.2.53.
398
7401 231(3)
G12.42 Bowl rim/neck (diam 200mm) with chestnut glaze
internally only. Fig 33.2.53.
6201 1711? (not clearly legible) (1)
G12.43 Bowl/jar base with footring/pedestal base which has
a ring of sooting. The whole of the underside of the
base is sooted, suggesting its use for heating/warming. Golden glaze internally only. Fig 33.2.53.
7104 1411(1)
G12.44 Bowl with collared rim and gold glaze on internal
and external surfaces. Fig 33.2.53.
7105 791(1)
G12.45 Small cooking vessel with bright chestnut glaze
internally and externally. Fig 33.2.53.
6604 826(3)
G12.46 Pancheon/deep bowl glazed externally and internally as above. Fig 33.2.53.
6604 826(1)
G12.47 Straight-sided jar glazed internally and externally,
but unglazed approximately 10mm down from the
rim on both surfaces. An abraded notch on the rim
surface suggests wear during use, perhaps due to
something resting on the rim. Fig 33.2.53.
6904 733(1)
G12.48 Pancheon/bowl. Fig 33.2.53.
6904 734(1)
G12.49 Small lid-seated cooking vessel with a band of glaze
on the internal rim/neck area and accidental spots of
glaze and soot externally. Fig 33.2.53.
6103 1149(1)
G12.50 Small jar/pipkin with groove on upper rim surface,
strap ribbing externally and a golden glaze. One
thick drip of white slip can be seen under the glaze
on the internal surface. Fig 33.2.53.
7401 231(1)
G12.51 Small bowl with collared rim, protruding ledge and
glaze internally. Fig 33.2.53.
7104 411(1)
G12.52 ?Mug, with glaze internally only and ribbed external
surface. Fig 33.2.53.
7104 411(1)
G12.53 ?Mug, glazed internally as above. Fig 33.2.53.
7104 351(1)
Italian Archaic Maiolica 12501350 (G14), 0.01%

Fabric: A fine tin-glazed ware with a mottled lead
glaze on its internal surface and a brownish coloured
tendril(?) decoration.
Discussion: It is uncertain whether this sherd is accurately classified. Vince and Gutirrez do not recognise
it as a Spanish type, while Blake suggests that it is similar to, but not typical of, Italian Maiolica. There is
only one sherd of this type from Jarrow, and one other
from Wearmouth.
G14.1 ?Jug. Not illus.
7502 1206(1)
Wearmouth
G14.2 Rim and neck of small jug/jar. Fig 33.2.54.
7403 127(1)
Fig 33.2.54 Italian Archaic Maiolica (G14.2). Scale 1:4

Rouen-type ware 11501300 (G20a), 0.02%
Fabric: A very fine smooth white-firing clay with no
inclusions visible to the naked eye. Fine white rounded
quartz and sparse red and black iron ore can be seen
under a 20 microscope.
G20a.1 Jug with a horizontal band of red slip, decorated
with a white clay pellet under an even, but thin, light
yellow lead glaze. These bands would have alternated around the body. There is no glaze on the internal surface. One corner looks as if it might have had
a strip of clay with diamond-shaped roller stamping
applied to it while the clay was still wet, as it is not
clearly defined. This type of decoration is very reminiscent of the Rouen style in the 13th century
(Jennings 1981, 30). No parallels have been found,
but similar, more sharply defined roller stamping
can be seen on an example from London (Vince and
Jenner 1991, 105, fig 2, 113, no. 271). Not illus.
6302 86 (3)
G20a.2 Rim of Rouen jug with thin yellow glaze, perhaps
the same vessel as G20a.1. Not illus.
6701 745(1)
Saintonge Mottled Green Glazed wares

12501500 (G20b), 0.03%
Fabric: A fine white fabric similar to that of the polychrome wares, but perhaps grittier, with a mottled
green glaze (with copper added to the lead) externally.
Date: This type does not appear in any quantity here. It
is represented by only a few small sherds. The Castle,
Newcastle, has one sherd in phase 3 (late 13th to early
14th century), four sherds in phase 4 (mid 14th
century) and one in phase 6 (15th century?). It may well
be that those occurring in the later phases 12, 15 and 17
(mid-16th century onwards) are residual (Ellison 1981,
123). This ware is otherwise thought to date from 1250
onwards. A recent review of unpublished material from
the Castle found sherds representing only two or three
jugs in contexts with 13th-century local wares.
(All sherds are catalogued since they are so sparse and
are, on average, no larger than approx 50mm.)
G20b.1 Jug. Not illus.
6901 2988(1), 3116(1)
7102 3434(1)
7302 2579(1)
G20b.4 Rim and body sherd of jug with a softer, slightly
coarser fabric and a lustrous mottled green glaze.
33: POTTERY
Not illus.
7001 4888(1)
G20b.5 Body sherd similar to G20b.4, but with a more
lemon-coloured glaze. Not illus.
7301 2574(1)
G20b.6 Body sherd of jug in fabric similar to G20b.1 to 3.
Not illus.
7105 1523(1)
G20c.3
G20c.4
Wearmouth
G20b.7 Jug with a ribbed neck. Fine grey hard fabric. Fig
33.2.55.
6003 2177(1)
G20b.8 Narrow base of an unglazed drinking cup in soft
buff fabric. Fig 33.2.55.
7401 250(1)
G20c.5
G20c.6
399
Not illus.
7502 1171(1)
Mug? One tiny sherd, which has a thin lustrous copper green glaze with moderate sparse streaks of very
dark green within it. The fabric has a slightly pink
tinge compared with G20c.1 and 2. Not illus.
7305 1812(1)
?Mug. Two very hard finer sherds in a similar but
harder/higher fired fabric, which have a thin, partial
light green glaze with small splashes below it on
their external surfaces and a thin even coating of
mottled copper green glaze internally. Not illus.
7301 1(2)
?Mug. Softer gritty white fabric with lustrous apple
green glaze externally and yellow glaze internally.
This may be from the Low Countries. Not illus.
7504 1096(1)
Tankard with mottled green glaze internally and
thin watery green glaze externally. Not illus.
7504 1078(1)
Beauvais Grs 1450 (H10), 0.01%

Only one sherd was found.
Fig 33.2.55 Saintonge Mottled Green Glazed ware
(G20b.7, 8). Scale 1:4
Beauvais wares 1500 (G20c), 0.03%
Yellow- and green-glazed mugs that may be from
France, Germany or Surrey, England. There are only a
few sherds of this type.
Fabric: Typically a hard buff/cream-coloured earthenware with internal yellow glaze and external green glaze.
Forms: The sherds found are too small to enable a
clear attribution to specific forms, but they are probably all from drinking jugs or mugs.
Fabric: A light grey unglazed stoneware which is similar to, and can be mistaken for, Siegburg stoneware.
Form: The rim and upper body of a thin-walled drinking bowl like one from the Castle Ditch (Ellison 1981,
127 and 125, fig 18 no. 147). This shape is typical of
Period III, occurring in the first half of the 16th
century in Beauvais (Morrison 19701, 64, pl 6 nos
114, 3ac).
Date: Though found in France from the end of the
14th century, it is rarely found in Britain before the
16th century. It occurs in 16th-century contexts at the
Castle Ditch (Ellison 1981, 127).
H10.1 Bowl. Not illus. 6702 442(1)
Date: While Beauvais wares occur at the Castle Ditch,

Newcastle, from Phase 8 (early 16th century) onwards,
yellow- and green-glazed mugs occur from Phases 8 to
13 (early to mid-16th century). They are earlier than
the sgraffito vessels there (see below).
G20c.1 Mug/?jug. The fabric, of a uniform colour throughout, is fine, white and slightly gritty to touch, with a
thin watery glaze in patches externally. There is one
area of glaze which was thick and copper stained but
probably turned matt after deposition and one area
which is thin, light greenish-yellow and watery,
punctuated with tiny brown spots of iron, probably
showing through from the fabric. This area feels
pimply to touch. The internal glaze has almost totally disappeared, but one tiny area suggests that it may
have had a very even light watery green glaze internally. Not illus.
7502 1185(3)
G20c.2 Mug/bowl in a similar fabric to the above with no
glaze externally and a thin watery yellow glaze internally. The buff-coloured self-slipping makes it
unlikely that this sherd was ever glazed externally.
French import 1500 (G20d)

The following description and evaluation is based on
comments kindly supplied by Alan Vince.
Form: The sherd could be part of a chafing dish but,
given its narrowness and height, it is more probably a
salt. The vessel would appear to have been thrown as a
cylinder, squeezed in at the waist, and either luted to a
separately thrown bowl or a false bowl base added above
the constriction. The original base would then have
been removed and the open base trimmed with a knife.
Fabric: Light brown clay, tempered with an abundant
quartzose sand consisting of well-sorted subangular
grains c 0.2mm across. These grains are coated with
haematite and there are also streaks of haematite in the
groundmass. This seems to indicate that a haematitecemented fine sand was mixed with a finer light-firing
clay. There is a streak of iron-rich glaze that appears to
400
example Moronada, the capital, and Mlaga, a large

port. Examples can be seen in the museum at the
Alcazabar, Mlaga.
H3a.1
H3a.2
Fig 33.2.56 French import (G20d.1). Scale 1:4

have run onto this pot from one stacked above it in the
kiln, implying that the vessel was fired upside down. A
streak of brown glaze on the inside of the pedestal
almost certainly originated in this way.
Discussion: The fabric is not characteristic of either
south-west French (including Saintonge) pottery or
northern French white wares. The texture is much
finer than locally made medieval whitewares, however,
and lacks parallels in north-eastern pottery collections.
The use of a brown glaze, coloured by added iron, is
not a common trait in any pottery in north-west
Europe during the medieval period, but is found in a
number of industries in the 16th century (including
Saintonge chafing dishes and various Beauvais wares).
A narrow-necked redoma with a strap handle. Not

illus.
7504 1139(2)
Rim of ?jug. This fabric was shown to Alejandra
Gutirrez and was not recognised as Spanish or
Portuguese. However, it is included here as it bears
the closest likeness to H3a.1 and does not fit well in
any other category. The matrix is hard, fine and
pinkish-orange coloured, owing to the abundance of
red iron-rich inclusions. Most of the inclusions are
approximately 0.1mm, but occasional red iron can
be up to 1mm across. The fabric is hard and fine.
Only a very fine white slip is present under the glaze,
which has decayed to a light matt olive green colour.
Not illus.
6903 4464(1)
Seville-type olive jar 1500 (H3b), 0.02%

Olive jars are said to have a wide distribution, but they
are not common in the north-east. Three fabrics are
apparent here; two pinkish fabrics (H3b.1 and 2) and a
whiter fabric (H3b.3 and 4). Whether this indicates that
they are from different sources is not clear, but likely.
Date: 16th century

Wearmouth
G20d.1 (The sherd has been drawn as a rim of a jar or jug,
but should probably have been inverted, in view of
the above interpretation.) Fig 33.2.56.
7104 411(1)
Nasrid pottery, Vedrio Verde 13001500 (H3a),

0.00%
Form: A redoma, or small bottle for food preparation, with a narrow neck and simple chamfered, slightly everted rim and strap handle, with a central groove.
Discussion: Thin section has proved that these vessels

are similar to Roman Dressel 20 amphorae from the
Guadalquivir River, Seville (Vince 1985, 81). Early
examples came from Armada shipwrecks of 1588
(Martin 1979) and Virginia 1586 (Noel-Hume 1963,
31.8). They are distributed through the Americas and
north-west Europe and around the North Sea (Hurst
et al 1986). It may be that similar vessels also emanate
from Portugal. The name olive jar is now thought to
be misleading, as they were used as containers for
capers, beans, chick peas, lard, tar, wine, olives in
brine and olive oil (Goggin 1960, 6).
H3b.1
Fabric: A fine red ware with moderate to abundant

specks of white mica, moderate rounded red iron ore
and moderate black rounded particles of ?iron. It is
covered with white slip and has an even cover of lustrous light green glaze. The vessel was probably dipped
into the glaze, as it extends down from the rim on the
internal surface to approximately 25mm
H3b.2

Discussion: A similar type can be seen in Gerrard et
al (1995, 264, no. 7), which is also green glazed and of
a 14th to 15th-century date from Almeria. The Nasrid
kingdom covered a huge area between Algeciras
and Almeria (ibid 245) and it is probable that these
might have been made elsewhere in the kingdom, for
Shoulder sherd of a Seville-type olive jar, in a

whitish fabric with incised wheelthrown bands.
Smooth, slightly soapy surfaces, with a fine matrix
and moderate rounded limestone, reddish-brown
iron-rich inclusions and moderate to abundant
black schists and some specks of white mica. The
surfaces are cream/white and the core is slightly
pinker. The core is rough and hackly. Not illus.
7504 1088(1)
Rim/neck with green glaze internally. The green
glaze is applied over a white slip and externally it has
decayed to a whitish matt. The fabric is pinkish-red;
a redder/darker colour than H3b.1. It is grittier and
rougher, with moderate limestone inclusions from 1
to 3mm across and moderate to abundant white and
pink stained sub-rounded quartz grains approx
0.5mm, some quite angular. More red iron inclusions than H3b.1, measuring from 0.25 to 0.5mm.
There are moderate black lustrous conglomerates
33: POTTERY
H3b.3
H3b.4
and occasional brown rounded stone inclusions of a

similar size. Black inclusions are mainly >0.25mm,
but can be over 1mm long. Not illus.
6903 2994(1)
Olive jar. A very fine short and fairly highly fired
white fabric, with virtually no red iron-stained inclusions and less quartz limestone. The inclusions are
similar, but less abundant. The surfaces are soapy,
but slightly rougher to the touch. Not illus.
7301 2703(1)
Olive jar sherd, probably from the same vessel as
H3b.3. Not illus.
6302 96(1)
Siegburg stoneware 1300 (G15), 0.02%

Fabric: A fine light grey or white fabric, occasionally
with large air pockets and stone inclusions where the
clay has not been wedged sufficiently. It is smooth, and
can have a very hard light brownish-grey outer surface
and light grey margin and core. The inner surface is
also light grey. The clay has sparse translucent angular
quartz 0.30.5mm and rounded black iron ore
0.10.5mm.
Comment: Probably supplied from the same ports in
the Rhine/Maas Delta as the Low Countries Red wares
(Ellison 1981, 147).
Date: Occurs at the Castle Ditch, Newcastle, between
the mid-14th and early 16th centuries, where it first
occurs in phase 4 (mid-14th century) and is residual
by phase 9, dated to the early 16th century (Ellison
1981, 147). The closest parallel is thought to occur
after c 1300 (Beckmann 1974, p1 89, fig 16).
G15.1 Trichterhalskrug in a wheelthrown, unglazed, pale
grey stoneware fabric with a frilled base produced
by thumbing. A very similar form can be seen in
Hurst et al 1986, 178, fig 88 no. 261. Not illus.
7502 1190(2)
Langerwehe stoneware 13501500 (G16), 0.17%

Fabric: A dark grey stoneware, covered with an iron
wash which often looks purple (Hurst et al 1986,
18490). The fabric is very hard and smooth with
sparse well-sorted translucent quartz and poorly sorted black rounded iron ore.
401
iron-washed areas to light brownish gray (2.5Y 6/2).

The outer margin is light gray (2.5Y 7/2), gray
(10YR 5/1) or light gray/brown (7.5YR 5/2). The
core is light gray (2.5Y 7/2) or gray (10YR 5/1). The
inner margin varies from light gray (2.5Y 7/2), gray
(10YR 5/1), very pale brown (10YR 7/3), or reddish
yellow on one example which was not fully vitrified.
The plain inner surface is gray (10YR 7/2), or pale
brown (10YR 6/3). Where it is covered with a thin
iron-rich wash, it varies from pinkish gray (7.5YR 6/2
to 4), reddish yellow (5YR 7/6) to dark brown (5YR
4/4).
Date: These were the most common Rhenish imports
into Newcastle in the 14th and 15th centuries and
although still common in the 16th century, were residual after that. They first occur in phase 4 and are residual after Phase 9 at the Castle Ditch, Newcastle (see
G15/Siegburg, above).
G16.1 A light grey stoneware internally, Clarke type A
(Clarke 19756), with external glossy brownishpurple iron-wash (Clarke type 6) and pronounced
rilling marks. Probably 14th/15th century. Not illus.
7502 1176(1), 1179(2), 1188(2)
G16.2 A small jug with a dark grey interior which has a thin
pinky grey wash (Clarke type E to G). Externally
dark grey with a predominantly clear salt glaze
which is slightly patchy and speckled with iron staining (Clarke type 2). There are three horizontal
bands of the notched rouletted rectangles distinctive
of Langerwehe; one at the neck and two at the
shoulder. The form is similar to one from phase 5
(late 14th to 15th century) at the Castle Ditch,
Newcastle (Ellison 1981, 147, no. 263), but with a
thinner rim and the rim diameter is smaller, putting
it into Hursts small jug category. The Newcastle
example is thought to be a Hurst type II jug (Hurst
1977, 21938, II.2, fig 3). However, the closest parallel for the form and decoration is from
Southampton, dated 13001350, but the rim is
thicker and it is not stoneware (Platt and ColemanSmith 1975, 134, fig 193 no. 1126). Fig 33.2.57.
7502 1169(1), 1181(2), 1185(1), 1188(3)
G16.3 One tiny sherd not completely vitrified on the interior. Clarkes type H and 2. Not illus.
7502 1189(1)
G16.4 Clarkes type B and 3. What was probably a salt
glaze appears to have decayed and flaked off in
patches. Not illus.
7502 1185(1), 1188(1)
Form: Jugs
Manufacture: The external surfaces often have a
dark, reddish-brown iron wash, sometimes also found
on the internal surface. Salt glazed with occasional iron
staining.
Colour: The colour varies considerably depending on
the amount of vitrification and whether plain or thin
wash is applied. The outer surface varies from dusky
red (10R 3/4) to dark reddish-brown (5YR 3/4) on
Fig 33.2.57 Langerwehe stoneware (G16.2, 5). Scale 1:4
402
Wearmouth
G16.5 Langerwehe mug with triangular stamped decoration along the neck/body join. Fig 33.2.57.
6602 1830(1)
Langerwehe/Raeren stoneware 1400 (G16/17),

0.03%
Fabric: A very hard, smooth fabric which, if glazed, is
strong brown (7.5YR 4/6) mottled paler to pale
brown (10YR 6/3) or very pale brown (10YR 7/4) to
light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) on the outer surface. The outer margins are gray (10YR 5/1) or very
pale brown (10YR 7/3). The core is gray (10YR 5/1).
The inner margin is gray (10YR 5/1) or pink (7.5YR
7/4). The inner surface is light yellowish brown
(10YR 6/4) or pink (7.5YR 7/4). The fabric is vitrified with very sparse subangular quartz (0.20.4mm)
and rounded black iron ore.
Manufacture: Externally covered with a mottled,
iron-stained salt glaze.
Form: Jug, probably to hold an alcoholic beverage.
Comment: In the early stages of production, the
Raeren products are often similar to those of
Langerwehe and it is often difficult to tell them apart
(Ellison 1981, 150).
G16/17.1A jug or, as the vessel may have had a fairly large circumference, a mug similar to examples from Norwich
(Jennings 1981, nos 742 and 743). The fabric is dark
grey throughout except at the point where the handle
springs from the vessel, where it is not fully vitrified.
The interior is closest to Clarkes type D or F and the
exterior closest to Clarkes type 3 (Clarke 19756).
The vessel is similar to Hursts jug type III.3 or IV.4
(Hurst 1977) and probably Raeren. Not illus.
Fig 33.2.58 Langerwehe/Raeren stoneware (G16/17.3).

Scale 1:4
7604 966(1), 967(1)

G16/17.2A few body sherds with a dark grey core and paler
grey margins which have a pinkish pale glossy internal surface (Clarke type C) and externally a pale
brown surface beneath the glaze (Clarkes type 5).
Possibly Raeren. Not illus.
7502 1179(1), 1185(1)
G16/17.3A large mug/jug which is almost complete, but with
the handle and half the neck missing. The rim is very
slightly distorted and glaze covers the fracture where
the handle has broken and also a fracture near the rim.
This suggests that it might have been a second.
Traces of a liquid were present at excavation. Fig
33.2.58.
7105 1631(1)
Raeren stoneware 1475 (G17), 0.11%

Fabric: A dark grey fabric with grey or brown external
salt glaze (Hurst 1977; Hurst et al 1986, 194; Jennings
1981). The core is usually dark grey, with grey and
brown or sometimes lighter brown or cream surfaces
under the glaze.
Date: At the Castle Ditch, Newcastle, Raeren
stonewares occur from phase 6 (15th century), reach a
peak in phases 10 to 12 (second quarter of the 16th
century to mid-16th century) and are thought to be
residual after phase 15 (second half of the 16th
century) (Ellison 1981, 150, fig 28).
Discussion: Although German stonewares are not
highly represented on the site, sherds of this type are so
rare that they only occur as occasional small fragments.
G17.1 Small jug, perhaps similar to Hurst et al (1986, 197,
fig 64 no. 300) though the sherds are too small to be
sure. Not illus.
7303 2570(2)
Fig 33.2.59 Raeren stoneware (G17.2). Scale 1:4
33: POTTERY
Wearmouth
G17.2 Drinking jug, 250mm high. The vessel is complete,
most of it being in one piece, the rest around the rim
reconstructed from five sherds, with one small missing area filled with compound. The rim may well
have been broken during excavation. The light grey
fabric and the form are typical. The vessel has a long
neck, bulbous body with small applied strap handle,
narrowed lower body and a splayed, frilled footring.
There is distinctive rilling over the entire body, and
a full cover of glossy salt glaze, with light brown iron
staining in patches around the handle and mid-body
areas. The jug is typical of a Raeren drinking jug of
the later 15th to 16th centuries. For a similar form
see Gaimster 1997, 57, fig 3.11 no. 17. Fig 33.2.59.
7403 127(1), 142(5, including most of pot)
Martincamp stoneware 1475 (G19), 0.12%

Martincamp wares span the 16th and 17th centuries
(the latter being outside the remit of this report). As
there are only a few small sherds, examples of each
type are included here. Also colour and hardness of
Fig 33.2.60 Early Fine Red ware (G1)
403
fabric vary within the same vessel, making it difficult to

be sure about type and date in every case.
Fabric: Varies from a fine off-white earthenware fabric (Type I), to dark brown (Type II), and orange
coloured (Type III) over time (Hurst 1966; Hurst
1977; Hurst et al 1986, 1024).
Forms: Flasks
Date: Type I is found in pre-Dissolution levels in
Britain (1475 to 1550), Type II is common in the 16th
century and Type III in the 17th century (Jarrett and
Edwards 1961, 1634, 137).
Discussion: Other sites in the area also have only a
small number of sherds of these types. A predominance of Type I buff earthenware flasks has been noted
elsewhere (Ellison 1981, 1289, fig 18 nos 5760).
G19.1 Type I flask, high fired earthenware/stoneware. Not
illus.
404
Fig 33.2.61 Examples of Newcastle Dog Bank-type ware (C1); Permian Yellow Sand-tempered ware (D1); North-east
Grey ware (D2); Hard Sandy Grey ware (D8); Handmade Reduced ware with oxidised surfaces (D12); and Tyneside Buff
White ware (E11a)
G19.2 Type I flask, buff earthenware. Not illus.
7105 1562(1)
G19.3 Type I flask. Buff earthenware with hard matt brown
external surface. Not illus.
7105 1501(1)
G19.4 The form is globular like Type I and hard, highly
fired earthenware/stoneware with an orange external
surface. Not illus.
7605 2916(1)
G19.5 Whitish internal surface, light grey core and
buff/light orange external surface. Probably Type I.
Not illus.
7802 590(1)
G19.6 The fabric is a very high-fired earthenware, which is
very close to stoneware. The core is buff white with
a thin orange internal margin and a slightly thicker
G19.7
G19.8
G19.9
G19.10
orange external margin and surface. One sherd is

orange throughout with streaks of fine white clay
within it. Not illus.
Type II. Not illus.
Type II stoneware flask with a dark brown surface
and grey core on the external side and brick purplish
red core and surface internally. Not illus.
6902 3162(1)
Type III. Not illus.
7805 4732(1), JS73 Area IVW Layer 12(1), Layer
23(1)
Type III flask, orange earthenware, previously published by Hurst (1969, fig 25 no. 24). Not illus.
6502 5630(1), 6601 20(3), 546(1), 5914(1)
33: POTTERY
Synthesis, Jarrow and Jarrow Slake
405
types between phases, the figure for Medieval 1a will

be too high, while those for Medieval 1b and Medieval
2 should be higher. When viewed within context, it
seems clear that the largest volume of pottery should
be assigned to the Medieval 1b period.
An attempt was made to provide ceramic phases in the

manner of those outlined by Vince for London (see
Vince 1985; Vince and Jenner 1991, 19119).
However, the same wealth of dating evidence was not
available. The proposed chronological sequence of
pottery types (Fig 33.2.62) is based largely on comparative material from other sites, while taking into
account stratigraphic evidence from Jarrow, where
available. From this, a grouping of the ceramic material by phase and provenance has been postulated
(Table 33.2.3), which forms the basis of the analysis
below.
Some context groups on the site have been further
analysed using tables (33.2.48), bar graphs and pie
charts (Figs 33.2.6465 and 33.2.7273) to demonstrate, with the distribution plots (Figs 33.2.6671 and
33.2.74) how pottery deposits were concentrated in
different areas of the site at different times. For these
graphs, related pottery types have been grouped
together to simplify the data (see Table 33.2.4)
On the pie charts categories have been described as
Medieval 1a, Medieval 1b, Medieval 2. However,
these phases should be seen as relative rather than
absolute, since the types inevitably overlap phases. In
particular, the Oxidised Gritty wares E10 and E12a,
counted as Medieval 1a, continue into the Medieval 1b
phase, while the later Buff wares (E11d, E11e) are
found in Medieval 1b, but continuing into Medieval 2.
If the pottery is categorised as Table 33.2.3, using the
date of first appearance for each type, the proportions
of pottery sherds per period are as follows: AngloSaxon, 0.32%; Medieval 1a, 33.62%; Medieval 1b,
36.97%; Medieval 2, 14.78% (the remainder of sherds
being undated). However, owing to the overlap of
Anglo-Saxon
Only a very small volume of pottery survives from the
Anglo-Saxon occupation of the site. Apart from 42 crucibles (Ch 35), there are only 41 sherds, representing
28 vessels that can be confidently ascribed to this period, implying that vessels of metal, glass, wood and/or
leather would have been used in preference to pottery.
Indeed, two possible fragments of Anglo-Saxon metal
vessels were found (Ch 31.2, CA148 and CA149),
while elaborate and rare examples of Anglo-Saxon vessel glass (Ch 32.2) could indicate a preference for vessels finer than the regionally available ceramics, also
reflected in the imported Fine Red ware bowls (G1).
Moreover, no locally produced Anglo-Saxon pottery
was identified on the site, reflecting the situation on
other sites in the north-east and Scotland, where local
pottery production does not appear to develop until the
late 11th or 12th century. No pottery at all survives
from the later Anglo-Saxon period (c 9001075), either
because the site was deserted, or because no pottery
was being produced or used in the area at that time.
Regional pottery
The only regional ware identified was Whitby ware (D6).
Imported pottery
Imports were represented by sherds from one possible
vessel of Rhenish ware (G4), one or two vessels of
Tating ware (G5) and the Fine Red ware bowls and
Table 33.2.3 Pottery types grouped by phase and provenance

Phase
provenance
pottery types
Anglo-Saxon (late 7thmid 9th century)
Regional
D6, Cr
Imported
G1, G4, G5
(mid 9thlate 11th century)

Medieval 1a (late 11thlate 12th century)
Medieval 1b (late 12thmid 14th century)
Medieval 2 (mid 14thearly 16th century)
No pottery was assigned to this period

Local
C1, C2, C3, C8, D1, D3, D4, D7, D8, D11, D12, D13, D14,
D15, E1, E3, E5, E5a, E6, E8, E10, E12a, E25
Regional
D5, D21, D22, D24, F11, F11a, F14
Imported
D3
Local
E10, E11a, E11b, E11c, E11d, E11e, E12a
Regional
D16, D20, F1, F10
Imported
G11, G14, G15, G20a, G20b, H3a
Local
E11d, E11e, E11f, E12b, E12c, E13, E13a, E17, E18, E19
Regional
F4, F12
Imported
G12, G13, G15, G16, G16/17, G17, G19, G20b, G20c, H10,
H3a, H3b
406
,.
,.
,.
D ~D
D I" I
~-
01'.......,.
Fig 33.2.62 Ceramic phasing of Anglo-Saxon and medieval pottery types. BB
33: POTTERY
407
Table 33.2.4 Codes for pottery groupings used in graphs (Figs 33.2.64, 33.2.65a and b, 33.2.72, 33.2.73ac)
Note: Only types occurring in the contexts used for the graphs have been included in this list, and tile fabrics Ellf and E12c are
not shown on the graphs
code
description
types
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
XVI
Residual Roman/Anglo-Saxon pottery

Medieval 1a Durham types
Early medieval local types
North-east Grey ware
Dog Bank Kiln and associated wares
Early gritty wares
Medieval 1a regional and imported wares
Unclassified Medieval 1a wares
Early Buff wares
Later Buff wares
Medieval 1b regional wares
Medieval 1b imported wares
Later Reduced Green Glazed and associated wares
Medieval 2 imported wares
Medieval wares, fabric/date unspecified
Post-medieval pottery
B, Cr
D1, D7
D8, D11, D12, D13, D14, D15
D2
C1, C2, C3, E3
D4, E1, E5, E5a, E6, E8, E10, E25, E12a
D3, D5, D24, F14
C/D
E11a, E11a/b, E11b, E11b/c, E11c
E11c/d, E11d, E11d/e, E11e
D16, F1, F10
G11, G13, G14
E12b, E13, E13a, E17, E18, E19
G12, G15, G16, G16/17, G17, H3b
E26, G, UM
J
goblets (G1). The small quantities of all these types

indicate that they should probably be seen as evidence
of the far-reaching contacts of the monastery rather
than of organised trade (see further discussion in the
catalogue under Tating ware and Fine Red ware)
Site distribution of Anglo-Saxon pottery
None of the Whitby-type ware (D6) was found in
secure Anglo-Saxon contexts, but the five sherds identified are from the area between the church and
Buildings A and B (contexts 4079 and 3835), within
the area of Building A (443) and on the slope to the
south (2761 and 2585), an area where later Medieval
1 pottery suggests that deposits were dumped down
the hill from the upper level over a considerable period
of time.
Tating ware (G5) was found in the area immediately
to the south of Building A, G5.1 being associated with
a Saxon surface (context 63). This could suggest that
it was used as a tableware in Building A, which has
been assumed to be the refectory (although a liturgical
use for Tating ware has also been suggested, see above,
G5).
The imported Fine Red ware (G1) was found predominantly in the area of Building D and the workshops by the river, where it occurs in several
Anglo-Saxon contexts, and the Rhenish ware vessel
(G4.1) came from an Anglo-Saxon context in
Workshop 1. Most of the crucibles were also found in
this area. The imports could have been introduced by
high ranking or foreign visitors disembarking from the
river, to be accommodated in the presumed guest
house (Building D), while the crucibles could be linked
with the subsequent glass and metalworking activity
associated with the workshops (see Vol 1, Ch 16).
Medieval 1a
Local pottery
Pottery of this period defined as local divides into two
groups, one sourced from the Durham area, the other
from Newcastle. The Durham group is represented by
only two types of pottery: Permian Yellow Sandtempered ware (D1), tempered with sand from the yellow sand beds of County Durham, and Durham White
ware (D7), identified on excavations in Durham City
(Carver 1979, 40).
Far more pottery types, and a larger body of pottery, seem to have been sourced from Newcastle. Four
categories (D8, D11, D12, D15) are paralleled by
material from excavations in Newcastle, while sharing
stylistic features with Staxton types (Edwards 1966,
114; A Vince, pers comm).
Large quantities of Oxidised Gritty ware (E10) are
represented mainly by a number of slash-decorated
handles, but also urinals, jugs and cooking pots. These
reflect previous traditions of Developed Stamford and
also contemporary York type wares. Two fabrics were
identified within this type, and it seems likely that
Fabric 1 (used in the manufacture of jugs/costrels) was
earlier than Fabric 2 (jugs, jars, bowls, urinals). E1, E5
and E10 appear to be closely related to the Early Gritty
Green Glazed ware (E12a), thereby forming part of a
continuous tradition of pottery production.
Several fabrics that were separated at an early stage
in the project are now thought to be related. These
include Newcastle Dog Bank-type ware (C1), its finer
version (C3), Shell Tempered Gritty ware (C2), and a
glazed version of the same fabric (E3). These in turn
are related to the Oxidised Gritty wares: Coarse
Oxidised Gritty ware (E6) and Coarse Oxidised Gritty
408
ware variant (E8). It is probable that all these wares

were made in the Tyneside region and have similar clay
matrices with varying amounts of temper added, the
range possibly reflecting the work of different potters,
the production of a whole series of small kilns or merely differences in pyrotechnology. Differences in colour
appear intentional, but if Dog Bank Kiln-type (C1)
can vary from a whitish to a reddish colour from the
same kiln site, then so might those described here.
Northern Gritty White ware (D4) may also be related
in terms of its coarse appearance, and yet it is whiter
firing than the other fabrics, with less iron. It may
therefore be a precursor or simply an earlier type of
buff white ware in the north-east white ware tradition.
Regional pottery
Probably the earliest regional types to appear on the
site, following its reoccupation in the late 11th century,
were the small assemblage of Very Fine Sandy Grey
ware, probably from East Anglia (see above, D5), and
the sherd of Worcester Type ware (D24.1) which, it
has been suggested, could have arrived at Jarrow with
Aldwins community.
However, subsequent regional types, considered to
date to the 12th and early 13th centuries, indicate more
northerly contacts. Two vessels of Hard Tweedale Type
ware (D21) were represented and there was a handful
of very finely potted straight-sided jar/cooking pots of
Tweed Valley White ware (F11) and Tweed Valley Fine
Grey ware (F14), common in the Borders. These thinwalled vessels may have originated in the vicinity of the
Tweed Valley and could be seen as precursors of, or
contemporary with, early buff wares from the
Newcastle area, either representing gifts, or perhaps
arriving with tradespeople or itinerant potters.
Imported pottery
If it is assumed that the sherds of Rouen-type ware
(G20a) arrived on the site in the 13th century, the only
imported ware from this period is Fine Sandy Grey
ware (D3). The vessel D3.1 was identified by Alan
Vince as an import from the Low Countries (see
Appendix 33.2.1), although its visual similarity to
other Grey wares (D2, D5, G13) makes the attribution
of other examples of this type less secure (see
Introduction above).
Site distribution of Medieval 1a pottery
It is difficult to isolate this phase on the site, since contexts with pottery considered to be 12th century appear
to be generally disturbed, and 12th-century pottery
types only occur in significant quantities alongside later
types, particularly in layers 2376 and 2372 within the
cut to the south of the site (3689, see Table 33.2.5 and
Fig 33.2.64) and in the adjacent Area V of Jarrow Slake
(see Table 33.2.6, Figs 33.2.65a and b). The dating of
pottery from this phase depends largely on the study of
comparative material from other sites, although some of
the site distributions (see below) may be suggestive.
Fig 33.2.63 Key to Figs 33.2.64, 33.2.65ab, 33.2.72,

33.2.73ac. BB. Note: in these figures, the pie charts
show the proportion of sherds assigned to each period, with
sherd numbers. The graphs show sherd numbers for each
pottery grouping (see Table 33.2.4)
The series of hearths in the area tentatively interpreted as a kitchen (on the south-west corner of the
cloister in trench 6302, see Vol 1, Ch 19) produced
some pottery datable from the late 11th to the 13th or
early 14th century, although the area was very disturbed.
The pottery in the cut (context 3689) and in various levels that appear to represent dumps down the hillside
(particularly JS76 Area V layers 64 and 76) might represent the waste from this kitchen, although small quantities of later pottery in all these layers suggest that they
may have been redeposited, and there is also evidence
for dumping to the south and west of the kitchen area.
A study of the distribution of the main pottery types
from this phase, while showing in all cases a concentration in the cut (3689) and Jarrow Slake Area V, reveals
two distinct groupings. A group of pottery types similar
to material from the South Curtain Wall excavations in
Newcastle (D8, D11, D12, D15) as well as Hard Gritty
ware (D13) and Very Hard Slightly Gritty ware (D14)
are found on the slope to the south of the site, and also
to the west of the cloister and to the south-east of the
monastic buildings, with a few sherds in the southern
part of the East Range (Fig 33.2.66). Represented as
group III on the bar charts, the largest concentration of
these types (540 sherds) is found in the cut 3689, particularly in layer 2372, and then in Area V of Jarrow
Slake (421 sherds), probably representing a continuation of the practice of dumping in this area, down
towards the river. With the exception of three sherds of
Hard Sandy ware (D8), they are notably absent from
the cloister area and the northern part of the East
Range. Similarly the earlier regional wares (D5, D24)
were found exclusively in these deposits, with the
exception of D5.4, which came from a surface associated with the medieval hearths (context 91). (For distribution of D5, see Fig 33.2.69.)
By contrast, Dog Bank Kiln ware and its associated
types (group V on the bar charts), the Early Gritty wares
(group VI) and the local and imported Grey wares (D2
and D3) are distributed more widely across the site (Figs
33: POTTERY
Fig 33.2.64 Jarrow feature 3689 in trench 7505 (see Table 33.2.5), 1378 sherds. BB
Fig 33.2.65a Jarrow Slake Area V episodes 2, 3, 5, 6 (see Table 33.2.6), 748 sherds. BB
Fig 33.2.65b Jarrow Slake Area V episodes 7, 8, 9, 10 (see Table 33.2.6), 678 sherds. BB
409
2370
2369
2378
2381
2382
2871
2374
2372
3706
2376
2377
2380
2375
2383
Roman
2
4
26
3
1
11
2
40
9
1
11
D11 D12 D15 D13 D14
1
1
5
48 100 144
1
28 58 17
6
4 22
15
Medieval 1a
D1 D7 D8
55
4
13
11
1
3
1
2
1
1
D2
1
3
3
56
1
6
1
C1
C3
E3
16
2
E6
7
1
27
D4
1
7
11
E1
15
11
14
13
1
2
34
1
5
11
3
3
1
1
5
4
5
1
32
6
8
1
25
16
1
1
3
7
3
4
9
1
29
1
4
1
4
1
1
2
28
18
1
2
Medieval 1b
Medieval 2
E10 E25 E12a D5 F14 D3 C/D E11a E11b E11b/c E11c E11d E11e F1 D16 E12b E13 E13a E18 E19 G13 G12
8 128
E5
Table 33.2.5 Layers associated with feature 3689 in trench 7505, showing numbers of sherds of each pottery type by context
410
Episode
9
8
CR
Layer
3
9
10
I 20
J 12
19
21
L 56
M 24
N 29
36
O 47
P 22
40
31
41
67
48
75
R 68
71 1
77
Q 13
45
64
50
74
49
55
54
S 76
81
83
91
90
AA 94
95
96 1
97
DD98
99
100
DD101
Group
10
D1
D7
D12
D11
2
4
1
1
2
1
2
1
3
1
8 10
1
3 4
29 13
16 12
1 2
1
2
10 12
1
9 14 16
1 3 1
2 2 4
1
1
1 3
4 4 4
6 7 9
3
4 22 14
D8
2
4 20
4 21
1
D15
1
1
1
D13
2
1
D14
1
1
4
1
1
1
2 2
2 12
2 22
1
11
2 5
D2
14
C1
1
1
1
1
E3
E6
1
1
2
D4
2
2
1
7
2 2
8 12
13 1
1
1
6
2
2
2
1
5
2
2
E1
E10
E5
8
1
4 15
2
1 10
1
1 14
6
1
5
3 23
1
1
2
6
4
13
14
9
3
6
5
1
5
14
39
48
3
1 26
3
20
7 27
E12a
E25
4
2
1
5
1
2
2
2
10
7
9
4
1
9
5
2
6
11
15
1 33
2
22
5
6
15
2
2
D24
D5
F14
D3
2
2
C/D
2
3
1
E11a
1
1
2
1
2
1
5
5
1
4
1
E11a/b
Medieval 1b
3
1
1
7
1
1
1
6
8
6
1
1
1
2
4
13
E11b
Medieval 1a
E11b/c
E11c
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
E11c/d
E11d
1
1
3
1
F1
3
1
1
3
2
F10
D16
G11
2
1
G13
Medieval 2
2
10
4
1
1
4
2
2
1
5
E12b
AS
1
1
2
3
2
E13
Phase
E18
Table 33.2.6 Jarrow Slake Area V, showing number of sherds of each pottery type by layer
G12
E26
G?
33: POTTERY
411
G17
G14
E11e
412
Fig 33.2.66 Site distribution of types D8 (red), D11 (blue), D12 (green) and D15 (yellow), excluding late post-medieval
contexts. AMacM
33.2.6769), including concentrations in the cloister
area, with twenty-four sherds representing vessel E1.1
recovered from the well (4348) to the south of the cloister. There is also an increasing density of sherds deposited on the western side of the site, a trend noticeable in the
distribution of Early Gritty Green Glazed ware (E12a,
Fig 33.2.70). Many sherds of Dog Bank-type cooking
pots were found, although not in primary contexts, in
trenches 7802 and 7803 (see C1.3, C1.10, C1.11 in the
catalogue), while the Shell Tempered Gritty ware vessel
(C2.1) had been discarded on a rubbish deposit to the far
south-west of the site, in trench 7801. This could be
interpreted as evidence for the continuing use of the first
kitchen area on the south-west corner of the cloister.
This dual distribution might be explained by a

difference in date. The distribution of the first group
(local types D8, D11, D12, D13, D14, D15),
concentrated almost exclusively to the south of the
site in the cut (3689) and Area V of Jarrow Slake,
could be linked to the brief period of intense
activity under Aldwin (10741083), when the monastic buildings and cloister were under construction,
and the community was presumably living elsewhere
on the site. In discussing the pottery from the
South Curtain Wall, Newcastle, Edwards (1966, 107)
tentatively suggests that similar types could date
back to the time of the earlier castle, built in
1080, supporting the hypothesis that these types,
33: POTTERY
413
Fig 33.2.67 Site distribution of types C1 (red), C2 (blue) and C3 (green), excluding late post-medieval contexts. AMacM
as well as the regional grey wares (D5 and D24),

could be contemporary with Aldwins occupation of
the site, but unfortunately there is no clear
stratigraphic evidence from either site to confirm this
dating.
Alternatively the distribution of these types might
relate to their function, with distinctive forms being
used for specific purposes that took place in the southern part of the site by the river. It has been suggested
that some vessels were used for dying or preparing
medicines (see discussion in the Fabric Catalogue for
Handmade Reduced ware with Oxidised Surfaces;
D12), but the evidence for this is likewise inconclusive.
Medieval 1b
Local pottery
The tradition of Oxidised Gritty wares (E10 fabric 2,
E12a) probably continued into this period, but the
early buff types (E11a and E11b) form by far the
largest body of pottery found on the site (see Fig
33.2.76). Buff White wares seem to progress from soft
to harder fired and from gritty to finer smoother
fabrics over time. The earliest examples are gritty and
yellow glazed, later becoming smoother and harder
fired, with finer quartz inclusions, but more haematite
inclusions (E11c), then deliberately oxidised iron-rich
red fabrics, often with little glaze (E11e), and harder
414
Fig 33.2.68 Site distribution of types D4 (blue), D7 , E1 (green) and E10 (red), excluding late post-medieval contexts.
AMacM
fired almost vitrified fabrics, often reduced with a
small amount of purplish glaze (E11d). At this time all
local pottery seems to be sourced from Newcastle
rather than Durham.
Regional pottery
The regional pottery of this period is sourced from
Yorkshire, with small quantities of North Yorkshire
Silty Buff ware (D16) and Tees Valley ware (F10) and
moderate amounts of Scarborough Type wares (F1),
ranging from plain green through to bearded face jugs,
a possible knight jug and yellow glazed vessels with
brown pellets.
Imported pottery
Some imports start to appear in this phase. There are
two or three vessels of Low Countries Highly
Decorated ware (G11), four sherds of Rouen-type
ware (G20a) and one sherd that could be Italian
Archaic Maiolica (G14), but overall only a few imported vessels are represented.
Site distribution of Medieval 1b pottery
The largest quantities of sherds of Early Gritty Green
Glazed ware (E12a) and Buff wares (E11a, b, c and d)
are found in the south cloister area (see Figs 33.2.70 and
33.2.71), although it should be remembered that this is
measured by sherd numbers, and the pottery from this
33: POTTERY
415
Fig 33.2.69 Site distribution of types D2 (blue), D3 (green) and D5 (red), excluding late post medieval contexts, AMacM
area is probably more fragmented than that found in

rubbish deposits in the south-east corner of the site (see
below). Nonetheless, this cluster, along with the considerable quantities of pottery found in the robbed cloister
walk wall trenches, suggests that rubbish may have been
dumped in the cloister at this time. The pottery from
these trenches, and those of the well house walls (Table
33.2.7, Fig 33.2.72), form a fairly homogeneous group,
with none of the Durham types (D1, D7) or those found
grouped specifically to the south of the site (D8, D11,
D12, D13, D14, D15, see above). There are four sherds
of Dog Bank Kiln-type ware (C1) and two of North-east
Grey ware (D2), and more significant quantities of early
gritty wares, particularly E10 and E12a, but by far the
largest group of pottery represented is that of early buff

wares (E11ac, 621 sherds), followed by the later, more
highly fired types (E11c/de, 140 sherds). There is a small
cluster of Scarborough ware (F1) in the robber trenches of
the well house walls. Only nine sherds in the whole complex of robber trenches are dated to the later Medieval
2 period, and these may be considered intrusive.
As mentioned earlier, E12a is also found in a concentration to the west of the site, reflecting the distribution of E10 (to which it is closely related) rather than
that of early buff wares. But this fabric in particular
seems to have been scattered and redeposited over the
site, with no one context containing large quantities,
the sherds being generally small and often abraded.
416
Fig 33.2.70 Site distribution of type E12a (red), excluding late post-medieval contexts, AMacM
While there is a concentration of Buff wares, including the later overfired type (E11d) in the contexts associated with the robbing of the walls of the well house,
the fill (4342) of the first well/laver (4348), would
appear to be earlier, containing mainly gritty wares E1
(see Site distribution of Medieval 1a pottery, above) and
E10, with some early buff sherds. E11d is also absent
from context 3214, a deposit around the well house that
may be contemporary with the use of the well. It is
therefore suggested that the Overfired Buff White ware
(E11d) represents the latest type of pottery to be associated with the rebuilding activities of the 14th century,
since it also occurs in contexts associated with the construction of the south cloister building (4357 and 4358).
At this time, the main area of rubbish disposal on the

site appears to have shifted to the south-east of the East
Range, with pits 1499, 976 and 970 and their associated
and overlying layers in trenches 7502 (see Table 33.2.8,
Fig 33.2.73) and 7604, with pottery joins linking this
area with Jarrow Slake (Areas IV and Area VI). The catalogued examples of E10 fabric 2 are nearly all from the
lower levels of the dump, in contrast to the distribution
of fabric 1, which follows that of other Medieval 1a pottery types (see above). A vessel of Low Countries Highly
Decorated ware (G11.1) was found in layers at the bottom of the dump, as was most of the small assemblage
of North Yorkshire Silty Buff ware (D16.1, D16.2), and
a cluster of Scarborough ware (F1). While there may be
33: POTTERY
417
Fig 33.2.71 Site distribution of types E11a & b (blue) and E11d (red), excluding late post-medieval contexts. AMacM
a large concentration of sherds of Buff wares in the

cloister, nonetheless many of the catalogued vessels in all
the Buff groups (E11ae), some representing reconstructable vessels, come from the dump.
Medieval 2
Local pottery
Reduced Green Glazed ware jugs and cisterns (E12b)
from Newcastle upon Tyne reflect a broad local and
regional tradition. Cumberpatch noted similarities in
reduced green glazed ware pottery traditions between
pottery found in Yorkshire and Humberside (Humber
wares), Hartlepool, Durham and Newcastle, when

examining material from Leazes Bowl (Cumberpatch
2001, 89). Further research into these fabrics is needed, but it is likely that several regional production centres made these types for specific functions, or fashions,
that may have varied only slightly according to the markets requirements. The later Buff tradition (E11d, e)
continues, alongside other late Green Glazed wares
(E13 and E18), with jugs and drinking jugs.
Regional pottery
There are a few sherds of Cistercian ware (F12) of
three different fabric types, some of which were
probably made locally, others perhaps from Yorkshire,
3120
4033
4035
4037
160
3168
3184
3311
4338
4339
4364
179*
3323
3327
4332
179*
293
2916
4826
4830
East Cloister walk
Well House walls
South Cloister walk
West Cloister walk
E6
D4
10
1
4
13
6
6
7
2
8
31
1
5
E10
1
6
2
3
1
6
4
14
18
2
20
26
E12a
D5
18
D3
*context 179 overlaps the south and west cloister walks
3547
3847
North Cloister walk
Medieval 1a
D2
C1
2
3
C/D
9
24
2
2
16
1
34
34
3
2
6
17
48
Medieval 1b
E11a E11a/b
26
32
3
9
26
6
3
83
6
2
66
77
5
9
E11b
19
16
19
E11b/c
3
7
3
2
7
4
E11c
6
4
E11c/d
8
28
2
1
6
18
5
1
E11d
10
22
E11d/e
Table 33.2.7 Robber trenches in cloister area, showing number of sherds of each pottery type by context
4
1
4
4
1
1
1
E11e
1
1
5
14
F1
F10
2
2
Medieval 2
E12b E13
G19
E26
1
11
2
7
1
8
6
5
1
UM
418
33: POTTERY
419
Fig 33.2.72 Cloister walk wall trenches (see Table 33.2.7), 1095 sherds. BB
and a handful of tiny sherds which may be of Tudor

Green wares (F4) from the south-east. Compared with
the volume of local and imported pottery that may be
dated to this phase, there seems to have been no significant trade in regional pottery vessels.
Imported pottery
Throughout most of the medieval period, there is some
evidence in the pottery assemblage of trade with the
Low Countries, represented in earlier phases by Fine
Sandy Grey ware (D3; 11001200) and Low
Countries Highly Decorated Ware (G11; 12501325).
In the later medieval period, another Low Countries
Grey ware occurs (G13; 13501500) but, more significantly, there is a considerable quantity of Low
Countries Red wares (G12).
Spanish imports are represented by a few sherds of
Spanish Nasrid pottery (H3a), and Seville-type olive
jars (H3b).
German stonewares (G15, G16, G17) are not
found in the quantities one might expect by the 16th
century. However, these, along with Saintonge
(G20b), Beauvais (G20c), Beauvais Grs (H10) and
French Martincamp (G19) wares and the Low
Countries Red wares (G12) reflect a fairly standard
pattern of distribution along the east coast.
Site distribution of Medieval 2 pottery
There is pottery evidence for continuing activity in the
cloister area after it was restructured, especially in the
area surrounding Well 2 (context 6022), where there
were several Later Green Glazed ware vessels (E12b)
represented (see Fig 33.2.74), notably sherds that may
come from large jugs and cisterns. The primary infilling of the well (contexts 3672 and 3680) contained two
decorated sherds of a Green Glazed ware cistern,
several sherds of a urinal, and sherds of a jug, in
Oxidised Green Glazed ware (E13), as well as a large
quantity (99 sherds) of Oxidised Gritty ware (E10)
alongside Early Gritty Green Glazed ware (E12a) and
Buff wares. The pottery from the paved surface
adjacent to the well (contexts 3663, 3665, 3667) was

predominantly of type E12b, with the large vessel
E12b.7 from the cloister garth surface (context 3664)
nearby, all perhaps representing vessels that were to be
filled at the well. Since no later material was found in
the fill of the well, these vessels may represent its last
use.
These later pottery types were also found in trenches 7802 and 7803 to the south-west, perhaps related to
the continuing cultivation of that area. Otherwise their
distribution suggests that the main area of activity was
the East Range. In room ER3 the layers of burnt occupation debris (contexts 3047, 4456) under the late
mortar floor (contexts 4450, 4455) yielded several
sherds of Later Green Glazed ware jugs or cisterns
including E12b.6, and E11e.3, a dairy pan in Oxidised
Buff White ware. In the kitchen (ER5), clusters of
E12b were found in a layer of occupation debris (context 3193), the fill of the oven (context 3426), and in
context 1274, the bedding of hearth 1253 (including
the jug E12b.10).
The highest concentration of Late Green Glazed
wares (E12b, E13, E18) is found in the upper levels of
the dump in trench 7502 (Table 33.2.8, Fig 33.2.73),
and in the associated layers overlying the pit (context
970) in trench 7604 (contexts 966 and 967). These
layers also contain cooking pots and pipkins in Low
Countries Red ware (G12) and a few sherds of
German stonewares (G15, G16, G16/17).
In addition to the dump to the east, some pottery
also appears to have been discarded to the south-west
of the East Range. In trench 7305 there are concentrations of E11e and E13 (which could be seen as finer
equivalents of E11d and E12b) in layers 1906, 1919
and 1972 (see the pipkin E11e.9 and the baluster jug
E13.3, sherds of which also occur in the uppermost fill
and levelling over the cut (3689) in trench 7505).
Finally, there is a deposit of whole pots in room
SR4 (see Vol 1, Ch 20), G12.25, G12.26, E19.2 and
G16/17.3, presumably marking the end of the monastic occupation of the site.
1169
1176
1183
1179
1189
1185
1197
1195
1188
1190
1198
1191
1194
1193
1201
1209
1211
1203
1207
1202
1204
1199
1208
1200
1206
1214
1213
1216
D11
1
1
D12
D15
D13
C1
1
1
C2
2
1
1
1
E6
E10
D4
1
4
1
1
32 18
19 12
1
3
1
3
6
15 10
4
7 2
1 20 15
1
27
1
5
E12a
1
1
F14
C/D
2
10
46
3
2
5
2
E11a
4
1
2
8
1
1 48
5
4
E11a/b
1
4
E11b
5
2
3
1
10
3
3
5
7
12
5
16
47
1
48
26
8
1
6
E11b/c
1
1
2
3
1
2
4
1
1
1 3
1 9
1 24
2
16
8
2
E11c
E11c/d
1
2
E11d
F10
D16
F1
E11e
4 1
10
1 5
24
5
10 3 2 2
36 1 7 15
10 1
1
1 1
29 3 6 7 2
9 2 14 2 33
16 12
5 2 15 2 8
4
2
1
2
1
2
2 8 1
20 2
31
7 1 1 12
8
1
19 2
2
G11
2
3
E18
E13a
E13
13 15
5
8
1 2 5
12 1 1
5
1 1
2
12 2 2
9 10 6
4
2
19 1
11 12 12
84 18 16
99 2 6
25 4 3
10
3
27
3
1
1 8 1 1
1
2
1 2
15
20
2
17
33
65
1
28
60
111
12
49
1
6
1
G14
D8
Medieval 1bMedieval 2
E12b
Medieval 1a
E17
G12
12
75
4
2 12
4
4 13
G20
G15
G16
2
1
2
1
1
Table 33.2.8 Layers associated with the dump in trench 7502, showing number of sherds of each pottery type by context
collapse of buildings
dump
pit
pit 1499
G16/17
H3b
E11f
E12c
29
4
3
16
17
2
420
33: POTTERY
Fig 33.2.73a Pits and ground surface below dump in trench 7502 (see Table 33.2.8), 609 sherds. BB
Fig 33.2.73b Dump in trench 7502 (see Table 33.2.8), 1337 sherds. BB
Fig 33.2.73c Rubble overlying dump in trench 7502 (see Table 33.2.8), 385 sherds. BB
421
422
Fig 33.2.74 Site distribution of type E12b (red), excluding late post-medieval contexts. AMacM
A chronology of form types

In some cases it has proved useful to evaluate the progression of forms over time in order to predict trends
and indicate function. This was attempted here with
the results described below.
During the Anglo-Saxon period the variety of forms
reflects the exotic and industrial nature of the assemblage. Forms include bowls/goblets (G1), flasks (G5)
and crucibles (Cr).
At the beginning of the medieval period there were
few imports, few regional and mainly local, unglazed
functional vessels, which were probably used for storage, heating and related activities. The forms are mainly globular everted cooking pots (see D2.3), storage
jars (D3.2) and plain bowls or those with simple folded everted rims (D8) or decorated with thumbing
around the edge in the manner of the Staxton and
South Curtain Wall material (D12). The reddishcoloured deposits in bowl forms in D12 fabric indicate
these may also have been used for activities involving
dying or something other than heating.
At some point, possibly immediately after the above
group, a diversification occurs. Within the fabric group
E10 Phase 1 there is a handle, possibly from a bowl,
with roundels of cross stamps along it, numerous strap
handles decorated with stabbing marks, probably from
costrels and jugs and one possible curfew. The later E10
fabric 2 (?11501300) includes jugs, one with a parrot
33: POTTERY
beak, urinals, and a pipkin. D20 is represented by a

costrel continuing the tradition from the Oxidised Gritty
ware (E10), and therefore possibly of a similar date.
Bifid rimmed jar/cooking pots occur in fabrics E5
(mainly unglazed), E10 (splash glazed), and E12a
(glazed). Unfortunately very little of the bodies of
these vessels are present. Whether the indentation in
the rim was functional (eg for tying a cover over the
surface) or decorative (since the groove is so small that
only a string with the dimensions of cotton thread
could be used in it) is not obvious.
Late 12th-century Dog Bank-type wares (C1)
include cooking pots/bowls with evidence of heating in
very distinct sooting patterns, suggesting that smaller
vessels were used as lids. The upper surfaces of the
rims are decorated with a series of rouletted notches
suggesting cooking and serving; early oven-to-table
ware! Or, perhaps this so called decoration was functional, as the rough texture of the rouletted surface
may have been intended to stop lids slipping off the
flattened rim. No jugs were represented in the Dog
Bank types (C1, C2, C3), but there was a jug in the
glazed version of Dog Bank ware (E3), as well as a possible chafing dish and some jars. Early Reduced Green
Glazed ware (E12a) forms include a moneybox, lid,
dripping dishes, and jugs. Scarborough wares (F1)
include jugs and jars, a large bearded face jug, a possible knight jug and a zoomorphic jug, possibly indicative of display and drinking at table.
Greater specialisation is suggested by an increasing
diversity of form types and an increased number of
jugs when Buff wares from Tyneside appear in quantity. Jugs, including one pear-shaped, jars, dairy pans
and bowls appear in E11a, a candlestick, a condiment
dish, a baluster jug and dairy bowl in E11b. E11c
includes large-shouldered jugs and tall straight-sided
jars. These are probably contemporary with the
Newcastle Buff wares commonly found in 13th- to
14th-century contexts in Newcastle. Straight-sided
jars, however, can be seen as beginning much earlier in
the 12th century, with E8 shouldered type jars and
Tweed Valley White ware types (F11).
The high fired, often reduced, Buff ware group
(E11d) includes large storage jars, drinking jugs and an
aludel, attesting to a ceramic emphasis on drinking and
perhaps brewing and distilling. The oxidised lower
fired E11e group includes drinking jugs or measures,
handled jars, pipkins and dairy pans, suggesting activities related more to cooking and sauce-making than
drinking. This tradition continues on through
Oxidised Green Glazed ware (E13) jugs, pipkins,
drinking jugs, jars of barrel shape and with a side handle. These are also lower fired and oxidised. Sandy
Green Glazed ware (E18) may follow on from this
type, though almost entirely represented by bulbousbodied jugs.
Later Reduced wares (E12b) include cisterns, jugs,
a bowl/dripping dish and a costrel. These overlap and
continue after E11d. Whether the colour of these
423
wares symbolises male or female activities (the green

glaze male, the red fabric female) or whether there is
some functional reason for these types occurring/being
used simultaneously is uncertain. However, lower fired
more porous fabrics are often used today for keeping
water cool.
Low Countries Red wares (G12) show a greater
specialisation and proliferation of forms, mainly representing kitchen/cooking activities with tripod cooking
pots, pipkins, plate/dish/bowl, jar/chamber pot, frying
pan, bowls, porringer, goblet/beaker and a colander.
Imported stonewares, on the other hand, reflect drinking related activities, mainly jugs/containers of alcohol,
while Cistercian wares (F12) were perhaps used as
drinking mugs. Later Spanish imports of olive jars and
a 13th/14th-century redoma may have contained specialist foods (see under H3b) and/or been given as oneoff gifts as they are relatively rare, here and in the
north-east generally.
Glazing
It is difficult to be sure of the precise date of changes
in glazing techniques in this area, although a general
trend from sparse unglazed material before the 12th
century precedes a period when glazed and unglazed
vessels may occur simultaneously in the late 12th
century. Types D8, D11, D12 and D15, Dog Bank
Kiln types and Reduced Green Glazed wares may
occur consecutively, with fabric 1 costrels in E10
Oxidised Gritty wares overlapping with Reduced
Green Glazed wares (E12a).
It appears that splash glaze and suspension glazing
techniques appear at this point (late 12th century)
although it may be the lack of dating evidence in the
area that has led to this supposition. Elsewhere splash
glaze is being used earlier, for example in London in
the late 11th century (Vince and Jenner 1991, 260)
and in Yorkshire from the mid to late 11th century
(Brooks 1987, 151; Mainman 1990, 486; 1993, 585).
Splash glaze continues through the 12th century into
the 13th and is replaced by suspension glazes at the latest by the late 13th century (Cumberpatch et al
19989, 54).
Here accidental splashes of glaze first occur in the
late 12th century on Dog Bank Kiln-type (C1) and
Hard, Finely Gritted Splashed ware (E5), but it has
been suggested that this occurred by firing in close
proximity to glazed vessels. Dog Bank Kiln-type (C1)
is almost always unglazed, with only occasional spots
of accidental glaze, but it has an intentionally glazed
counterpart in type E3.
E10 vessels are sometimes splashed, but in a more
uniform manner. Early E10 fabric 1 is intentionally
splash glazed, while the later fabric 2 has suspension
glazes, as does the Reduced Green Glazed fabric E12a,
suggesting a transition around the late 12th to 13th
century, but more precise dating evidence would be
necessary before this can be confirmed.
424
The Wearmouth pottery

by Gladys Bettess
In this report, the pottery type descriptions and examples defined by Susan Mills for Jarrow are used to
ensure parity between the two sites. This is, nevertheless, essentially a preliminary report compiled in 1987,
which, because of the authors death, could not be
brought up to date when the Jarrow report was revised.
Some account has been taken of the Wearmouth types
in the main report, but unfortunately it has not been
possible to locate the early pottery, including imported
wares, for which see the preliminary report by Hurst
(1969). For detailed and up-to-date descriptions of the
fabric types, the main report should be consulted. This
report is primarily concerned with the distributional
analysis of the Wearmouth pottery. (RC)
Method and limitations
Shortage of time, because of severe financial restrictions,
imposed limitations on this pottery report. Once all the
11,347 sherds had been identified the results were computerised and sorted into fabric types; it was not possible to sort the sherds physically, and so very few vessels
could be reconstructed, which makes it difficult to comment in detail on vessel types. Nevertheless, a number of
individual vessels have been included and ilustrated in
the main pottery catalogue (above). Those vessels that
were reconstructed generally came from closely associated contexts (eg context 142, latrine, Fig 11.15) that
were easily recognisable. The percentages refer to the
whole pottery assemblage which includes the postmedieval sherds, details of which are to be published separately. The pottery analysis record sheets were entered
on computer and then sorted, trench by trench, according to fabric type. At this stage all queries and uncertainties were included. These results were then rationalised
in order to produce the totals for each trench, and for
each area, as well as a grand total for the site.
Context
The contexts from which the Wearmouth pottery
derived were mainly not very helpful, since there were
few deep occupation deposits (see Vol 1, Ch 7 and Fig
11.16) and few pits or deep negative features of the
post-Roman and pre-Conquest or medieval periods.
The most productive layer for early medieval pottery
was context 163, a destruction level of the Medieval
2/Early Post Medieval period, which disturbed AngloSaxon deposits, and for Medieval 2 pottery, context
262, an occupation layer.
The sequence of pottery in the fill of the sunken
building feature, context 569 (see Fig 9.26) was an
important indicator both of activity in that area and the
destruction of that feature. Likewise pottery from wall
trenches and the sequence from the well shaft or pit
(context 1377 in trench 6403; Vol 1 Ch 10) were
important as dating aids.
The most productive late medieval deposit was the

abandoned latrine pit, context 142 (see Fig 11.15) and
there were other smaller rubbish pits such as contexts
391 and 407 associated with the Jacobean hall.
Otherwise the wall trenches robbed in the 18th century
were the most productive of early medieval material.
Distribution analysis
On the whole it has not been considered statistically
valid to analyse the pottery by context, but trench by
trench, and by broad areas of the site. Examination of
the total of the trench by trench analysis bears out what
is already known, that the site was occupied in the
Anglo-Saxon period, and then continuously from the
late 11th until the 20th century. There are one or two
areas that are exceptions: trenches 5901, 5902 and
5903 only contain medieval pottery. This may have
been the result of the method of excavation in the first
year (see Ch 7) or it could be because at that time
Hallgarth Square had not been demolished and excavation was carried out in the clean paved yard areas, so
there was little likelihood of encountering modern
deposits.
Some cuttings have no pottery before the 13th
century. These are trenches 6404, 6405, 6201, 6105,
6107, 6002, 6003, 6004, 5901, 5903. Having studied
these results it seems impossible to draw any definite
conclusions. Some of the areas are inside buildings and
some are outside, also some are adjacent to cuttings
with Anglo-Saxon pottery. The results as a whole indicate that pottery had been scattered throughout the
site during the 1300 years of occupation and had suffered redeposition. It would appear to be largely accidental that early pot was found in some cuttings and
not in others.
Southern section
This southern area produced the largest number of
sherds, with a total of 4,756. It is notable that the few
Roman sherds were all found in this section. This could
well be due to the fact that this area, at least until the
time of the Hallgarth Square development, suffered less
disturbance than the rest of the site. The Anglo-Saxon
and early medieval periods (ie C and D types) contributed 1.6% of the total number of sherds found in
this section. This figure is very similar to that for the
western section distribution as shown below. The E and
F types make up 22.7% of the assemblage in this area,
which covers the time of the occupation of the medieval
South Range. At 7%, the imported fabrics G and H are
slightly lower than the number found in the western
section. This could be explained by the dumping of ballast between the late medieval period and the Hallgarth
Square development, when for a time, at least in terms
of pottery deposits, the site was almost sterile.
The final phase was represented by modern pot
totalling 68.3% of the number of sherds found in this
section. This spans the occupation of the houses in
33: POTTERY
Hallgarth Square. It is not quite such a large percentage as that found in the central section, due no doubt
to the fact that this area included several cellars.
Western section
The figure of 1.5% of the number of sherds found in
this section for the Anglo-Saxon and early medieval
period is very similar to that of the southern section
and seems to indicate a similar level of activity. In
medieval times, E and F types represent 30.9%, the
imported G and later H types have 7.6%, indicating
perhaps a slightly higher level of domestic activity. The
59.9% of modern pot fits in well with the known occupation of this area in modern times.
Central section
The Anglo-Saxon and early medieval pottery levels in
this area are very much lower than elsewhere at
0.006% of the total number of sherds in the section,
even allowing for the fact that the large quantity of
modern pot distorts the figures. The actual number of
sherds of all pre-12th-century types for the area was
only 10. This would be quite consistent with it being
the cemetery area in Anglo-Saxon times. Similarly, the
percentage for the medieval period is 16.8% for E and
F types and 4.3% for G and H types. This is approximately half the quantity found in the western section
and confirms the fact, if that were necessary, that this
central section covers the cloister area of the medieval
monastery. The very high percentage of modern pot
(78.2%) is explained by this being the main living area
of the houses on the northern side of Hallgarth Square.
Church section
This section only produced 790 sherds, so it is wise to
take care when considering percentages. The Early
Medieval sherds at 1.2% of the number of sherds in
this section is slightly below those found in the southern and western sections, but higher than the Central
section. As this is the church area, that seems to fit in
with the expected environment. The medieval E and F
types at 16.8% are represented at the same levels as in
the central cemetery section, and this again is to be
expected. However, the percentage of imported wares
(42.1%) is very surprising. In actual sherd numbers at
333 it is almost the same as the southern section,
which produced 336 sherds. It is very difficult to
explain. Perhaps material was moved to infill part of
the area during one of the rebuilding phases of the
church, but there is no archaeological evidence that
this came from anywhere in the excavated area and one
can only presume it came from elsewhere. The 39.7%
of modern pot seems consistent with an area lying on
the fringe of the Hallgarth Square development.
Pottery type analysis
The distribution of the various pottery types throughout the site can best be appreciated by a study of the
425
graph (Fig 33.2.75). To show all the results a logarithmic scale has been used for the vertical axis.
Apart from the seven sherds of Roman pottery from
the southern section, there is a reasonable spread of
early types from the Anglo-Saxon and early medieval
period with particular emphasis on type C1 with 20
sherds, D8 with 11, D9 with 17, D11 with 27 and D12
with 25. There is a sudden increase in the volume of
pottery from the 13th century onwards, both in local
and regional types. E12b at 416 is notable but it must
be remembered that these totals are based on sherd
count and E12b were usually very large vessels, probably with two or three handles. When broken these
could produce a very high sherd count and this total
may in fact not represent an excessive number of vessels. Similar comments could be made about F1
Scarborough ware jugs, although these were not such
large vessels, but as jugs they would be in frequent use.
The 122 sherds of Cistercian ware (F12) seem to indicate the beginning of pottery mugs and cups for personal use in the 15th century.
The next high figure is 614 sherds of G12. This
14th- to 16th-century imported red fabric was used
mainly for tripod cooking pots and skillets. Many of
the sherds had signs of burning and soot on the outside. It would seem likely therefore that there would be
a considerable turnover through breakage, in the use of
these vessels. Apart from the imported G12 ware there
was a small but steady trickle of other imported vessels.
In the 16th to 17th centuries, Westerwald blue and
grey mugs and jars seem to have been quite popular, as
47 sherds of H1 proves.
With mass production the numbers rise dramatically; Anglo-Dutch tin glaze ware (J9) at 896 covers the
earlier period, but then later from the 18th century
onwards the local glazed red-wares (J10) with 1860
sherds proves how popular these storage jars, cooking
pots and kitchen wares were from then until excavation
work on the site began. From the 18th to 19th centuries all flatwares and tea sets were popular as better
production made a greater variety of vessels available at
cheaper prices.
Comparisons between the pottery

assemblages from Wearmouth and Jarrow
by Anne Jenner
The comparisons made between the two assemblages
are largely based on the information contained in Figs
33.2.75 and 33.2.76. No comparison can be made
here between the post-medieval pottery from the two
sites as the study of post-Dissolution pottery from
Jarrow was beyond the remit of the recent English
Heritage project specification.
The pottery sequence at Wearmouth broadly
reflects that at Jarrow, with very little Anglo-Saxon pottery and nothing from the late Saxon period, but there
are far smaller quantities (11,347 sherds as opposed
to 37,160 recorded from Jarrow/Jarrow Slake).
Fig 33.2.75 Wearmouth pottery (logarithmic scale). FB
426
Fig 33.2.76 Jarrow and Jarrow Slake pottery (logarithmic scale). FB, BB
33: POTTERY
427
428
One would therefore expect that some pottery types

found at Jarrow might not appear in the assemblage
from Wearmouth. Moreover, much of the stratigraphy
at Wearmouth was destroyed by Victorian cellars and
the excavation uncovered no rubbish dumps before the
late medieval or post-medieval period.
Anglo-Saxon
There is little evidence on either site for extensive use
of ceramic vessels at this time.
Although the evidence is not available to check, one
sherd of Tating ware (G5) and one of Imported Fine
Red ware (G1) may have been found at Wearmouth
(see Hurst 1969, fig 25 nos 20 and 19 respectively). A
larger quantity of G1 bowls were found at Jarrow and
also some Tating ware. Wearmouth differs from Jarrow
in its lack of crucibles, which are fairly numerous at
Jarrow, but no areas of craft activity were excavated, so
such vessels could have been used in another, unexcavated part of the monastic complex.
The total absence of pottery from the late AngloSaxon period at Jarrow appears to be reflected in the
data from Wearmouth, suggesting that from the 9th to
11th century either ceramics were not used in the area
or that the sites were not occupied to any great extent.
This is supported by other evidence for the abandonment of the sites (see Vol 1, Chs 10 and 17).
Medieval 1a
At Wearmouth a proliferation of pottery types occur in
the 12th century at the same time as Jarrow. This is
attested by the presence of Newcastle Dog Bank-type
ware (C1), Quite Gritty Oxidised ware (D11) and
Handmade Reduced ware with Oxidised Surfaces
(D12). Wearmouth has no Hard Slightly Gritty ware
(D15), but this is now considered to be the same as or
similar to D8, D11 and D12.
There is only one sherd each of the grey ware types
D2 (local) and D3 (imported) from Wearmouth, and
four sherds of D5 (thought to emanate from East

Anglia). (However, the homogeneity of grey wares has
always been problematic and the material from
Wearmouth was not re-examined.) These may, along
with D7 and E1, date back to the 11th century. Again,
this reflects the picture at Jarrow, with one sherd of E1
reported at Wearmouth.
Proportionally, it appears that Wearmouth may
have more Early Reduced Green Glazed ware (E12a)
than Jarrow, although that at Jarrow is mainly in small
pieces scattered over the site.
Medieval 1b/2
If pottery were an indicator of activity (which alone it
cannot be), one might suppose that Jarrow was busiest
at the time when buff wares (E11a and E11b) were
being produced (ie the 13th to 14th centuries), perhaps relating to the period of building activity in the
early 14th century. After this, Wearmouth takes over
(in terms of relative pottery quantities), with more
imports, particularly Low Countries Red ware, but
also stonewares, and more regional Cistercian wares.
Local Reduced Green Glazed ware types 4/5 (E12b)
are also more common at Wearmouth. This could,
however, relate to greater activity in the post-monastic
period at Wearmouth than at Jarrow.
Contacts with the south-east are evidenced at
Wearmouth by a small number of sherds of Shelly ware
(D9), although there is none from Jarrow. In the early
post-medieval period contact with the south-east is
attested perhaps more strongly at Wearmouth,
although a few sherds of Tudor Green ware (F4) are
thought to be present at Jarrow.
Similarly, large quantities of Low Countries Red
wares appear with fewer grey wares and a handful of
French and Spanish imports. Both sites have German
stonewares present which, along with French, Low
Countries and Spanish imports, represent a similar
picture to many of the rest of the sites along the east
coast.
33: POTTERY
429
Appendix 33.2.1 Petrological analysis of selected sherds from Jarrow and

Wearmouth
by Alan Vince
Introduction
As part of a survey of Anglo-Saxon pottery in the north
of England the fabric series for Wearmouth and Jarrow
was examined visually and seven samples taken for
thin-section and chemical analysis (Table 33.2.9).
With the exception of the two shell-tempered vessels
(Jarrow D9) there is as yet no chemical comparanda
(these are to be collected in the next phase of the survey) and the data are merely presented here as a record
(Tables 33.2.1033.2.11).
Petrological description
Fabric D2 (V863)
A sample from a wheelthrown greyware jug with a
strap handle applied at the rim was examined in thinsection. The fabric has a light grey core, slightly oxidised margins (grey with a brown tinge) and darker
grey surfaces, indicating a deliberate attempt to
achieve a grey colour. There are traces of what may be
fingertip decoration on the strap handle. In the hand
specimen the fabric has a sandy texture.
Abundant inclusions of quartz sand up to 0.7mm
across are visible in thin section. These grains sometimes show overgrowth and usually have euhedral outlines, indicative of their origin in a lower Carboniferous
sandstone such as the Millstone Grit. Sparse rounded
quartz grains of similar size are also present. Moderate
rounded fragments of chert, up to 0.7mm across, are
present and sparse rounded laminated clay pellets (ie
probably relict clay) up to 1.0mm across. The groundmass consists of variegated clay minerals and sparse
angular quartz.
This suite of minerals is typical of the north-east of
England.
Fabric D3 (V861)
A sample of a greyware jar, possibly wheelthrown,
was thin-sectioned. The jar had a grey core, oxidised
margins and darker grey surfaces. In the hand specimen the fabric appears fine textured with few obvious
inclusions.
The thin section contains abundant angular and
subangular quartz up to 0.3mm across, moderate
rounded grains of glauconite and altered glauconite,
together with sparse angular flint fragments, some with
brown staining. There are moderate angular fragments
of laminated clay up to 1.5mm across and a single lath
of muscovite up to 1.0mm long. The groundmass consists of anisotropic clay minerals and sparse angular
quartz grains up to 0.1mm across.
The identifications of glauconite and flint are

inconsistent with an origin in the north-east of
England.
Fabric D6 (V862)
A sample of a thick-walled handmade jar was thin-sectioned. The vessel had a dark grey or black core and
oxidised external margin with a darker external surface, probably indicative of use in cooking. In the hand
specimen the fabric is sandy with some prominent
muscovite laths, c 1.0mm across.
The main inclusion type in the thin-section is subangular quartz grains, several of which show evidence
of overgrowth and have euhedral outlines. In addition,
sparse laths of muscovite up to 1.0mm long are present. The groundmass consists of anisotropic clay minerals and moderate muscovite up to 0.1mm across.
Fabric D9 (V898, V900)
A sample of a sooted jar with a light grey core and oxidised margins was thin-sectioned (V898) together with
a sample of a wheelthrown sooted jar (V900). The two
samples are definitely not from the same vessel but
there are slight textural differences only between the
two rather than qualitative differences.
The predominant inclusions are fragments of
bivalve shell. These are composed of non-ferroan calcite and in some cases have rounded edges and slight
staining around the shell margins. This indicates that
the shell is a shell sand rather than shell crushed by the
potters. The shell fragments usually have a laminar
structure and no examples of ornamented shells,
nacreous structure or punctation were noted. Rounded
and subangular quartz sand was present in both samples but the larger, rounded, grains were more common in V898 than in V900. The largest grains were up
to 0.5mm across but most of the subangular grains
were less than 0.3mm across. Sparse fragments of
angular flint up to 0.3mm across and rounded altered
glauconite up to 0.2mm across were present. The
groundmass consists of highly birefringent clay minerals with very few clasts.
The petrological characteristics of these two samples point to a source in the south-east or east of
England and discount a local origin, since neither flint
nor glauconite are likely to occur in the north-east
of England. This petrological evidence is consistent
with the visual identification of this ware as London
Shelly-Sandy ware (SSW) which was produced in
the 12th century in the lower Thames valley (probably on the south side of the river, to the east of
London).
JA75EY
JA73PN
JA69TY
JS76JM
MK74CW
MK64JE
MK71HD
V861
V862
V863
V864
V898
V899
V900
2372
2585
2992
Area V Layer 96
118
1204
533
context
Al2O3
12.89
14
20.65
14.46
13.23
21.26
12.28
TSNO
V861
V862
V863
V864
V898
V899
V900
6.84
3.14
6.81
6.22
5.47
5.4
5.32
Fe2O3
1.5
0.78
1.3
1.77
1.24
1.35
1.01
MgO
Ba
299
671
607
392
379
537
387
V861
V862
V863
V864
V898
V899
V900
16
11
23
13
28
16
13
Co
106
77
121
111
97
133
74
Cr
12
28
28
20
34
30
30
Cu
30
42
130
42
56
127
44
Li
24
28
66
40
84
61
35
Ni
13
11
17
15
15
18
12
Sc
83
156
140
97
298
115
370
Sr
Table 33.2.11 ICPS data: minor and trace elements (ppm)
TSNO
D3.1
D6.5
D2.1
G13.11
D9.3
D11.23
D9.1
Jarrow ref
LCGR
SST
Jarrow D2
LCGR
Jarrow D9
Jarrow D11
Jarrow D9
common name code
130
67
107
136
128
117
91
0.46
1.17
0.45
0.68
7.36
0.52
9.38
CaO
11
14
27
16
48
27
18
70
82
108
76
91
132
110
Zn
0.27
0.49
0.29
0.38
0.3
0.28
0.17
Na2O
54
50
54
70
99
77
71
Zr*
29
38
60
36
45
52
28
La
2.24
2.37
2.69
2.76
2.1
2.9
2.04
K 2O
Table 33.2.10 ICPS data: major elements (percentage oxide)
site code
TSNO
Table 33.2.9 Sherds analysed
47
69
113
66
100
104
56
Ce
0.59
0.61
0.81
0.68
0.68
0.8
0.56
TiO2
Nd
0.12
0.81
0.25
0.24
0.35
0.1
0.61
P2O5
Sm
Eu
0.02
0.05
0.08
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.03
MnO
1.9
2.8
5.3
3.1
6.8
4.5
2.9
Dy
cf London SSW
Jarrow D3
subfabric
15.31
3.848 1
32.245 5.658 0.9
50.325 10.357 2.2
27.98
5.934 1.3
55
10.2
1.8
49
9.2
1.7
33
6.1
1.1
JAR
JAR
JUG
JAR
JAR
JAR
JAR
form
1.3
1.2
2.2
1.7
3.2
2.3
1.7
Yb
79.73934012
129.3703857
153.933819
47.74442777
51
105
163
Pb
430
33: POTTERY
Fabric D11 (V899)

A sample of a handmade jar with dimpled decoration
on the shoulder was thin-sectioned (V898). The vessel
had oxidised surfaces and a light grey core.
The main inclusions are abundant angular quartz
grains with evidence for overgrowth (as in V862)
together with moderate quantities of a finer textured
sandstone with similar characteristics, but with an
average grain size of c 0.2mm and with some voids
filled with kaolinite. Sparse well-rounded quartz grains
up to 1.0mm across were also present. The groundmass consists of variegated anisotropic clay minerals
and variable quantities of quartz silt up to 0.1mm
across.
The petrological characteristics of this sample are
consistent with a north-eastern English origin. The
coarse quartz and the finer-grained sandstone are both
probably Carboniferous sandstones and the rounded
quartz grains are probably of Permian origin. The clay
itself is likely to be of recent (ie quaternary or
holocene) origin.
Fabric G13 (V864)
A sample of a greyware jar, possibly wheelthrown, was
thin-sectioned. The jar had a grey core, oxidised margins and darker grey surfaces. In the hand specimen the
fabric appears fine textured with few obvious inclusions.
The thin section contains abundant angular and
subangular quartz up to 0.3mm across, moderate
rounded grains of glauconite and altered glauconite,
sparse angular flint fragments, some with brown staining. There are moderate angular fragments of laminated clay up to 1.5mm across. The groundmass consists
of variegated anisotropic clay minerals and sparse
angular quartz grains up to 0.1mm across.
The identifications of glauconite and flint are
inconsistent with an origin in the north-east of
England.
Discussion
Two of the seven sampled sherds contain a suite of
rocks and minerals which are characteristic of the
north-east of England (Fabrics D2 and D11). This
suite occurs in pottery produced in the Tyne valley,
including the kiln at Dogbank, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
The presence of moderate chert in D3 distinguishes it
from the sample of D11 but whether this difference
indicates the use of a distinct sand source or reflects
variation in the Tyne valley sands has to be established.
431
The sample of mid Saxon coarseware, D6, contains

a different suite of minerals and may well not be produced in the north-east. However, the inclusions still
certainly point to a source to the north of the
Humber/west of the Trent. Similar fabrics have been
found at Whitby. Further study of this sample will take
place once further samples of early- to mid- AngloSaxon pottery from the north-east of England are
available.
The shell-tempered ware samples from Wearmouth
confirm that these vessels are not locally-produced but
imports from the lower Thames valley. They fit in with
a pattern of extensive coastal distribution of London
area wares all along the east coast of England, into
Scotland and across the North Sea to Norway.
However, the lack of London-type glazed wares is perhaps surprising, since in most cases the shelly-sandy
ware is a minor element in a range of London area
products. Furthermore, most of these London imports
have been found at port sites. These sherds therefore
hint that there may have been coastal trading at
Wearmouth, or perhaps a direct involvement of
London clerics or artisans at the site. This finding suggests that previous finds of shell-tempered ware in the
north-east of England, for example at Hart, should be
re-examined to see if they too are London area imports
or the products of a local industry.
Finally, the samples of fabrics D3 and G13 are
remarkably similar and both point to a non-local origin
for these fabrics, in an area (or areas) of Cretaceous
rocks. Such rocks, of course, have a wide outcrop, from
Jutland, through the east and south-east of England, and
the Low Countries down to northern France.
Typologically, a source in the Low Countries, perhaps
Flanders, is most likely and it is possible that these wares
are examples of Low Countries Greyware. It has been
suggested that a number of such greywares, found on
sites around the North Sea, are precursors of the major
Dutch Red Earthenware trade which began in the second half of the 13th century. However, unglazed greywares were produced alongside the glazed, oxidised
wares throughout the medieval period and it will require
a detailed study of manufacturing traits, typology and
site stratigraphy to narrow down the potential date range
of the samples. Here too, the presence of imported
coarseware vessels does not tally with expectations.
Monastic sites often produce high status imports, those
used for display or associated with wine consumption,
for example, but there is no obvious reason why imported coarsewares would travel far from the point of entry
to the country. Here too, therefore, there is evidence that
Jarrow had close connections with a port.
34 Stone objects
34.1 Stone vessels and containers

by Ian Wessels and Rosemary Cramp
The stone vessels and containers were the subject of an
MA dissertation (Wessels 1987), which is synthesised
in this section. In some cases the division between the
objects and vessels categories can be rather blurred.
Anglo-Saxon
All of the examples for this period come from Jarrow,
but the number and variety of stone vessels from AngloSaxon contexts is of particular interest. One of the most
unusual objects is a spouted bowl in coraline limestone
(SV2, 34.1.2), which Wessels has compared with
ceramic mortaria. Its deposition in one of the earliest
layers by the riverside may mean that it is an import to
the site, even though the stone is relatively local. So far
there seems to be no close Anglo-Saxon parallel. The
varied collection of objects identified as lamps, contain
some well-crafted pieces (SV5, 6, 7, 8), in contrast to
the rather rough cressets which are a more common find
at Jarrow (SV15 and 16) and other sites in the medieval
period. The cone-shaped vessels with carefully finished
relief bands below the rims are an unusual shape for
stone lamps, and they were initially interpreted as mortars, but the lack of wear marks in the interior, the lack
of lugs or protuberances for gripping the vessel militate
against this conclusion (see also Wessels 1987, 4651),
and it is possible that the form was copying another
medium. The closest parallel locally for these vessels of
inverted cone shape are found at Church Close,
Hartlepool (Daniels 1988). The finish on the stone containers or lavers is also of high quality, and comparable
with the workmanship of the architectural and funerary
items, a factor which Wessels points out also applies at
the Hartlepool monastic site (Wessels 1987, 70).
SV1
SV2
SV3
SV4
Shallow, medium to coarse-grained carboniferous

sandstone trough with bowl and channel or spout.
Figs 34.1.1 and 34.1.3. The bowl is roughly circular
and tapers into a long U-shaped channel. A ceramic pipe formed from a rolled tube of clay, flattened
at the base lay in the mouth of the spout. The base
of the trough is flat, the bowl and drainage duct pitted and roughly dressed. This trough was set in the
floor of Building D with the pipe leading to the exterior (Vol 1, Fig 16.64). It possibly served as a drain.
Trough: L 730 W 330 T 130mm; Pipe: L 250
Diam (ext) 6570, (int) 4550mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 1849 Saxon JA 73 FW 7305
JARBW 1995.6
Reference: Wessels 1987, 257, 67, no. 11, fig 10
Rim and wall of a spouted bowl of coraline lower
carboniferous limestone. Figs 34.1.1 and 34.1.3).
SV5
SV6
432
The bowl tapers in thickness from the rim towards

the base, the curved outer surface having been cut
away to form a protruding spout. The edges of the
spout are neatly finished and the hole slopes downwards very slightly. The vessel may have been latheturned. It is a local product from Weardale or
Teesdale as the distinctive whitish-grey stone indicates. It is in the Roman tradition of mixing
bowls/mortaria and could even be of late Roman
date. It may be compared to part of a bowl of polished mussel shell sandstone found in a Roman context at Piercebridge, now in the Bowes Museum. In
form it resembles samian mortarium type
Dragendorff 45. If not late Roman in date it may be
Anglo-Saxon imitating a continental form. SV3 is
probably part of the same vessel.
T 35 Diam (int) 199, (spout) 35mm
Roman or early Anglo-Saxon
Context: 957 Saxon JA 76 JA 7603
JARBW 1995.39
Reference: Wessels 1987, 1315, 5961, 67, 69, no.
5, fig 5
Fragment of the wall of a coraline limestone bowl
with a shallow curve. Both the internal and outer
surfaces are well dressed although the former is less
smooth. The rim is battered and rough. Mortarium?
Probably part of SV2. Fig 34.1.3.
T 35 Diam (int) 260270mm
Roman or early Anglo-Saxon
Context: 1012 U/S JA 78 AC b 7804
Reference: Wessels 1987, 1516, 601, 67, 69, no.
6, fig 6 lower
JARBW 1995.40
Part of a shallow trough in medium-grained sandstone. The surviving fragment is roughly semi-circular in shape and has chisel marks on the exterior.
It has a smooth rim and shallow walls. Found in the
floor of Building D, apparently in a secondary position. Fig 34.1.1.
L of sides 325mm, 300 Ht 120mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 3784 Saxon JA 73 WJ 7304
JARBW 1995.5
Rectangular fragment of the corner of a flat base
possibly from a sandstone trough. Lower and two
sides smoothly dressed. Upper surface with a dished
rim c 20mm wide on two surviving edges. Peck
marks and a deeply scarred diagonal line running
from one corner. Not illus.
H 160 W 170 T 4050mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 18 Saxon? JA 66 XA 6601
Lamp or ?bowl, almost complete, of fine-grained
micaceous sandstone, probably local. Figs 34.1.1
and 34.1.3. The vessel is cone shaped, the walls are
very thick and taper gently towards the flat base.
The vessel has a rounded internal profile. The rim is
flat; 20mm below this is a simple rounded moulding
15mm wide and 30mm high. The whole vessel is
Fig 34.1.1 Stone vessels. Scale 1:4, except SV1, 1:6. YB, KM
434
SV7
SV8
SV9
SV10
smoothly finished, including the interior, and could

have been lathe-turned. When found it was broken
into four pieces in the debris from the collapse of
Building D. Although it is possible that this vessel was
a mortar, it is more probably a lamp (see above). It
perhaps stood on a shelf or niche in the wall and was
smashed when the north wall of Building D collapsed.
H 140 T 100 Diam (int) 140 (ext) 180 (base) 110mm
Mid Saxon
JARBW 1995.38
Reference: Wessels 1987, 68, 467, 67, 69, no. 1,
fig 1
Curved fragment of worked sandstone with rounded moulding. Probably part of a vessel with thinner
side-walls than SV6 and so possibly a container. Fig
34.1.1.
L 370 W 220 T 85 Diam (of edge) 45mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 VA 1 7305
Lamp in two pieces, made from medium-grained
muscovite of local origin. Part of the base and lower
side-walls of the vessel remain. The interior is coneshaped. The side-walls are smooth, almost polished.
Found on the floor of Building B, room Bii, with
collapsed walling. A similar worked stone from
Dorestad has been identified as a possible lamp
(Van Es and Verwers 1980, 1623) and this could
have served as a sanctuary lamp in the small oratory. Fig 34.1.1.
Ht 120 Diam c 170 T of wall 3040 mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 6034 L Sax JA 69 YE 6901
JARBW 1995.15
References: Wessels 1987, 910, 467, 67, 69, no.
2, fig 2
Part of the base and side of a square or rectangular
vessel or trough in medium-grained yellow carboniferous sandstone. Partly burnt with secondary reddening. The fragment is the corner piece of a
shallow trough, of which only one side-wall remains.
It is smooth and well tooled but the outer surface
and the interior of the vessel are roughly scored with
deep chisel marks. There is a runnel in the inner
surface which slopes towards a hole (apparently for
drainage). Fig 34.1.2.
Whether originally square or rectangular this vessel
would seem most suitable for use as a laver. The
item was found in Building B, room Bii, which has
been identified as an oratory. If in its original location then it might have been a holy water stoup, but
since it is incomplete it could have been moved from
the adjacent room Biii, where a function as a laver
would be appropriate. The vessel may have been
split in the fire that destroyed Building B.
L 310 W 280 T 70110mm diameter of hole 24mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 3182 L Sax JA 69 XX 69012
JARBW 19987783
Part of the rim or shoulder carination of a stone vessel? Fig 34.1.2.
L 47 W 77 T 27mm
Saxon
Context: 5293 LS/EM JA 67 OJ 6704
SV11
Curved fragment of coarse yellow carboniferous

gritstone, possibly part of a vessel. Not illus.
170 70mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 14 Med? JA 66 PH 6601
Medieval
There are two rather ambiguous fragments from
Wearmouth, and from Jarrow one clear example of
mortars (SV14), a type of vessel that becomes common on sites from the 13th century (see for example
the large collection from Winchester (Biddle 1990, ii,
893907). On the whole, however, the collection of
medieval stone vessels from these sites is disappointingly small.
SV12
SV13
SV14
SV15
SV16
SV17
Pot lid. Yellowish limestone. Fig 34.1.2.

L 82 W 78 T 22mm
Medieval
Context: 829 Med MK 66 QN 6604
Pot lid. Limestone stopper for a vessel, with smooth
outer surface, and rough inner. The sides taper and
are roughly trimmed. Not illus.
T 22 Diam 78mm
Context: 829 Med MK 66 QX 6604
Upper part of a coarse-grained sandstone oval vessel
or mortar: a lug with a runnel and part of the wall
and rim remain. The surfaces are smoothly dressed.
The inner surface is more polished than the outer,
but there are no particular signs of wear. Some features of this mortar resemble Dunnings type 2
(Dunning 1977, 337), and there are similarities with
stone vessels from Lumley Street, Hartlepool
(Wessels 1987, 579). Found in the refuse deposit
from the medieval kitchen. Fig 34.1.2 and 34.1.3.
L 185 W 110 T 35mm
Medieval?
JARBW 1995.8
Reference: Wessels 1987, 1113, 513, 72, no. 4, fig 4
Curved fragment of coarse-grained yellow carboniferous porous sandstone of local origin, part of vessel or lamp. The thickness and crudity of
manufacture would imply a lamp. Fig 34.1.2.
H 170 W 140 T 55mm
Medieval?
Context: 5878 Med 1? JA 66 BN 6601
Fragment of a flat trough or lamp? Shallow, squarish, slab-like piece of sandstone with a flat, welldressed base. All sides of the stone have been broken
off. The surfaces are not certainly worked and may
have been the result of natural breaks. Fig 34.1.2.
L 105 W 97 T 26mm
Medieval
Context: 1858 Med 2 MK 66 HQ 6602
References: Wessels 1987, 2931, 612, no. 13, fig
12
Columnar pedestal lamp, in coarse-grained yellow
sandstone. The body is an octagonal column, with a
flat rim surrounding a crudely worked circular hollow. The sides are fairly well worked, the rim more
roughly tooled. The base appears to be broken off.
(Equals AF14.) Fig 34.1.2.
34: STONE OBJECTS
435
Fig 34.1.2 Stone vessels. Scale 1:4. YB, KM
SV18
H 190 Diam (ext) 140 (int) 90mm

Medieval
Context: 1635 Med 2 JA 71 NX 7105
JARBW 1995.329
Reference: Wessels 1987, 1011, no. 3, fig 3
Rim and wall of a straight-sided vessel in mediumgrained yellow carboniferous sandstone. The object
is only slightly curved, indicating a large circumference. There is a shallow groove 20mm deep below
the flat rim moulding. There is no sign of internal

wear or sooting and this may therefore have held
water. In form it is similar to SV6 and could also be
of Anglo-Saxon date. Fig 34.1.2.
H 170 W 145 T 43 Diam 230mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 431 Med 2 JA 66 QA 6601
JARBW 1995.37
References: Wessels 1987, 213, 648, no. 9, fig 9
436
Fig 34.1.3 Stone vessels. TM
34: STONE OBJECTS
SV19
Triangular fragment from a circular vessel with a flat

rim of Permian Magnesian Limestone of local origin. Both the inner and outer surfaces are well
carved. It is too large to have been a lamp and was
possibly part of a laver or stoop. Fig 34.1.2.
L 200 W 174 T 48 Diam (int) 325mm
Medieval?
Context: 990 Modern MK 69 DM 6901
References: Wessels 1987, 289, 61, 67, no. 12, fig
11
34.2 Other stone objects

by Rosemary Cramp, with geological identifications by David Schofield
Most of the stone from which the Anglo-Saxon objects
were made is local, and some artefacts have been ingeniously derived from natural geological features, such
as the cannon-ball limestone nodules (WS2), or the
beach pebbles with natural holes which were probably
used as net or line weights (WS60). The use at
Wearmouth of cannon-ball rock from the local limestone in the Anglo-Saxon period is interesting. Such
stones occur naturally, but some appear to have been
used as smoothers or rubbers and others are probably
sling stones. The latter all occur in the late Saxon, early
Norman period and appear to be utilised perhaps during a subsistence period at the site. As well as whetstones (WS1731), which are a common feature on
most early medieval sites, a significant number of
adapted local stones were used for smoothing, polishing and pounding (WS716) and their use was particularly evident at Jarrow on the floor of Building D,
where there were also flint tools (see Flint report). It is
usually not possible to determine the exact or multiple
purposes for which such stones had been used, and
similarly the identification of the small round stones
(WS15) as sling stones is only a supposition. The
range of stone objects derived from local stone is however noteworthy.
On the other hand, there is evidence that some
more exotic stones were acquired for specific purposes
in this period (see below and section on residues, jet
and mica). Fragments of porphyry verde seem to occur
only on ecclesiastical sites (see discussion WS65), and
also common in ecclesiastical contexts are the finely
worked pocket whetstones (WS1720), although they
continue as a type into the later medieval period elsewhere (Biddle 1990 ii, figs 2645). Of particular interest from Jarrow are the objects and fragments of
objects that are formed from a very highly polished
fine-grained stone (WS5259). WS52 has been tentatively identified as a palette, although it could possibly
be a mould, but whatever the designated use the surfaces of these stone bars have been very carefully prepared.
One of the most enigmatic large stone objects is
WS32, which superficially has the appearance of half of
a Roman millstone, but could not have operated as
such. The pieces of millstones serving as the base of a
437
later hearth have Anglo-Saxon parallels (see discussion

WS3334), but are a rare find in England (Rahtz and
Meeson 1992)
Many of the simpler objects and utilised stones are,
however, chronologically undiagnostic. The date of
their context provided an indication of their likely
phase, but the possibility remains that they are residual
from an early period.
There are indeed fewer stone tools from medieval
contexts, but although some types, such as hones and
net weights continue, there are also new types such as
pestles (WS40 and 42) and pot lids (see above, Ch
34.1, SV11 and 12).
Sling stones
WS1
WS2
WS3
WS4
WS5
Small round stone, possibly a sling stone. From

male grave Sk 61/30. Fig 34.2.1.
Diam 34mm
Small round stone of cannon-ball limestone, possibly a sling stone. Fig 34.2.1.
Diam 33mm
Context: 639 L Sax MK 71 LA 7101
Round stone. Possibly a sling stone. Fig 34.2.1.
Diam 30mm
Context: 1870 Med 1 MK 66 LJ 6602
Round stone. Sling stone? Fig 34.2.1.
Diam 41mm
Context: 682a Med MK 61 CR 6104
Round stone. Sling stone? Not illus.
Diam 30mm
Context: 2006 Med? MK 61 ET 6106
Hammerstone (Fig 34.2.1)

WS6
Hammerstone. Globular nodule of Permian limestone (cannon-ball rock) with two flattened ends
which bear clear percussion marks.
H 55 W 59 T 56mm
Saxo-Norman or Med 1
Context: 1902 Med MK 66 SD 6602
Rubbers and smoothers (Fig 34.2.1)

WS7
WS8
WS9
WS10
?Rubber. Cannon-ball rock with one flat face. Not

illus.
H 32 Diam 30mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 97 E Med MK 66 FU 6602
Limestone smoother.
L 54 W 21 T 13 mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ b 657 7305
JARBW 199.124
Jet smoother, nearly spherical, one flat side shiny.
Diam 18 T 22mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2702 L Sax? JA 73 UJ 2 7302
JARBW 1995.109
Smoother, micaceous shale.
L 66 W 16 T 11 mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2702 L Sax? JA 73 UJ 6 7301
JARBW 1995.110
438
Fig 34.2.1 Slingstones, hammerstone, rubbers and smoothers, hones and whetstones. Scale 1:2. KM, YB
WS11
WS12
Sandstone rubber, fine-grained micaceous.

Irregularly shaped and worn on one surface.
50 48mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 973 L Saxon-Med 1b JA 76 DE 7604
JARBW 1995.112
Smoother, fine-grained sandstone.
L 44 W 38 T 38mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 2008 LS/EM JA 73 TK e 7305
JARBW 1995.121
WS13
WS14
WS15
Flattish sandstone pebble with one worn, flattened

face. Small piece chipped out of edge. ?Smoother.
L 60 W 50 T 1122mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 2009 Med 1 JA 73 TO 7305
Rubber or stone hammer? Worked rim or handhold.
L 100 W 50 T 60mm
Medieval
Context: 1185 Med 2/EPM JA 75 EX 7502
Worked sandstone pebble, medium-grained micaceous. Flat surface very worn, ?rubber.
34: STONE OBJECTS
WS16
L 64 W 37 T 13mm
Anglo-Saxon or Medieval
Context: 4898 Med JA 70 KR 7001
JARBW 1995.226
Elongated sandstone object, smooth and worn on
flat face. Dent on curved top. ?Rubber.
L 76 W 24 T 18mm
Medieval?
Context: 5151 LPM JA 78 EP 7802
WS25
WS26
Hones and whetstones (Fig 34.2.134.2.2)

WS17
WS18
WS19
WS20
WS21
WS22
WS23
WS24
Small whetstone, pierced for suspension. Finegrained, compact, micaceous sandstone, perhaps
local. Such small personal whetstones would be
needed for sharpening the knife that was the personal possession of every monk.
L 71 W 18 T 20mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 655 LS/EM JA 67 RL 6703/4
JARBW 1995.84
Whetstone or touchstone, pierced for suspension.
Slate or mudstone, not immediately local. The nearest major source is the Lake District, with a very
small outcrop at Langdon Beck, Teesdale.
H 60 W 19 T 3mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2149 LS/EM JA 73 RT 7304
JARBW 1995.85
Part of a whetstone or smoother, medium-grained
micaceous sandstone, rectangular in section, broken
at pierced hole.
L 34 W 29 T 15mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2190 M Sax JA 73 VP b 7304
Small whetstone of fine micaceous sandstone,
pierced for suspension. It is very worn on all faces
and broken at the tip.
L 56 W 612 T 12mm
Context: Layer 40 L Med JS76 IO 439 Area VI
Broken whetstone of fine micaceous yellow sandstone from female grave Sk 61/31. Not illus.
L 89 W 46 T 25mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2010 Saxon MK 61 FE 6106
Not illustrated
Whetstone. Flat round-ended sandstone pebble
worn on the upper and lower surfaces. Tool marks
on the lower, more concave, surface. Found in disturbed grave Sk 66/74.
L 110 W 49 T 23mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 1900 Saxon MK 66 QT 6602
Piece of possible whetstone with three polished
faces and one broken, with traces of mortar.
Striations on one face. Fine-grained sandstone,
some muscovite, possibly local carboniferous.
L 100 W 60 T 40mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2008 LS/EM JA 73 TK b 7305
Piece of smoothed medium-fine sandstone, perhaps
a broken whetstone.
L 102 W 65 T 22mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2016 ML Sax JA 73 UF 7305
WS27
WS28
WS29
WS30
WS31
439
Fragment of polished stone with striations on surface, perhaps a whetstone. Fine grained micaceous
sandstone, local?
L 90 W 33 T 10mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2011 L Sax JA 73 UR 7305
Limestone hone possibly also used as a pounder.
Part of a bar with a heavily worn rounded edge.
L 71 W 28 T 22mm
Anglo-Saxon
JARBW 1995.111
Finely laminated micaceous sandstone smoother or
whetstone.
L 135 W 620 T 17mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 1029 Saxon JA 78 JA 7805
JARBW 1995.120
Whetstone. Ironstone concretion from local sandstone.
L 78 W 29 T 1822mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 975b Med 1 JA 76 DN 5 7604
JARBW 1995.248
Part of a whetstone.
L 72 W 33 T 22mm
Context: 3192 Med 1 JA 69 MX 6902
Polished/worked stone, fragment of whetstone.
L 55 W 32 T 15mm
Medieval?
Context: 123 EPM JA 63 FU 6301
Wedge-shaped stone with a narrow chamfered end.
Broken but no signs of wear. Possibly part of a whetstone.
L 117 W 40 T 36mm
Medieval?
Context: 1090 PM JA 75 DZ 7503
Millstones and grinding stones

WS32
Part of a curved and tapering object in fine red sandstone, found in a secondary position in a hole in the
floor of Building A. Fig 34.2.3. The stone is split,
apparently in half, and the narrower end is badly
fractured. The superficial external appearance of the
stone is of a waisted upper stone, catillus, of a typical animal-driven millstone, mola asinaria, the only
British example of which was found during excavations at Princes Street, London, in 1928 (Birley
1929, 2201). Despite the shallow cavity in the wider
base of this stone, it could not have functioned like
a Roman millstone because it is not hollow. It could
very tenuously be suggested that it may have been a
regional variation of the mola asinaria although this
is doubtful (A Mac Mahon, pers comm).
H 690 Diam (base) 370, (top) 280mm
Roman or Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 31 Med 1? JA 66 WD 6601
JARBW 1995.36
WS334 Millstone fragments consisting of eleven large flat
pieces of sandstone, with two connecting wider
ridges, pecked finish (from hearth 6210), nine
pieces of which have been used in the reconstructions. These seem to reconstruct into two different
millstones. Fig 34.2.4.
440
Fig 34.2.2 Stone objects: whetstones. Scale 1:2. KM, YB

These fragments had been reutilised as the base
of a hearth in a kitchen area that seems to have been
used from the late Saxon to the 13th century, and
although they are two apparent millstones it is difficult to decide whether they are upper or lower millstones. Considering their sections, WS60 is more
likely to be a lower stone because it is slightly convex and more worn, and WS61 is slightly concave
on the grinding surface. These stones could, from
their context, be either pre- or post-Saxon but they
equate well with the published stones from the
WS33
WS34
excavated mill at Tamworth (Rahtz and Meeson

1992, figs 5861), in thickness, the diameter of the
socket holes and estimated diameter of the stones,
although it is not possible to compare the full diameter of the stones. There has been one Anglo-Saxon
mill discovered in Northumbria at Corbridge but
no millstones were associated with this (see Nenk et
al 1996, 2767).
L 550 W 250 T 75 (6 frags) Diam c 560, socket
100mm.
L 440 W 295 T 70 (3 frags) Diam socket 90mm.
34: STONE OBJECTS
Fig 34.2.3 Stone object WS32. Scale 1:6. KM, YB
441
442
Fig 34.2.4 Millstones WS33 and 34. Scale 1:6. YB
WS35
L 230 W 145 T 45mm (1 frag) Not fitted into

reconstruction.
L 195 W 170 T 50mm (1 frag) Not fitted into
reconstruction.
Anglo-Saxon?
Contexts: 102/6079 Saxon/Med 1 JA 63 GT 6302
Circular flat stone with chamfered upper edge, perhaps a millstone. Large square socket in centre, with
inner circular hole. Reused as structural or furniture
setting in the floor of Med 2 (and possibly Med 1)
room ER3. Compare Coppack 1986, fig 13 no. 17
(Fountains Abbey, N Yorks). See Vol 1, Fig 19.30.
WS36
WS37
T 165 Diam 545 Socket 240 (sq) Hole diam 135

Chamfer 40mm
Early medieval
Millstone. Half a quernstone with trace of central
groove for a pivot. A roughly pecked irregular hole
in the surface with one chamfered edge. Yellow
sandstone. Fig 34.2.5.
Diam 250 W 115 T 60mm
Date unknown
Context: 2210 Modern JA 75 BP 7501
Part of an oval stone, with a cut edge at the base and
34: STONE OBJECTS
WS43
WS44
WS45
443
L 140 W 50 T 3555mm
Medieval?
Context: 2969 EPM JA 69 DL a 6901
Limestone wedge, with smoothly dressed surfaces
and signs of wear on the point.
L 86 W 44 T 20mm
Medieval
Context: 5021 Med 1 JA 70 AET 7001
Tapering, semi-cylindrical marble object with hollowed surface. Mortar?
L 89 W 112 T 77mm
Medieval?
Context: 2961 LPM JA 69 BH 6901
Part of a long narrow object that may have been a
tool. It has a bevelled upper and flat lower surface,
broken at both narrow ends. The surface is highly
polished. Not illus.
Dimensions not recorded.
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 2859 LS/EM JA 76 CG 6 7602
Other objects (Figs 34.2.634.2.7)

WS46
WS47
Fig 34.2.5 WS36 and WS37. Scale 1:4. PF.

a smooth dished and pecked surface in the centre.
Reused as pivot. Yellow sandstone. Possibly used for
grinding or pounding. Fig 34.2.5.
310 190 T 95mm
Medieval?
Context: 999 Med 2 JA 78 CD 7804
Fragments of tools (Fig 34.2.6)

WS38
WS39
WS40
WS41
WS42
Fragment of polished sandstone found in grave 66/13.

L 35 W 20 T 14mm
Medieval?
Context: 5892 Med JA 66 ES 6601
Cut stone, with one smoothly polished face.
L 42 W 22 T 29mm
Medieval?
Fragment of sandstone with one face worn smooth,
sides sloped for holding. Marked with lines on the
top. End marked by hammering. Pounder?
L 70 W 43 T 2833mm
Anglo-Saxon? or medieval
Context: 4340 Med 1 JA 70 SV 7002
Facetted and pointed fragment of sandstone with
one flat face. Possible tool or weight.
L 75 W 35 T 30mm
Medieval
A shaped stone with wear marks on one flattened
face and grooves or score lines superimposed.
Sandstone.
WS48
WS49
Fragment of greyish-yellow micaceous sandstone,

with two worked faces. The edges are slightly rounded. The narrow face is smoothly dressed but plain,
the broader face is lightly scratched with marks
which could be ogams or runes.
L 75 W 73 T 36mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 1383 LS/EM MK 64 OO 6403
Piece of fine-grained sandstone with rune-like
marks, found in grave 70/140. The stone is marked
by burning and has three smooth and three broken
edges forming a rough hexagon; and is rounded on
one surface and flat on the other. On the rounded
surface there is an incised semi-circle which may not
be man-made. On the flat surface is a rune-like
character which Professor Raymond Page (pers
comm) considers to be a bind rune i [ ] + ii [ ]
which would be of Scandinavian origin since, these
two individual graphs do not occur in English runes.
In Scandinavian they could be i a or ?b dependent
on date and country of origin, ii n. As a second
alternative he proposed that it could be a cryptic
rune. The two twigs to the left indicate the aett the
runic group within the alphabet; the one on the
right the position of the rune within the aett, ie h. It
is possible that this stone was a mark of identification for the burial.
H 53 W 56 T 10mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 3912 Saxon JA 70 XJ 7003
Stone, with red and yellow paint, plaster and opus on
adjacent faces. Found in a late Saxon grave (Sk
66/39) with other Saxon building debris. Part of a
complex rectangular object discovered in many fragments. Not illus.
L 110 W 64 T 60mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 1560 Saxon MK 66 UU a 6601
Fragment of sandstone. Slightly concave face with
reeding and very precise grooving; with one possible
edge. Some carbon on face. This is possibly a mould
of the type used for casting lead cames (for an example found in Rouen see Stiegemann and Wemhoff
444
Fig 34.2.6 Stone tools and miscellaneous stone objects. Scale 1:2. YB
WS50
WS51
1999, Bk 1, ill 94), although this piece is much

smaller and may be a former used to make a clay
mould.
H 70 W 50 T 30mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Discoid stone counter with chamfered edges.
Diam 22 T 7mm
Context: 2065 Saxon MK 67 HZ 6701
SLDM 43-1973/36 (G17212)
Shield-shaped piece of siltstone setting with slightly
bevelled edges, cracked.
L 28 W 16 T 4mm
Context: 1145 Saxon MK 61 JX 6102
Palettes and polished stone

WS52
Stone bar smoothly polished on all faces: may have

been used as a palette.
L 85 W 42 T 18mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ a 7305
WS53
Part of palette or mould, originally in four pieces.

Fig 34.2.7. A small rectangular block of finely polished stone, the top surface of which is damaged.
Two circular hollows with steeply sloping sides and
rounded bases have been cut into the block. The
hollows are rough at the top but smooth for much of
the depth. No traces of any deposits were found in
them. These deep hollows were so clean that perhaps they were used for liquids rather than solids. If
this object were used as a mould it could have cast
large domed studs. Most stone moulds found on
early medieval sites are for ingots, such as those
from Garranes (ORiordan 1942, 1089) and the
Brough of Birsay (Curle 1982, 46, ill 28); other such
ingot moulds have been found at Hartlepool and
Whitby. Possible Roman palettes have been found at
Fishbourne (Cunliffe 1971, 41, figs 811 and 13),
Colchester (Crummy, 1983, 71, 76 and fig 75) and
Canterbury (Blockley et al 1995, 1213, no. 1431).
This is such a precisely made and delicately formed
object that it must have had a specific purpose.
34: STONE OBJECTS
445
Fig 34.2.7 Miscellaneous stone objects. Scale 1:2. KM, YB, TM
WS54
WS55
L 72 W 50 H 45 Diam (hollows) c 32 and 36mm

Anglo-Saxon
upper
Reused fragment of polished stone panel, with mortar on all faces.
L 50 W 30 T 7mm
Anglo-Saxon
Corner fragment of a smooth sandstone object.
WS56
One broad face is finished to a polished surface. The

unbroken edges are neatly bevelled at different
angles. It could have been used as a palette or for
some craft activity.
L 89 W 79 T 26mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2702 L Sax? JA 73 UJ a 7301
Fragment of polished stone. Possibly part of a palette.
L 41 W 10 T 12mm
Mid/Late Saxon
446
Worked sections of jet, porphyry and mica

Pieces of raw material some of which have been fully
worked into shape and some of which are partially
worked have been found on the site, most commonly
in the workshop areas and in later Saxon contexts. All
of the pophyry, jet and mica must have been deliberately imported to the site. The porphyry seems to
reflect a wide network of trade or exchange (see
below); jet from Whitby has a wide circulation from
prehistoric times onwards, but may have been derived
from contemporary contacts rather than recycling of
earlier material. Only the pieces that seem to have been
shaped are listed here while the other fragments are
discussed under raw materials and residues.
WS65
Fig 34.2.8 Possible marvering block WS59. Scale 1:4.

YB
WS57
WS58
WS59
Limestone slab with smoothly dressed surface,

traces of red bands, patch of white paint in one corner. Probably used as a palette.
L 96 W 65 T 22mm
Anglo-Saxon?
Context: 5453 Med 12? JA 65 ABO 6510
Polished stone? Smooth on one surface.
L 57 W 31mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ d 7305
Hemispherical worked block of yellow sandstone,
with a broader face smoothly polished, pecked sides
and a smooth flat base. May have been a marvering
block. Microscopic analysis (20 and 500) revealed
material identified as mica in surrounding soil from
workshop floor (see also WS67 and Ch 35.3, raw
materials). Fig 34.2.8.
L 195 W 190 Diam (base) 120 H 67mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 4736 Saxon JA 78 GS 2 7805
JARBW 1997.4595
WS66
Utilised pebbles (Fig 34.2.7)

WS60
WS61
WS62
WS63
WS64
Perforated limestone pebble, possibly a net sinker.

L 30 W 23 T 8mm
Context: 4007 LS/EM JA 70 UH 1 7006
Small flat pebble. Possible counter. Not illus.
L 38 H 11 T21mm
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ 7305
Small flat pebble. Possible counter.
Diam 23 T 7mm
Context: 1095 LS/EM JA 75 EM 7504
Pebble with partial perforation.
L 64 W 44 T 16mm
Context: 4888 Med JA 70 JZ 7001
Perforated pebble. Possibly a net sinker.
L 65 W 38 T 13mm
Context: 2761 Med 2 JA 73 VB 7303
WS67
WS68
Fragment of dark green porphyry panel, with one

cut and one polished surface. Possibly originally diamond shaped. Figs 34.2.7; 34.2.9.
Identified by J Papageorgakis as Porfido verde
antico. This type of porphyry has been recognised by
Papageorgakis as deriving from near Krokeai,
Lakonia, Greece, a quarry used only in the Roman
period. Pieces such as this may have been scavenged
from a Roman site in Britain (see for example
Cunliffe 1971, 17), but could have been imported
from Italy. This was found in association with a fragment of samian pottery and fragments of AngloSaxon building materials in a workshop area.
Porphyry fragments such as this have now been
found in early Christian contexts in Armagh,
Northern Ireland, and at Barhobble in Scotland
(Lynn 1984; Cormack 1989). Red and green porphyry has also been found in later 11th to 12thcentury contexts in Dublin and Winchester (Biddle
1990, ii, 314). It should be remembered that the
altar in Bedes Cell seen by Leland (see Vol 1,
Appendix A) was set with green serpentine, perhaps this type of stone.
L 65 W 45 T 7mm
Roman/Anglo-Saxon
Context: 1137 L Sax JA 75 MZ 7504
Reference: Cormack 1989, 45
Panel of polished green porphyry. Indentified by J
Papageorgakis as Porfido verde antico. See WS65
above. Figs 34.2.7; 34.2.9.
L 50 W 18 T 9mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2003 Norman JA 73 SR 7305
References: Webster and Backhouse 1991, 13940,
no. 105(c)
Fragment of mica. Found in the workshop area. It
may have been used in a reliquary, see for example
mica used in the Ardagh chalice or as a substitute
for glass. The nearest areas where mica could have
been found are in Teesdale or the Lake District but
there is evidence from the other minerals such as
fluorspar which were found on the workshop floors
that the community could have had contacts with
west Durham (see also raw materials). Fig 34.2.9.
?Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2383 Med 1 JA 75 MN 6 7505
Mica fragments from very thin circular object with
central perforation from Jarrow Slake. Not illus.
Context: Layer 52, BZ/CV 511
34: STONE OBJECTS
WS71
WS72
WS73
WS74
WS75
WS76
447
Context: 789 L Sax JA 65 TT 6509

Small fragment of jet, water worn? Not illus.
L 21 W 18 T 6mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ 7305
Block of jet with worked surfaces. This could have
been used as a polisher or rubber. Fig 34.2.7.
L 32 W 24 T 20mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 955 Saxon JA 76 HQ 7603
Block of cut jet. Fig 34.2.7.
L 68 W 2027 T 1420mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 1855 Saxon JA 76 7602
ARBW
Worked jet fragment. Not illus.
L 12 W 8 T 9mm
Anglo-Saxon
Context: 992 M Sax JA 76 HV 6 7604
Small block of cut jet of rectangular section. Fig
34.2.7.
L 51 W 16 T 9.5mm
Context: 5157 Med 12 JA 78 GL 7802
JARBW
Small block of jet. Not illus.
L 25 W 15 T 11mm
34.3 The flint from Wearmouth

by Robert Young
Fig 34.2.9 Porphyry panels WS65 and WS66; mica sheet

WS67. All from Jarrow. TM
WS69
WS70
Rectangular piece of jet, worn on one edge. This could

have been used as a polisher or rubber. Fig 34.2.7.
L 52 W 30 T 15mm
Context: 4090 Med 1b JA 70 AHR 7006
Rectangular piece of jet. Fig 34.2.7.
L 39 W 16 T 7mm
Anglo-Saxon
One-hundred-and-seventy-seven pieces of flint and

chert were submitted to the writer for analysis. Of these,
some 24 were discarded as being ballast material from
later contexts. The remaining 153 pieces all with one
or two exceptions come from the sand level in the
western part of the site into which the Anglo-Saxon
burials and other features were cut. This sand level
seems to be the earliest archaeological horizon on the
site and may be the remains of a Mesolithic land surface.
All of the material is treated here as one assemblage.
In general character it appears to be later Mesolithic in
date, but this will be discussed in more detail below.
Generally the material is fresh and unabraded and
seems to be derived mainly from pebble flint.
Table 34.3.1 gives a breakdown of the number of
pieces recovered by year as well as indicating how
many pieces from each years total were rejected as ballast. The raw material types present in the assemblage
are classified in Table 34.3.2. Fifty-nine pieces (some
39% of the assemblage) retain cortex (Table 34.4.3).
Five show traces of partial/incipient cortication.
Technology and methods of working

No hammerstones were recorded from the assemblage,
though one thick, crude flake from the 1961 excavations (FL1) exhibits battering which may be the result
of a nodule being used as a hammer. An examination
of blades and flakes shows that diffuse and pronounced
448
Table 34.3.1 Flints recovered by excavation season
Table 34.3.4 Core types
Year
Core type
total flint submitted
1961
1964
1966
1967
1969
1971
1974
Total
total discarded
12
83
14
11
42
5
10
177
2
3
11
7
1
24
Aii
Bii
Ci
Table 34.3.2 Raw materials present in the

Wearmouth assemblage
Type and colour
no.
% total raw material
Grey flint
Fawn flint
Brown flint
Grey chert
Burnt/thermally
damaged flint
Total
70
17
56
1
9
46.2
11.1
36.6
0.7
5.9
153
100.5
Table 34.3.3 Classification of cortex

Cortex type
Soft chalky cortex

Hard chalky cortex
Fawn, hard pitted
pebble cortex
Grey, hard pitted
pebble cortex
Buff, hard pitted
pebble cortex
White, hard pitted
pebble cortex
Brown, hard pitted
pebble cortex
Total
no.
% raw material % total raw

retaining cortex
material
1
4
11
1.69
6.77
18.64
0.66
2.64
7.28
17
28.81
11.25
24
40.67
15.89
1.69
0.66
1.69
0.66
59
99.96
39.04
bulbs of percussion are present and this may indicate

that both soft and hard hammer flaking techniques
were used. Diffuse bulbs outnumber pronounced
examples by something like 2:1. There is also a high
proportion of hinge fracturing visible on the distal ends
of flakes, and 53% of all broken flakes and blades show
this phenomenon. This may be a problem caused by
either the nature of the raw material, or by the fact that
some cores were worked to complete exhaustion.
Cores (Fig 34.3.1)
Eight cores were recorded. All, with the exception of
FL111, are in grey flint. They are classified (after
Clark et al 1960, 216) in Table 34.3.4. Hard, pitted
pebble cortex is visible on five examples and all exhibit
no.
flakes removed part way

1
round circumference
two platforms one oblique angle 1
three or more platforms
6
FL111
FL126
FL18, 36,
52, 80, 81,
101
hinge fracture scars and faulting on their flaked surfaces. The preponderance of Class Ci cores may again
support the contention that the raw material was of low
quality and needed all of the knappers ingenuity to
secure useful removals. However, against this must be
set the high number of complete blades (19), broken
blades (14) and blade segments (10) present (see
below). Only one core, the brown flint example
(FL111) seems to be a blade core in the accepted
sense. Cores in brown flint may be under-represented
in the sample given the high proportion of flint of this
colour present in the assemblage. If the brown flint was
of a higher knapping quality (brown flint blades outnumber grey examples in the ratio of 2:1) then we may
be seeing an example of the curation of good quality
raw material at Wearmouth.
Using crude measures of core length and breadth
(after Young 1987), the cores range from 2760mm in
length of 43.37mm and from 2264mm in breadth,
with a mean breadth of 33.25mm. In terms of weight,
cores range from 8.9583.50g with a mean weight of
32.53g. When compared with cores from sites further
inland and up into the Weardale area of the Wear
Valley, it can be seen that the examples from
Wearmouth were larger when finally discarded (Young
1987, 523). This is a feature observable at several
sites on the Durham coast, eg Crimdon Dene,
Blackhall Rocks and Filpoke Beacon (Young 1987, 53)
and may reflect the ready access that these sites may
have had to sources of raw material in the boulder clay
of the coast (Young 1984b).
Removals relating to core working include core
trimming and core rejuvenation flakes. As Healey has
pointed out, core-trimming flakes renew the face of the
core when it becomes unworkable through step/hinge
fracturing (Healey and Robertson-Mackay 1987, 97).
They may also remove faulting and cracked surfaces
on the core. Six examples were recorded; four (FL19,
9293 and 125) had been struck to remove faulting
and cortex-like inclusions in the flint, and two (FL26
and 35) to remove severe step fracturing. Core rejuvenation flakes result from the deliberate renewal of core
platforms. Four keeled examples (FL58, 76, 132 and
153) were recorded. No core tablets were recovered.
The presence of keeled flakes is of interest as, again,
Healey has shown that they are usually linked with
blade production. Blades and related pieces account
for 28% of the total artefact count from the site.
34: STONE OBJECTS
449
Fig 34.3.1 Wearmouth: flint cores and core rejuvenation flakes. Scale 1:1. YB
Two flakes of the type usually referred to as plunging flakes were also recorded (FL40 and 120). These
are now thought to be mis-hit flakes or accidents of
debitage as Healey calls them (Healey and RobertsonMackay 1987, 97).
Scrapers (Fig 34.3.2)

Five scrapers were recorded in the 1964 excavations
and one crude example was recovered in 1969 (FL16,
51, 82, 136 and 143). All are on the distal ends of
450
Fig 34.3.3 Wearmouth: microliths. Scale 1:1. YB

landscaping work south of St Peters Church in 1964
by the late W Dodds, may indicate that more than one
period of activity is evidenced at the site.
Scalene triangles and small points are common on
later Mesolithic sites in northern England (Young
1987, 648).
Serrated blades and flakes
Fig 34.3.2 Wearmouth: scrapers. Scale 1:1. YB

flakes; four are in fawn flint and two are in grey. Three
examples retain hard, pitted pebble cortex. In terms of
length, the scrapers range from 1839mm with a mean
length of 24.6mm; breadths range from 1726mm,
with a mean breadth of 21.8mm and scraper thickness
ranges from 311mm with a mean thickness of 8mm.
Microliths (Fig 34.3.3)
Four microliths were recorded, all from the 1964 excavations (FL22, 42, 53 and 140). Two are in grey flint and
two in brown. FL53 is an obliquely blunted point, FL22
and 140 are scalene triangles and FL42 is a small point.
In southern England, obliquely blunted points are
considered as archetypical tools of the earlier
Mesolithic. North of the Tees, their occurrence is rare.
Two examples were recorded from the site of Filpoke
Beacon on the Magnesian Limestone near Easington,
Co Durham (NZ 475375; Coupland 1948; Jacobi
1976, 73). The Filpoke Beacon assemblage is dominated by later Mesolithic microlith forms, in particular
scalene triangles and rods, and an associated deposit of
burnt hazelnut shells yielded a radiocarbon date of
8760 BP. This is one of the earliest dated later
Mesolithic assemblages in Britain and it may be that
the Wearmouth material is of similar date. However, it
should be borne in mind that the presence of an early
Mesolithic tranchet axe, recovered in the course of
Three examples were recorded. From 1964, FL144 in

grey flint has slight serrations on the left edge and
FL30 in brown flint has slight serrations on the right
edge; FL117 from 1974 is in grey flint and retains four
teeth on the right edge. It is broken transversely to the
long axis at the bulbar end.
As Mellars has shown (1976, 307, table 2) serrated
blades or saws are not common on northern
Mesolithic sites. Some 33 examples are known from 13
sites in the Wear Valley (Young 1987, 69) with the
largest number, over 50% of the total coming from the
upper dale section of the river. The site of Billing
Shield in the upper dale (6 examples), and the mixed
sites of Evenwood in the lower dale (five examples) and
Finchale Nab in the middle Wear Valley (seven examples) stand out. These sites also exhibit an emphasis on
other food/raw material processing and preparation
tools in their flint assemblages.
Blades (Fig 34.3.4)
As noted above, blades and related pieces account for
some 29% of the artefacts from Wearmouth. twenty
complete blades, fourteen broken blades and ten definite blade segments were recorded.
Complete blades
Four examples (20%) are in grey flint, with two examples (FL15 and 44) retaining hard, pitted pebble cortex on their dorsal faces. Five (25%) are in fawn flint,
of which none retain cortex and 10 (50%) are in brown
flint, with four exhibiting cortex (FL6, 29, 129130).
Ten examples show no traces of utilisation or retouching, while ten show definite evidence for this.
34: STONE OBJECTS
451
Fig 34.3.4 Wearmouth: blades. Scale 1:1. YB

Non-utilised/retouched blades range from 2755mm
in length, with a mean length of 37.2mm; from 916mm
in width, with a mean width of 12.8mm and from
36mm in thickness with a mean thickness of 3.8mm.
Of the utilised/retouched examples, five (FL6, 54,
103, 129 and 134) show evidence for utilisation in the
form of small flake removals on both edges. Two have
similar damage on the right edge only (FL102 and
128) and three show traces of utilisation on the left
edge (FL15, 20 and 130). These pieces range in length
from 3365mm, with a mean length of 47.5mm; in

breath from 1220mm with a mean breadth of
14.4mm and from 311mm in thickness with a mean
thickness of 5.6mm. From these figures it might be
suggested that longer, broader, thicker blades were
being selected for utilisation.
Of the thirteen broken blades, eight (61.53%) are
in brown flint, five (38.46%) are in grey flint and one
(7.69%) is in fawn flint. Five examples retain hard, pitted pebble cortex on their dorsal faces. Nine show no
452
traces of utilisation/retouch, while three (FL55, 75 and

83) exhibit traces of utilisation on both edges. FL41
has been retouched on both edges.
One is broken irregularly at both ends, four have
been broken transversely at the distal end and two have
been broken obliquely at the distal end. Four exhibit
transverse breakage at the bulbar end and two have
been broken obliquely at this end.
Blade segments
Four are in brown flint, one in grey-brown flint, two in
grey flint, one is in fawn flint and two are calcined.
FL78 and 144 show evidence for utilisation with
FL144 retaining slight serrations on the left edge. Five
examples are broken transversely at both ends.
Miscellaneous retouched/utilised flakes (Fig 34.3.5)
Thirteen were recorded of which five are complete.
Five are in brown flint, six in grey and two in fawn flint.
Five retain hard, pitted pebble cortex. The five complete examples range from 2647mm in length with a
mean length of 38.6mm and from 1148mm in breadth
with a mean breadth of 24mm. When compared with
the dimensions of waste flakes set out in Figure 34.3.6,
it becomes clear that large flakes of almost blade-like
proportions were being selected for use.
Fig 34.3.5 Wearmouth: utilised flakes. Scale 1:1. YB
Table 34.3.5 Waste flint from Wearmouth

Type
no.
Chunks
Broken flakes
Complete flakes
Total
10
26
29
65
% waste material
15.38
40.00
44.61
99.99
Of the broken examples, three are in grey flint, four

are in brown and one is in fawn flint. FL107 shows definite evidence for retouching around the distal end.
The remainder show characteristic edge damage usually associated with utilisation.
Waste material
Sixty-five pieces of waste material were recorded and
are presented in Table 34.3.5. All of the chunks are
irregularly shattered and broken pieces. Five are calcined, one is in fawn flint, one is in brown flint and
four are grey flint. Three retain hard pitted pebble cortex and one example (FL7) retains soft chalky cortex.
Ten of the broken flakes are in brown flint, twelve
are in grey flint, one is in fawn flint and two are calcined. One example is in grey chert. Fourteen retain
hard, pitted pebble cortex, while one exhibits soft
chalky cortex.
Of the 29 complete flakes, 17 (58.62%) are in grey
flint, nine (31.03%) are in brown flint, two (6.89%) are
fawn flint and one (3.44%) is calcined. Eleven (38%)
Fig 34.3.6 Scattergram of length/breadth data for waste

flakes, blades, utilised flakes and utilised blades. R Young, LB
34: STONE OBJECTS
Fig 34.3.7 Length/breadth data for complete waste flakes. A. length. B. breadth. C. L/B ratio. R Young, PL
453
454
Fig 34.3.8 Wearmouth: distribution of lithic material by trench (excludes unlabelled/unmarked finds). AMacM
retain hard, pitted pebble cortex and two (6.89%)
exhibit soft chalky cortex. Five (17.24%) show traces of
cortication. In terms of length, flakes range from
1352mm with a mean length of 28.17mm and from
852mm in terms of width with a mean width of
18.75mm. Length/breadth data have been plotted in
Figures 34.3.634.3.7 and comparison with data from
other sites in the Wear Valley shows some interesting
points.
The Wearmouth material further confirms a trend
noted in 1987 (Young 1987, 83) in that waste flakes
on the coastal/lowland sites of County Durham are
larger than those from inland/upland locations. Some
31% of waste flakes at Wearmouth achieve blade-like
proportions (a breadth/length ratio of 1:2 or greater)

and just over 65% have a length/breadth ratio of 1:1.5
or more. This is in marked contrast to the data from
sites in the rest of the valley, as Table 34.3.6 illustrates.
The reasons for this phenomenon must relate to points
raised in relation to core size set out above.
Discussion
The present coast of Durham is an area rich in
Mesolithic finds (Clack and Gosling 1976, fig 2a) and
as Figure 34.3.8 illustrates, the excavations at
Wearmouth have uncovered what may have been a
substantial Mesolithic activity area. The centre of this
34: STONE OBJECTS
455
Table 34.3.6 Size of waste flakes from sites in County Durham

Site
% Flakes <25mm long
% Flakes <15mm broad
% having breadth/length ratio 1:1.5 or less
Inland sites
Bells Quarry
Billing Shield
Old Durham
Wellhope
Westerhope
Binchester
Howel John West
Police Field
73.07
90.16
85.52
52.76
75.42
66.65
90.84
85.55
49.98
76.78
69.86
49.99
58.46
41.17
74.84
71.96
49.99
49.95
46.14
27.70
54.37
58.72
55.42
54.52
Coastal sites
Crimdon Dene
WEARMOUTH
21.96
37.91
23.07
48.26
41.75
34.48
Fig 34.3.9 Model of Mesolithic resource exploitation in the lower Wear Valley. R Young, LB
activity is likely to have been around the two trenches
6402 and 6901 which yielded the highest totals of lithic material. Reference to the catalogue of finds shows
that not all pieces have context information; however,
it is not thought that this would radically alter the relative distribution pattern.
The area around Wearmouth may well have been a
preferred location or base camp area for human habitation in the Mesolithic period. Other Mesolithic finds
have been made in the area of St Peters Church
(Young 1987, 1634), and I have discussed elsewhere
the resource potential of this area, located as it is within easy reach of the River Wear, the sea coast, the East
Durham Plateau and the Pennine foothills. Figure
34.3.9 indicates how the district may have fitted into a
seasonally prescribed model of resource use which
would have involved human groups in movement up
and down the Wear Valley (see Young 1984a; 1987,
87112; 2000).
The Wearmouth material is another piece in the
evolving jigsaw puzzle that will give us an insight into
earlier prehistoric activity in the north-east region.
456
Note: The catalogue of lithic material from Wearmouth

19611974 is arranged by year and excavation trench,
and by context number within each trench. Entries
take the following format: detailed description and figure number if illustrated, maximum surviving dimensions usually length, breadth and thickness for blades
and flakes etc. The unmarked and unlabelled material
collected by Wilfred Dodds is included as Appendix
34.3.1; material discarded as ballast is excluded from
the analysis but is listed in the site archive.
FL1
FL2
FL3
FL4
FL5
FL6
FL7
FL8
FL9
FL10
FL11
Thick, crude, grey flint flake with fawn staining.

Wide striking platform. Retains soft, white, chalky
cortex. Dorsal face shows evidence for fine scalar
flake removals ?from battering. Bulbar face exhibits
pronounced bulb of percussion and bulbar scar;
?from a nodule used as a hammerstone.
34 52 22mm
Context: 894 Saxon MK 61 DL 6101
Grey flint flake with slight hinge fracture at distal
end. Platform battered.
20 14 4mm
Context: 1126 Saxon MK 61 DP 6101
Grey, angular shattered flint chunk. One face retains
hard, pitted pebble cortex.
28 10 12mm
Context: 1139 EPM MK 61 AO 6102
Thick, squat, grey flint flake ?from core trimming.
Struck to remove the battering and faulting visible
on dorsal face. Diffuse bulb of percussion with
hinge fracture. Left edge at the distal end may show
traces of utilisation.
26 48 11mm
Context: 1145 Saxon MK 61 GX 6102
Grey flint flake. Right edge exhibits evidence for utilisation in the form of irregular removals of squills
and chips. Pronounced bulb of percussion, irregularly broken at the distal end. Retains hard, pitted, fawn
pebble cortex on left edge, dorsal face. The central
keel of the dorsal face exhibits heavy battering.
37 14 10mm
Context: 1145 Saxon MK 61 GX 6102
Brown flint blade/flake. Utilised on both edges and
retaining hard, fawn cortex on right edge, dorsal
face. Hinge fracture at distal end. Small yet pronounced bulb of percussion. Long, parallel-sided
flake scars on dorsal face. Fig 34.3.4.
65 20 11mm
Context: 2345 Saxon MK 61 DQ 6102
Grey, angular, irregularly fractured chunk. Retains
soft, pitted, chalky cortex on dorsal face.
16 17 4mm
Context: 2345 Saxon MK 61 FB 6102
Irregularly fractured fragment from grey flint flake.
Deep bulbar scar on dorsal surface. Hard, pitted,
grey pebble cortex on right edge.
22 20 4mm
Context: 2345 Saxon MK 61 FB 6102
Brown flint blade. Fig 34.3.4.
55 16 5mm
Context: 2341 Saxon MK 61 DU 6103
Irregular, thermally damaged chunk of flint.
Context: 669 Saxon MK 61 DH 6104
Fawn flint blade segment, snapped transversely at
the distal end. Diffuse bulb of percussion.
FL12
FL13
FL14
FL15
FL16
FL17
FL18
FL19
FL20
FL21
FL22
FL23
FL24
FL25
36 14 5mm
Context: 682 Med MK 61 DC 6104
Brown flint blade retaining hard pitted buff cortex
on right edge dorsal face. Broken obliquely at the
distal end.
28 9 4mm
Context: 1284 Saxon MK 64 EK 6401
Brown flint blade, broken obliquely to long axis.
Retains hard pitted fawn cortex on left edge at distal end.
39 13 3mm
Context: 1100 Med 1 MK 64 HX 6401
Grey flint flake with much thermal crackling and
spalling visible. Right edge retains soft, chalky,
white, cortex.
46 30 11mm
Context: 1284 Saxon MK 64 GA 6401
Grey flint blade with diffuse bulb of percussion and
heavy hinge fracture scars on the dorsal face. Right
edge, distal end retains hard pitted fawn pebble cortex. Left edge shows traces of utilisation.
39 14 6mm
Context: 1284 Saxon MK 64 GA 6401
Fawn flint scraper on the distal end of a blade/flake
segment. Fig 34.3.2.
18 20 7mm
Context: 1284 Saxon MK 64 HV 6401
Brown flint flake, broken transversely at the bulbar
end. Distal end exhibits hinge fracture.
27 15 5mm
Context: 1284 Saxon MK 64 LB 6401
Angular shattered Class Ci core in grey flint. Fig 34.3.1.
60 64 25mm Wt 83.50g
Context: 1308 Saxon MK 64 HQ 6401
Heavy grey flint flake from core trimming/rejuvenation. Retains patches of hard buff cortex on dorsal
face. Battered at platform end and slight hinge fracture at distal end. Possibly struck to remove cortexlike inclusion on bulbar face that runs right through
the flake. Many flake scars visible on dorsal face.
55 36 17mm
Context: 1308 Saxon MK 64 HQ 6401
Fawn grey flint blade with diffuse bulb of percussion. Utilised on left edge. Fig 34.3.4.
50 16 5mm
Context: 1086 EPM MK 64 CP 6402
Burnt flint flake, exhibiting spalling. Dorsal face has
large flake scar. Retains diffuse bulb of percussion.
Broken transversely at the distal end.
33 16 8mm
Context: 1090 Med 2 MK 64 EV 6402
Brown flint scalene triangle microlith. Steeply
retouched on right edge. Fig 34.3.3.
26 7 2mm
Grey flint flake with pronounced bulb and evidence
for hinge fracturing at distal end.
14 10 3mm
Context: 1202 Med 2 MK 64 FU 6402
Brown flint blade segment, snapped obliquely at
bulbar end and transversely at distal end.
19 15 3mm
Context: 1204 Med 1 MK 64 PH 6402
Brown flint blade segment broken irregularly at bulbar end and transversely at the distal end.
34: STONE OBJECTS
FL26
FL27
FL28
FL29
FL30
FL31
FL32
FL33
FL34
FL35
FL36
FL37
FL38
FL39
24 11 3mm
Mottled grey flint flake from core trimming, struck
to remove step fracturing visible on dorsal face and
some cortex like inclusions in the flint. Diffuse bulb
of percussion and hinge fracture at distal end.
41 12 7mm
Fawn flint blade. Diffuse bulb of percussion and
hinge fracture.
31 15 4mm
Thick, angular grey flint flake, broken irregularly at
bulbar end and obliquely at the distal end. Left edge
utilised.
51 28 13mm
Context: 1208 Med 1 MK 64 HW 6402
Brown mottled flint blade retaining patch of hard
pitted grey pebble cortex on distal end of dorsal face.
39 13 6mm
Context: 1210 Med MK 64 JX 6402
Brown blade-like flake, retaining plain platform and
small, pronounced bulb of percussion. Slight serrations/evidence for utilisation on right edge.
30 10 3mm
Grey-brown blade segment, broken transversely at
bulbar end, slight hinge fracture visible at distal end.
25 13 3mm
Grey flint flake with some fawn staining. Dorsal face
retains hard pitted fawn cortex. Slight hinge fracture
at distal end, bulbar face. Left edge battered.
52 36 17mm
Context: 1213 Saxon/Med MK 64 LH 6402
Brown flint flake. Snapped obliquely at the bulbar
end and irregularly fractured at the distal end.
Parallel-sided flake scars visible on dorsal face.
34 17 5mm
Context: 1224 Saxon MK 64 PP 6402
Brown flint flake with diffuse bulb and hinge fracture.
36 12 5mm
Context: 1224 Saxon MK 64 PP 6402
Brown flint flake from core trimming. Broken transversely at the bulbar end. Hinge fracture visible at
distal end.
34 17 6mm
Class Ci core in grey flint. Step fracturing visible on
one face. Grey to buff pitted hard pebble cortex
remains on one face. Fig 34.3.1.
33 26 23mm Wt 20.70g
Context: 1224 Saxon MK 64 RL 6402
Grey flint flake with diffuse bulb of percussion and
hinge fracture at distal end. Retains hard pitted grey
cortex at distal end, dorsal face.
26 14 4mm
Context: 1230 Saxon MK 64 RF 6402
Brown mottled flint flake, broke irregularly at both
ends. Right edge shows traces of utilisation.
39 20 4mm
Context: 1231 Med MK 64 SK 6402
Brown flint flake with pronounced bulb of percussion.
29 14 4mm
FL40
FL41
FL42
FL43
FL44
FL45
FL46
FL47
FL48
FL49
FL50
FL51
FL52
FL53
457
Context: 1242 Saxon/Med MK 64 TH 6402

Grey flint plunging flake. Struck from a platform
and removing base of the core. Mis-hit flake.
Measurements not recorded
Context: 1242 Saxon/Med MK 64 TZ 6402
Grey flint blade with pronounced bulb of percussion, broken transversely at the distal end. Steeply
retouched on the left edge with fine steep retouch on
right edge. Fig 34.3.4.
31 10 4mm
Context: 1245 Med 2 MK 64 UU 6402
Grey flint microlithic point. Steeply retouched on left
edge. Bulbar end snapped transversely. Fig 34.3.3.
23 7 4mm
Context: 1248 LS/EM MK 64 VM 6402
Grey flint flake broken obliquely at both ends.
36 18 7mm
Grey flint blade, exhibiting hard pitted buff cortex on
dorsal face and off white inclusions within the flint on
the right edge. Pronounced bulb and bulbar scar.
36 16 4mm
Brown flint flake broken irregularly at distal end.
Retains pronounced bulb of percussion and hard
white cortex on the striking platform. Dorsal face
also exhibits large pot lid spall removal.
21 25 5mm
Mottled brown flint blade with slight serrations on
right edge. Very steep step fracturing visible on dorsal face. Pronounced bulb of percussion and hinge
fracture. Fig 34.3.4.
42 15 7mm
Context: 1317 Med MK 64 KZ 6402
Grey flint flake with diffuse bulb of percussion and
hinge fracture at distal end.
24 15 5mm
Context: 1754 Saxon MK 64 LV 6402
Grey flint flake, broken transversely at distal end.
Pronounced bulb of percussion.
25 14 3mm
Grey flint flake broken obliquely at distal end.
26 14 3mm
Brown flint blade segment, broken tranversely at
both ends. Parallel sided flake scars on dorsal face.
21 11 2mm
Context: 1754 Saxon MK 64 TJ 6402
Scraper on the broken bulbar end of a keeled flake,
possibly from core rejuvenation. Retains slight patch
of pebble cortex on left edge, dorsal face. Fig
34.3.2.
39 26 11mm
Context: 1754 Saxon MK 64 TJ 1 6402
Class Ci core in grey flint. Fig 34.3.1.
27 22 20mm Wt 8.95g
Context: 2372 Saxon MK 64 RX 6402
Grey flint obliquely blunted point microlith. Left
edge steeply blunted at tip on bulbar end. Fig
34.3.3.
34 9 4mm
Context: 2372 Saxon MK 64 RX 1 6402
458
FL54
FL55
FL56
FL57
FL58
FL59
FL60
FL61
FL62
FL63
FL64
FL65
FL66
FL67
FL68
Fawn flint blade, both edges utilised. Diffuse bulb of

percussion and marked bulbar scar. Fig 34.3.4.
44 13 4mm
Fawn flint blade snapped transversely at the bulbar
end. Left edge shows traces of irregular small flake
removals from utilisation. Fig 34.3.4.
38 13 4mm
Brown mottled flint flake, broken transversely at the
bulbar end with hinge fracture at the distal end. Left
edge shows traces of utilisation on bulbar and dorsal
faces. Fig 34.3.5.
57 14 5mm
Thermally damaged blade segment, broken transversely at both ends.
20 11 2mm
Context: 2372 Saxon MK 64 RX 5a 6402
Fawn flint, keeled flake from core rejuvenation.
Retains hard chalky cortex on dorsal face.
40 14 6mm
Context: 2372 Saxon MK 64 RX 5b 6402
Bulbar end of a thermally damaged flint flake.
Spalling visible on dorsal face.
18 10 3mm
Context: 2372 Saxon MK 64 RX 5c 6402
Fawn flint flake broken irregularly at both ends.
30 15 4mm
Context: 2372 Saxon MK 64 RX 5d 6402
Grey flint blade with diffuse bulb of percussion and
43 12 3mm
Context: 2372 Saxon MK 64 RX 5e 6402
Grey flint flake, irregularly facetted at bulbar end.
Distal end battered and retains a small patch of buff
cortex on the dorsal face.
29 19 7mm
Context: 1371 L Sax MK 64 LD 6403
Grey flint flake from nodule/pebble dressing. Much
hard, pitted off-white pebble cortex visible on right
edge and around distal end. Diffuse bulb of percussion and pronounced bulbar scar. Distal end, bulbar
face exhibits faulting.
52 19 7mm
Context: 1493 LS/EM MK 64 UP 6403
Bulbar end of large regular brown flint flake, retaining hard pitted buff cortex on right edge, dorsal face
and also on left edge. Broken transversely to the
flakes long axis.
25 26 6mm
Context: 1493 LS/EM MK 64 UP 6403
Fawn flint blade. Fig 34.3.4.
36 11 4mm
Context: 1212 Saxon/Med MK 64 KM 1 6404
Fawn flint blade. Fig 34.3.4.
39 11 3mm
Context: 1212 Saxon/Med MK 64 KM 2 6404
Dark grey flint chunk.
18 15 7mm
Context: 866 Saxon MK 66 VC 6602
Grey chert flake, broken obliquely at the bulbar end.
Left edge, dorsal face retains hard pitted grey cortex.
33 15 8mm
FL69
FL70
FL71
FL72
FL73
FL74
FL75
FL76
FL77
FL78
FL79
FL80
FL81
FL82
Context: 1847 Med? MK 66 EC 6602

Brown flint blade. Distal end broken transversely
?notch on right edge. Retains buff cortex on right
edge at distal end. Fig 34.3.4.
40 11 4mm
Context: 1890 Med 1? MK 66 OL 6602
Irregular grey flake with diffuse bulb of percussion.
Retains hard pitted buff pebble cortex on distal end.
15 17 5mm
Grey flint blade, slightly broken at both ends, but
still retaining a diffuse bulb of percussion.
36 17 4mm
Heavy, calcined/crackled irregular flint chunk.
58 23 22mm
Context: 1738 LS/EM MK 66 FE 6603
Calcined, angular flint chunk.
20 16 7mm
Context: 1744 Med 1 MK 66 FZ 6603
Grey flint flake exhibiting white cortication and
retaining hard grey/off-white cortex on right edge
and around distal end.
32 29 9mm
Context: 1744 Med 1 MK 66 JM 6603
Grey flint blade, broken transversely at the distal
end and retaining a diffuse bulb of percussion.
Traces of utilisation visible.
35 12 3mm
Context: 1776 Med 1 MK 66 QK 6603
Grey keeled flake from core rejuvenation. Inverse
retouch visible across distal end at tip. Distal end
also exhibits a slight hinge fracture.
36 15 8mm
Context: 1777 Med 2 MK 66 NL 6603
Grey rounded flint flake with pronounced bulb of
percussion. White cortication visible at distal end.
Facets visible on dorsal face.
27 30 9mm
Context: 1784 Saxon MK 66 SX 6603
Brown flint blade segment, broken obliquely at bulbar
end and transversely at distal end. Right edge utilised.
39 13 4mm
Context: 1042 L Sax MK 69 HC 6901
Brown flint flake with pronounced bulb and scar
and hinge fracture at distal end. Large hinge fracture
scar visible on dorsal face at bulbar end.
27 12 7mm
Context: 1042 L Sax MK 69 HC 6901
A Class Ci core on a grey flint pebble. Very battered
and faulted, retaining patches of hard pitted buff
cortex on several faces. Fig 34.3.1.
43 38 20mm Wt 33.85g
Context: 1042 L Sax MK 69 HC 1 6901
A Class Ci core on a grey flint pebble. Flakes
removed from at least four directions with much
fracturing and faulting visible. Fig 34.3.1.
44 30 20mm Wt 23.80g
Scraper on the distal end of a thick, squat, fawn flint
flake, exhibiting a diffuse bulb of percussion and
small patches of buff cortex-like material on its right
edge. Fig 34.3.2.
22 20 10mm
34: STONE OBJECTS
FL83
FL84
FL85
FL86
FL87
FL88
FL89
FL90
FL91
FL92
FL93
FL94
FL95
FL96
FL97
Bulbar end of a brown flint blade with patches of

buff cortex on dorsal face. Both edges have been
utilised. Fig 34.3.4.
25 16 5mm
Irregular brown flint flake, retouched across bulbar
end. Irregularly broken at the distal end. Fig 34.3.5.
26 28 7mm
Brown flint blade, broken transversely at bulbar end.
25 8 3mm
Context: 1042 L Sax MK 69 IF 6901
Brown flint blade, broken obliquely at distal end
and retaining a diffuse bulb of percussion.
32 13 4mm
Fawn flint blade with very smooth and rounded
bulb of percussion and hinge fracture at distal end.
27 9 3mm
Brown flint flake with patch of hard pitted buff cortex on right edge. Diffuse bulb of percussion and
28 17 4mm
Grey flint flake with diffuse bulb of percussion.
32 14 5mm
Mottled brown flint flake. Diffuse bulb of percussion and hinge fracture at distal end.
22 24 11mm
Brown flint blade. Diffuse bulb of percussion and
marked bulbar scar.
31 13 3mm
Fawn flint flake from core trimming. Dorsal face
exhibits fawn pebble cortex and previous flake
removals. Small squills removed at distal end on the
dorsal face. Diffuse bulb of percussion and bulbar scar.
35 15 7mm
Fawn brown flake from core trimming. Very thick
and clumsy, exhibiting grey pebble cortex on left
edge and on distal end and striking platform. Very
diffuse bulb of percussion.
21 35 8mm
Brown flint flake with diffuse bulb of percussion and
bulbar scar. Broken transversely at distal end. Left
edge retains soft, chalky, off-white cortex.
22 12 2mm
Brown flint flake, irregularly fractured a bulbar end.
Left edge retains hard, pitted grey pebble cortex.
42 20 12mm
Brown flint flake, broken transversely at the bulbar
end, with hinge fracture at distal end. Hard grey
cortex visible on left edge dorsal face.
37 13 4mm
Brown flint flake retaining hard fawn pebble cortex
at distal end on dorsal face. Broken transversely at
the bulbar end, hinge fracture visible at distal end.
FL98
FL99
FL100
FL101
FL102
FL103
FL104
FL105
FL106
FL107
FL108
FL109
FL110
FL111
459
40 30 8mm
Brown flint flake, broken transversely at bulbar end,
with hinge fracture at distal end. Right edge, dorsal
face exhibits fawn pebble cortex.
25 20 4mm
Mottled grey flint flake. Pronounced bulb of percussion, broken transversely at distal end. Hinge
fracture scars visible on dorsal face.
43 29 6mm
Fawn flint flake with very diffuse bulb of percussion.
30 16 3mm
A Class Ci core on a grey flint pebble. Flakes
removed from at least four directions. One surface
exhibits hard white pebble cortex with much battering visible on unworked surfaces and ridges. Severe
step fracturing visible.
40 36 31mm Wt 38.60g
Context: 1042 L Sax MK 69 IF 1 6901
Fawn flint blade, right edge shows traces of utilisation. Diffuse bulb of percussion.
57 13 5mm
Brown flint blade. Both edges utilised. Fig 34.3.4.
52 13 4mm
Brown flint flake with diffuse bulb of percussion.
Traces of utilisation visible. Fig 34.3.5.
44 22 6mm
Thick, irregular grey flint flake, retaining hard, pitted, buff pebble cortex on left edge, dorsal face.
Right edge shows possible traces of utilisation.
47 16 12mm
Context: 1043 L Sax MK 69 HF 6901
Grey flint blade, broken transversely to the long axis
at the bulbar end.
34 13 4mm
Context: 1043 L Sax MK 69 HF 6901
Distal end of a dark grey flint flake, retaining hard,
pitted, grey pebble cortex on dorsal surface.
Retouched around part of distal end. Bulbar end
broken transversely.
21 13 5mm
Context: 1044 Saxon? MK 69 HG 6901
Grey flint flake exhibiting yellow staining on bulbar
face. Diffuse bulb of percussion. Dorsal face retains
hard, pitted, buff pebble cortex.
42 25 5mm
Brown flint flake with prominent bulb of percussion.
20 8 2mm
Grey flint flake, broken obliquely at the bulbar end,
hinge fracture visible at distal end. Heavy step fracture scars on dorsal face.
57 25 10mm
Context: 1048 L Sax MK 69 IR 6901
A Class Aii blade core in brown flint. Hinge fracturing visible on struck surface. Fig 34.3.1.
41 24 15mm Wt 18.88g
Context: 778 Saxon MK 69 JF 6904
460
FL112 Rounded grey flint flake. Dorsal face is all hard pitted pebble cortex. Hinge fracture at distal end.
34 33 8mm
Context: 788 LPM MK 69 DZ 6904
FL113 Irregular brown flint flake very battered on dorsal
face.
25 10 7mm
Context: 637 Med 1? MK 71 KT 7101
FL114 Grey mottled flint flake, broken obliquely at bulbar
end. Retains hard off-white cortex on distal end. Flake
scars from previous removals visible on dorsal face.
46 25 8mm
Context: 637 Med 1? MK 71 KT 7101
FL115 Angular, shattered fawn flint chunk. Ridges are very
sharp and fresh.
44 31 28mm
Context: 659 Saxon MK 71 MX 7101
FL116 Shattered grey flint flake.
20 14 5mm
Context: 716 Med 2 MK 71 GB 7105
FL117 Grey flint flake broken transversely at the bulbar
end. Left edge exhibits hard pitted buff cortex
patch. Right edge exhibits four teeth from serration. Retouched across distal end.
22 20 7mm
Context: 262 Med MK 74 FZ 7401
FL118 Brown flint chunk, retaining buff pebble cortex on
one surface.
29 16 5mm
Context: 262 Med MK 74 GH 7401
FL119 Brown flint flake, broken obliquely at bulbar end.
Left edge shows traces of utilisation. Slight hinge
fracture at distal end. Parallel sided flake scars visible on dorsal face.
28 17 3mm
Context: 262 Med MK 74 GJ 7401
FL120 Brown flint plunging flake. Struck from platform
and removing apex of core. Very diffuse bulb of percussion. Fig 34.3.1.
48 8 8mm
Context: 262 Med MK 74 GL 7401
FL121 Small grey flint flake with diffuse bulb of percussion
and hinge fracture at distal end.
14 13 3mm
Context: 269 Med MK 74 GW 7401
FL122 Fawn flint flake broken transversely at the bulbar
end. Retains hard buff cortex at distal end bulbar
face. Left edge shows traces of utilisation.
29 26 4mm
Context: 272 Med MK 74 GZ 7401
FL123 Grey flint flake broken transversely at bulbar end.
Patch of hard pitted buff cortex on left edge, dorsal
face.
30 17 4mm
Context: 501 Saxon MK 74 JJ 7401
FL124 Grey flint flake. Left edge at distal end is very faulted, with small patch of white cortex. Diffuse bulb of
percussion.
34 19 7mm
FL125 Grey flint flake from core trimming. Struck to
remove cortex like inclusions on right edge and fault
on dorsal face towards distal end. Pronounced bulb
of percussion and bulbar scar.
39 20 9mm

FL126 A Class Bii core in grey flint, retaining patches of
buff cortex and exhibiting some ?pot-lid spalling.
Hinge fracture scars visible on flaked surfaces. Fig
34.3.1.
59 26 21mm Wt 31.95g
Context: 502 Saxon MK 74 JN 7401
Appendix 34.3.1 Wilfred Dodds unstratified finds

FL127 Brown flint blade with hard patch of pitted buff cortex on left edge, dorsal face. Slight hinge fracture at
distal end. Broken obliquely at bulbar end. Fig
34.3.4.
41 18 6mm
FL128 Brown flint blade utilised on right edge. Diffuse
bulb and slight hinge fracture at distal end. Parallel
blade scars on dorsal face. Fig 34.3.4.
41 13 4mm
FL129 Brown flint blade, utilised on both edges. Hard pitted buff cortex at distal end. Fig 34.3.4.
46 16 7mm
FL130 Brown flint blade, utilised on left edge. Retains hard
fawn pebble cortex on dorsal face. Fig 34.3.4.
48 14 7mm
FL131 Brown flint flake, broken transversely at the bulbar
end. Hard pitted brown pebble cortex visible on distal end, dorsal face. Fig 34.3.5.
40 17 6mm
FL132 Grey mottled, keeled flake from core rejuvenation.
Flakes removed from either side of the keel. Broken
transversely at the bulbar end. Fig 34.3.1.
57 15 10mm
FL133 Grey flint blade segment snapped transversely at
both ends.
19 12 4mm
FL134 Mottled, brown flint blade. Utilised on both edges.
Diffuse bulb of percussion ?seems water rolled.
33 12 3mm
FL135 Grey flint chunk.
36 16 9mm
FL136 Fawn flint scraper on the rounded distal end of a
squat flake. Hard pitted fawn cortex around distal
end. Steeply retouched. Fig 34.3.2.
22 26 9mm
FL137 Grey flint blade broken transversely at bulbar end.
34 7 4mm
FL138 Brown flint blade. Marked bulb of percussion and
hinge fracture at distal end. Cortex like inclusions
on bulbar face.
35 11 3mm
FL139 Brown flint flake.
28 12 3mm
FL140 Brown flint scalene triangle microlith. Retouched on
right edge and on left edge at distal end. Fig 34.3.3.
22 8 5mm
FL141 Brown flint flake.
22 10 2mm
FL142 Grey flint flake, both edges show utilisation. ?Water
rolled.
33 11 5mm
FL143 Grey flint scraper on the distal end of a blade/flake
segment. Broken obliquely at the bulbar end. Fig
34.3.2.
22 17 3mm
34: STONE OBJECTS
FL144 Grey flint blade segment. Broken transversely at

both ends. Slight serrations/evidence of utilisation
on left edge.
14 8 3mm
FL145 Calcined and shattered flake/blade segment.
15 12 4mm
FL146 Grey, mottled flint flake retaining hard, pitted grey
cortex on right edge dorsal face. Left edge shows
traces of utilisation.
43 23 5mm
FL147 Burnt flint chunk, very angular and shattered.
25 21 11mm
FL148 Distal end of a grey flake, broken transversely at the
bulbar end. Small patch of buff pebble cortex on left
edge, dorsal face.
24 13 4mm
FL149 Grey mottled flint flake, broken transversely at both
ends and retaining hard pitted buff cortex on left
edge.
19 17 8mm
FL150 Grey flint flake with small patch of buff cortex-like
material on left edge.
16 15 2mm
FL151 Fawn flint flake, retaining hard pebble cortex on
bulbar face at distal end.
13 13 4mm
FL152 Grey mottled flint flake. ?Water rolled. Both edges
damaged.
21 11 5mm
FL153 Grey keeled flint flake from core rejuvenation. Large
thermal spall removed on dorsal face, right edge.
21 14 8mm
461
and he illustrates the flint-crushing process in detail

(Bell 1971, 9). In 1878, C T Maling built the Ford (B)
pottery, which was to become the largest on Tyneside
and which had for many years the largest flint crushing
mill in the country, capable of grinding over 100 tons
per week (Bell 1971, 68). Most of this was used by the
firm but considerable amounts were exported.
The above should give some idea of the huge
amounts of flint that could have been introduced into
the Tyneside/Wearside area since the 18th century and
this should make us wary of much of the material in
post-medieval and modern contexts at Jarrow.
A striking feature of the material recovered from
Jarrow is the lack of any chronologically diagnostic tool
types. While it may be as will be argued below that
there was earlier, prehistoric activity on the site which
may have been disturbed by the Anglo-Saxon buildings
and later burials, it is not really possible, given the
nature of the data, to put a close date on this activity.
As Figure 34.4.2 shows, some 38% of all the flint
recovered comes from post-medieval and modern contexts. Reference to the catalogue shows that most of
this material takes the form of totally undiagnostic
chunks, chips, water-rolled pebbles, crude flakes and
burnt fragments of flint. However it should be
acknowledged that some of the finds in late contexts
could be residual from earlier/prehistoric features and
contexts on the site and even possible Anglo-Saxon
activity (see below). This may be especially true of
34.4 The flint from Jarrow

by Robert Young
Two-hundred-and-seven pieces of flint were submitted
to the writer for analysis. Figure 34.4.1 shows the
numbers recovered throughout the years of the excavations at Jarrow and Figure 34.4.2 shows the distribution of the material by dated phase and context. A
major problem in interpreting this material is the fact
that the site has seen much activity from the AngloSaxon period onwards, with the resulting mixture of
material from different periods.
From the point of view of lithic analysis, the situation is further complicated by the fact that from the
18th century onwards much flint was introduced
around the mouths of the Rivers Tyne and Wear as ballast from ships coming from the south of England
involved in the coal trade. Certainly on both Tyneside
and Wearside this material was used in the pottery
industry in the manufacture of high-quality white ware,
and mills for crushing flint were set up at Newbottle,
south-west of Sunderland, in 1740 (Shaw 1973, 9), at
Low Ford, South Hylton, to the west of Sunderland,
not far from the river, in 1840 (Shaw 1973, 14) and at
the Garrison pottery in the east end of Sunderland,
directly on the river frontage (certainly before 1865)
(Shaw 1973, 25). Bell (1971, 6) records the movement
of flint from the south to Tyneside as raw material for
the 20 potteries that were in operation there by 1827
Fig 34.4.1 Distribution of flints by year of excavation at

Jarrow. R Young, PL
Fig 34.4.2 Distribution of flints by phase. R Young, PL
462
Fig 34.4.3 Flints from Jarrow. Scale 1:1. YB

pieces such as FL162, a multi-platformed flint core in
grey flint, and flakes such as FL158 and FL217. It is
not beyond the bounds of possibility that archaeological material from other areas of the country may have
found its way to Jarrow in the ballast cargoes referred
to above.
A further 19% of the recorded material is unstratified. Again in this material there is nothing that is
chronologically diagnostic, but residual pieces from
much earlier activity in the area may be present (eg
FL157, 188, 189, 198, 202), and much is probably
ballast.
Thirty-one pieces, some 15% of the total recovered,

come from medieval contexts. A majority of these finds
consist of struck flakes, some of which show traces of
utilisation and/or retouching (FL172, 175, 242, 277,
282, 283, 291, 300 (retouched), 296 (utilised, Fig
34.4.3), 302 (utilised, Fig 34.4.3), 298, 312, 320, 322,
328). Also of interest here is the core, FL211, which is
of Clark et als (1960) Class A2, and the possible
scraper, FL284 (Fig 34.4.3). It could be suggested here
that most of this material is obviously from much earlier prehistoric contexts that have been disturbed, but a
large chunk from the 1973 excavations (FL306) which
34: STONE OBJECTS
463
Fig 34.4.4 Flints from Jarrow. Scale 1:1. YB
retains mortar must allow the suggestion that flint was

being used in hard core in some of the medieval or early
post-medieval building activity on the site. The chunk in
question was found in a post-medieval context that was
disturbing a later medieval (14th16th century) layer.
A further complicating factor here is the material from
Anglo-Saxon contexts, which accounts for some 45 finds:
22% of the total. Buildings A, B, and D all produced flint
material from their floor levels or associated contexts.
Building A yielded two flakes (FL252 and 254), the latter retouched, from a possible soakaway at its south-east
corner, while Building B produced six pieces. These
included a class A2 core (FL262), a retouched flake
(FL266), three chunks (FL264, 265, 267) and a flake
(FL263). Five stratified pieces of flint came from the
floor level of Building D. These include two possible borers or piercers (FL314, 315, Fig 34.4.3), a flake (FL313),
a chunk (FL316) and a hammerstone (FL321). The
workshop area to the east of Building D also yielded several pieces: FL332 and FL335 are simple chunks; FL333
and FL334 are utilised flakes and blades (Fig 34.4.3);
and FL 338 a possible end scraper (Fig 34.4.3) The silty
accumulations which built up after the workshops went
out of use yielded two retouched flakes: FL 323, perhaps
used as a knife or piercer (Fig 34.4.4), and FL 325. In
this light, and since Building D in its final stages may have
also functioned as a workshop, then the possibility
must be acknowledged that flint tools could have been
used by Anglo-Saxon craft specialists for specific tasks.
Five pieces came from Late Saxon or uncertain
Late Saxon/early medieval contexts: FL255, 271, 272,
293 and 301. Of these FL271 and 272 are retouched
flakes and FL301 is a blade (all Fig 34.4.4). The

Anglo-Saxon ground surface yielded a small number of
artefacts, including four flakes (FL182, 183, 258, and
287); a scraper (FL268) and a core (FL289, Fig
34.4.4). A few flints could perhaps derive from preSaxon deposits: FL278 and 279 are flakes and FL281
is a simple chunk, all found in the fills of Anglo-Saxon
graves. While the pieces from the Anglo-Saxon ground
surface and the artefacts possibly from earlier contexts
could all be prehistoric in date, this group of finds
could equally be contemporary with the Anglo-Saxon
activity on the site.
The post-prehistoric use of flint is a subject of continuing debate. On many medieval sites flint has been
found, sometimes in stratified contexts, and this makes
for the intriguing possibility that flint was collected and
utilised well into the second millennium AD. For example, Charles Thomas in his work on the Christian
cemetery on Ardwall Isle recorded five implements
from stratified medieval contexts in the chapel, and
indeed he says Every post-Roman site in western
Britain of any size produces a surprising quantity of
flint or chert struck flakes, scrapers of numerous
shapes and sizes, pebble and other cores and waste
scraps...the cumulative weight of this evidence supports the idea that flint, especially as here beach pebble flint, continued to be gathered and worked well
into the first if not second millennium AD and though
objects of prehistoric manufacture may have been
picked up, or picked out of cliff sections and reused,
simple scrapers were probably manufactured in large
numbers over a wide area of western Britain up to the
464
much later stage when they could combine with iron

and steel as strike-a-lights (Thomas 1967, 148).
Similarly, OKelly recorded 54 flints including scrapers
and knives from the period II occupation of the ring
fort at Garryduff (1963, 924).
Hurst and Hurst recovered four flints from the
medieval village of Wythemail in Northamptonshire
and they speculated that The presence of these flakes
without any definite signs of prehistoric occupation
raises the question that they may be medieval. Several
examples have been found on medieval sites. It is possible that the medieval villagers collected them as
curiosities or that they used flint for limited purposes.
This question might well be examined further (Hurst
and Hurst 1969, 199).
In discussing the flint finds from Dinas Powys,
Leslie Alcock reminded his readers that It will be
recalled that the utilisation, if not manufacture, of flint
implements has been widely recorded in the Dark Ages
in both Celtic and Teutonic circles...On grounds of
typology, it seems that the present material could be
considered as either Iron Age or Early Christian
(1963, 169). He concludes that flint could still have
been in use at Dinas Powys in the 5th to 7th centuries
AD and the report notes other Early Christian find contexts (Alcock 1963, 16876).
In sum, while a few of the artefacts may indeed be
of prehistoric date, it is not unreasonable to suggest
that the number of pieces from stratified deposits is
likely to be indicative of the use of flint continuing into
the Anglo-Saxon period.
Note: The catalogue is arranged by year, excavation
trench and context number. Dimensions are only given
for complete pieces.
FL154 Large dark grey/black chunk. Water rolled, smooth
surfaces, some edges battered and large flakes
removed. Retains both smooth and hard pitted
fawn, brown pebble cortex.
Context: 76 Modern JA 63 EI 6302
FL155 Fragmentary, burnt flake. Grey/white in colour.
28 17 6mm
Context: 78 LPM JA 63 DA 6302
FL156 Dark grey, secondary flake, facetted butt. Soft
white/grey chalky cortex around bulbar end. Some
edges very sharp and fresh.
43 51 15mm
FL157 Dark grey, semi-translucent inner flake. Very jagged
edges and slight hinge fracture at the distal end.
26 20 4mm
Context: 111 U/S JA 63 BQ 6302
FL158 Foxy red-brown inner blade-like flake, broken transversely at the distal end. Plain platform, diffuse
bulb. Both edges show irregular damage. Left edge
may exhibit traces of utilisation.
30 19 5mm
Context: 5328 LPM JA 63 FI 6302
FL159 Irregular grey flint chip. Retains hard grey/off-white
cortex.
FL160 Grey/white, angular battered flint chunk.

FL161 Light grey shattered chunk. Outer surfaces show
heavy orange/brown staining. ?Ballast.
FL162 A grey flint core of Clark et al (1960) Class Ci
three or more platforms. On a battered pebble
exhibiting crushed grey pebble cortex.
24 2 18mm
Context: 2 LPM JA 65 NV 6501
FL163 Angular, light grey chunk.
Context: 5629 Modern JA 65 AAS 6502
FL164 Grey fawn mottled flint chunk.
Context: 5629 Modern JA 65 AAS 6502
FL165 Heavy crude, secondary flake, Cortical butt, diffuse
bulb. Hinge fracture at distal end. Retains hard, pitted grey cortex on dorsal face.
64 72 27mm.
Context: 5654 Modern JA 65 AH 6504
FL166 Light grey irregular chunk of flint.
Context: 5517 Saxon? JA 65 CD 6505
FL167 Ginger brown flint flake. Very smoothed and water
worn.
30 9 4mm.
Context: 5517 Saxon? JA 65 CD 6505
FL168 Light grey mottled secondary flake broken obliquely at the bulbar end. Retains hard fawn pebble cortex on right edge dorsal face.
Context: 5526 Modern JA 65 DX 6506
FL169 Heavily corticated white flint chip.
Context: 5596 LS/EM JA 65 YV 6506
FL170 Heavily corticated flint chip.
FL171 Irregularly shattered, dark grey chunk.
FL172 Light grey flake. Plain butt, diffuse bulb of percussion.
49 12 4mm
Context: 802 Med 2 JA 65 HR 6508
FL173 Grey/off-white burnt, friable flint chunk.
Context: 826 Saxon or LS/EM JA 65 PQ 6508
FL174 Light grey secondary flint flake. Broken irregularly
at the distal end. Plain butt. Hard, pitted grey pebble cortex on right edge, dorsal face.
Context: 826 Saxon or LS/EM JA 65 PQ 6508
FL175 Mottled grey blade-like flake. Thin platform, diffuse
bulb of percussion. Broken transversely at the distal
end.
34 40 5mm
Context: 179 Med 1 JA 65 XQ 6509
FL176 Heavy, battered secondary flake. Dark grey flake
with hard white smooth pebble cortex on bulbar end.
Cortical butt, flat diffuse bulb. Edges very battered.
42 49 19mm
Context: 188 LPM JA 65 NZ 6509
FL177 Dark grey, semi-translucent, broken, inner flake.
Context: 159 LPM/Modern JA 65 RX 6510
FL178 rregular grey mottled chip/chunk. ?Slightly burnt.
Context: 162 LPM JA 65 YP 6510
FL179 Grey brown secondary flake. Very battered on dorsal face at bulbar end. Battered platform and pronounced bulb.
18 36 4mm
Context: 162 LPM JA 65 YP 6510
FL180 Heavily burnt, crackled/crazed flint chunk.
Context: 49 LPM JA 65 GL 6511
34: STONE OBJECTS
FL181 Irregular flint chip. Smooth rounded cortex on dorsal face. Grey mottled.
Context: 50 Modern JA 65 EA 6511
FL182 Grey inner flake, facetted butt and diffuse bulb of
percussion.
18 9 4mm
Context: 66 Saxon JA 65 UB? 6511
FL183 Grey secondary flake, broken transversely at bulbar
end. Retains hard, pitted, light grey pebble cortex
on right edge, distal end.
28 10 10mm
Context: 67 Saxon JA 65 YZ 6511
Also from 1965 were 19 pieces of various coloured flint, not
humanly struck or worked. Ballast? Some burnt, majority
water-worn and rolled.
FL184 Dark grey secondary flake, facetted butt. Broken
transversely at the distal end. Distal end very battered. Small patch of grey, hard cortex on dorsal face.
Context: 5846 Med JA 66 XS 6601
FL185 Grey, mottled, corticated chunk. Battered and
rolled edges. Hard pitted pebble cortex on one surface.
Context: 5910 LPM/Modern JA 66 AG 6601
FL186 Fawn brown, water-rolled chip, with dark brown
water-rolled cortex.
Context: 5912 Modern JA 66 CP 6601
FL187 Water-rolled and rounded grey chunk. Some small
chips removed ?by natural processes.
Context: 5989 LPM JA 66 OF 6601
FL188 Grey semi-translucent secondary flake. Plain butt,
pronounced bulb. Hard light grey pebble cortex on
left edge. Hinge fracture at distal end. Some edge
damage ?natural.
27 50 5mm
Context: U/S JA 66
FL189 Dark grey secondary flake. Pronounced bulb, cortical butt, retaining hard, pitted, pebble cortex on
right edge, dorsal face.
24 46 10mm
Context: U/S JA 66
FL190 Grey chip, retaining smooth, fawn brown pebble
cortex.
Context: U/S JA 66
FL191 Light grey chunk, irregular surfaces, edges fresh in
places but some abrasion.
Context: U/S JA 66
FL192 Light grey chunk. Fragment from a core? Some
flake scars visible on the chunks perimeter. Some
edges battered and abraded.
Context: U/S JA 66
FL193 Grey angular chunk, retaining small patch of soft
chalky cortex on one edge.
Context: U/S JA 66
FL194 Grey, angular chunk retaining both hard pitted and
soft chalky, cortex. Edges fresh.
Context: U/S JA 66
FL195 Fragment of water rolled, grey/fawn pebble, shattered at one end. Heavily corticated.
Context: U/S JA 66
FL196 Dark grey, battered chunk with hard fawn/white
pebble cortex on one surface.
Context: U/S JA 66
FL197 Burnt flint chunk. Very crackled and crazed, dark
grey to white surfaces visible.
Context: U/S JA 66
465
FL198 Small, light grey, inner flake. Pronounced bulb and

22 15 4mm
Context: U/S JA 66
FL199 Small, grey/white burnt chunk. Very crackled and
crazed.
Context: U/S JA 66
FL200 Grey flint chip/chunk. Angular surfaces.
Context: U/S JA 66
FL201 Burnt flint chip.
Context: U/S JA 66
FL202 Totally white corticated, broken, inner, flake with
marked hinge fracture at distal end.
Context: U/S JA 66
FL203 Water-rolled fawn grey chip.
Context: 192 Modern JA 67 BC 6701
FL204 Irregular, rounded cortical chunk. Grey.
Context: 193 Modern JA 67 BK 6701
FL205 Irregular white/grey pot-lid flake, very irregular edges.
Context: 194 Modern JA 67 BM 6701
FL206 Natural fawn stained flake. Dorsal face is all pitted,
brown/fawn pebble cortex.
FL207 Irregular, water rolled, dark brown/orange stained
chunk. Retains patch of hard, smooth, grey pebble
cortex.
FL208 Orange-brown/cream stained small flint pebble.
Water rolled.
Context: 194 Modern JA 67 DH 6701
FL209 Two small flint nodules. Unworked, water rolled.
10
All surfaces retain hard chalk-like cortex.
Context: 195 Modern JA 67 BP 6701
FL211 A dark grey flint core of Clark et al (1960) Class A2
one platform, flakes removed part-way round circumference. Unworked surface retains hard, pitted
grey/off-white pebble cortex. Made on a split flint
pebble.
28 51 38mm
FL212 Rounded white, corticated chunk/small pebble.
Context: 204 LPM JA 67 CF 6701
FL213 Orange-brown stained chunk. Water rolled, retaining hard smoothed grey/off-white cortex.
Context: 204 LPM JA 67 CF 6701
FL214 Water-rolled grey chunk with some yellow-brown
staining.
FL215 Small grey, water-rolled cortical chunk.
FL216 Dark grey chunk with orange-brown staining and
hard, smooth, dark grey pebble cortex.
FL217 Thick orange-stained, grey inner flake. Crushed
platform and diffuse bulb.
30 12 6mm
FL218 Irregular orange/fawn-stained inner flake. Broken
irregularly at the bulbar end. Water rolled and
smoothed.
FL219 Water-rolled orange-brown stained chunk.
FL220 Burnt, spalled chunk. Grey/black. Originally water
rolled.
466

FL221 Burnt and spalled chunk. Grey cortex remains, surfaces crackled and crazed.
FL222 Fawn brown-stained chunk. Water rolled.
Context: 222 LPM JA 67 CH 6701
FL223 Fawn/grey water-rolled chunk.
FL224 Water-rolled orange/brown-stained chunk.
FL225 Naturally fractured pebble segment. Fawn/grey
flint. Dorsal face retains hard, pitted and smoothed/
water-rolled pebble cortex.
FL226 Grey/off-white chip.
Context: 233 Med 1 JA 67 KN 6701
FL227 Grey flint chip with light grey smooth pebble
cortex.
Context: 234 Med 1 JA 67 JN 6701
FL228 Burnt, white flint chip with patch of hard grey pebble cortex.
Context: 234 Med 1 JA 67 JN 6701
FL229 Small quartzite pebble ?natural.
Context: 238 Saxon JA 67 NP 6701
FL230 Water rolled fawn grey chunk. Retains hard,
smooth, grey/off-white pebble cortex.
Context: 245 LPM JA 67 BU 6701
FL231 Rolled fawn/brown flint chunk.
Context: 250 LPM JA 67 EW 6701
FL232 Irregular grey flint chunk, retaining off-white/grey
cortex on one surface and heavily faulted on another. Smoothed and rolled.
Context: 702 LPM JA 67 AQ 6701
FL233 Water-rolled, burnt fragment from larger chunk.
Context: 702 LPM JA 67 BA 6701
FL234 Small, grey, water rolled chunk with grey/off white
cortex.
Context: 702 LPM JA 67 BJ 6701
FL235 Small water-rolled grey/brown pebble. ?Natural
flake removed at one end.
22 18 10mm
Context: 702 LPM JA 67 ? BX 6701
FL236 Small fragment from a larger pebble. Grey/greenstained flint, retaining hard, smoothed, grey/offwhite pebble cortex.
Context: 702 LPM JA 67 BX 6701
FL237 Orange/brown-stained chip. Retains hard, smooth
grey/fawn pebble cortex.
Context: 702 LPM JA 67 BX 6701
FL238 Irregularly fractured, dark grey, secondary flake.
Retains patch of grey/off-white pebble cortex on
dorsal face.
Context: 702 LPM JA 67 EP 6701
FL239 Water-rolled, grey, chunk with fawn/brown staining.
Context: 702 LPM JA 67 HJ 6701
FL240 Dark grey, water-rolled chunk, retaining smoothed
hard, fawn/off-white pebble cortex.
Context: 703 LPM JA 67 DQ 6701
FL241 Irregular burnt, white chunk.
Context: 704 LPM JA 67 BY 6701
FL242 Fawn/grey primary flake. Cortical butt, pronounced
bulb. Dorsal face retains hard pitted and smoothed
pebble cortex.
19 38 9mm
Context: 716 Med JA 67 KD 6701
FL243 Water-rolled, orange-stained, grey angular chunk.

Context: 433 LPM JA 67 AL 6702
FL244 Water-rolled grey chunk. Battered around edges,
but main surfaces show white/grey cortication.
Context: 436 LPM JA 67 BR 6702
FL245 Grey/off-white flint chip.
Context: 436 LPM JA 67 BR 6702
FL246 Grey/brown chunk. Retains hard pitted brown/grey
pitted cortex on unshattered face.
Context: 436 LPM JA 67 BL 6702
FL247 Thick, crude primary flake, broken transversely at
bulbar end. Dark grey/brown flint, with soft white
chalky cortex on dorsal surface. Massive hinge fracture at distal end.
Context: 437 LPM JA 67 CO 6702
FL248 Small dark grey pebble. Unfractured surfaces retain
water-worn, smoothed fawn grey pebble cortex.
Context: 5245 Modern JA 67 AP 6702
FL249 Water-rolled red/brown pebble, retaining hard
fawn/off-white pebble cortex. One small pot-lid
spall removed.
Context: 5248 Saxon JA 67 GF 6702
FL250 Water-rolled small flint pebble. All surfaces exhibit
smooth grey pebble cortex.
Context: 657 Modern JA 67 GA 6703
FL251 Irregular, reddened ?burnt chunk.
Context: 657 Modern JA 67 GA 6703
FL252 Bulbar end of red-brown secondary flake. Snapped
obliquely. Retains hard fawn/grey cortex on dorsal
surface. Plain butt and diffuse bulb. Edges fresh.
Context: 5271 Saxon JA 67 RE 6703
FL253 Grey secondary flake. Thick, plain platform and diffuse butt. Hard pitted fawn/grey pebble cortex on
dorsal face. Retouched across distal end and down
right edge to form ?point at bottom right corner.
Context: 5272 Saxon JA 67 PP 6703
FL254 Grey, rolled fragment from pebble. Retains offwhite/grey pebble cortex.
Context: 213 LPM JA67 EE 6704
FL255 Irregular flake fragment, burnt and severely spalled.
Grey/pink/fawn colour.
Context: 644 LS/EM JA 67 LD 6704
FL256 Irregular, white, calcined chip.
Context: 652 Saxon JA 67 RM 6704
FL257 Irregular off-white/grey flint chip.
FL258 Bulbar end of grey inner blade-like flake. Broken
irregularly at the distal end. Plain butt, diffuse bulb.
Edges fresh.
FL259 Water-rolled pebble fragment. One surface is totally
recorticated, grey/off-white. Other surfaces retain
hard, pitted grey/off-white smooth pebble cortex.
Context: 657 Modern JA 67 ED 6704
FL260 Grey/green chert chunk. Retains ?traces of mortar.
Shattered from a larger piece.
Context: 5293 LS/EM JA 67 OJ 6704
FL261 Irregularly broken, grey, crazed and crackled, burnt
flake. ?Some utilisation around one edge. Thermal
pot-lid spalls removed on both faces.
Context: 4650 Med 1 JA 68 AJ 6801
FL262 A light grey flint core of Clarke et al (1960) Class A2
one platform, flakes removed part way round circumference. Some hinge fracturing visible on
worked surface. Used for producing blade-like
34: STONE OBJECTS
FL263
FL264
FL265
FL266
FL267
FL268
FL269
FL270
FL271
FL272
FL273
FL274
FL275
FL276
flakes. Unworked face shows hard pitted, grey/offwhite pitted pebble cortex.
37 30 21mm
Bulbar end of red/brown inner flake. Broken
obliquely. Plain butt, pronounced bulb. Right edge
crushed and battered.
Irregular, white, burnt chunk. Crackled and crazed.
Context: 3229 Saxon JA 69 XA 3a 6901
Irregular sharp, angular chunk. Grey with grey/offwhite cortication.
Context: 3229 Saxon JA 69 XA 3b 6901
Grey secondary flake, totally white corticated.
Retains a patch of fawn pebble cortex on dorsal
face. Retouched across distal end.
14 20 7mm
Context: 3229 Saxon JA 69 XA 3c 6901
Angular grey chunk. ?Shattered from a larger core.
Edges fresh and sharp.
Scraper on the distal end of a broken fawn grey inner
flake/blade. Broken transversely steeply retouched.
Small thermal spall removed on bulbar face.
Context: 3406 Saxon JA 69 WE 6901
Grey blade snapped transversely at the bulbar end.
Small patch of fawn pebble cortex on the dorsal
face. Hinge fracture at the distal end.
25 10 3mm
Context: JA 69 uncertain
Rolled and worn chip. Grey with dark brown staining. Edges bashed.
Context: 4871 LPM JA 70 EU 7001
Grey inner flake, pronounced bulb. Distal end
exhibits 5mm of fine retouch. Unretouched edge of
the distal end also shows signs of very fine denticulations through use. Fig 34.4.4.
24 9 5mm
Context: 4973 Saxon-Med 1 JA 70 XZ 1 7001
Grey blade, broken transversely at distal end.
Pronounced bulb. Bulbar end dorsal face shows
much battering which is also visible on left edge,
dorsal face. Both edges utilised. Evidence of utilisation intensifies at distal end and the piece may have
broken in the course of use. Fig 34.4.4.
31 6 5mm
Context: 4973 Saxon-Med 1 JA 70 XZ 2 7001
Grey mottled secondary flake. Broken irregularly at
the bulbar end. Retains hard pitted and rolled pebble cortex on ?dorsal face. Edges fresh and sharp,
perhaps due to recent breakage.
Context: 4301 PMed JA 70 KK 7002
Heavy, crude, grey mottled inner flake. Plain, thick
butt. Very heavy hinge fracture at the distal end.
Edges sharp and very fresh.
34 45 12mm
Context: 4321 LPM JA 70 RC 7002
Fresh, sharp, grey secondary flake. Cortical butt,
pronounced bulb. Retains soft white chalky cortex
around bulbar end. Hinge fracture at distal end.
31 42 11mm
Context: 4336 LPM JA 70 SU 7002
Crude, dark grey mottled secondary flake. Cortical
butt. Hard, light grey/off-white, smooth pebble cortex on bulbar end. Hinge fracture at distal end.
FL277
FL278
FL279
FL280
FL281
FL282
FL283
FL284
FL285
FL286
FL287
FL288
FL289
FL290
FL291
467
Edges sharp and fresh.

40 36 12mm
Context: 3839 LPM JA 70 GY 7003
Bulbar end of fawn grey, corticated, inner flake.
Facetted butt and diffuse bulb. Broken transversely
to the long axis.
Context: 3854 Med 1b JA 70 KS 7003
Grey inner flake, struck at 90 to main axis of striking from the core.
Prehistoric?
19 47 14mm
Context: 3857 Saxon JA 70 JX 7003
Grey, primary flake. Cortical butt, diffuse bulb and
marked lines of conchoidal fracture.
18 13 2mm
Context: 3873 Saxon JA 70 OY 7003
Water-rolled irregular grey flint chunk. Very smoothed.
Context: 3875 Med 1b? JA 70 LD 7003
Irregular grey chunk, very angular. Retains a small
patch of hard fawn pebble cortex on one face.
Context: 3888 Saxon JA 70 RE 7003
Dark grey primary flake. Broken obliquely at the distal end. Cortical butt, diffuse bulb and marked conchoidal fracture lines. Dorsal face retains hard, pitted
grey/fawn pebble cortex, water-rolled in parts.
54 36 10mm
Context: 3899 Med 1b-2? JA 70 WS 7003
Fragment of fawn/red flint flake, broken transversely at each end.
Context: 3583 Med 2? JA 70 FR 7004
Crude scraper on a grey flake fragment. The piece is
broken irregularly at both ends and exhibits retouch
across the bulbar end break. The dorsal face retains
a small patch of hard fawn pebble cortex and the
raised surfaces are battered. Fig 34.4.3.
25 25 9mm
Context: 3647 Med 1 JA 70 OS 7004
Distal end of a dark grey secondary flake with thin
platform and diffuse bulb of percussion. Broken
transversely at distal end. Retains soft chalky cortex
on left edge, dorsal face. Edges fresh and sharp.
Context: 4207 LPM JA 70 GK 7005
Irregular light grey corticated chunk. Some flake
scars visible. Retains patch of hard, buff pitted cortex.
Context: 4003 Med 1 JA 70 ACX 7006
Foxy red-brown inner flake. Thin butt, diffuse bulb
of percussion. Hinge fracture at the distal end.
Edges very fresh.
Prehistoric?
34 15 6mm
Context: 4008 L Sax JA 70 RG 7006
?Natural pot-lid flake from dark grey pebble. Dorsal
face exhibits creamy buff soft chalky cortex.
Context: 4011 Saxon JA 70 ADH 7006
Red/brown core of Clarke et al (1960) Class Biii.
Two platforms at right angles. Retains a patch of
fawn, hard, smooth, pebble cortex. Fig 34.4.4.
30 34 30mm
Context: 4011 Saxon JA 70 ADH 2 7006
Light grey inner flake, broken transversely at the distal end. Very thin butt and very diffuse bulb.
Context: 4030 LPM JA 70 JQ 7006
Irregular, grey, inner flake. Broken irregularly at the
bulbar end. Edges fresh and sharp. Some battering
along dorsal ridge.
468
Context: 4035 Med 1b JA 70 JI 7006

FL292 Grey blade-like flake, broken transversely at the distal end. Plain butt, diffuse bulb of percussion.
?Broken down left edge. Edges fresh.
Context: 1666 LPM JA 71 QK 7105
FL293 Grey inner flake, broken transversely at the distal
end. Plain butt, small, pronounced bulb. Dorsal
face shows some battering.
Context: 1779 L Sax JA 71 SL 7105
FL294 Grey secondary flake with hinge fracture at distal
end. Retains patch of hard white chalky cortex on
bulbar end. ?Facetted butt and pronounced bulb.
Right edge sharp and fresh.
24 26 7mm
Context: 1445 Saxon JA 71 SI 7106
FL295 Large, dark grey, flint chunk. Shattered from a large
rounded cobble. Still retains hard grey, pitted and
bashed outer cortex on one face.
85 47mm
Context: 2582 Saxon? JA 73 PH 7301
FL296 Grey flake, broken transversely at the bulbar end.
Edges fresh. Left edge shows traces of utilisation.
Retouched at distal end. Fig 34.4.3.
45 22 8mm
Context: 2596 Med 1 JA 73 PX 7302
FL297 Battered grey chunk, water-rolled and smoothed.
Retains hard fawn cortex, soft and chalky in places.
27 27 14mm
FL298 Grey secondary flake. Plain butt, diffuse bulb.
Edges fresh and sharp.
21 23 9mm
Context: 2645 Med 1 JA 73 RN 7302
FL299 Rounded chunk. Totally white cortication. Retains
hard fawn/off-white pebble cortex on unshattered
surfaces.
Context: 2526 LS/EM A 73 JW 7303
FL300 Fawn grey inner flake, broken irregularly, but transversely at the distal end. Plain butt, pronounced
bulb. Small patch of inverse retouch on left edge
above the break.
Context: 2570 Med 2 JA 73 PE 7303
FL301 Light grey blade-like flake, broken transversely at
the bulbar end. Edges fresh and sharp. Fig 34.4.4.
38 10 9mm
Context: 26045 LS/EM? JA 73 QG 7303
FL302 Grey semi-translucent blade. Bulb detached transversely. Retains hard, smooth white pebble cortex
on right edge, dorsal face. Left edge shows evidence
for utilisation. Fig 34.4.3.
42 12 4mm
Context: 2606 Med 2 JA 73 QH 7303
FL303 Dark grey irregular, battered chip/chunk. Possibly
shattered from a larger piece of flint.
FL304 Blade in grey semi-translucent flint. Retains small
patch of hard fawn pebble cortex on dorsal face at distal end. Bulb removed transversely, perhaps by snapping. Edges sharp and fresh, but some small chips
removed ?through use. Hinge fracture at distal end.
44 14 6mm
Context: 2135 LS/EM JA 73 OO 7304
FL305 Small, irregular, fawn-grey chunk. Retains small
patches of fawn hard pebble cortex.
25 16 10mm
Context: 2139 Med 2? JA 73 PF 7304

FL306 Irregular grey, crackled and crazed ?burnt chunk of
flint. Retains patches of fawn mortar and may have
been incorporated into a structure on site?
Context: 1836 EPM JA 73 EX 7305
FL307 Irregular, fawn-brown thermally fractured pot-lid
flake.
Context: 1845 Norman JA 73 VM 7305
FL308 Grey, translucent flake ?from core trimming. Struck
at 90 to the striking platform. Some possible utilisation on right edge, dorsal face.
25 19 5mm
Context: 1845 Norman JA 73 VM 7305
FL309 Roughly circular ?natural pot lid removal from flint
pebble. ?Light grey flint with some fawn brown
staining/patination. Dorsal face is all hard, grey,
smoothed pebble cortex.
Context: 1869 EPM JA 73 GM 7305
FL310 Fawn/grey pot-lid removal from a pebble. Dorsal
face is all hard fawn pebble cortex.
Context: 1907 Med JA 73 JP 7305
FL311 Water-worn grey flint, very smoothed and rounded
chunk. Ridges show evidence for battering.
Context: 1966 Med 1-2 JA 73 NO 7305
FL312 Triangular fawn/grey flint flake. Cortical butt and
diffuse bulb. Hinge fracture at distal end. Small
patch of hard fawn cortex on right edge, dorsal face.
13 19 4mm
Context: 2006 Med 1 JA 73 SU 7305
FL313 Irregular, broken grey flake fragment with small
patch hard fawn, pebble cortex on dorsal face.
?Large pot-lid removal on dorsal face.
Context: 2016 ML Sax JA 73 UF 7305
FL314 Red/brown, ridged, inner flake. Pronounced bulb of
percussion. Three large flake scars visible on dorsal
face. Very fine inverse retouch on both edges at the
distal end, with some irregular chips removed on
dorsal face ?from use. This retouch would have
brought the distal end to a point, however the apex
of this point is broken off transversely to the flakes
long axis. Cruder inverse retouch is visible on the
right edge, towards the bulbar end. The implement
may have been a borer or piercer. Fig 34.4.3.
32 23 8mm
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ a 7305
FL315 A thick irregular, semi-translucent grey flake, which
exhibits much irregular bifacial retouch on its crescentic left edge. The piece is broken at the distal
end. Very fine retouch also on the right edge, distal
end. ?Broken piercer or borer. Fig 34.4.3.
44 23 11mm
Context: 2018 ML Sax JA 73 UZ b 7305
FL316 rregular grey chunk. Incipient recortication on one
face. Retains some hard fawn pebble cortex.
Context: 2021 L Sax JA 73 VU 7305
FL317 Dark grey, water worn chunk, battered but rounded.
Context: 2226 LPM JA 75 DW 7501
FL318 Irregular dark grey flake. Some edges fresh but others battered and bashed. Cortical butt, grey, hard
pitted cortex.
56 26 32mm
Context: 1178 EPM JA 75 DF 7502
FL319 Grey inner flake. Edges sharp and fresh. Plain butt,
diffuse bulb. Retouched across distal end?
24 22 5mm
34: STONE OBJECTS
Context: 1135 Norman JA 75 LR 7503

FL320 Red-brown inner flake. Plain butt and diffuse bulb.
Pronounced hinge fracture at distal end. Edges fresh
and sharp.
29 36 8mm
Context: 2369 Med 1 JA 75 DE 7505
FL321 A thick, roughly trapezoidal grey secondary flake.
Hard pitted fawn/pink pebble cortex on distal end.
Battered and crushed on all edges with two hinge
fractures on one surface. ?Part of a light hammerstone.
25 27 11mm
Context: 2857 ML Sax JA 76 CC 7602
FL322 Burnt white, crackled and crazed inner flake. Three
small hinge fractures visible on dorsal surface.
25 19 9mm
Context: 928 Norman/Med 1 JA 76 DC 7603
FL323 Dark grey, thick, irregular flake fractured on left
edge at bulbar end. Ridge edge exhibits very fine,
flat, invasive pressure flaking on dorsal face. Some
irregular chips have also been removed from the bulbar face of this edge. The left edge has steep, blunting, inverse retouch on the dorsal face and the distal
end is broken transversely. Inverse retouch runs
across this fracture. Possibly either a) a knife with
right edge as cutting edge and left edge as blunted
back of the blade or b) a piercer or borer. Fig 34.4.4.
37 22 11.5mm
Context: 938 L Sax JA 76 EV 7603
FL324 Natural pot-lid spall, burnt white flint. Dorsal face
exhibits pink/fawn staining and a further small potlid removal.
FL325 Fawn grey inner flake broken transversely at bulbar
end. ?originally from core triming. Retouch on both
edges.
Context: 940 L Sax JA 76 FG 7603
FL326 A grey flint angular chunk from a larger pebble. One
face retains hard, pitted crushed buff cortex.
Context: 942 Mid Sax JA 76 FN 7603
FL327 Large, crude chunk of burnt flint. Crackled and
spalled, grey/white in colour. Soft, grey/white cortex
on one surface.
Context: 943 L Sax JA 76 FO 7603
FL328 Grey, large crude secondary flake, markedly keeled
on the dorsal face. Retains hard, pitted fawn grey
pebble cortex on the dorsal face. Left edge bulbar
face exhibits a large hollow fault full of soft, chalky,
cortex-like material. Edges and keel very battered
and crushed. Slight hinge fracture at distal end, diffuse bulb, butt very bashed and scarred.
114 33 28mm
Context: 966 Med 2 JA 76 BT 7604
469
FL329 A parallel-sided grey chunk, with incipient cortication. Retains patch of fawn pitted cortex on left
edge. Generally battered and crushed.
Context: 980 LS/EM JA 76 FB 7604
FL330 Grey mottled secondary flake, broken obliquely at
bulbar end. Retains patch of hard pitted buff pebble
cortex at bulbar end.
FL331 Dark grey inner flake, with plain butt and pronounced bulb of percussion. Pronounced hinge
fracture at distal end.
16 36 7mm
Context: 2806 LPM JA 78 ET 7803
FL332 Rounded and water worn, fawn, mottled stained
chunk.
Context: 1024 Saxon JA 78 IN 7804
FL333 A fine blade in red/brown flint. Bulb of percussion
removed transversely to the long axis. Traces of edge
use on both faces. Fig 34.4.3.
34 17 5mm
Context: 1024 Saxon JA 78 IN 4 7804
FL334 Grey blade, broken transversely at the bulbar end.
Tip of blade broken transversely at distal end. Both
edges show traces of wear ?use. Slight notch on left
edge. Fig 34.4.3.
21 9 3mm
Context: 1025 Saxon JA 78 IO 1 7804
FL335 Irregular fawn/grey brown-stained chunk. Very
smoothed and water worn.
Context: 1008 Saxon JA 78 EG 7805
FL336 Irregular grey chip/chunk.
Context: 1027 M Sax JA 78 IY 7805
FL337 Red/brown shattered chunk with patches of hard
fawn pitted cortex.
Context: 1030 Saxon JA 78 JB 7805
FL338 Grey mottled inner flake. Very fine but definite
retouch visible across the distal end. ?A fine end
scraper. Fig 34.4.3.
22 15 8mm
Context: 1030 Saxon JA 78 JB 7805
FL339 Subrectangular, grey flint chunk. Edges sharp and
fresh. Retains hard fawn/grey pitted cortex on one
edge.
Context: U/S, N of Building A JA 85
FL340 Red brown/grey primary flake from pebble. Dorsal
face is all hard pitted fawn/grey pebble cortex.
Cortical butt, diffuse bulb.
25 32 9mm
Context: U/S, S of Building A JA 85
FL341 Grey inner flake, broken obliquely at the bulbar end.
Heavy hinge fracture at the distal end and evidence
for utilisation/retouch on left edge.
Context: U/S, NW of Cloister JA 85
35 Industrial/craft processes: the evidence from the

Jarrow workshops
35.1 Crucibles and associated
evidence for metal and glass
working from Jarrow
Metalworking crucibles (Cr18)

Several groups of materials from the workshop areas
were considered (Bayley 1984). Some fragments of
crucibles, Cr38, and two fragments, probably of
tuyres, Cr1 and Cr2, were identified as associated
with non-ferrous metalworking. The handle, Cr3, is
very similar to an example from Fishergate (Bayley
1993, 12325)
All the pieces had part or all of their surfaces covered
with a fuel ash glaze which was coloured red in parts by
traces of copper. These vitreous deposits were all
analysed by X-ray fluorescence (XRF), which showed
the crucibles had contained mixed alloys (gunmetals)
with tin, zinc and some lead detectable in addition to the
copper. The largest crucible sherd Cr3 was a knob/handle from the side of a crucible (knobs on crucible lids are
not usually as vitrified as this one, as their position protects them from fire). The deposits on the outsides of
the tuyre fragments were similar to those on the crucibles, while the dark layer inside them was rich in iron.
The larger of these fragments was of the cylindrical type
with an internal diameter of about 15mm and the smaller piece was from the same or a similar object.
by Susan Mills and Rosemary Cramp with a

contribution from Justine Bayley
Introduction
A number of crucible fragments with glazed surfaces as
well as parts of tuyres and quantities of fuel ash were
recovered from Jarrow. Some of this material was discovered in redeposited soil but most of it came from
four main areas, listed below, and distributed as shown
in Figure 35.1.1.
a) the south-east corner of the site, which included
finds from Jarrow Slake, provided the largest quantity of evidence, and was the area where complete
or nearly complete crucibles were recovered;
b) an area to the south-west of the site, to the south of
Building A;
c) a scatter within the medieval cloister, with a specific cluster in trench 7006;
d) a small group to the south-west of the church in
trenches 7001 and 6501.
Glass-melting crucible
It was only in the area of the riverside buildings in

the south-east of the site that hearths and small structures were found that could have been associated with
craft activities (see Vol 1, Ch 16).
Here, where material was well stratified, the crucibles were associated with 9th-century stycas (see
Ch 30, coin report) and debris of millefiori rods as
well as glazed pottery. Similar glazed pottery and
millefiori was recovered from the area south-west of
Building A, where it too was associated with a 9thcentury styca. The crucibles from trenches 7103 and
7802 are probably residues of what must have been
a widespread working area delimited by a gravel surface on the top of the slope, with a focus in trench
6302.
A number of scientists, in particular Justine Bayley
and Julian Henderson, generously engaged themselves
in the analysis of the glazes on and residues in the crucibles, as well as the associated residues, and their full
reports are held in archive. The most recent report, by
Michael Tite, which includes a re-evaluation of all earlier work, is presented in full. Susan Mills described
the vessels, and her distinction between the vessels
with iron-rich and iron-poor clay, together with her
detailed fabric analyses appears below. Her findings
take into account Justine Bayleys work, and this text
has been revised. (RC)
The two conjoining sherds of a jar, Cr9, provide evidence of glass melting on the site. XRF analysis by
Justine Bayley and further analyses by Michael Tite
(see below) have demonstrated that the glassy layers on
this pot were of an alkali glass with a high soda content,
similar in composition to the window glass from the
site. The context of this piece (951) was a deposit on
the workshop floor (phase 4a), which also contained
four fragments of glass, a glass waster and fragments of
copper alloy and lead.
The jar has a slightly everted rim, with a diameter
of c 120mm (too little of the rim remains to be certain
of this). The fabric is almost vitrified in some areas,
but where inclusions are visible the clay is relatively
fine, with only a few quartz grains, some haematite and
a few grains of an unidentified rock. The clay type is
unlike any of the fabrics that are thought to be approximately contemporary, and the vessel may not, therefore, be of local origin. The fabric is also quite different
from that of the metalworking crucibles and is made of
a high refractory clay (see Tite report).
The vessel would have been of a substantial size.
The closest parallel in form observed so far is from a
vessel used in glass melting in Glastonbury (Harden
1971a, 87, pl Vllc; Bayley 2000b, fig 13). Other examples date to the 9th to 11th centuries, while the Jarrow
pot is likely to be of 9th-century date.
470
35: INDUSTRIAL/CRAFT PROCESSES
471
Fig 35.1.1 Jarrow: distribution of crucible fragments. AMacM
Both surfaces of the vessel are coated with a glassy

deposit up to 2mm thick in places. The deposit is
quite translucent, heavily crazed and with a greenishyellow tinge where thicker. Occasional darker patches
result from the presence of iron migrating from the
clay body. Internally, there are a few thicker blobs
and streaks of glass with an iridescent tinge, quite
reminiscent of some of the fragments of melted,
twisted glass from areas of Building D. XRF indicated that these fragments contained only a negligible
amount of lead, and both Bayley and Tite concluded
that it was closely related to the alkali window glass
on the site (see Bayley archive report and Tite report
below).
Dish crucibles
Another group of crucibles comprised a straight-sided
shallow type, characterised elsewhere as dish or dogdish type (see Gilmour 1988, 70). Other similar
shapes, although not coated evenly on the outside and
inside are from the Donjon du Capital site in
Toulouse (Catalo et al 1999, 1521). The type has
been divided into iron-poor and iron-rich clay fabrics.
Iron-poor clay fabric
Crucibles Cr1028 all have a quite similar fabric fired
to varying degrees of hardness and near vitrification.
The following petrological description is based on an
472
analysis of the thin section of Cr15. The colour of this

and several of the other sherds, including Cr18 and
Cr19 is c 2.5Y5Y 8/2 white throughout. Inclusions
form c 20% of the matrix, and the size distribution is
bimodal, consisting of subangular to subrounded
translucent quartz 0.10.3mm diameter and 0.51mm
diameter, with very sparse red iron ore 0.11.0mm
diameter, a small quantity of mica plates less than 0.4
mm diameter, and a few opaque white quartz grains c
0.5mm diameter. Cr10, Cr15 and Cr19 are oxidised
throughout, Cr12 is a harder fired version of the fabric, partly vitrified, reduced through the core and inner
margin to pale, bluish grey with an outer margin of
pale grey buff. The external surface, where unglazed,
is a dull, greyish-brown. Cr18 has been partly reduced
to a pale, greyish white and is mostly vitrified.
Cr11 is thought to be of the same, or perhaps a
slightly more, iron-rich clay than the others. It has
been fired to vitrification throughout. The fabric is
mid-grey in colour, and glassy, though small, rounded
black bubbles of iron ore are visible, together with a
few larger translucent and opaque white quartz grains.
All the vessels are hand-made, occasionally having
uneven rilling on the internal surface and, where measurable, their diameters range from an estimated 50 to
110mm (since the rims are so uneven it is difficult to
determine the diameters with any accuracy). The walls
are quite thick and increase in thickness towards the
base. Rims are typically 57mm and bases 1016mm
thick (see Figs 35.1.235.1.3). The sherds are either
wholly or partially covered on both surfaces with a thick
coating of crazed lead glaze, appearing either lemon yellow or a deep yellow-amber (according to the thickness
of the glaze and the underlying ceramic surface colour)
on the oxidised vessels, and pale olive green on the
reduced vessels; the slight colour in the glaze itself is
due to the presence of traces of iron. The glaze cover on
Cr10 is quite thin and even, but on the inner surface
there is a large, thick blob of glaze that appears a dark,
brownish-amber (due to its thickness). Cr15 has rather
dulled internal surfaces with patches of a creamy yellow, waxy deposit over the glaze. Cr11 is coated internally with a pale, yellowish olive green and also has
patches of a similar deposit to Cr15. Externally, on the
two joining sherds, the glaze only laps over the rim and
occurs in patches on the walls, though the unglazed
areas are glassy due to the vitrification of the clay. On
Cr14 however, the external surface has a total cover of
glaze (except where it has flaked off) of the same colour
as on the internal surface.
Iron-rich clay fabric
Cr2941 appear to have been made from the same
iron-rich clay. Cr35 and Cr37 were oxidised to dark
red while Cr29 was reduced to black and vitrified. The
following is a summary of the composition based on an
examination of Cr37: inclusions form c 1520% of the
matrix, and the size distribution is bimodal, consisting
of subrounded translucent quartz 0.20.5mm diameter, subangular quartz 0.52mm, with some angular
grains of quartz sandstone 25mm diameter. Moderate
amounts of small, sub-rounded grains of haematite are
also present. It would seem that the fabric of Cr35 was
somewhat finer than that of Cr37, although its partial
vitrification makes it difficult to be certain of this.
These vessels are also hand-made and rather
uneven, with quite thick walls: Cr37 is 6mm at the rim
to 9mm at the base, which is exceptionally thick in relation to the walls. The diameters of Cr35 and Cr37 are
c 80mm, while that of Cr29 is 50mm. In spite of the
variation in size of these vessels, they are all quite shallow internally, being between 18mm and 23mm deep.
Internally Cr29, Cr33 and Cr37 have a full cover of
lead glaze, relatively thin and even on Cr37, or uneven
and up to 3mm thick in places on Cr29. The glaze,
being translucent, shows the colour of the red fabric,
but also had a moderate iron content, since it is particularly dark on Cr29 and Cr30, very dark brown on
Cr31, and dark, greenish-brown on the black surface
of Cr29. It appears golden-brown on Cr33. The glaze
is heavily crazed on all of the vessels. Externally, Cr35
is glazed over the rim and the lower walls, but the glaze
has worn off the upper wall area, where there was a
very thin coating, so that only pale streaks remain.
Cr37 probably had a full cover of glaze, but it is now
patchy and partly flaked off. The glaze cover is quite
thin, but thickens to 2mm internally on the base. On
this and several other vessels the glaze has penetrated
the clay body during firing, so that there are pockets of
glaze within the matrix. Cr37 is one of the most interesting vessels: it appears to have been circular, with a
simple, upright rim, but a semicircular notch (half of
which survives) has been cut out of the rim and
smoothed over. Another similar notch some distance
away has been patched with a fragment of clay; the
glaze has run in between the patch and the original cut
making the join even more visible. The purpose of
these notches is debatable. However, the interior of the
vessel is quite pitted, probably as a result of the fluid
glaze eroding the clay body, leaving an indentation into
which the glaze has sunk. In these pitted areas and over
the surviving part of the base, there is the same waxy
deposit noticed on Cr11 and Cr15. It is possible that
this is an organic residue of some kind, possibly resin,
which has survived on only a few vessels. The notches
cut into Cr37 may have been intended as resting places
for objects lying in the pot, or perhaps as pouring lips.
Cr29 and Cr30 have a full cover of glaze externally,
quite thin in some areas, particularly on Cr30, but it
can be very thick, solidifying in a mass up to 4mm
thick. Where the glaze is thinner, it has a reddishbrown metallic hue, but elsewhere it is a dark greenishbrown. A few patches of a whitish wax is visible on the
external base. Cr29 is the only vessel that shows possible signs of wear, the glaze being chipped and worn in
patches over the rim and the internal surface being
rather dull.
Although two different clays were selected for these

vessels, it would seem that they may have been manufactured at the same time and place, since Cr10 and
Cr15 both have small fragments of the red-firing clay
embedded in the external glaze. The fragments of clay
waster Cr43 may be connected with this. This is of the
same iron-rich clay as Cr2941.
All of the glass-melting crucibles examined from
other sites only contain a glass or glass residue internally, with occasional lumps adhering to the rim and
external walls they are never fully covered with the
relatively even cover of glaze that is present on the
Jarrow examples. Also, both the Flaxengate, Lincoln
(Bayley 1982; 1987; 2000a) and Gloucester crucibles
were made of the same clay as one of the contemporary
local pottery fabrics, shell-tempered (as well as a sandy
fabric) at Flaxengate, Lincoln, and limestone-tempered in Gloucester (Heighway et al 1979, 171) Highly
refractory fabrics are not necessary for melting leadrich glass and none of the Flaxengate or Gloucester
crucibles was vitrified, a marked contrast with the general hardness and occasional vitrification of the Jarrow
vessels, as well as the apparent use of different clays
from the contemporary pottery.
The high-lead content of the glass in the dishshaped crucibles from Jarrow is closely paralleled in the
high-lead glasses at Flaxengate, Gloucester and York
(Bayley 2000a, 13940). The composition of the
Jarrow glass (see Table 35.2.1) is rather different from
that of both the glass on the crucibles and the beads
from York (Bayley and Doonan 2000). One possible
use suggested for such crucibles has been for the melting of high lead content glass for trinkets such as rings
and beads (Bayley 1982; 1987; 2000a). The Flaxengate
crucibles all contained a glass residue with a high-lead
content; the glass had been melted from cullet. The
lead content of the rings and beads, of a transparent
brownish-yellow or greenish-blue colour, accorded well
with that of the crucible residues. The Gloucester crucibles contained a very similar residue (Heighway et al
1979, 2014). Militating against this idea is the previously mentioned difference in appearance between the
fully glazed Jarrow vessels and the known crucibles,
together with the fact that no beads or rings of this type
were recovered from the area (though waster beads B7
and B10 (not analysed) were found elsewhere on the
site and might have been made there).
There seem to be two possibilities for the use of these
vessels. Firstly, that they were intended for a specialised
use as containers for resins, unguents or oils perhaps,
and this use required that they were made impervious to
such substances hence the glaze. The traces of the
waxy deposit on some of the vessels might support this
idea (but see Tite). If this is so, then they were either
imported in a finished state or manufactured from specially selected local clays and glazed on or near the site.
If the former were true, one might have expected such
imported vessels to be of a higher quality finish than
these dishes, while if they were made locally, why then
473
was the glazing process not extended to include some of

the local wares as well? If they are of 8th to 9th-century
date, they are a very early example of glazing. It is also
curious that some of them are vitrified. The vitrification,
sometimes found on just part of the vessel, demonstrates a lack of control, either deliberate or accidental,
in the production of the glaze and suggests experimentation or unfamiliarity with the technology.
This leads, perhaps, to the second possibility for their
use, namely that they were connected with a glazing
process of some kind. The blob of glaze in Cr10 would
support this, as would the glazed clay waster Cr43. The
only vessels from the site with any glaze on them are the
small bowls and goblets in the as yet unprovenanced
fine red fabric (see pottery report). Five of these vessels
were glazed, while the others were not. The majority are
very competently glazed, with a thin, even cover, presumably a dipped glaze, appearing dark amber to dark
brown over the red fabric. On two of the sherds however, including the vessel analysed by Tite (type G1.1), the
glaze is uneven in places, and so thick that it has almost
obscured the incised decoration beneath, causing one to
wonder if it was a secondary addition to vessels which
were imported unglazed. When the above sherd was
tested, it was thought that it had been fired a second
time probably accidentally and it was found that the
glaze had a high lead content (Cramp 1969, 65; see also
Tite below). Obviously, to suggest that the glazing of
these vessels was carried out on the site would require
more convincing evidence than has survived, as well as
some explanation of why it was necessary to glaze them
(see also Tite below). This idea may have to remain
entirely hypothetical; however, the other possibility is
that some of the vessels were already glazed when they
arrived on the site, and it might prove possible by lead
isotope analysis to identify their likely source.
Tuyre (Fig 35.1.2)
Cr1
Cr2
Probable tuyre fragment. Refectory clay packed

with well-sorted quartz grains.
42 28 T 7mm
Context: 971 Med 1b JA 76 CO 7604
D816
Probable tuyre fragment. Refectory clay packed
25 21mm
Context: 4734 Saxon JA 78 DK 3 7805
Metalworking crucibles (Fig 35.1.2)

Cr3
Cr4
Side handle from a small metalworking crucible,

possibly of the lidded type. Refectory clay packed
26 21mm
Context: 1027 M Sax JA 78 IY 7805
D865
Thick sherd from a metalworking crucible.
Refectory clay packed with well-sorted quartz
grains. Not illus.
27 16mm
Context: 991 M Sax JA 76 HT 7604
474
Fig 35.1.2 Crucibles from Jarrow. Scale 1:2. YB

Cr5
Cr6
Cr7
Cr8
Large crucible fragment, external discolouration,

internal deposit possibly copper rich. Curved.
50 33 10mm.
Context: Layer 82 Med 1 JS 73 RT 313 Area IVE
Fragment with a red glaze on outer surface. Ironpoor clay fabric. Possible metalworking crucible.
Not illus.
34 20 8mm
Context: 4898 Med JA 70 RF 7001
Tiny fragment with a red glaze on outer surface and
black residue on the other. Iron-poor clay fabric.
Possible metalworking crucible. Not illus.
Context: 4898 Med JA 70 YR 7001
Body sherd of crucible. Not illus.
Dimensions not recorded
Context: Layer 96 Med 1 JS 76 JM Area V
Dish-shaped crucibles
Cr10
Cr11
Jar type (Fig 35.1.2)

Cr9
Two conjoining sherds of what would have been a

large glazed jar used in alkali glass melting. Fine clay
with a few quartz grains and some haematite.
H 55 W 37 T6 mm
Context: 951 Saxon JA 76 HG 2, 3 7603
Cr12
Fragment of the rim and base from a dish-shaped

crucible with a yellow lead-rich glaze on the inner
and outer surface. Iron-poor clay fabric. A lump of
yellow/brown lead-glass adheres to the interior. Figs
35.1.2 and 35.1.3.
57 60 T7 (at rim), 13 (at basal angle), 16mm (at
base)
Context: 949 Mid Saxon JA 76 GV 7603
Two joining fragments of dish-shaped crucible.
Iron-poor clay fabric, coated internally with a pale,
yellowish/olive green glaze, over which is a waxy
deposit (similar to Cr15, below). Externally, on the
two joining sherds, the glaze only laps over the rim
and occurs in patches on the walls, although the
unglazed areas are glassy due to the vitrification of
the clay. Fig 35.1.2
25 17 13mm; 31 20 6 (at rim), 13mm (at
basal angle)
Context: 984 L Sax JA 76 FT 7604
Context: 992 LS/EM JA 76 HV 2 7604
Crucible base in iron-poor clay. Thick yellow lead
glaze coating externally on base. Internally traces of
475
Fig 35.1.3 Photograph of crucibles CR10, 29 and 30. TM
Cr13
Cr14
Cr15
Cr16
Cr17
Cr18
a creamy yellow waxy deposit over patches of

decayed glaze/glass. Fig 35.1.2
29 17 T 10 (at basal angle), 16mm (base)
Context: 2020 L Sax JA 73 VD 7305
Two joining sherds of the rim of a dish-shaped crucible, with a yellow lead glaze on the inner surface
and part of the outer surface. Iron-poor clay fabric.
Fig 35.1.2
21 23 7mm; 22 23 7mm
Context: 2020 L Sax JA 73 VD 7305
Context: 631 LS/EM JA 71 LO 7103
Dish-shaped crucible with a green lead glaze. Ironpoor clay fabric. The external surface has a total
cover of glaze (except where it has flaked off) of the
same colour as the internal surface. Fig 35.1.2
18 26 8mm
Context: 599 Saxon? JA 78 JQ 7802
Crucible fragment with an iron-poor clay fabric and
a fragment of yellow lead glaze. It has rather dulled
internal surfaces with patches of a creamy yellow,
waxy deposit over the glaze. Thin sectioned. Not
illus.
19 28 T5 (at rim), 9mm (max)
Dish-shaped crucible. Iron-poor clay fabric. Not illus.
27 16mm
Rim fragment of a dish-shaped crucible with a yellow lead glaze on the inner and outer surfaces. Ironpoor clay fabric. Not illus.
12.5 19 7mm
Context: 2136 Med 1b JA 73 OQ 7304
Rim fragment of a dish-shaped crucible with a green
lead glaze on the inner surface and clear glaze on the
outer surface. Iron-poor clay fabric. Fig 35.1.2
19 18 7mm
Context: 590 EPM JA 78 ID 7802
Cr19
Cr20
Cr21
Cr22
Cr23
Cr24
Cr25
Cr26
Cr27
Crucible fragment with degraded yellow lead glaze

and one opaque polished white surface. Iron-poor
clay fabric. Not illus.
16.5 18 11mm
Context: 3999 Med 1-2 JA 70 QD 7006
Base fragment with a green lead glaze on the inner
and outer surface. Iron-poor clay fabric. Fig 35.1.2.
26 26 14mm
Context: 3037 Saxon JA 69 WR 6901
Rim fragment with a yellow lead glaze of both the
inner and outer surface. Iron-poor clay fabric. Not
illus.
22 14 7mm
Context: 3866 Saxon-LS/EM JA 70 MS 7003
Rim in iron-poor fabric. Lead glazed pale green
internally, externally and over the rim. Fig 35.1.2.
18 16 7mm
Context: 4898 Med JA 70 RJ 7001
Rim fragment with a yellow lead glaze on the inner
15 17 6mm
Context: 3172 Med 1 JA 69 LX 6902
Rim fragment with a degraded lead glaze on the
outer surface. Iron-poor clay fabric. Not illus.
25.5 13 12mm
Context: 2141 Med 1 JA 73 PS 7304
Rim fragment with a black lead glaze on the inner
32 19 12mm
Context: 2842 Med 2? JA 78 KU 7803
Rim fragment with a yellow/green glaze on both the
inner and outer surface. Not illus.
19 20 6mm
Context: 8 EPM JA 65 JN 6501
Base fragment with a yellow glaze on the outer surface. None of the inner surface survives. Hard red
deposit on the base. Iron-poor clay fabric. Not illus.
476
Cr28
13 13 18mm
Context: 2 LPM JA 65 GX 2 6501
Tiny crucible fragment with iron-poor clay fabric
yellow lead glaze. Not illus.
Context: 2463 LPM JA 73 DY 7303
Context: Layer 78 Med 2 JS 73 PU/RV 306 Area

IV/IVE
Residues
Cr43
Iron-rich fabric
Cr29
Cr30
Cr31
Cr32
Cr33
Cr34
Cr35
Cr36
Cr37
Cr38
Cr39
Cr40
Cr41
Cr42
Dish-shaped crucible. Iron-rich clay fabric. Figs

35.1.2 and 35.1.3.
28 26 18mm
Dish-shaped crucible with a dark glossy red/brown
surface inside the bowl. Iron-rich clay fabric. Figs
35.1.2 and 35.1.3.
H 28 Diam at rim 60mm
Context: 943 L Sax JA 76 FO 2 7603
Fragment of lower wall thickening towards base with
dark green glaze on interior and exterior. Fig 35.1.2.
43 29 6-19mm
Context: 2011 L Sax JA 73 UR 2 7305
Possible crucible fragment with opaque white polished surface. Not illus.
Rim fragment of a dish-shaped crucible with a black
lead glaze on the inner and outer surface. Iron-rich
clay fabric. Not illus.
33 18 7mm
Context: 4008 L Sax? JA 70 RG 7006
Tiny base fragment with a brown lead glaze on the
outer surface. None of the inner surface survives.
Not illus.
13 13 9.5mm
Context: 241 LS/Med 1 JA 67 NR 6701
Dish-shaped crucible fragment with a black lead
glaze on the inner and outer surface. Iron-rich clay
fabric. Fig 35.1.2.
16 20 7mm
Context: 4007 LS/EM JA 70 UH 7006
Rim and body of crucible with sooted exterior
splashed of yellowish lead glaze. Hard refractory
clay. Fig 35.1.2.
22 29 6mm
Context: 5656 Med 1 JA 65 BK 6504
Rim and wall of large dish crucible. Fig 35.1.2.
H 32, Diam at rim 84mm
Context: Layer 71 Med 2 JS 76 CS Area V
Rim of crucible, glazed. Not illus.
24 20mm
Context: 3143 Med 12 JA 69 LM 6901
Rim fragment with a dark green lead glaze on both
inner and outer surface. Hard fired iron-rich clay
fabric. Fig 35.1.2.
31 35 10mm
Context: 226 Med 12 JA 65 AFP 6510
Rim and part of the body of a small crucible.
Brownish yellow lead glaze internally and splashed
outside. Iron-rich clay fabric. Fig 35.1.2.
Context: 619 EPM JA 71 EA 7103
Part of base with green outer glaze. Mark of sandy
residue on base. Reduced iron-rich clay fabric. Fig
35.1.2.
Context: 687 LPM JA 65 AL 6508
Possible vessel rim fragment, conceivably a crucible
fragment. Not illus.
31 29 7mm
Cr44
Two clay waster fragment of the same clay type as

iron-rich clay fabric dishes. Not illus.
29 24 20mm; 19 17 12mm
Piece of curved limestone with green lead glaze on
surface. Possibly a saggar? Not illus.
32 25 25mm
Context: Layer 12 EPM JS 73 LW 118 Area IV W
35.2 Scientific examination of

ceramic crucibles from Jarrow
by M S Tite
A small group of crucible fragments dating to the 8th
to 9th century AD from the monastic site at Jarrow has
been examined in an attempt to establish their relationship to glass-working and glazing of pottery that
possibly occurred at the site. In addition to the crucibles, a sherd of glazed pottery found at Jarrow and
two sherds of glazed Stamford ware from Stamford
Castle were examined.
Experimental procedures
Polished thin sections prepared from slices cut perpendicular to the surfaces of the ceramics were examined
in the scanning electron microscope (SEM).
Quantitative analyses of the various vitreous surface
layers and the bodies of the ceramics were undertaken
using a Link System energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer attached to the SEM (Table 35.2.1). The
extent of vitrification and the pore structure developed
in the ceramic bodies as a result of firing was noted and
the associated firing temperatures estimated by comparison with the vitrification observed in samples from
those ceramics that had been refired at known temperatures in a laboratory furnace.
Results and discussion

Jar-shaped crucible (Cr9, JA 76 HG 2 and 3,
context 951)
The single jar-shaped crucible is coated on both surfaces
with a heavily crazed greenish-yellow glassy deposit.
Examination in section in the SEM indicated that
these surface layers (Fig 35.2.1) are an alkali glass with
a soda content (Na2O) very much greater than the
potash content (K2O). The soda, alumina and calcium
oxide concentration gradients through this glass layer,
which is typically about 400m thick, suggest that it
was formed as a result of the reaction between molten
glass and the body of the crucible (Table 35.2.1). The
extent of the vitrification observed in the crucible
body, as received and after refiring, indicates that it
Fig 35.2.1 SEM photomicrograph of section through jarshaped crucible showing alkali glass surface layer (lighter
grey). M Tite
477
Fig 35.2.2 SEM photomicrograph of section through dishshaped crucible (Cr33, JA 70 RG, Context 4008) showing
lead-rich glass surface layer (white). M Tite
was made from a high refractory clay and that temperatures in the range of 10501150C were reached
either during the production firing or when in use.
The composition of the surface glass layer and the
operating temperature are therefore consistent with the
crucible having been used to melt alkali glass with the
soda-rich composition typical of the period.
Dish-shaped crucibles
Four dish-shaped crucibles were selected for examination, two of which were made from an iron-rich clay
(Cr33, JA 70 RG, context 4008; Cr29, JA 73 UF 20,
context 2016) and two from a white-firing low-iron
clay (Cr11, JA 76 FT, context 984; Cr18, JA 78 ID,
context 590). All the crucibles (50100mm diameter,
1825mm deep) are partially coated on both surfaces
with a glassy deposit which varies in colour from yellow
through olive-green to dark brown.
Examination in section in the SEM indicated that the
surface layers (Fig 35.2.2), which are 100400m thick,
consist of lead-rich glass. Subtracting the lead oxide contents from these glass compositions and then recasting
them to 100% results in compositions that are close to
the compositions of the corresponding crucible bodies.
In particular the silica to alumina ratios (SiO2/Al2O3) are
very similar (Table 35.2.1). This result suggests that the
glass layers were formed by heating either metallic lead
or a lead compound in the crucible. During the melting,
lead would have diffused into the crucible body reacting
with it to form the glass (Hurst and Freestone 1996). In
contrast, if a lead-quartz mixture, such as a lead-rich frit
or glass had been heated in the crucible then, because of
the silica contribution from this mixture, its reaction
with the crucible would have resulted in a glass with a silica to alumina ratio that was significantly higher than
that of the crucible body itself. The consistently lower
lead oxide contents of the glass layers on the outer surfaces of the crucibles as compared to the inner surfaces
are probably the result of less lead being available to
react with the crucible bodies at the outer surfaces.
Fig 35.2.3 SEM photomicrograph of section through Fine

Red ware sherd (G1.1, JA 73 VP12, Context 2190) showing clear division between lead-rich glaze layer (white) and
body. M Tite
Fig 35.2.4 SEM photomicrograph of section through

Stamford ware sherd showing diffuse boundary between
lead-rich glaze (white) and body. M Tite
The extent of the vitrification observed in the crucible bodies, as received and after refiring, again indicates that both the iron-rich and low-iron crucibles
were made from high refractory clays and that temperatures in the range of 10501150C were reached
either during the production firing or when in use.
478
Table 35.2.1 Analytical data for ceramics

Description
Glaze1/body
PbO
Jar-shaped crucible
Cr9 JA 76 HG2+3/951
Dish-shaped crucible
Cr33 JA 70 RG/4008
Cr29 JA 73 UF20/2016
Cr11 JA 76 FT/984
Cr18 JA 78 ID/590
Fine Red ware
G1.1 JA 73 VP12/2190
Stamford ware (1)
Stamford ware (2)
Glaze (surface)
Glaze (interior)
Body
Glaze (inner)
Glaze (outer)
Body
Glaze (inner)
Glaze (outer)
Body
Glaze (inner)
Glaze (outer)
Body
Glaze (inner)
Glaze (outer)
Body
Glaze
Body
Glaze
Body
Glaze
Body
56
41
59
44
58
49
57
43
75
62
41
SiO2
Oxide concentrations (% wt)2

Al2O3
FeO
CaO
Na2O
60
65
70
30
38
69
29
39
71
28
32
69
31
38
72
18
55
29
75
43
73
13.0
15.0
21.0
7.4
9.4
18.7
6.9
9.8
16.7
10.0
11.0
23.8
10.0
12.0
23.8
5.0
28.1
6.8
20.2
11.9
21.1
Notes
1 Surface analysis at depth ~20m below surface of glaze
Interior analysis at depth ~250m below surface of glaze
2 For ease of comparison, analyses have been normalised to 100%
One possible use for these crucibles could have been

to melt metallic lead for making the cames for mounting window glass. An argument against this use is the
small size of the crucibles plus the fact that their
production and/or operating temperatures were
10501150C when the melting point of lead is only
about 330C. An alternative possible use was the cupellation of scrap lead to retrieve metallic silver. However,
although the crucibles resemble cupels in shape, the silver content in the lead-rich glass layer on the surface is
very low (ie below the detection limit for X-ray fluorescence spectrometry of 0.02 per cent) (Tite et al 1985).
Even so, prolonged heating to convert metallic lead to
litharge remains a possibility. The litharge could then
have been used in the production of lead-glazed pottery
or small lead glass objects such as the beads and finger
rings found in 910th-century AD levels at, for example,
Lincoln, York and Gloucester (Bayley 1982).
Glazed pottery
The only glazed pottery from Jarrow that is contemporary with the crucibles is the group of small bowls and
goblets in a fine red fabric (see Ch 33.2, type G1).
This pottery, five of which out of a total of fifteen vessels are glazed, is as yet unprovenanced, but is almost
certainly an import into Britain. Otherwise, Stamford
ware, which dates from the 9th century AD onwards, is
generally thought to be the earliest glazed pottery produced in Britain.
2.9
2.3
2.6
3.6
4.4
7.7
2.7
3.5
7.8
1.8
2.7
3.7
0.7
1.4
1.4
2.1
8.8
0.7
2.4
1.3
2.6
2.7
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.7
0.7
0.2
0.4
0.3
0.1
0.8
0.5
0.2
0.8
0.4
0.2
2.3
0.4
1.0
0.8
1.8
16.0
11.0
3.0
<0.1
1.0
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.6
<0.1
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.9
0.4
<0.1
0.5
<0.1
0.2
<0.1
0.3
K2O
SiO2/Al2O3
3.9
4.0
2.2
1.0
4.1
3.2
0.8
1.4
2.5
0.9
1.7
2.3
0.7
1.4
1.7
0.3
3.7
<0.1
0.8
0.9
0.8
4.6
4.3
3.3
4.1
4.0
3.7
4.2
4.0
4.3
2.8
2.9
2.9
3.1
3.2
3.0
3.6
2.0
4.3
3.7
3.9
3.5
Inner analysis of inner surface of crucible

Outer analysis of outer surface of crucible
Examination of a sherd of this glazed fine red pottery (G1.4, JA 73 VP 12, context 2190) in section in
the SEM indicated that there is a clear division
between the glaze layer (~250m thick) and the pottery
body (Fig 35.2.3). Further, the lead oxide content of
the glaze is significantly higher than that of the leadrich glass deposits on the surface of crucibles.
Subtracting the lead oxide content from this glaze
composition and then recasting it to 100% results in a
composition that differs quite significantly from that of
the body. In particular the silica to alumina ratios
(SiO2/Al2O3) for the glaze is significantly higher than
for the body (3.6 compared to 2.0) (Table 35.2.1).
This result suggests that the glaze was produced by
applying a mixture of a lead compound such as litharge
and quartz to the body (Tite et al 1998). The alumina
and iron oxide contents of the glaze must be due either
to diffusion from the body during firing or to the inclusion of some clay in the applied glaze mixture. The lack
of interaction between the glaze and the body suggests
that the latter is the more likely explanation.
In contrast, subtracting the lead oxide contents from
the glaze compositions of the Stamford ware sherds and
then recasting them to 100% results in compositions
that are relatively close to those of the corresponding
bodies, although the silica to alumina ratios for the
glazes are slightly higher than those of the bodies (Table
35.2.1). Even so, it seems probable that Stamford ware
was glazed by the direct application of a lead compound
that then diffused into and reacted with the body to
form the glaze. The diffuse boundary between the glaze

and the body observed for the two Stamford ware
sherds (Fig 35.2.4) is consistent with this interpretation.
The different methods used to glaze the fine red ware
found at Jarrow and the Stamford ware is consistent
with the former being glazed at a different place from
that of its manufacture. This could have been outside
Britain or, alternatively, the fine red ware was imported
into Britain in an unglazed state and a proportion was
subsequently glazed at Jarrow. If this was the situation
then the dish-shaped crucibles could have been used to
produce the litharge component of the glazing mixture.
One possible approach to resolving these two alternatives would be to compare the lead isotope ratios of the
glaze with those of the glassy deposits on the crucibles in
order to determine whether or not the lead used could
have come from the same ore source.
Conclusions
The results of the present scientific investigation have
confirmed that the jar-shaped crucible could have been
used to melt glass for making windows and vessels.
However, a use for the dish-shaped crucibles is still not
firmly established. Melting metallic lead for making the
cames for mounting window glass is one possibility.
However, it is also possible that these crucibles were used
for silver cupellation, though their clean appearance and
the lack of both a depression in the glassy surface and any
traces of impurity from metals such as copper make this
unlikely. They could also have been used for the production of litharge that, in turn, could have been used for
glazing pottery or for producing small glass objects.
35.3 Workshop technology,

residues and raw materials
by Rosemary Cramp
This evidence was not densely distributed in any part
of the site but fuel ash residues, smithing slags, and
metal droplets, cinders, charcoal and coal were all
found together with the crucible and tuyre fragments
discussed above (Ch 35.1). Many slag specimens
were collected in the course of excavation, some having such a glassy appearance that it was hoped that
they were residual from glass working. A large number
of samples were therefore examined by Justine Bayley
on a visit in 1987, and most were dismissed as fuel ash
residues, but some were identified as types of metalworking slags and her identifications are included here.
This evidence is concentrated in trenches from 7304 to
7604 and 7805 the area of Building D and the
Riverside Buildings and in the more disturbed contexts in 7103 and 6302 which also yielded 9th-century
workshop debris such as millefiori rods. Since this type
of debris also was found in soils redeposited in the
post-Conquest period, for example in the fills of robber trenches such as 226 (the Norman cloister) and
479
241 (the south wall of Building A), or in levelling

deposits of the Norman or later medieval periods (977,
2141), it is possible that there were dumps of such
debris somewhere on the site, which supplement the
rather meagre evidence from the floor levels.
Although as was clear from the ash, some of the fuel
was wood, the use of coal on this site is noteworthy.
The coal seams in this part of the north-east are very
near to the surface and sea coal (which is dull and
shaley but easily combustible) can be picked up on the
beaches in the region today, and obviously was equally
available in the past. The deposits over the floor levels
inside Building D (contexts 2016, 2018, and 2863) all
contained lumps of sea coal as well as fuel ash and
other debris from glass and lead melting, together with
crucibles. In all phases of the riverside workshop floors
coal was found, and it also occurs with the middle
Saxon hearth in context 2136.
Smithing slag is the most usual form of slag in the
Anglo-Saxon deposits, for example in the riverside
workshops in contexts 948, 942, 939, 984 and 985.
Smithing slag was also found on the gravel floor of the
workshop in trench 6302. The only slag identified by
Justine Bayley as tap slag from iron smelting came
from context 1008, a black ashy loam from the first
workshop phase. Her suggestion was that this might
have been residual Roman. Blast furnace slag was
identified in a number of later contexts.
Nevertheless there may have been some limited primary processing of fine metals, as indicated by fragments of metalworking crucibles (Cr13, Ch 35.1) and
other raw materials found in the workshops, such as
the crystalline minerals which could have been used as
fluxing agents. I am grateful to Mr David Schofield of
the Department of Geological Sciences, Durham
University, for confirming their identification. On the
floor of Building D was a tiny fragment of fluorite (JA
73 UZ 432, context 2018), and from a disturbed context over Building D a fragment of quartz and ironstone was found. In an occupation level in the riverside
workshops to the east was a deposit (context 992) containing a piece of jet and a piece of quartz together with
a crucible and slag. Similarly, in context 101, a redbrown earth level over the workshop floor in trench
6302, was a substantial piece of blue fluorite, together
with the dark glazed pot type G1 (see Ch 33.2).
Although other fragments of fluorite were found
within the cloister area, these are in disturbed contexts
(3645, 5269 and 397). The association of these minerals with floor levels in all of the workshop areas might
lead one to suppose that the pieces had been deliberately used either as a fluxing agent in metalworking, or
alternatively (since several crystals were either a deep
blue or very clear), that they had been constructed into
decorative settings for liturgical objects such as book
covers, shrines or chalices. Fluorite, quartz and galena
ores occur plentifully in Weardale, and may have been
exploited from Roman times onwards. The minerals
could have been surface finds from Weardale or could
480
j
h
k
i
Fig 35.3.1 Residues of glass working from the workshops at
Jarrow. TM. ab. Possible kiln lining (MK 64); c. Glass
drip or stringer (JA 73 CR); d. Bent-over glass drip (JA 73
UZ 313); ef. Fused coloured glass pieces (JA 73 UZ);
g. Glass waster; h. Twisted mixed blue and white glass (JA
66 UC); i. Strips of blue glass with calliper marks (JA 73
UZ 280, 371); jk. Residue with glass bubble
indeed have been brought down in the River Wear,

nearer to the monastery.
Traces of another mineral which could not have
occurred naturally in the surrounding area was found in
the form of a thin sheet of mica lying on the floor of
Building D (Ch 34.2, WS67). A more substantial sheet
with a central hole was discovered in the Jarrow Slake
excavations. I am grateful to Dr G A L Johnson of the
Department of Geological Sciences, Durham
University, for confirming that this would have had to
be brought to the site from some considerable distance,
for example from Scandinavia or north-west Scotland.
It is possible that this material was used as a substitute
for glass, perhaps as a window in a reliquary, or it
could have been ground up to give a silvery surface.
Although there is only limited evidence for fine metalworking in the form of discarded crucibles, in contrast
to sites such as Dunadd (Lane and Campbell 2000,
152160), droplets of copper alloy were found in workshop contexts, such as 939 and 951, and the small tools
found on the floor of Building D (see CA132) or the
copper-alloy rod (CA135) may have been used in fine
metalworking at Jarrow. Moreover the discovery of the
millefiori rods and composite millefiori settings also
implies that these were to be set in some form of metal
object (see Ch 31.4, glass objects).
Other materials recovered on the site include fragments of unworked jet from the workshops (context
992), in addition to the finished objects (Ch 34.2), and
context 984 yielded a lump of red enamel. In addition,
the small porphyry panels (see Ch 34.2, WS65 and 66)
were probably imported to be cut into settings.
The largest amount of workshop debris was concerned with glass working, and this has been the subject
of a full study in Chapters 27 and 35.1, but it should be
mentioned here (see Fig 35.3.1 for residual evidence).
When the contexts which yielded crucibles are examined together, there is an interesting correspondence in
the associated remains, which include not only much of
the debris considered above, but also significant quantities of lead and iron as well as fragments of building
materials. This last could indicate that at least some of
the work took place when the buildings were in a ruined
or at least decrepit state. One interesting deposit (contexts 985 and 982) contained abundant elderberry
seeds distributed throughout. A report from Alison
Donaldson concluded that the deposit represented the
accumulated berries from a tree growing over the abandoned structures (see Appendix F), although during
excavation, they appeared as a visible dense mat of
seeds. Another explanation could be that they had been
used as a drink resource or in some craft process, such
as tanning. It is also noteworthy that the deposits discussed in this section almost all contained animal bone.
This could imply the presence of secular workmen, or
at least a relaxing of monastic practice by the middle of
the 9th century. The increase in evidence for craft activity from that period onwards is further discussed in
Volume 1, Chapter 23.
People and environment

36 The human skeletal remains
by Sue Anderson, Calvin Wells and David Birkett
Summary
from Bass (1971) and Krogman (1962). Stature estimates were calculated from the formulae of Trotter
and Gleser (1958 for men and 1952 for women) by
Wells, and of Trotter (1970) by Anderson. Sexing and
ageing techniques are generally those described by
Brothwell (1981), and the Workshop of European
Anthropologists (1980).
Skeletal remains from approximately 200230 individuals at Wearmouth and 340380 at Jarrow are discussed. Virtually all of the skeletons from Wearmouth
were Anglo-Saxon, whereas over half of those from
Jarrow were of medieval or even post-medieval date.
Relatively high proportions of juveniles were present at
both sites (35.5% at Wearmouth, 42.9% at AngloSaxon Jarrow and 39.2% at medieval Jarrow), and at
both sites the sex ratio was slightly abnormal, being
nearly 6 males to 4 females. Most of the burials were
badly disturbed and in poor condition, although
Jarrow was slightly better than Wearmouth. For this
reason most of the results do not permit conclusive
statements to be made. It was possible, however, to
consider demographic, metrical, morphological, dental and pathological aspects of the groups, albeit in a
limited way. Comparisons are made with regional and
national groups.
Comparative material
Most of the sites available to Wells for comparison with
these two groups were in Norfolk. However, much
more information is now available for Anglo-Saxon
and medieval populations in northern England, and
some of these data have been incorporated in place of
the original comparative material. The sites are as follows: Norton, Cleveland (Anglian 6th7th century,
126 individuals; Marlow 1992); Blackfriars, Newcastle
(medieval friary, 36 individuals; Anderson unpublished a); Blackgate, Newcastle (8th11th century, 140
individuals originally; Anderson unpublished b);
Gisborough Priory, Cleveland (medieval priory, 47
individuals; Anderson 1994); St Helen-on-the-Walls,
York (medieval urban churchyard, 1041 individuals;
Dawes and Magilton 1980); North Elmham, Norfolk
(Anglo-Saxon cathedral, 206 individuals; Wells 1980).
Introduction
Skeletal reports were originally written for many of the
skeletons from both sites by Calvin Wells shortly before
his death; his work on Jarrow burials was published
posthumously (Wells 2000). Subsequently, examination of those skeletons which Wells did not see was
undertaken (Anderson and Birkett 1988; Anderson
archive report), phasing of the graves was carried out,
and the decision was taken to publish the two sites
together. For these reasons, it was necessary to revise
the original reports to include the new data, and to
integrate the two fully into a more compact and updated version. However, large parts of Wells original text
particularly on dental analysis and pathology have
been retained here because they provide such an excellent insight into the daily life of the people who were
buried in these two churchyards. The Department of
Archaeological Sciences, Bradford University houses
the Calvin Wells Archive; copies of his manuscript
notes are in the site archives. While the majority of the
human remains from the two sites were reburied after
examination, a small selection of material was retained
as part of the pathology reference collection at the
Department of Archaeology, University of Durham.
Phasing
Wearmouth
This site has been divided into three principal phases:
Anglo-Saxon, medieval and post-medieval. The vast
majority of skeletons are assigned to the Anglo-Saxon
period, only fifteen being medieval and five postmedieval. Only two of the post-medieval skeletons were
examined (both from 1986) and these are not included
in the analysis. It was unlikely that comparison between
the large Anglo-Saxon group and the very small number of medieval burials would provide any useful information, so the latter were included with the former.
Jarrow
In the case of Jarrow, the phasing was more complicated. Skeletons of less certain phasing have been combined with the securely phased burials in order to
provide large enough groups for valid comparison
between periods (see Vol 1, Ch 15, cemetery report).
The material was sub-divided into three main periods
as follows:1 Saxon, incorporating all those individuals
believed to be of Anglo-Saxon date, together with a few
which may extend into the early part of the medieval
period;2 medieval comprising all those skeletons
Method
The skeletons analysed by Wells were measured following the methods described by Morant (1922) for
skulls, and Trevor (1950) for long bones. Metrical
analysis carried out by Anderson follows the methods
described by Brothwell (1981), together with a few
481
482
dated between the 11th and the 16th century; and

post-medieval, representing the few skeletons thought
to be of 17th century or more recent date.
made to analyse them for sex and age. But it is perhaps

more realistic to estimate that about 200230 individuals were represented in this assemblage.
Jarrow
Condition
The overall condition of the skeletons from both sites
is poor. Virtually none is anywhere near complete:
most comprise less than 60% of their potential osseous
material; many have barely 20%; some consist of no
more than a few tattered scraps of bone. No skulls survive undamaged and few are well enough preserved to
offer more than a small selection of the commonly
used cranial measurements. The bodies are often
extensively intermingled and impossible to disentangle. Surviving skeletons are always incomplete, and
what does survive is usually much fragmented, and
many of the fragments are severely eroded. The combined effects of this anatomical disarray and the extensive erosion of what survives have, unfortunately,
limited the amount and reliability of the information
that can be extracted from this material.
Number of individuals
The material discussed here is a small part of the total
number of burials which were excavated at the two
sites. Many skeletons had to be reburied before it
proved possible to find an anthropologist to examine
them when the diocesan authorities required their reinterment. At Jarrow, 523 in situ burials were originally
excavated (132 Anglo-Saxon, 180 medieval, 119 postmedieval), and a large amount of disturbed human
bone was recovered during the excavation of the cemetery and overlying deposits. In total 304 groups of
human bone were submitted for examination, 263
(87%) of which are from in situ burials. At Wearmouth,
178 in situ burials are recorded, together with a large
quantity of disturbed (or in some cases inadequately
recorded) skeletal material. One-hundred-and-ninety
groups of bone from Wearmouth were available for
examination, of which only 107 (56%) were from certainly in situ burials. At both sites some skeletal material was examined by other workers (Swanton, Brown,
Cowper, Scott and Gibson) but the records of these
graves are sparse and inconsistent, so they are not
included in the analysis.
Wearmouth
One-hundred-and-ninety groups of bone or burials
were examined (118 by Wells and 72 by Birkett and
Anderson), but great difficulty was experienced in estimating the number of individuals represented. At least
30% of these bone groups contained parts of two or
more skeletons; in some instances as many as six or eight
persons were represented. In the unlikely event that
there was no overlapping between these bone groups,
they would contain parts of at least 327 persons and, as
far as these can be recognised, an attempt has been
Similar problems were experienced at Jarrow. Of the

304 groups of bone that were examined (139 AngloSaxon, 154 medieval, 11 post-medieval), at least one in
five contained parts of two or more individuals and 75
were only fragmentary. If one bone group contained a
substantial proportion of two skeletons, two individuals were scored. On this basis, at least 340, and more
probably closer to 380, persons are represented among
these remains. For the purposes of analysis, the higher
figure has been adopted, of which 170 individuals were
treated as Anglo-Saxon, and 189 as medieval.3
Demographic analysis
The estimation of age, once the dental evidence of
childhood and the epiphyseal evidence of adolescence
has been outgrown, is difficult; the poor condition of
these remains makes it doubly so. For this reason, average ages at death have not been calculated, and distribution tables have been provided instead. Problems
also occurred with the determination of sex, since the
most diagnostic areas of the skeleton (pelvis, skull)
were often missing, and many burials consisted of a
few pieces of a number of individuals.
Juveniles
Table 36.1 presents the numbers and percentages of
children at the two sites, with others for comparison.
Compared with other Anglo-Saxon and medieval sites,
both Jarrow and Wearmouth have quite high proportions of children. The closest is the fully excavated
medieval urban churchyard at St Helen-on-the-Walls
in York.
A number of reasons can be suggested for variations
in the proportions of child burials at different sites.
Firstly, if it is assumed that children might be excluded from burial in certain areas of some cemeteries,
Table 36.1 Numbers and percentages of children

at Wearmouth and Jarrow compared to other
groups
Site
Wearmouth
Jarrow (Saxon)
Jarrow (Med)
Norton
Blackgate
North Elmham
St Helen
Gisborough
Blackfriars
no. of individuals
327
170
189
126
140
206
1041
47
36
no. of children
116
73
74
34
36
39
317
7
3
% children
35.5
42.9
39.2
27.0
25.7
18.9
30.5
14.9
8.3
36: THE HUMAN SKELETAL REMAINS
''''''''
,,,," ,.,..

~0f\ ..
,,",, -
,."
-~
..
.... ,.s
483
-."
'~~~
-"
--
-......,..." Jh l M
,~
~-
.-
-~
&oo>;()N __ , ...
,~
~~
-
~':;:
--
Fig 36.1 Age distributions at Wearmouth and Jarrow. S Anderson
484
then those cemeteries that are not completely excavated might produce a biased picture. Such exclusion
might occur owing to a variety of factors, such as religious belief, lack of status or money, or even time
of year. This last might affect burial patterns if a certain area of the burial ground was in use when an epidemic hit the younger members of a community.
Both Jarrow and Wearmouth churchyards contained
areas where large numbers of infants had been buried
in the post-medieval period, some of whom showed
signs of anaemia.
Sometimes children may be excluded because of
the type of site medieval monastic sites tend to be
high-status burial grounds, for example, and this may
be the reason for the low percentages of juveniles at
Gisborough and Blackfriars, particularly at the former
where only the church itself was excavated.
Preservation may also be a factor, but the large proportions of juveniles at Wearmouth and Jarrow came
from particularly poorly preserved groups. However,
an artificially high percentage in these groups could be
a result of the relative ease of recognising different individuals in the childrens age groups in comparison with
identifying different adults in poorly preserved groups.
Finally, it might be considered that the percentages
found are actually close to the original proportions of
children buried, either because of burial customs, or
simply due to the fact that there was a much lower
child mortality in these periods than has previously
been assumed. Complete excavation and analysis of
many more cemeteries is needed to solve this problem.
The age distributions of juvenile burials at
Wearmouth and Jarrow are presented in Table 36.2 and
in Figure 36.1. Almost two-thirds of the juvenile deaths
occurred in the first six years of life at Wearmouth,
compared with about half at Jarrow. Those dying at less
than 6 months of age represented a much larger proportion of the children at Wearmouth (29.3%) than at
Anglo-Saxon or medieval Jarrow (12.2% and 5.5%
respectively). Post-medieval Jarrow is not included in
Table 36.2, but all fifteen children analysed were less
than a year old, 73.3% being less than 6 months.
At both Wearmouth and Anglo-Saxon Jarrow, the
mortality rate falls after the age of 6 years, but at
medieval Jarrow it reaches its peak between 612 years.
After 12 years the rate is reduced at all sites, although
Table 36.2 Age distribution of juvenile burials
Age group
Newborn2 years
26 years
612 years
1216 years
1618 years
Unknown age
Wearmouth
n
%
49
20
24
9
2
12
42.2
17.2
20.7
7.8
1.7
10.3
Jarrow Saxon
n
%
18
18
14
2
6
15
24.7
24.7
19.2
2.7
8.2
20.6
Jarrow med
n
%
9
24
27
10
4
0
12.2
32.4
36.5
13.5
5.4
at medieval Jarrow it is still quite high. A similar pattern

to medieval Jarrow occurs at Norton Anglian cemetery
and North Elmham Late Saxon cathedral, and it may
be that status has determined the reduced number of
burials of young children in these cases. Blackgate was
closest to Wearmouth, and perhaps reflects a more
normal population group. Unfortunately the small
numbers of children at Guisborough and Blackfriars do
not allow realistic comparisons to be made.
Finally, determination of sex in young children was
not possible with the techniques available when this
analysis was done, although some sub-adult burials (c
1518 years) have been tentatively sexed. Two subadults
from Wearmouth, three from Anglo-Saxon Jarrow and
two from medieval Jarrow have been identified as possibly male, and there is one possible female subadult from
medieval Jarrow. It should be noted that this bias towards
males is probably related to sexing methods rather than
to any real pattern of juvenile burial. Robust subadult
bones may suggest a male, whereas gracility cannot necessarily be taken to indicate a female in the young.
Adults
Wearmouth
The adult portion of this community consisted of 211
persons of whom 43 could not be sexed with any confidence whatsoever. Of the remaining 168, 78 (46.4%)
were thought to be males and 19 ?males, 47 (28.0%)
females and 24 ?females. If these ?male and ?female
diagnoses are accepted, the sex ratio was 97 males
(58%) to 71 females (42%).
Of the 211 adults, 129 were too fragmentary to permit greater precision as to their age and they are
recorded simply as Adult. The remaining 82 can be
more narrowly aged. Their distribution is recorded in
Table 36.3 and graphically in Figure 36.1, in which the
total figures include unsexed adults.
Jarrow
Of the 217 adults, 30 were unsexable, 55 were sexed
with varying degrees of certainty and 132 were firmly
sexed. Of the 187 skeletons which were firmly or tentatively sexed 104 (55.6%) were male, 83 (44.4%)
were female. Of the 132 firmly sexed persons, 77
(58.3%) were male, 55 (41.7%) female. Table 36.4
shows the distribution of sex by period.
Table 36.5 shows the distributions of adult age at
death for Anglo-Saxon and medieval Jarrow, and these
data are shown graphically in Figure 36.1. The totals
include unsexed individuals.
Discussion
The sex ratios at both sites are not demographically
normal. At Wearmouth it is 58M:42F and at Jarrow
56M:44F in both periods. It is possible that a substantial part of both cemeteries served a demographically
485
Table 36.3 Age and sex of the adults at Wearmouth

Male
Age group
Young adult
YoungMA
Middle-aged
MAOld
suggested age range
1825
2535
3545
over 45
7
11
8
16
Female
Total
16.7
26.2
19.0
38.1
9
8
2
15
26.5
23.5
5.9
44.1
17
20
13
32
20.7
24.4
15.9
39.0
Table 36.4 Distribution of sex by period at Jarrow

Period
Male & ?M
n
Saxon
Medieval
Post-med
Total
41
62
1
104
Female & ?F
%
Unsexed
%
Total
n
42.3
52.5
50.0
47.9
32
50
1
83
33.0
42.4
50.0
38.3
24
6
0
30
24.7
5.1
13.8
97
118
2
217
Table 36.5 Adult age at death for Anglo-Saxon and medieval Jarrow
Male
Age group
Female
Total
suggested age range
1825
2535
3545
over 45
1
5
5
11
4.5
22.7
22.7
50.0
2
3
5
8
11.1
16.7
27.8
44.4
4
9
10
20
9.3
20.9
23.3
46.5
1825
2535
3545
over 45
8
6
4
18
22.2
16.7
11.1
50.0
4
11
9
13
10.8
29.7
24.3
35.1
14
18
13
31
18.4
23.7
17.1
40.8
JA Saxon
Young adult
YoungMA
Middle-aged
MAOld
JA medieval
Young adult
YoungMA
Middle-aged
MAOld
normal population (the number of childrens burials

suggests this) while a small preponderance of men was
added as a result of inhumations of the monastic community. Similar ratios were found at other north-eastern sites, the most noticeably abnormal being
Blackfriars (63M:37F) which shows a similar pattern
to other friaries. The fact that Blackgate and Norton
also have higher proportions of men than women, however, shows that this occurrence is not limited to
monastic sites, and for this reason it is difficult to make
definitive conclusions unless an entire cemetery population is available for study.
The general pattern of age distribution is very similar at both sites. The majority of men and women
seem to have survived into middle or old age, a pattern
also seen at Blackgate and Gisborough. However,
although at Anglo-Saxon Jarrow and Wearmouth more
women than men died before the age of 25, at medieval
Jarrow this picture is reversed, and a larger number of
women died in the next decade of life. Based on the
assumption that the major cause of death in young
women was childbirth, these figures may suggest that
in the medieval period women were having babies at an
older age. However, as there are quite high proportions
of young men dying in both periods, perhaps disease

was a more important factor in both sexes. This may
also have been the case at Blackfriars and possibly
Norton, where over half the adults died before the age
of 35 years.
The sexes of individual burials were plotted for
both sites, but no obvious spatial clustering of males,
females or children occurred in the Anglo-Saxon and
medieval periods (see also Vol 1, Ch 15 and 18, cemetery reports). The grouping of post-medieval infants
has already been noted.
Metrical and morphological analysis

Stature
Means and ranges of stature for Wearmouth, Jarrow and
some other sites are presented in Table 36.6. Average
height was found to be very similar at both sites, and in
fact varies very little between any of the sites chosen for
comparison. It has been found that stature decreases
slightly from the Anglo-Saxon to the medieval period,
and from the south and east to the north (based
on combined means of a number of groups;
486
Table 36.6 Stature data for Wearmouth, Jarrow

and selected other sites
Table 36.7 Cranial index data for Wearmouth,

Jarrow and selected other sites
Site
Wearmouth
sex
M
F
Saxon Jarrow
M
F
Medieval Jarrow
M
F
Norton
M
F
Blackgate
M
F
North Elmham
M
F
Blackfriars
M
F
Gisborough
M
F
St Helen-on-the-Walls M
F
42
19
19
12
32
38
15
14
35
27
45
39
15
8
17
13
240
268
mean
range
Site
171.9
159.5
171.0
159.1
171.0
159.7
173.5
163.7
171.8
157.8
172.1
157.4
173.5
162.5
170.6
162.7
169.3
157.4
151.9188.4
145.9169.2
160.9184.4
148.8166.6
158.0186.2
152.2168.0
164.2182.8
148.3176.1
162.5179.6
140.5167.8
162.3180.7
142.4169.7
163.6181.9
154.6176.6
160.7181.6
153.0170.6
154184
145173
Wearmouth
Anderson unpublished c). This is most clearly demonstrated here by the differences of 40mm between the
male means and 60mm between the female means of
Norton and St Helen-on-the Walls (although it should
be noted that Blackfriars has very similar means to
Norton). Jarrow and Wearmouth fall somewhere
between the two extremes, and there is no evidence
for a change in height between the two periods at
Jarrow.
Cranial indices
Very few skulls from either site were preserved well
enough for measurement. Those which could be measured are recorded at the end of this report (Tables
36.1436.15). At Wearmouth metrical analysis was
possible for nine male and eleven female skulls, but
facial measurements were only taken for eight of these.
All except two of the fourteen skulls for which the cranial index could be calculated were dolichocranial
(narrow-headed), the others (both female) being
mesocranial (medium-headed).
Anglo-Saxon Jarrow yielded only five male and
three female measurable skulls, and the figures for the
medieval period, eight male and six female, are little
better. In the Anglo-Saxon period three males and one
female were dolichocranial and two of each sex were
mesocranial. Only two individuals were dolichocranial
in the later period, a male and a female. Three men
and four women were mesocranial, and three men
were brachycranial (broad-headed).
Such small numbers of skulls are best compared
using the mean of the cranial index, rather than its distribution, and the figures for Jarrow and Wearmouth,
together with some other groups, are presented in
Table 36.7.
Sex
M
F
Saxon Jarrow
M
F
Medieval Jarrow
M
F
Norton
M
F
Blackgate
M
F
Blackfriars
M
F
Gisborough
M
F
St Helen-on-the-Walls M
F
6
8
5
3
7
5
5
8
5
3
9
4
15
7
158
184
mean
69.8
72.7
75.3
74.3
75.7
76.4
72.0
74.0
73.1
75.0
77.7
82.5
79.7
76.1
79.4
81.1
range
65.372.8
66.679.9
70.479.8
70.677.0
72.282.4
74.377.9
67.779.9
68.876.1
68.878.0
72.076.7
68.588.4
80.783.3
75.184.5
72.679.4
The cranial index has been seen to increase gradually from the Anglo-Saxon to the medieval period in
most areas of the country. These groups certainly show
this trend, and it is even noticeable between the two
phases at Jarrow. It has also been noted that this
change tends to occur first in the women of the population, since they generally have broader heads than the
men. Unfortunately the mechanisms which cause the
change (which has occurred on a number of occasions
in the past) are unknown at present, although climate
and diet have been suggested as factors (Mays 1998,
989).
Non-metric traits
Non-metric or discontinuous traits are features that
can be assessed on a presence or absence basis. They
are thought to be genetically determined, but most
have not been studied in detail at present. Wells systematically recorded a total of 30 cranial and 6 postcranial traits, but a number of these are no longer in
common usage, and references to a few have not been
found. Only the more well-known ones, most of which
are described by Brothwell (1981), are presented here.
Unfortunately, some of the information that would be
required to divide bilaterally occurring traits into sides,
or to divide the Jarrow figures into periods, is missing.
No great difference was seen between the sexes at
either site, so the pooled figures are presented (Table
36.8).
Almost no difference occurs in most traits between
the two sites. However, the proportion of left-turning
sagittal sinus at Wearmouth is quite high compared
with other groups. Metopic skulls are relatively few in
number when compared with other sites: proportions
range from 9.5% at Blackfriars to 14.9% at Norton.
487
Table 36.8 Non-metric traits at Wearmouth and Jarrow
Trait
Metopism
Parietal foramen
Coronal wormian bones
Sagittal wormian bones
Lambdoid wormian bones
Bregma bone
Inca bone
Epipteric bone
Asterionic ossicle
Supraorbital foramen double
Infraorbital foramen double
Foramen of huschke
Double hypoglossal canal
Post-condylar canal
Pre-condylar tubercle
Sagittal sinus turns left
Multiple mental foramen
Atlas bridge
Acetabular crease
Third trochanter
Septal aperture
Vastus notch
Wearmouth
N
Jarrow
N
2
29
1
1
18
0
2
1
3
4
3
5
1
9
1
4
12
14
6
0
48
58
42
29
36
27
33
40
24
27
24
26
25
30
52
41
41
46
56
22
4.2
50.0
2.4
3.4
50.0
6.1
2.5
12.5
14.8
12.5
19.2
4.0
30.0
1.9
9.8
29.3
30.4
10.7
4
72
3
1
26
0
2
0
4
21
8
15
15
30
4
7
4
11
20
44
16
10
104
108
72
50
85
45
62
41
38
102
66
154
111
55
100
90
174
107
95
159
188
89
3.8
66.7
4.2
2.0
30.6
3.2
10.5
20.6
12.1
9.7
13.5
54.5
4.0
7.8
2.3
10.3
21.1
27.7
8.5
11.2
The presence of lambdoid wormian suture bones is

also quite low, although Jarrow produced similar figures to Norton, and at North Elmham the prevalence
was only 7.3%. Double hypoglossal canals are quite
rare, whereas post-condylar canals are common when
compared with other groups. Most of the other traits
are relatively normal.
Non-metric traits can also be used to suggest family relationships within a cemetery. It has not been possible to do this for Wearmouth and Jarrow because lists
of traits for individual skeletons are not available.
However, Wells was able to make an interesting observation based on two of the medieval Jarrow skeletons.
Inhumations JA 70/31 and JA 70/35 were both
women aged about 50. They were of closely similar
physical appearance, as far as can be seen from their
incomplete skeletons. They had similar patterns of
mandibular tooth loss and one had two carious molars
while the other had three. This hints at a possible physiological, chemical, functional and behavioural similarity between the mouths of these two women. When
their non-metrical variants are considered it is found
that 70/31 has a double left hypoglossal canal, 70/35 a
double right one; 70/31 has a double left supra-orbital
and infra-orbital foramen, 70/35 has both these foramina double on the right; 70/31 is one of the few Jarrow
skeletons with a double mental foramen, on the left,
while 70/35 has it doubled on the right; and post-cranially, 70/31 has a right atlas bridge, 70/35 has a left
one. In view of the remarkable mirror image distribution of these variants and the other features in which
these two skeletons resemble each other there is strong
presumptive evidence that these women were not only
sisters but also identical twins. It is regrettable that the

remains are not in better condition to yield further evidence, but it is surely also significant that these two
women were buried adjacent to each other. Burial
70/35 cut through burial 70/31 and is therefore later in
date, but it is impossible to gauge the chronological
gap between them, which need not be long.
Dental analysis
Table 36.9 summarises the dental material surviving
from the two sites (excluding two male dentitions from
previously unphased skeletons at Jarrow).
Ante-mortem tooth loss
Among the Wearmouth skeletons, loss of one or more
teeth during life was observed in eleven males (28.9%),
four females (17.4%) and two unsexed adults (15.4%).
At Anglo-Saxon Jarrow, eight males (40.0%) and 4
females (22.2%) were affected, while at medieval
Jarrow there were nine males (34.6%), thirteen females
(46.4%) and one unsexed adult with ante-mortem
tooth loss. At Wearmouth and Anglo-Saxon Jarrow,
more men than women had lost some teeth, whereas
the opposite is the case at medieval Jarrow. This may
reflect the greater longevity of women in the later phase
at Jarrow. Table 36.10 records the frequencies of antemortem loss in the jaws of men and women, with the
total including unsexed individuals.
In every case, the male rate is higher than the
female, which corresponds with the pattern observed
at most other sites. The Wearmouth figures are quite
488
Table 36.9 Dental survival
Number of
Individuals
Maxillae
Mandibles
38
26
34
960
188
772
177
66
11
518
Wearmouth
F
Saxon Jarrow
F
Medieval Jarrow
F
23
16
23
13
11
4
20
14
19
18
15
16
0
0
0
26
20
23
28
27
24
2
2
1
624
96
528
96
35
13
384
240
123
117
62
3
1
51
528
56
472
80
23
17
352
496
125
371
87
11
16
257
688
94
594
111
69
14
400
816
49
767
164
57
22
524
48
10
38
2
2
1
33
Medieval Jarrow
+
Tooth position
Expected
Missing
Observable
Post-mortem loss
Ante-mortem loss
Unerupted/absent
Remaining teeth
Table 36.10 Frequency of ante-mortem tooth loss in males and females

Sex
Jaw
N
M
F
Total
Max
Mand
Max
Mand
Both
341
431
216
312
1417
Wearmouth
+
Saxon Jarrow
+
29
37
17
18
104
8.5
8.6
7.9
5.8
7.3
208
264
164
207
843
12
11
4
7
34
5.8
4.2
2.4
3.4
4.0
260
334
389
378
1399
32
12.3
37
11.1
21
5.4
36
9.5
128 9.1Table
36.11 Rates of caries at Wearmouth and Jarrow compared to selected regional groups
Site
Male
C
Female
C
518
352
400
4
4
9
0.8
1.1
2.3
384
257
524
3
2
30
0.8
0.8
5.7
544
337
401
9
21
11
1.7
6.2
2.7
348
124
331
9
7
16
2.6
5.6
4.8
Wearmouth
Saxon Jarrow
Medieval Jarrow
Norton
Blackgate
Blackfriars
Gisborough
high when compared with other local Anglo-Saxon

groups, the Anglo-Saxon Jarrow total being closer to
the norm (Norton 4.1%, Blackgate 3.6%), although at
North Elmham and some other East Anglian groups it
was considerably higher (11.1%15.9%). The overall
rate at medieval Jarrow is similar to that at Gisborough
(9.8%), but less than Blackfriars (12.0%) and St
Helen-on-the-Walls (17.5%).
At all sites the majority of ante-mortem lost teeth
were molars (61.5% at Wearmouth, 82.4% at AngloSaxon Jarrow and 56.4% at medieval Jarrow), followed
by premolars (20.2%, 14.7% and 29.4% respectively).
The teeth with the next highest loss at both
Wearmouth and medieval Jarrow were the incisors
(11.5% and 12.7% respectively), but these were not
affected at Anglo-Saxon Jarrow. Canine teeth losses
were few (6.7% at Wearmouth, 2.9% at Anglo-Saxon
Jarrow and 1.6% at medieval Jarrow), but this may
reflect their smaller number.
Total
C
953
609
957
906
892
461
732
10
6
42
31
18
28
27
1.0
1.0
4.4
3.4
2.0
6.1
3.7
Caries
The overall caries rates at both sites were low in comparison with contemporary groups. Caries (C) as a
percentage of the number of teeth (N) is presented in
Table 36.11, together with figures for some other sites
from the region. The totals at Wearmouth and
medieval Jarrow include unsexed adults.
The majority of affected individuals at Wearmouth
and Anglo-Saxon Jarrow had only one carious tooth,
while at medieval Jarrow it was more common to find
two, three or even five lesions per person, particularly
among the females. The slightly higher percentage of
female caries may reflect this. It is possible that the
female members of the population of medieval Jarrow
were eating more cariogenic foodstuffs than the males,
or that the greater ante-mortem loss in males had
removed a number of carious teeth. It should be noted
that none of the differences between males and females
at any of these sites is statistically significant.
489
Table 36.12 Frequency of abscesses at Wearmouth and Jarrow compared to selected regional groups
Site
Male
A
Female
A
751
472
594
17
7
12
2.3
1.5
2.0
528
371
767
10
2
3
1.9
0.5
0.4
709
497
568
16
10
12
2.3
2.0
2.1
494
147
461
4
4
6
0.8
2.7
1.3
Wearmouth
Saxon Jarrow
Medieval Jarrow
Norton
Blackgate
Blackfriars
Gisborough
The causes of dental decay, especially in the presugar era and before the widespread introduction of
over-refined flour, are not fully understood. Diet and
genetic predisposition probably play a large part but
factors such as the presence of fluorine, selenium and
other trace elements are involved. Fluorine, which protects against dental decay, was probably not abundant
in the Jarrow and Wearmouth water, but a low level in
the water may be compensated for by a high intake
from fish and it is probable that the diet of the Jarrow
and Wearmouth people contained a considerable
amount of fish (see also Chapter 37.3, fish bone
report), and they thus had a good resistance to cariogenic factors.
The presence of caries in juvenile dentitions was
also recorded. At Jarrow a further 277 permanent teeth
were present in the jaws of children or adolescents and,
of these, four (1.4%) were carious. This gives a total
decay rate of 2.7% for the permanent teeth. In the 273
teeth surviving from the deciduous dentition, caries
was found in three (1.1%), all molars. At Wearmouth
no caries was found in 111 deciduous teeth, but two
other carious lesions were present in a permanent premolar and a molar of two children.
The majority of teeth affected at both sites were the
molars. At Wearmouth seven out of ten carious teeth
were first molars, the other three being a second molar,
a premolar and a canine. The greatest frequencies at
Jarrow for both periods were in the second and third
molars, closely followed by the first. Premolars and
canines were also affected, but to a lesser extent.
At Jarrow, it was possible to suggest the origin of 35
of the caries cavities. Of these, three (8.6%) began cervically, six (17.1%) occlusally and 26 (74.3%) were
interstitial. This contrasts strongly with the modern
predominance of occlusal cavities but is typical of
many early populations.
Abscesses
Periodontal abscesses, most of them small, occurred in
29 positions distributed among 16 individuals at
Wearmouth. Of these 29 abscess cavities, 22 (75.9%)
were around molar teeth, 14 (48.3%) of which were
first molars. Six (20.7%) were associated with premolars and one (3.4%) with an incisor. Three of these
1417
843
1399
1128
1203
644
1029
Total
A
29
9
16
8
20
14
18
2.0
1.1
1.1
0.7
1.7
2.3
1.7
cavities were in positions where a tooth had been shed

during life, so it is possible that they may have been
due to an extension of a carious infection. Of the
remaining 26, one is around the root of a carious lower
left M1 but the rest appear to be independent of dental decay. They are likely to be due to recession of the
gums, leading to pocketing of food debris and extension of the resulting bacterial putrefaction around the
tooth roots and into the adjacent parts of the alveolus.
Periodontal abscess cavities were not common at
Jarrow: 24 (9 Anglo-Saxon, 15 medieval) were found
distributed among only 14 persons. They were all
small and only two were associated with carious teeth.
Eight (88.9%) of the nine lesions in the early period
were around molars, six (66.7%) being first molars,
and one affected a premolar. In the medieval period,
abscesses were more widely dispersed, affecting four
incisors (26.7%), three canines (20.0%), two premolars (13.3%) and six molars (40.0%), four of which
were first molars (26.7%).
Table 36.12 presents the overall frequencies of
abscesses (A) out of number of positions (N) in these
and some other groups. It can be seen that in almost
every case abscesses affected men more than women
(the small numbers at Blackfriars may have affected
the pattern there), although this is a statistically significant difference only in the case of medieval Jarrow.
The rates in the Jarrow females seem to be exceptionally low, which may perhaps represent some slight difference in diet. Although there are differences between
the populations, there is no evidence that frequencies
of abscesses increase through time, unlike those of
caries and tooth loss.
Unerupted/congenitally absent teeth
The overall frequencies of unerupted teeth at the two
sites were as follows: Wearmouth 1.8%; Anglo-Saxon
Jarrow 3.9%; medieval Jarrow 2.6%. At both sites, the
great majority were third molars, and the frequencies of
these were 11.6% for Wearmouth, 34.4% for AngloSaxon Jarrow and 23.6% for medieval Jarrow. Although
women were affected slightly more than men at the first
two, there was no great difference between the sexes. At
Wearmouth, three other teeth were affected, these
being an upper lateral incisor, a lower mesial incisor,
490
and an upper canine. At Jarrow there were two

unerupted maxillary canines and a congenitally absent
first mandibular incisor. Comparisons with other sites
do not produce any obvious patterns or trends. No
radiographic study, to determine whether teeth were
unerupted or congenitally absent, was possible for these
groups.
Calculus and hypoplasia
Deposits of calculus or tartar were common on the
teeth of both groups, including some of the juvenile
jaws. At Jarrow, it was estimated that 25.0% of male
dentitions and 47.1% of females in the early period,
and 42.3% males and 60.7% of females in the later
period had calculus. It was more frequent in the
women, but when present it was of a similar amount in
both male and female dentitions. Frequencies for
Wearmouth are not available, but the average amount,
like Jarrow, was slight.
At both sites, most deposits were supra-gingival
and usually of mixed labial, buccal and lingual incidence. In this they resemble the patterns found at
many early sites, in contrast to the modern tendency
for tartar to be mostly concentrated on tooth surfaces
opposite the salivary ducts.
At least 19 dentitions at Jarrow and 13 at
Wearmouth showed ridges, pits or other defects of the
enamel. This is the condition of enamel hypoplasia,
which is due to a period or periods of disease or malnutrition affecting the development of the tooth in
early childhood. In modern children the most commonly affected teeth are the central incisors, lateral
incisors and first molars, which indicates that the child
was affected during its first 18 months of life. At Jarrow
and Wearmouth the prevalence of hypoplasia fell more
heavily on the canines and second molars, indicating
that the causative morbidity more often attacked the
child in its 24 year period. This need not be taken to
imply that the first two years were relatively healthy: it
may mean that diseases which could have led eventually to hypoplastic lesions did not do so because they
were severe enough to kill the children.
Dental anomalies
Wearmouth
In general, the spacing and occlusion of teeth was good
at Wearmouth. Some overcrowding, usually of anterior teeth, was present in a few jaws such as one of a
male (MK 66/77-2) where the lower left second premolar was displaced lingually, and another of a female
(MK 67/16), where the upper right canine and lateral
incisor were lying side-by-side transversely across the
alveolus. In another female (MK 67/15) there was
some procumbency of the anterior mandibular teeth.
Cusp patterns were unremarkable. A small enamel
pearl was present on the lingual side of the upper right
second incisor of a male (MK 66/17). In a child

(MK 66/6) the maxillary central incisors were shovel
shaped, this representing a 5.6% incidence for the
group. A disarticulated male (MK 66/83-2) showed an
interesting type of attrition on the left of the jaw. The
maxillary occlusal surfaces were arched up in a smooth
curve from the canine to the second molar and the
opposing mandibular teeth were similarly arched
downwards from the second incisor to the first molar.
The elliptical gap thus left between the two jaws might
suggest that the teeth had been eroded in this way as
a result of their long use as a tool for some unknown
purpose.
Jarrow
As at Wearmouth, the spacing and occlusion of the
teeth in most of the Jarrow jaws were good. A few
anomalies were found, eg a severely undershot bite in
a medieval male (JA 67/1), overcrowding in an AngloSaxon ?male (JA 70/15) and anterior mandibular overcrowding in two Anglo-Saxon women (JA 69/16 and
JA 70/71). Several teeth were slightly unusual in form
or position: in an Anglo-Saxon male (JA 70/9) the
upper left second molar had four well-developed roots;
in a medieval male (JA 70/133) the missing upper right
M3 was a simple peg shape; in an unsexed AngloSaxon (JA 70/90) the upper left canine lay almost horizontally beside the floor of the nasal fossa in the
anterior part of the maxillary antrum; in a ?medieval
male (JA 70/1502) the upper right lateral incisor was
slightly shovel shaped. An Anglo-Saxon male (JA
71/35) had deformed roots of the upper right lateral
incisor and the upper left third molar. In a medieval
male (JA 67/32) there were diastemata, each about
3.5mm across, between the maxillary canines and first
premolars. A few anomalies of eruption were present.
Another male (JA 70/176), aged 3035, had a retained
mandibular deciduous second molar on the left,
replacing an unerupted second premolar. The upper
left lateral deciduous incisor of a medieval child aged
67 (JA 70/60) apparently never erupted. A medieval
female adolescent (JA 70/95) whose age, on epiphyseal
evidence, was 15 years, had a fully erupted lower left
third molar although the other third molars still
remained deep in the alveoli. An Anglo-Saxon female
(JA 75/21) had an unerupted tooth in the maxilla,
either the lateral right incisor or the canine, erupting
towards the incisive foramen. One medieval ?male (JA
70/73) is interesting. The upper third molars were
much reduced in size; so, also, was the upper left lateral incisor and this seems to be an adjustment to the fact
that there was a supernumerary upper left lateral
incisor, which was unfortunately lost post mortem. In
an Anglo-Saxon, or perhaps early medieval, female (JA
67/26) a loose canine and premolar had extensive radiculitis, and this was also present in an Anglo-Saxon
male (JA 69/15) premolar. Enamel pearls were present
at the roots of the upper M2s of a medieval female (JA
75/77).
Pathology
Congenital anomalies
Apart from the anatomical variants noted in the section on non-metric traits, a few other developmental
anomalies were found at both sites.
Wearmouth
A child (MK 66/71-6) had an epicondylar process of
its right humerus. Five burials had a lumbar vertebra
with a detached neural arch. Another, a female (MK
66/18), had detached neural arches of the L4 and L5;
in a male (MK 64/18) the posterior arch of the atlas
was incomplete. In three there were anomalous articulations between the L5 vertebra and the sacrum. In one
of these, a female (MK 69/5), the articulation had
additionally developed extensive osteoarthritis. The
somewhat unusual spinal column of one male (MK
66/61) had the normal number of 7 cervical and 5
lumbar vertebrae, but a supernumerary dorsal segment, giving 13 thoracic vertebrae and 26 ribs. In one
infant (MK 71/20-2) there is an incipiently bifid rib.
Jarrow
In 174 humeri, seven (4.0%) examples of epicondylar
process occur and this may seem high but they are all
small, ranging from 25mm in their projection from
the humeral shaft.
As at Wearmouth, most of the congenital anomalies
found at Jarrow affected the spine and ribs. Three
examples of spina bifida occulta were found: in a nineyear-old Anglo-Saxon or early medieval child (JA
67/22), where it affected the S1 segment; in a medieval
male (JA 65/16), where it affected the L5 vertebra; and
in another medieval male (JA 65/30), in the superior
three and a half segments of the sacrum. Six persons
(one male, four females, one unsexed) have a detached
neural arch, once of the L4, four times of the L5 and
once, in the aforementioned child JA 67/22, of a supernumerary or sixth lumbar vertebra. An L6 was also
preserved in a probable Anglo-Saxon male (JA 70/190)
and a medieval female (JA 70/150). Ten sacra (six
male, four female) had six segments instead of the
usual five.
Anomalous articulations between the L5 and the
sacrum are very common in early burials (as they still
are today). Five persons had deviations of this kind.
Most of these anomalies consisted of one or more extra
articular facets between the transverse processes of the
L5 and the sacral ala. Opinions differ as to whether
they are genetic in origin or due to developmental hazards of various kinds. The extra facet is often large: one
in an Anglo-Saxon male (JA 71/36) measures 30.5
16mm, another in a medieval female (JA 70/134) is
24 18mm.
Fused neural arches, probably developmental rather
than originating from post-natal pathology, occurred
between the T34 in a ten-year-old medieval child (JA
67/16), and between C23 in an Anglo-Saxon or early
491
medieval male (JA 67/40). Incomplete foramina transversaria of the atlas occurred in two children, one on
the left (JA 67/16) and one bilaterally (JA 67/22).
Another vertebral variant is the presence of a cervical rib, three instances of which were found, all in
medieval or probably medieval females. In JA 67/3 it
was 28.5mm long; in JA 67/5 it measured 47mm to its
free tip; in JA 67/29 it was a substantial bone springing
from the right side of C7 and articulating anteriorly
with the first rib (Fig 36.2). In life this anomaly may
have given rise to neurological symptoms such as pain,
pins and needles or even muscular wasting and paralysis in the right arm as a result of this accessory rib
pressing down on some of the nerve roots of the
brachial plexus.
A sternal perforation was found in an Anglo-Saxon
male (JA 70/68) and a female (JA 70/128) of the same
phase. Another Anglo-Saxon woman (JA 70/109) had
an hour-glass deformity of the left mandibular
condyle.
A medieval male (JA 65/30) had three surviving
metatarsals. One of these, the left second, had an
anomaly of the head, which had three distally facing
articular facets on stalks of bone which give a mushroom appearance (Fig 36.3). This condition may have
been associated with a bifid or polydactylous appearance of the toe, but unfortunately the phalanx does not
survive.
Fig 36.2 Cervical rib right side in situ with first thoracic
rib (JA 67/29)
Fig 36.3 Left second metatarsal with splitting anomaly of

head (JA 65/30)
492
The spatial location within the cemetery of some of

these anomalies was examined in the hope that they
might suggest family groups, and some interesting
relationships were found. Detached neural arches
occurred in two sets of adjacent and potentially contemporary burials (JA 70/95 and JA 70/151; JA 67/22
and JA 67/3), both consisting of one woman and one
child. Two of the three examples of cervical rib were in
individuals buried next to each other (JA 67/3 and JA
67/29). The two cases of fused neural arches were also
in adjacent burials (JA 67/16 and JA 67/40). Other less
conclusive patterns were found; for example the only
two individuals in the cemetery with perforated sternums were within two metres of one another, and three
of the seven epicondylar processes were in burials
found in one trench. Occurrences of six sacral segments also showed a loose clustering at the west end of
the Anglo-Saxon Building A. It is unfortunate that
information on non-metric traits is not available to add
to this picture.
Arthropathies and degenerative disease
Neither site is an exception to the general rule that the
commonest pathological condition to be found in
archaeological human remains is osteoarthritis or some
other degenerative disease. The figures given for frequencies refer to the skeletons seen by Calvin Wells
only. Unfortunately, it has not been possible to include
the skeletons analysed by David Birkett, because information on presence and absence of joints for all the
burials is not available. Given the small numbers
involved, it is unlikely that the addition of the latter
series would alter the figures greatly.
Wearmouth
At least twenty men (including bones from four disarticulated contexts), three women, and two unsexed
adults (including one disarticulated) show signs of
osteoarthritis. This represents 20.6% of the males and
4.2% of the females. It is likely that many more individuals would have been affected, but the very poor
condition of most of these burials made assessment
very difficult. Even taking this factor into account,
however, it is clear that there is quite a difference
between the sexes.
The majority of lesions were found on the spine.
Wells found that 5.6% of female spines, compared with
8.7% male, had arthritic changes. The figures for
osteophytosis, or lipping, of the vertebrae were 32.1%
in females and 34.8% in males. These figures suggest
that frequencies of degenerative change in the spine
were not very different in the two sexes, although males
tended to show a slightly higher prevalence.
A greater difference between the sexes is seen when
frequencies of arthritic change on the costal articulations are calculated. Five (27.8%) of eighteen males
had osteoarthritis of the rib head, and six (33.3%) of
the tubercle. The only occurrences in women were on
Fig 36.4 Arthritic changes to right humerus head (MK

66/12). TM
the tubercles, two (20.0%) individuals out of ten being
affected. The numbers of bones affected in the males
were 17 (10.4%) of 163 heads, and 19 (12.4%) of 153
tubercles. In the females, the figures were 0 of 58 heads
and 6 (8.2%) of 73 tubercles. When the heads and
tubercles were combined, 11.3% of the joints were
arthritic in the males, 4.5% in the females.
The most interesting example of arthritic change in
this group was found in an old male (MK 66/12).
Osteoarthritis was widespread and severe, and affected
the spine, ribs, clavicles, sacro-iliac joints, proximal
ulnae, both wrists and the shoulders. These latter are
particularly of interest. There was a margin of
osteoarthritic lipping around the glenoid fossa of the
left scapula, with a small area of eburnation. The right
scapular glenoid fossa was remodelled by very severe
osteoarthritis. To correspond with this, the head of the
right humerus had also been extensively remodelled by
arthritic changes (Fig 36.4). The surface was eroded
and there was a pendant flange of bone curling down
from its inferior margin. The total effect must have
been an almost complete disintegration of the right
shoulder joint.
After the vertebral column and ribs, the most commonly affected areas in the men were the hip, ankle
and foot, shoulder, elbow and wrist. In the women,
slight osteoarthritis of the shoulder joints was found in
a few cases, but almost nothing in the lower limb.
These results tend to suggest a difference in use of the
joints between the sexes, and may reflect a divergence
in tasks and occupations.
Jarrow
The lack of presence/absence sheets has made it
impossible to separate the frequencies into phases for
much of this section, the exceptions being where the
figures are based on numbers of individuals.
In Jarrow skeletons, at least 46 (24.6%) of 187
sexed individuals were affected. When these figures are
divided into periods, Anglo-Saxon Jarrow shows a very
similar pattern to Wearmouth with many more men

(34.1%) being affected than women (6.3%). The picture is reversed to some extent at medieval Jarrow,
where the women (27.1%) are slightly more afflicted
than the men (23.0%). This would seem to suggest a
changing role for women through time, although there
may be other factors involved (eg age at death, preservation of joints).
Again, the spine was the area of the body most
affected by degenerative change. Here, 35.7% of 28
male spines had arthritis (7.3% of bones), 71.4%
osteophytosis (27.5% of bones). Of 24 female spines
25.0% had arthritis (4.4% of bones), 62.5% osteophytosis (19.6% of bones). The figures based on numbers
of vertebrae (superior and inferior counted separately)
are slightly lower than those quoted for Wearmouth,
and this may be due to better preservation of vertebral
columns at Jarrow. The figures suggest that women
were less susceptible to arthritic change than the men.
The areas of spine are also recorded for Jarrow,
showing that males were most affected by arthritis in
the cervical and thoracic regions (both 34.4%) closely
followed by the lumbar (31.2%). Osteophytes had their
greatest frequency in the thoracic spine (53.4%), followed by the lumbar (33.6%) and the cervical (13.0%).
Women were less affected by arthritis in the cervical
and lumbar vertebrae (22.2% and 28.9% respectively)
than men, but had a greater frequency (48.9%) in the
thoracic region. Osteophytosis was more common in
female cervical (16.7%) and lumbar (37.2%) vertebrae
than in male, but was most prevalent in the thoracic
region (46.1%), where it was slightly less than the male
figure. This seems to suggest that while the load placed
on mens backs was fairly evenly spread, women used
their mid-spine to the greatest extent.
Four men and four women had arthritic costo-vertebral articulations. In almost all cases it was found to
occur on all four of these joint facets.
In the Anglo-Saxon period, thirteen men and one
woman were affected on bones other than the ribs and
vertebrae. The single woman was affected in the shoulder. The most commonly affected joint in the men was
the hip, followed by the shoulder, but the total numbers of affected individuals were equal in upper and
lower limbs. In the medieval period, eleven men and
eleven women were affected in limb joints. Men were
most affected in the hand/wrist and shoulder regions,
the lower limb being less affected than the upper. None
of the women had lesions in the knee or elbow, and
again the most affected areas were the hand/wrist and
shoulder, with the lower limb being less affected than
the upper. Lesions of the sacro-iliac joints were only
found in men (three Anglo-Saxon, four medieval). The
temporo-mandibular joint was affected in two
medieval females and one disarticulated fragment.
Unfortunately, frequencies for these lesions cannot be
calculated, for the reasons outlined above, and it is difficult to make any valid conclusions without them.
The presentation of numbers of individuals affect-
493
ed does not provide an insight into how severe the

lesions were. On average, arthritic changes in the men
were more advanced than those in womens joints.
This, together with the greater overall involvement of
men, suggests that the men of this group were carrying
out heavier work than the women, although in the
medieval period the higher proportion of older men
should be considered.
General spinal pathology
Schmorls nodes are depressions in the surfaces of vertebral bodies which are produced when the intervertebral disc ruptures under strain. They usually occur in
youth and are taken to be indicators of physical stress.
At Wearmouth they occurred in 4.2% of surviving
male and 2.9% female vertebrae. At Jarrow the figures
are 6.5% in males and 1.6% in females. These results
show a similar pattern to the frequencies of vertebral
degenerative disease, and provide more evidence for
the suggestion that men did heavier work than women.
A few other spinal pathologies of uncertain origin
were found at Jarrow. Extensive erosion of the superior
and inferior surfaces of the bodies of the C67 vertebrae was found in an Anglo-Saxon or early medieval
male (JA 67/49). This was probably associated with
collapse and disintegration of the adjacent intervertebral discs and may have been traumatic in origin, due
to a severe compression injury from excessive flexion of
the neck.
A medieval woman (JA 70/130) aged about 5055,
had extensive spinal disease but is especially remarkable for the extreme cupping of the superior and inferior surfaces of all the lumbar vertebrae and, less
severely, the lower thoracics. This condition of cupped
vertebrae is found in Cushings syndrome, which is
due to abnormalities affecting the suprarenal glands. It
is associated with a peculiar type of obesity, hirsutism
without any other manifestations of virilism, marked
muscle weakness, commonly with suppressed menstruation, raised blood pressure and other abnormalities. Severe osteoporosis may be present and the
cupping of the lumbar and thoracic bodies is due to
biconvex intervertebral disc expansion into the softened bone. Wedge compression of the vertebral bodies
may also occur and is, indeed, present in this specimen: T5, T12, L1 and L2 are all much narrowed to
the left. Additionally, there is bilateral synostosis of the
posterior intervertebral joints between T45.
Cushings syndrome would always be extremely difficult to diagnose in ancient, poorly preserved material,
but the present case resembles the condition sufficiently closely to make it at least possible on osteological
considerations. However, the rarity of Cushings disease must almost exclude it on statistical grounds if
alternative diagnoses are feasible and it seems more
reasonable to see this specimen as nothing more than a
well-developed case of post-menopausal osteoporosis.
In one man (JA 70/190) with an extra lumbar ver-
494
tebra, the L5 and L6 vertebrae have markedly wedgeshaped bodies L5 narrow to the right, L6 to the left.
The reason for this deformity is not clear but it is
found again, affecting only the L5, in another male (JA
70/142).
Cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis
Cribra orbitalia, a lesion of the roof of the eye socket,
is now generally associated with iron deficiency
anaemia. Porotic hyperostosis is also thought to be
linked with anaemia.
At Wearmouth, cribra orbitalia was present in fourteen skulls, ten of them children. In seven of these
cases only one orbit survives well enough to determine
whether the lesion was present. In all cases where both
orbits survive it was bilateral. The extent of the lesion
varied from very slight pitting to extensively pitted
areas combined with a raised, rough area of osseous
reaction as in a two-year-old child (MK 66/62).
Another child (MK 66/58) also appears to show an
early stage of cribra but there is slight doubt here
owing to post-inhumation erosion of the bone. Of the
adults affected, two were male and two female.
Eleven people were affected at Jarrow, three of 61
adults (4.9%) and 8 of 38 children (21.1%). Only children were affected in the Anglo-Saxon period, three
having mild (porotic, 2 right, 1 left), and one moderate
(trabecular, both orbits) lesions. The medieval adults,
two men and one woman, had quite mild lesions (3
right, 1 left). Of the medieval children, two cases were
mild (1 right, 2 left), and two moderate (both left).
Porotic hyperostosis of the vault was not found at
Wearmouth, Anglo-Saxon or medieval Jarrow, but a
few of the large quantity of post-medieval infants
excavated during the 1975 season at Jarrow were kept
for examination. A high proportion of these were
affected with porotic hyperostosis and some also had
cribra orbitalia. Unfortunately the actual figures are
not available. These burials, to the north of the chancel, may represent an epidemic which resulted in a
large number of infant deaths in a short period, or it
may be that this area was set aside for such interments.
Circulatory disturbances
Osteochondritis dissecans is a disease of joints, usually
starting in adolescence, and is due to an avascular
necrosis of uncertain origin which affects the subchondral bone and leads to the detachment of the cartilage and underlying bone. It results in small pits in
the articular surface of the bone. In modern clinical
material, 80% of these lesions are found on the femoral
condyles, usually the medial one. Untreated modern
cases of this disease commonly lead to an osteoarthritic reaction in the affected joint, although occasionally
the condition heals spontaneously.
Six individuals, all male, at Wearmouth had osteochondritic cavities. Two of these (MK 66/66 and MK
66/24) were on the medial femoral condyle, one (MK
66/41) in an acetabulum, one (MK 66/16) on a lateral
tibial condyle, one (MK 66/31) on a tibial distal articulation and MK 66/39 had a pit in the base of both hallucial proximal phalanges (Wells 1974a). None of the
seven lesions at Wearmouth showed either spontaneous healing or secondary arthritis.
At Jarrow, ten Anglo-Saxon and thirteen medieval
individuals were affected. In the early period, five were
men, two women, one unsexed adult and two children.
There were six medieval males, six females and one
child. Between them, they had 36 lesions (Table
36.13).
This suggests that the majority of lesions occurred
in the bones of the ankle and foot. The ankle lesions
consisted of four on distal tibiae, three on tali, one on
a calcaneus and three on naviculars. Of the metatarsal
lesions, three were on first and two on second
metatarsals. It is possible that most of the lesions
recorded for metatarsals, distal tibiae and first hallucial
phalanges were actually developmental defects or even
congenital anomalies (D A Birkett, pers comm), particularly as they are often bilateral and symmetrical.
Even if these figures are removed, however, the ankle
seems to be more affected than any other part of the
body, including the knee. Three of the lesions seen in
the knee were on medial femoral condyles, the fourth
on a medial tibial condyle. Only three lesions were
healed.
Table 36.13 Distribution of osteochondritic lesions at Jarrow

Saxon
Area affected
Artic facet vert

Humerus head
Humerus distal
Ulna proximal
Radius distal
Acetabulum
Knee
Ankle
Metatarsals
1st hallucial phal
Medieval
F
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
3
1
5
2
2
Total
All
%
1
2
3
1
1
1
4
11
5
7
2.8
5.6
8.3
2.8
2.8
2.8
11.1
30.6
13.9
19.4
The most interesting case is the medieval male (JA

67/43) who had five lesions, one on the right ulna
semi-lunar notch, one on the distal right radius, one on
the right talus superio-lateral surface, and one on each
femoral medial condyle. Multiple lesions were seen in
six other individuals, although if the foot bones are discounted this is reduced to two. This may provide some
evidence for the suggestion that genetic susceptibility
may be involved in the formation of these lesions.
It is noticeable that when divided into sex and
phase, these lesions show a similar pattern to
osteoarthritis, in that more men than women are
affected in the early period, with a reversal of the trend
later on. As this disease, like arthritis, is thought to be
related to physical stress, the results provide further
support for the idea that the roles of men and women
at Jarrow changed through time, and that in the earlier
period women did less heavy work than men.
Four persons had slight bevelling or erosion of the
superior margin of a lumbar vertebra. This is the kind
of osteochondritis that is sometimes referred to as
anterior epiphyseal dysplasia. In a medieval male (JA
70/133) and female (JA 67/20) it affected the L4 segment, in one certain (JA 71/38) and one probable (JA
70/171) Anglo-Saxon male, the L5 was involved.
These cases were similar to a Bronze Age example, in
an adolescent girl, described by Wells (1961).
Infectious disease
Infections of bone can be divided into two types, of
specific and non-specific cause. The latter, in which
the causative organism cannot be identified, is the
most commonly occurring in most archaeological
groups. Specific infections include more serious diseases such as leprosy, tuberculosis and syphilis, so it is
not surprising that these are rarely identified in large
numbers outside the graveyards of medieval hospitals.
495
Wearmouth
Non-specific infections of the skeleton are recognisable
in less than a dozen cases. Periostitis of the tibia and
fibula is a common finding in many early populations,
and occurs in three burials here. In two others it is
extensive enough to be described as osteitis and in one,
possibly two, the infection has invaded the marrow
cavity of the tibia as an osteomyelitic abscess discharging through fistulae in the bone (eg MK 66/59, Fig
36.5). These inflammatory lesions are of uncertain origin but may have been due to injuring the shins by cuts
or bruises. Periostitis of a left thumb (MK 71/26)
could also have been caused by an injury. The osteitis
on the centre of the frontal bone of one skull (MK
61/43) is of uncertain origin, but may have followed a
head wound or scalp infection. All these lesions
occurred in males, except for one probable female
(MK 66/30), in which the osteitis was apparently associated with a fractured fibula.
Specific infectious diseases have not been identified
with any certainty at Wearmouth. Nothing suggestive
of either syphilis or tuberculosis occurred. However,
the combination of post-cranial lesions in one male
(MK 69/18) is very strongly indicative of leprosy. Both
tibial shafts had well marked periostitic graining and
osteitic thickening of the cortex. It was more extensive
on the right tibia, where it extended along most of the
shaft, than on the left. The subcutaneous, posterior
and lateral surfaces of the bone were involved. The
fibulae were both extensively affected by the same condition, and again the right was worse than the left.
There was an atrophic area on the head of a finger phalanx, and there was ankylosis of the right hallucial 1st
and 2nd phalanges with dorsi-angulation of the distal
element (Fig 36.6), and extensive irregular destruction
of the phalangeal head. Unfortunately, the skull
remains unexcavated so the diagnosis cannot be definitive.
Jarrow
Periostitis of the tibia and fibula is found in several of
the Jarrow skeletons. One or both fibulae were involved
in one male and one female from each period. Lesions
were present on both tibiae in one Anglo-Saxon and
one medieval male. In none of these skeletons was
there any other pathology that might have indicated the
origin of their lesions.
Fig 36.5 Osteomyelitis of right tibia (MK 66/59). TM
Fig 36.6 Right hallucial first and second phalanges (big

toe). Ankylosed as a result of leprosy or reactive arthritis
(MK 69/18). TM
496
Fig 36.8 Right femur with narrow shaft and resorbed neck,
possibly a result of tuberculosis (JA 70/148). S Anderson
Fig 36.7 Oblique fracture of proximal left tibia, rear view

showing new bone formation and abnormal angle of proximal end (JA 70/143). S Anderson
One medieval male (JA 70/143) had extensive
periostitis, osteitis and swelling of the distal third of his
right tibia (Fig 36.7). This was a man in whom gross
osteoarthritic deformities of his left tibia were due to a
bad oblique fracture through the head of the bone (see
p 498 below, Trauma). It is possible that the inflammatory condition of his right leg was consequently related
to this severe and unusual fracture. The thickened
right tibia suggests an infection that stops only just
short of a true osteomyelitis invading the medullary
cavity.
One other medieval male (JA 67/32) had a mild
periostitic roughening and thickening of the right tibia.
This may have been related to a lesion on his skull but
it would be most incautious to assert this. The skull
lesion consisted of an area of osteitic thickening about
55 40mm, slightly to the left of the frontal bone and
a similar area, 35 60mm, on the antero-medial quadrant of the parietal. Both these lesions were irregularly
raised above the surrounding bone and were somewhat
granular and pitted. They were almost certainly associated with an infection of the pericranium and scalp
but it is not clear whether this was originally due to
trauma or to a primary septic condition such as a carbuncle or an infected sebaceous cyst. On balance, it is
unlikely that this mans cranial and tibial lesions were
causally related.
A medieval female (JA 70/26) also had a low-grade
periostitis and osteitis with pitting, roughness and
slightly raised striate lesions of both parietal bones.
These could have been similarly caused by an extensive
infection of the overlying scalp, although there is a possibility that they represent healed porotic hyperostosis.
In one Anglo-Saxon male (JA 69/10) the proximal
half of the right femoral shaft is very rough and thickened, apparently from a periostitic reaction, though
the reason for this is not clear. The right acetabulum
and femoral head of this specimen were craggy with
osteoarthritic lipping but the relationship between this
and the osteitis of the shaft is uncertain. The linea
aspera of this bone deviated medially to a most unusual extent. Mild periostitis was also present on the distal quarter of the left tibia.
Two medieval children were affected with non-specific infections. A six-year-old child (JA 70/136) had
asymmetrical humeri with osteitic reaction in the proximal third of each. This may have been due to an
osteomyelitis of staphylococcal origin which killed the
child before the lesions could become more established. A four-year-old child (JA 70/82) also had a
rough osteitic area, 40 15mm, of its right humeral
shaft and light periostitis of the distal extremity of the
left femur and the proximal third of both tibiae. It is
also possible that this child suffered from rickets (see
below, Miscellaneous lesions).
Five individuals, all medieval, suffered from maxillary sinusitis. Two were children aged 57 years, two
were women and one was male. In four out of the five
cases, the exception being the man, it was present
bilaterally and the lesions were gross. In the male it was
present mildly in the left antrum, but the right was not
available for study. The incidence of two females and
two young children may hint that the condition was
initiated or much aggravated by spending a lot of time
in smoke-filled huts, but infection or dental disease
probably also had a large part to play.
An old female (JA 70/148) from the medieval period
is probably the only example of a specific infection
found at Jarrow. In addition to osteoarthritis of the
arms, she had a grossly abnormal right femur in which
the upper part of the shaft was flattened medio-laterally
and most of the greater trochanter and all of the lesser
trochanter, neck and head were missing (Fig 36.8). This
gross destructive lesion may have been caused by tuberculosis or pyogenic osteomyelitis, or possibly arthritis
of the hip joint. Tuberculosis seems more likely in view
of the severe destruction of the bone. Unfortunately,
the corresponding pelvic bone is missing. The lesion
was well healed and the individual obviously survived a
considerable time after the infection, although walking
with a severe limp and poor mobility, with shortening
of the leg. Her below average stature (1.53m, 5'fi")
could be the result of impaired growth due to this massive infection in childhood or adolescence.
Neoplasms
Neoplasms, or tumours, are rarely found in archaeological skeletons. This may be because gross destructive lesions could be confused with post-mortem
erosion in poorly preserved material, or they may not
be recorded because they are invisible without the aid
497
of a radiograph. Alternatively, it is possible that they

simply occurred less frequently in the past than today,
or that individuals died before cancers spread to the
bone. Only one example was found at each site. In
both cases this was the fairly common condition of
benign osteomata, or small bony warts, four of which
occurred on one male skull from Wearmouth (MK
66/55), and one on the shaft of a left femur of a
medieval male from Jarrow (JA 70/98).
Trauma
Wearmouth
The prevalence of fractures is low here. Two males and
one ?female have fractured ribs. One man and one
woman had a Potts fracture of the fibula. One man
and one woman had a fractured clavicle. In each case
the break healed well and the residual disability must
have been negligible. In at least two other burials possible fractures of a tibia and a fibula were present, but
the disintegrated nature of the specimens does not
enable any certainty to be reached. In every case it is
likely that the causes were accidental rather than
aggressive in nature.
The remarkable fractured femur and pelvis of a
male (MK 66/31) has been described in detail elsewhere (Wells 1975b), but deserves some comment
here. The left femur was fractured mid-shaft and had
healed firmly, but with a mass of callus and considerable deformation (Fig 36.9). The right innominate was
also extremely deformed, and synostosis had occurred
between it and the sacrum, probably following a severe
fracture with partial dislocation of the right sacro-iliac
joint. Osteoarthritis of the left hip joint and spine was
probably secondary to these injuries, and it is possible
that the arthritis seen in the bones of the right wrist
were also related. With such deformed bones, it is likely that this man placed great reliance on crutches or
sticks as an aid to mobility, and that eventually the
bones of his wrist succumbed to the disease.
A few small exostoses were present. These occurred
just distal to the head of an unsexed right fibula (MK
66/84); on the opposing surfaces of both tibiae and fibulae, immediately proximal to the ankle joints of a male
(MK 69/2); and on the lateral epicondyle of the right
humerus of another male (MK 69/20). These lesions
were almost certainly traumatic in origin. They probably
show the effects of the tearing of ligaments or muscle
attachments, followed by circumscribed local bleeding,
clotting of the blood and subsequent organisation (ie
ossification) of the clot. They give further support to the
view that these people led fairly vigorous and active lives.
Jarrow
At least 27 people were affected by fractures: thirteen
men, twelve women and two unsexable adults. Of
these, five males were of the early period, and eight
males and twelve females were of the medieval period.
Fig 36.9 Fractures of the pelvis and left femur (MK

66/31). TM
Two medieval males had fractures in two ribs each,
one on the left and one on the right. These are the only
rib fractures in the series, a decidedly low rate although
the precise frequency is difficult to estimate owing to
the fragmentary nature of most ribs. It may be interesting to note that both these men also had a broken
forearm bone.
The forearm is fractured in ten persons: one AngloSaxon male, three medieval males and two medieval
females had a fractured radius, one medieval woman
had a fractured ulna, and three had both bones broken.
In three of the men (including the Anglo-Saxon) and
two of the women the break of the radius occurred
about 25mm proximal to the wrist joint. This is the
498
classic Colles fracture which is usually due to falling

forward onto an outstretched hand. Often, in this accident, the styloid process of the ulna also snaps, as happened in the case of one female (JA 67/11). In another
(JA 70/102) the ulnar styloid process had alone been
broken. In two males and two females the fracture
occurred near the middle of the forearm bones. This is
known as a parry fracture, and can be due to direct violence, especially when the ulna is broken alone or in
conjunction with the radius.
The single broken femur of an Anglo-Saxon male
(JA 69/15) stands apart from all other lesions as being
secondary to generalised bone disease, osteitis deformans (see below, p 500).
The unusual oblique tibial fracture of a medieval
male (JA 70/143) was probably due to falling or jumping from too great a height (Fig 36.7). If this was the
cause, its severity suggests the possibility that it may
have been an industrial accident of the building trade,
such as could also be postulated for the grossly fractured pelvis and femur in a Wearmouth man, mentioned above. An infection had occurred as a result of
the fracture (see above).
Only three fractures of the distal fibula, commonly
known as Potts fractures, were found, in one male, one
female and one unsexed adult.
Fractured metacarpals and especially phalanges
became extremely common after the industrial revolution and the introduction of power-driven machinery.
They are relatively rare in early societies. When found,
fractured phalanges probably result from accidents
such as a crushed finger when handling building materials, an ill-directed hammer blow or, occasionally,
deliberate aggression. In the early period, one man had
an ankylosed index finger which may have been the
result of a fracture, and another may have had a fractured phalanx. One medieval man had an ankylosed
thumb, probably caused by a fracture of the phalanges,
two had fractured metacarpals (one first and one fifth),
and a woman (JA 70/151) had two broken metacarpals
and one phalanx of her left hand (Fig 36.10). Her
bones healed in a bad position, with transverse union
between the two metacarpals.
Fig 36.10 Healed fracture of left hand (3rd and 4th

metacarpals) with fusion (JA 70/151). S Anderson
Metatarsal fractures may be due to jumping from

too great a height or, commonly, to a heavy weight
crushing the bone, as when the foot is trampled by a
restless horse or is trapped beneath the wheel of an ox
wagon. Only one such fracture was found at Jarrow, in
a medieval male (JA 65/16).
Only two examples of dislocations were found here,
both involving the right shoulder. Both were of males,
one Anglo-Saxon and one medieval. In one case (JA
71/39), there was extensive remodelling of the right
scapular glenoid fossa, with a secondary articular surface on the anterior of the neck of the bone. This must
have been due to a chronic unreduced dislocation of
the shoulder joint. The affected scapula and the head
of the right humerus were both arthritic as well as
deformed by this lesion. The second example was
found in an old male of the early period (JA 70/140).
The glenoid joint surface of the right scapula was small,
rough and pitted, with an abnormal anterior margin,
and a roughening of the scapula anterior to the glenoid.
This was probably due to a persistent anterior dislocation of the humerus, most likely caused by a fall onto
the shoulder or a wrench on the arm. Unfortunately,
the head of the right humerus is missing.
One possible example of an unhealed wound was
found in an Anglo-Saxon male (JA 65/24). On excavation, a small unidentified metal object was found
between the ribs. One piece of a left rib, probably from
the 5th, 6th or 7th, had a cut extending from the summit
of the superior border down the internal surface almost
to the costal groove. It was slightly bevelled and had
apparently been made by a sharp instrument. The posterior margin of this cut was a thin, over-hanging, lip which
had suffered from soil erosion but its anterior margin bit
cleanly into the bone and looked as though it could have
been inflicted on the living tissue. It is impossible to
assert this definitely but the appearance is strongly suggestive of intra-vitam injury with no trace of healing.
Wounds from blunt instruments are always difficult
to identify and are usually quite ambiguous. An infected lesion of the skull of one medieval male (JA 67/32)
might possibly have been due to a blow on the head
but, even so, there was nothing which could indicate
whether this was the result of deliberate aggression or
an accidental mishap.
Nine individuals (one Anglo-Saxon and six
medieval males, a medieval female and a medieval
child) had exostoses, suggesting the occurrence of less
serious traumatic injuries in the form of muscle
wrenching or tearing. Two men were affected at the
muscle attachments at the posterior of the left femur,
two others had large exostoses on the right navicular
bone of the ankle, one had a lesion on the top of the
ulna at the elbow, and two (one Anglo-Saxon) had
lesions on the distal fibulae. The woman had a small
protrusion or osseous ridge attached to the inferomedial border of the left patella, and a child aged about
4 years had a jagged tag projecting from the medial border of its left tibia, 20mm distal to the head of the bone.
499
Fig 36.11 Myositis ossificans of right femur, close-up of

side of shaft showing new bone formation (JA 70/123).
Photo: W H M Bouts
Fig 36.12 Exostoses of two mid right ribs (JA 70/195).

TW
The most unusual of these lesions occurred in

another medieval male (JA 70/123). This man had a
right femur with a large exostosis arising from the anterior aspect of the shaft and extending downwards in
the plane of the massive thigh muscles (Fig 36.11).
The exostosis arose from the periosteum with no sign
on examination by eye or radiography of an underlying
bony fracture. This was probably an example of the
condition known as myositis ossificans, in which a
large blood clot is produced by tearing of blood vessels
at the surface of the bone caused by a blow to the front
of the thigh. The blood trickles between the muscles,
clots and is then calcified and united to the bone. The
residual hard lump would easily be felt in the thigh and
was probably tender to touch but may well have interfered little with the function of the massive thigh muscles. A similar lesion has been described in a French
skeleton by Lagier and Baud (1980).
It is noticeable that seven of the nine adult exostoses occurred in males: this affords one more proof of
the vigour of their daily lives.
A medieval male (JA 67/1) had ossification of the

left transverse acetabular ligament. He also had
extremely irregular and craggy ischial tuberosities, a
condition which is present in two other males of the
same period (JA 67/19 and JA 65/16). Irregular ischia
of this kind have been described by Wells (1967b).
They are characteristic of a form of chronic bursitis,
with osteitis, which is commonly known as weavers
bottom and which results from following various
occupations that entail chronic bruising and friction of
the ischial tuberosity.
An Anglo-Saxon male (JA 70/195) had a curious
lesion of uncertain origin. Two middle right ribs had a
kind of button, flat-topped exostosis projecting from
their contiguous surfaces so that in life they must have
articulated with each other (Fig 36.12).
A defect of the palate was observed in an AngloSaxon female (JA 69/16). The left side, close to the
midline was incomplete. From its posterior border a
lacuna 11.2mm wide extended anteriorly for 14mm
through the horizontal part of the palatine bone and
into the maxilla. The diagnosis here would seem to lie
between a congenital defect and destruction by some
infective or neoplastic process. There was no other evidence suggesting any kind of tumour and the surrounding area of the palate was not pitted or
roughened by any osteitic reaction which might point
to infection. It is likely, therefore, that this was congenital but it was not the ordinary cleft palate due to a
failure of the two sides to fuse in the midline. Here, a
thin (23mm) splint of bone extends along the medial
side of the defect, from a normal, if narrow, posterior
nasal spine, to produce a suture which is normal.
A few anomalies or lesions also occurred in children. A lesion of the right mandibular ramus is present
in a 911-year-old child (JA 67/16) of the medieval
period. A perforation, 13.8 12.5mm, was present in
its antero-superior part. The edges of the opening were
smooth and the surrounding bone dipped down to it,
to make a shallow concavity which extends across most
of the ramus. Medially, the orifice of the right
mandibular foramen was slightly enlarged but this
seemed to be secondary to the thinning of the ramus
rather than due to a primary lesion in the foramen itself.
Miscellaneous lesions
Wearmouth
Only one lesion fell into this category at Wearmouth.
The cavity in the left ilium of a female (MK 66/18),
immediately above the acetabulum, was of uncertain status. It somewhat resembled the cavity of a chronic
abscess or cyst but it is a feature which is occasionally
found in this position and is probably due to an unusual
pattern of development: it may have been for the insertion of the lateral head of the rectus femoris muscle.
Jarrow
A similar lesion was also seen in two medieval bodies
at Jarrow. In a woman (JA 70/112) it consisted of a cavity, the orifice of which measured 12 14mm, above
the rim of the right acetabulum and extending 6mm
into the bone. In a man (JA 67/43) the same lesion was
present bilaterally. Above the arthritic acetabulum a
cave extended into the ilium to a depth of 15mm on
the right and 22mm on the left (Wells 1976).
500
Viewed from the front the jaw was very asymmetrical.

On the right half the permanent incisors, premolars
and first molar had erupted normally, but the unerupted canine lay almost horizontally in the alveolus.
Moreover, the right first premolar to first molar series,
though fully erupted, lay about 810mm below the
level of the teeth on the left side of the jaw, where a carious deciduous second molar was still in situ. Either as
a result of occlusal incompetence or from pain, the
right side of the jaw was used much less than the left.
Attrition was zero on the right, extensive on the
retained deciduous tooth and well advanced on the
first molar. Neither the gross appearance of this
mandible nor its radiograph afforded any convincing
evidence that this lesion was due to infection. The
most likely cause was some form of external pressure,
as from a parotid or other tumour, which partly
destroyed the right ramus and secondarily affected the
development and architecture of the teeth and other
parts of the jaw.
Another medieval child (JA 70/136, 67 years) had
asymmetrical humeri with extensive osteitic changes in
their proximal thirds. This suggests a low-grade
osteomyelitis. There was also a slight mushroom deformity of the head of the right femur which may have
been the result of a mild congenital dislocation of the
hip.
An Anglo-Saxon or medieval child (JA 70/152) was
distinguished by the disparity between its age as estimated from the dental evidence and that from the rest
of the skeleton. All the surviving permanent teeth
except the third molar were erupted, and with wellestablished attrition an age of 1213 years might be
expected. But the diaphyseal lengths of the left
humerus and right radius were only 214.5 and
166.4mm lengths more compatible with a child in
the 89 year range. All the surviving fragments are,
moreover, very small and frail so it may be that, from
chronic illness or malnutrition, this child remained
stunted and weakly until its early death.
Unusually bowed femora were present in another
Anglo-Saxon or medieval child (JA 67/28) aged 23
years. In both, this bowing was mostly convex anteriorly, with slight lateral deviation. The left femur was
more severely affected than the right. A 4-year-old
medieval child (JA 70/82) presented similar but much
more severe lesions (Fig 36.13). The left femur had
extensive lateral bowing in its distal two-thirds with
wide splaying of its distal end. The right femur was
deformed in the same way, but less so. The left tibia
and fibula were also much deformed, being bowed laterally from just below the head. The right tibia and
fibula were somewhat less affected although also
deformed. It is likely that both children were early sufferers from rickets. A feature of the latter skeleton that
is more difficult to explain is the presence of extensive
periostitis/osteitis of the right humerus. There was a
rough area of bone, 15 40mm, over and around the
insertion of the deltoid muscle. Mild periostitic
Fig 36.13 Leg bones of child showing evidence of rickets

(JA 70/82). TW
changes were also present in the distal quarter of the

left femur and the proximal thirds of both tibiae, especially medially, while a jagged exostosis or tag of bone
projected from the medial border of the left tibia about
20mm distal to its head.
One probable Anglo-Saxon female (JA 67/29) was
interesting, and has already been published separately
(Wells 1979). As well as having extensive osteophytosis
of the spine, despite her estimated age of about 2427
years, a cervical rib, other vertebral anomalies, and
gross sinusitis, especially interesting was the problem
set by her smallness. Stature reconstruction indicates
that she was only about 1.320m (4'4") tall. Dwarfism
of this degree might possibly be due to chronic illness,
with malnutrition from anorexia or poor appetite,
throughout her childhood. In that case she would
probably have been physically feeble as well as constitutionally weak. But, in fact, the muscle markings on
her bones (eg the deltoid tuberosity) were well developed and showed that she must have been fairly strong
until she approached her terminal illness. There are a
number of syndromes which could cause such reduced
stature, and it is uncertain which one affected this
woman. The most likely diagnosis seems to be one of
primordial dwarfism or possibly Ellis-van Creveld
syndrome (chondro-ectodermal dysplasia). The published paper provides a more in-depth discussion.
Finally, a word must be said about an Anglo-Saxon
male (JA 69/15). This was an elderly man with widespread disease throughout his skeleton. The outstanding features of this were enlargement, up to 22mm
thick, of his skull, within which the meningeal blood
vessels have left deep channels in the bone; granular
roughness and thickening of the long bones, with
extensive obliteration of their cavities (Fig 36.14);
gross distortion of the long bones; pathological fracture of the left femur (Fig 36.15); distorted ribs and
pelvis; vertebral anomalies, including specific radiological appearance of so-called bizarre bone in the skull,
pelvis, long bones and metacarpals. Further details
need not be given here; it suffices to say that this skeleton is a classic or textbook example of Pagets disease
osteitis deformans. It is perhaps the finest example
ever to be found in an ancient burial ground and has
been fully described elsewhere by Wells and
Woodhouse (1975).
Fig 36.14 Cross-section of tibia, Pagets disease (JA

69/15). W H M Bouts
Fig 36.15 Pathological fracture of left femur and enlargement of both, Pagets disease (JA 69/15). TW
Summary and discussion

Despite the defective nature of much of the human
skeletal material from Jarrow and particularly
Wearmouth, it is possible to suggest that the people
buried at both sites were within the normal range of
variation of Anglo-Saxon and medieval populations.
The condition of the bone from both sites made the
estimation of minimum numbers of individuals difficult. It is suggested that the 190 bone groups from
Wearmouth represented a minimum of 200 and a maximum of 327 individuals, while the 308 lots from
Jarrow contained 345380 people.
The proportions of children to adults at both sites
was comparatively high. Reasons for this have been discussed, but it is not possible to conclude whether this
was due to a bias in the sample, or whether it was a
true reflection of the original number of children
interred at the two churches. Distributions of juvenile
age at death were most similar at Wearmouth and
Anglo-Saxon Jarrow, due to the high percentages of
infant deaths for these groups. After the first two years
of life, all the groups show very similar patterns of child
mortality.
501
Sex ratios of nearly 6 men to 4 women were similar

to those found at other local and national sites, including non-monastic cemeteries. Although a slightly
greater proportion of men might be expected in such
communities, the possibility of bias introduced by certain sexing techniques should not be forgotten.
Distribution of adult age at death was remarkably
similar at Wearmouth and medieval Jarrow, the main
difference at Anglo-Saxon Jarrow being the smaller
number of young deaths. The numbers of old people
are fairly constant. The large numbers of young adult
deaths at Wearmouth, together with the high infant
mortality, may suggest that the population was less
healthy at this site. Alternatively it may reflect a more
normal local population than Jarrow, which may have
had a larger and higher status catchment area.
However, the differences between the sites are not
great, so these suggestions can only be tentative.
Metrical and morphological analysis of the two
groups produced little out of the ordinary. Stature was
within normal limits for the periods in question, and
cranial indices showed the expected distributions of
more narrow-headed people in the early period than
the later. Frequencies of non-metric traits were not
unusual, but the possible identification of twins at
Jarrow is interesting in terms of burial practice. The
general assumption is that women would be buried
with their husbands family, but without knowing the
marital status of these two women it is impossible to
speculate.
The general patterns of dental disease are similar to
those found at other local sites. At both sites, antemortem loss, caries and periodontal abscesses usually
occurred more in men than in women, although the
caries rate at medieval Jarrow was slightly higher in the
women. Ante-mortem tooth loss was high at
Wearmouth, but the small number of intact jaws combined with a number of almost edentulous individuals
probably caused this. At Jarrow it was normal for the
region, but lower than sites in the south and east.
Caries rates at both sites were lower than the frequencies for other groups, which may suggest a greater
genetic resistance to decay, or a different diet, possibly
including a high quantity of fluoride from fish. Abscess
rates are average when compared with other local
groups and, unlike the other two lesions, do not appear
to increase with time. All forms of dental disease
affected the molars more than any other teeth.
Unerupted teeth were more common at Jarrow than
Wearmouth, and more were found in the Anglo-Saxon
than the medieval group. There was no great difference
between the sexes, and the rates may be genetically
determined. Calculus was common but generally slight
or moderate, and there were very few examples of
enamel hypoplasia.
Most congenital anomalies affected the spine, and
none was particularly unusual. For Jarrow it was possible to suggest that some spatial groupings may represent family burials.
502
Considering the large proportions of older adults,

degenerative pathology was not found to be particularly common in either Wearmouth or Jarrow skeletons.
This was probably due to the extensive post-mortem
erosion of articular surfaces of bones, which had
occurred frequently at both sites. Degenerative
changes were most frequent in the vertebrae, followed
by the lower and upper limbs. There was a sexual difference at the sites, with very few women affected at
Wearmouth or in the early period at Jarrow. In the later
period at Jarrow a huge increase was seen in the number of affected females, and their frequency was slightly greater than the males. This may suggest a change
in the distribution of heavy work between the periods,
or it may indicate that more local and possibly lower
status women were buried at Jarrow in the medieval
period. In all periods the pathological changes were
generally more advanced in men than women.
The frequencies of Schmorls nodes, osteochondritis dissecans and traumatic injuries presented a similar
pattern to degenerative disease in terms of sex distribution through time. These conditions are also related
to physical stress and occupationally related injuries,
although there may be some genetic predisposition
involved with the first two, as with osteoarthritis.
However, they do seem to provide further evidence for
differences in work patterns between the men and
women buried at these sites.
The presence of cribra orbitalia indicated the presence of some degree of anaemia in a few people at both
sites. It was most marked in juveniles, and particularly
so in a few post-medieval infants from Jarrow.
Frequencies are within normal limits.
Infections of the non-specific type were the most
common of this category of disease to be found at the
sites. The majority of lesions consisted of periostitis or
osteitis of the tibia and fibula, which is often found to
occur in Anglo-Saxon and medieval groups. There was
possible evidence for leprosy in one man from
Wearmouth, and an old woman from Jarrow had a disease of one hip which may have been caused by tuberculosis. Other infections included osteomyelitis and
sinusitis, both fairly common in contemporary populations.
Malignant neoplasms are very rarely found in
archaeological skeletons, and none was present here.
There were two individuals, one from each site, who
had benign button osteomata, but they were unlikely
to have known that they had them.
Most traumas were of a type common elsewhere:
parry fractures, rib fractures, breaks of the lower leg,
and torn muscle attachments. Two unusual examples
of fractures were found, a fractured pelvis and femur in
a Wearmouth man, and an oblique tibial fracture in a
man from Jarrow. The most likely explanation for both
is a fall from a high place. More remarkable, in comparison with other early groups, is the lack of definite
examples of head wounds. Normally in a group of this
size at least one sword cut or depressed fracture might
be expected but none was found, perhaps suggesting a
more than normally peaceful population.
The most interesting miscellaneous pathologies
were two possible cases of rickets (an unusual finding
in pre-industrial communities), a young woman who
was probably a congenital dwarf, and an old man who
suffered from Pagets disease.
In sum, the Anglo-Saxon and medieval people buried
at these two monastic sites were generally very similar to
their contemporaries. However, it is the small differences
that provide an insight into their ways of life. From these
poorly preserved skeletons it has been possible to suggest
changes through time, general physical appearance, differences between men and women, patterns of mortality
and disease, individual suffering, and family loyalty in
these groups. At many archaeological sites, the individuals who made the objects and built the structures are
absent, so sites like Wearmouth and Jarrow add an extra
dimension to our understanding of people in the past.
503
Appendix 36.1 Catalogue of human skeletal remains from Wearmouth

and Jarrow
Sue Anderson, Calvin Wells and David Birkett
Introductory notes
Wearmouth
Methods of age and sex determination are generalised

to give an idea of the bones used. Sexing based on the
pelvis used more traits than entries might suggest.
MK 61/4 [DH] Child, 3yrs. ND.

(SA)
Fragments of a juvenile maxilla and mandible.
Teeth:
- O e d / / /
U U e d / / / / / / d e U U
MK 61/5 [CE] Various. ND.
(SA)
61/5-1 Three fragments of the skull of an infant (possibly
two) aged up to 2 yrs.
61/5-2 Femur of a child (length c 7580mm), aged less
than 6 mths.
61/5-3 Fragments of adult, including 4 phalanges, part of a
fibula, one L upper premolar (very worn, 3545+
yrs).
MK 61/6 Male, 4060. In situ.
(CW)
A broken cranium. A few vertebral and pelvic elements,
some broken and defective long bones, and other post-cranial scraps.
Teeth:
A
U / / 5 4 / / 2 3 4 5 6 7 /
8 7 6 5 4
Although the pulp cavity of the upper left M1 has been
opened by attrition, it has been filled with secondary dentine.
However, its roots are surrounded by a periodontal abscess
cavity. Heavy calculus.
Pathology: OP is present on the L4 and L5 vertebrae, also on
all three surviving thoracic vertebrae. The R scapula has a
well-marked rim of lipping around its glenoid fossa. This
indicates OA but there is some indication that it may have
been due to tearing of the capsule of the shoulder joint, with
organisation of a small haematoma at one part of the rim.
MK 61/7 [FB] Male, 45+ yrs. In situ.
(SA)
Fragments of pelvis, L5 vertebra, mandible, R ulna and
radius, R tibia. Estimated height from tibia 1.767m; from
ulna 1.654m. It is possible that these bones belong to the
same (male) individual. However, the L sciatic notch has an
angle of 77, so the pelvis at least probably belonged to a
female.
Teeth:

/ / / / / / 7 ?
Molar attrition on the M2 is 5++, suggesting an age of 45+.
Pathology: The L innominate is arthritic around the articulation with the sacrum. The majority of bones probably
belong to a male, aged 45+, with parts of a female.
MK 61/9 [FW] ?Male, middle-aged/old. ND.
(SA)
Distal half of a R femur of a ?male, middle-aged to old.
Pathology: There is some kind of ossification or arthritic
deposition at the proximal end of the shaft.
MK 61/11 [CO] Adult. NIS.
(SA)
Fragments of adult rib, thoracic vertebra and MC.
MK 61/17 ?Male, 2535. In situ.
(SA)
This skeleton was in poor condition. The general size of the
bones suggest a male. Estimated height from humerus 1.678m.
Teeth:
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 /

Slight hypoplasia, slight resorption.
Pathology: Some osteophytes were present on the vertebrae.
MK 61/21 [EA] ND.
(SA)
Fragments of skull (61/21-1), some adult and some juvenile
(61/21-2).
Teeth are recorded as follows:

Maxilla R 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 X 7 U L
Mandible
O 7 6 5 4 / / 3 4 5 6 7
Code
Meaning
1 2 3 etc Tooth present in jaw
X
Tooth lost ante-mortem
/
Tooth lost post-mortem
U, u
Tooth unerupted
O, o
Tooth in process of erupting

Jaw missing
A
Abscess present
C
Caries present
Lower case letters ae and u/o are used for deciduous
teeth.
The following abbreviations are used in the catalogue

for commonly occurring pathological conditions and
anatomical regions:
OA
OP
C
T
L
osteoarthritis, eburnation
osteophytosis, osteophytes
cervical )
thoracic ) vertebrae
lumbar )
MT metatarsal
MC metacarpal
SIJ sacro-iliac joint
L left
R right
Other abbreviations are self-explanatory: they are simply shortened forms of bone names.
The initials CW or SA following each catalogue
entry indicate the analyst responsible for the work on
that particular group of bones (SA includes pathological study by David Birkett).
Bones surplus to the main inhumation are listed as
Extra bone. In some cases these represent significant
proportions of one or more other individuals and have
been numbered accordingly. The archaeological status
of the human remains is indicated as either In situ; NIS
for not in situ, disturbed human remains; or ND for
inadequately recorded skeletal remains.
At Jarrow, the skeletons were divided into three
broad phase groups (Sax; Med; PMed) for the purposes of analysis, based on those assigned by the excavator, but amalgamated to produce groups of adequate
size for comparison (see report).
504
Maxilla:
C C
/ 4 3 2
The caries was interproximal. There was slight calculus and
resorption.
MK 61/23 [EC, EK] Various. ND.
(SA)
61/23-1 [EC] The frontal bone of a child aged 512 yrs,
with the metopic suture still present.
61/23-2 [EC] T vertebra with slight osteophytosis, 3 phalanges, fragments of rib and one molar (lower L M3?) of an
adult. The attrition score of the molar is 4b, suggesting an
age of 3545.
61/23-3 [EC, EK] Female, 2530 yrs.
(SA)
The proximal half of a R femur of a ?female, possibly in her
mid-late 20s. A third trochanter was present.
Vertebrae (T12L5), pelvis in fair condition, a few long
bones and other post-cranial remains, mostly in poor condition.
Pathology: A Schmorls node is present on the superior surface of the L3 and L4.
MK 61/24 [DU] Child, 23 yrs. ND.
(SA)
This context consisted of most of the skeleton of a child aged
23 yrs, and small fragments of an adult (middle-aged?)
skeleton.
Teeth:

U / d / / / / / / d / U
Pathology: There are osteophytes on the vertebrae of the
adult.
MK 61 (trench R) Parts of three persons. ND.
(CW)
61/28 Female, 2535 yrs.
A broken calva, humeri, ulnae, R femur, tibiae, mostly defective.
Cranial index: 74.2 (Dolichocranial).
Pathology: One L vertebra lacks its neural arch.
61/29-1 ?Female, adult.
A few fragments of cranial vault, humeri, L femur.
61/29-2 Infant, 34 mths.
A few tiny scraps of skull, clavicle and long bones.
MK 61/30 [FT] Adult. ND.
(SA)
An adult L clavicle. It has an extra facet at the acromial
end.
MK 61/31 [FN] Female, young. ND.
(SA)
This fragmentary skeleton in poor condition consisted of
both femurs, both humeri, both ulnae, L radius, fragments of
both innominates, one thoracic vertebra, and fragments of
scapulae and ribs. The angle of the sciatic notch measured
71, suggesting a female. Estimated height from ulna c
1.744m.
MK 61/32 [GZ] Female, 3545. ND.
(SA)
The maxilla and mandible of an adult, probably female. The
mandible is very child-like in shape.
Teeth:
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 / 5 6 7 /
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 / 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
All the teeth are worn. There is slight calculus, slight/medium
hypoplasia, and slight alveolar resorption.
Non-metric traits: Slight torus palatinus.
Pathology: Sinusitis is present in the maxillary sinuses.
MK 61/37 [EY, FR] Various.
(SA)
61/37 Foot bones [FR] of an adult male. ND.
Possibly all that remained for reporting of the main burial.
61/37-2 Child, 2fi3yrs. Fragments [FR]. ND.
Extra bone [EY]: thin, eroded fragments of cranium, probably juvenile.
MK 61/39 [FY] ND.
(SA)
61/39-1 Male, young.
The R clavicle, L humerus and R ulna of a young male.
61/39-2 Fragmentary temporal and tibia of a newborn

infant.
MK 61/40 [FX] Adult. ND.
(SA)
An adult maxilla, lumbar vertebra and cervical vertebra.
Maxilla:
C
/ X 6 5 4 3 / / / / / /
There is slight calculus, slight resorption, and interproximal
caries. The attrition score for the M1 is 4a, suggesting a possible age of 2535 yrs.
Pathology: Both vertebrae have slight-medium osteophytes,
and the cervical one is arthritic.
61/40-2 A fragment of occipital belonging to an infant.
MK 61/43 Male, 2530. In situ.
(CW)
Fragments of skull, vertebrae (C45, T23, T512, L15),
damaged pelvis, arm bones and femora, a few other small
frags.
Teeth:
U 7 6 5 4 3 / 1 / 2 3 4 5 6 7 U
U / 6 5 4 3 2 /
Calculus medium. Overcrowding of anterior maxillary teeth
with labial displacement of upper left canine.
Pathology: Five Schmorls nodes are present in the vertebrae.
The skull shows evidence of osteitis. This is limited to the
central part of the frontal bone. An oval area, about
5040mm, with its inferior border 34mm above the nasion is
the affected part. It has an irregular, osteitic floor which has
eroded much of the tabula externa in this region and has
encroached on the diplo. In a small area near its centre, c
7mm in diameter, the interior surface of the skull also seems
to be affected but this is difficult to determine owing to postmortem erosion and fragmentation of the bone. Around the
main part of the lesion is some very slight thickening of the
outer table of the bone, which indicates an osseous reaction
but, as with the rest of the lesion, post-inhumation changes
make the precise situation difficult to see and assess. It does
not seem to be possible to dogmatise on the cause of this
lesion. Infection following an open wound of the scalp,
involving the periosteum, is probably the most likely. But a
chronic ulcer from a suppurating sebaceous cyst or some
such lesion is also a possibility.
MK 61/47-1 [HI] Child, 78 yrs. ND.
(SA)
The maxilla and mandible of a child, aged 78 yrs 24 mths.
Teeth: / 6 e / / O / / O / d e 6 O
U 6 e / / O / 1 O / / e 6 U
There is slight hypoplasia, and the wear on all first molars is 2+.
61/47-2 There is also a lower L M2(?) of an adult, with an
attrition score of 4a.
MK 61/59 Two males, one 2535 yrs, one adult.
(SA)
The remains of two adult males, one aged 2535 yrs (61/59,
In situ), the other not aged (61/59-2, NIS?). No limb bones
were present, and both skulls were fragmentary.
Teeth: 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 /
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 U? 1 2 / 4 5 6 7 8
Heavy calculus, medium hypoplasia and slight resorption.
One lower incisor is missing, and since the teeth are very
crowded it is possible that it never erupted.
Non-metric traits: Wormian bones are present in the lambdoid sutures.
MK 61/64-1 [IY] Newborn baby. ND.
(SA)
Both tibiae, R femur, one fibula and one radius of a newborn infant.
61/64-2 Fragment of an adult tibia. ND.
MK 61/65-1 [IU] Newborn baby. ND.
(SA)
Both femurs, both tibiae, both humeri, both ilia, one fibula
and one ulna of a newborn infant.
61/65-2 Part of the tibia of a sub-adult, aged 1520 yrs.
MK 61/66 Male, 3545. ND.

(SA)
The skeleton of a male in fair condition. The general size of
the long bones and the mastoid processes suggest a male,
although the sciatic notch is fairly wide. Estimated height
from fibula 1.709m. The main cranial sutures are almost
completely obliterated.
Teeth:
C?
6 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 X /?
5 / / 2 1 6?
There is slight calculus and medium resorption. The attrition
score for all the molars is 4+, suggesting an age of 3545 yrs.
Non-metric traits: There are wormian bones in the lambdoid
suture, parietal foramina on both parietals, and the atlas has
a double facet form. The L lateral incisor is shovel-shaped.
Pathology: There are osteophytes on the S1 and C36 vertebrae.
MK 61/70 Two males, or one M and one F. ND.
(SA)
The remains of two individuals (70-1 and -2), either two
males, or one male and one female. The tibiae probably do not
belong to the same individual as the L femur, and there are
two R humeri. The sagittal and lambdoid sutures of the skull
are almost completely obliterated. Estimated height from tibiae (male) 1.600m. The R sciatic notch appears fairly wide, but
the obturator foramen is oval and large, suggesting a male.
Teeth:

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / / 3 /
There is slight calculus, hypoplasia and resorption. The attrition scores of the R molars are 5, 3 and 2+ (M1, M2 and M3
respectively), suggesting an age of 2535 yrs. There are also
two left lower molars (M2 and M3) which may belong with
this mandible, but the wear patterns (2+ and 2) and size are
slightly different, and suggest an age of 1725 yrs. They
probably belong to the second individual.
suture and parietal foramina on both sides. The L femur has
a third trochanter.
MK 61/78 [CH] Various. ND.
(SA)
Fragments of at least three tibiae, two sub-adult and one
adult but smaller; three tali; two calcaneii; a number of other
foot bones; fragments of skull. These bones probably represent two individuals, one adult (61/78-2) and the other aged
1720? (61/78-1). Probably male.
MK 61/80 Male, 45+ yrs and Female, 45+ yrs. ND. (SA)
The skulls and jaws of two individuals. Both skulls are fragmentary. The main cranial sutures are almost obliterated on
both. One skull is probably female (61/80-2), the other male
(61/80-1).
Teeth: (Female)
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 / 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / / 3 4 / 6 7 8
Slight calculus and medium resorption.
Teeth: (Male)
5 4 3 / / / / 3 4 5 6
8 7 6 / 4 3 / / / / 3 4 5 6 7 /
Medium calculus and resorption. Caries is interproximal.
Both are aged 45+, from the heavy attrition seen in both dentitions.
Non-metric traits: The female has wormian bones in the
lambdoid suture, and a torus palatinus.
MK 61 Context 1156. Female, 3035 yrs. ND.
(CW)
Vertebrae (C46, T312, L15), sacrum and innominates
(damaged), humeri, scapulae, femora, fibulae, R tibia, some
bones of hands and feet.
MK 62/3 [DT] Female, 2022 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
Vertebrae (T3L5), pelvis, broken humeri, ulnae, radii, L
femur, R tibia, fibulae, a few small bones of hands and feet.
505
Pathology: The lower lumbar spine is interesting. The L4 has

well marked osteophytotic lipping which projects c 11mm from
the R lateral part of the inferior margin of its body. No corresponding osteophyte rises to meet it from the L5. However, on
the L lateral part of the superior margin of the body of the L5
a pair of contiguous OP, c 26mm broad, rise up 11.5mm
towards the L4, which in this region has an upturned flange or
facet, 1410mm, to accommodate the OP from the L5. This
lesion is a most unusual one very different from the common
form of vertebral OP and is all the more remarkable in a
young woman aged only 2022 yrs. A small but definite margin of OP is present on the R side of the L5 and S1 segments
where they are adjacent to each other. It is uncertain what has
caused these lesions. The likely origin would be trauma, perhaps aggravated by some structural weakness of the column.
MK 62/5 Male, 4570 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
Damaged skull, vertebral, pelvic and rib frags in poor condition, a few broken and defective long bones and other postcranial scraps.
Teeth:
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ?
8 7 6 / / 3 / 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Only a single root is left of both upper M1s. Extensive calculus.
Pathology: Well-marked osteophytosis is present on 7 thoracic and all lumbar vertebrae, but damage to most of them
makes a full assessment impossible. The L5 has a detached
neural arch.
MK 64/18 [VN] Male, 5060 yrs. ND.
(CW)
A broken skull, vertebrae, pelvis, ribs, scapulae and clavicles,
upper arm bones in fair condition, L femur, a few other fragments.
Teeth:
A
A A
/ 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A A
No caries because secondary dentine has filled the pulp cavity in teeth where this had been exposed by attrition. The
periodontal abscess around the upper molars discharged
through buccal and palatal fistulae. Those round the lower R
molars discharged through large openings on the buccal surface of the mandible.
Non-metric traits: The posterior arch of the atlas is incomplete. There is a midline gap, c 8mm across, which separates
the two halves.
Pathology: Three T and 2 L vertebrae have mild osteophytotic lipping.
MK 64/19 [VQ] Child, c 2 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A smashed skull, vertebral, costal and long bone fragments.
Teeth:

e d / / / / / c d e
MK 64/20 [YX, ZH] Male, 3545 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
Badly smashed and defective skull, fragments of C12 and
two other C vertebrae. Sexing difficult from skull alone. Also
vertebral, pelvic and rib frags, most long bones in fair condition, a few other post-cranial scraps.
Teeth:
/ 4 3 2 / / 2 3 /
/ 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 3 4 5 X / /
A
Secondary dentine has formed in some opened pulp cavities.
Non-metric traits: Small mandibular tori just posterior to
central incisors.
Pathology: Eight T and all L vertebrae have OP. The L5 has
a detached neural arch. Mild osteoarthritic changes are present proximally on the R ulna and also on the L cuboid and
navicular.
506
64/20-2 Male, adult. NIS.

Identifiable from slight duplication of elements present in
64/20, eg pelvic and vertebral frags, femora and L tibia.
64/20-3 Infant, c 3 mths. NIS.
A few vertebral and long bone fragments.
MK 64/21 [ZF] Various
(CW)
A few vertebrae, ribs and small bones of hands and feet, with
c 40 pieces of long bones. At least 4 persons are represented:
2 are almost certainly female (64/21, In situ; 64/21-2, ND), 2
are of uncertain sex.
MK 64/22 [ZH] Child, c 6 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A smashed and incomplete skull.
Teeth:
6 e / / 2 1 1 2 U / / 6
6 e 2 1 1 / e 6
Pathology: The L orbit appears to show a very early stage of
cribra orbitalia (R missing).
MK 64/23 [ZE] Male, 3560. ND.
(CW)
Badly fragmented and defective calvarium, C2 vertebra, R
femur.
MK 64/26 [ZN] Various. ND.
(CW)
At least two persons are represented, both adults of uncertain
sex (one possibly male). A couple of dozen fragments,
including scraps of cranial vault and base, a L femur, damaged shafts of L and R femora, tibiae, fibulae and a few other
bones.
MK 64/27 [ZR] Male, adult. ND.
(CW)
A frontal bone, 6 other small pieces of skull including R half
of mandible, frags of humeri, L femur, L ilium, and a few
other small scraps.
Teeth:

U / / 5 / / / /
MK 64/29 [AAF] ?Female, 3560? ND.
(CW)
Almost complete calvarium.
Teeth:
? 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 / / / 4 5 6 7 8

Heavy calculus.
Cranial index: 78.6 (Mesocranial).
MK 64 [LC] Context 1196. Male, adult. ND.
(CW)
Twenty small frags of cranial vault, some pieces of jaw, 16
loose teeth, small frags of 3 C vertebrae, shafts of both
humeri.
Teeth: 3I, 2C, 4P, 7M
MK 64 [UN] Context 1754. Female, 3050 yrs. ND. (CW)
Skull and most long bones in fair condition, vertebrae,
pelvis, ribs, and much of the rest of the skeleton in poor condition.
Teeth:
C
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
The caries is due to attrition having opened the pulp cavity.
Non-metric traits: Bilateral mandibular tori in the region
from the canines to the first molars.
MK 66/1 [GA] Various. NIS.
(CW)
A medley of broken fragments from at least three persons.
Apart from two pieces of pelvis, only lower limbs are represented. Two of the persons were probably male, one
undoubtedly female. A female L femur is measurable and is
unusual in that its greatest length, 408.2mm, is from the tip
of the great trochanter to the medial condyle. The femoral
head to condyle measurement is only 406.3mm.
Pathology: A fragment of femoral condyle from a male shows
osteoarthritic lipping. Part of the lateral condyle of a male L
tibia has gross OA, with eburnation of the articular surface.
There is little to be inferred from this incoherent mixture of
burials.
MK 66/2 [HF] Child, c 67 yrs. In situ.

(CW)
Vertebral, rib and long bone fragments. No anomalies or
pathology.
MK 66/3 [HD] Unsexed, c 18 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
Fragments of L and R femora and tibiae; L patella; 7 foot
bones.
MK 66/4 [HE] Unsexed, c.16 yrs. ND.
(CW)
R humerus and fragment of rib only.
MK 66/5 [JR] Infant, c 1 mth. ND.
(CW)
Disintegrated scraps of cranial vault and base; vertebral, rib,
scapular and a few long bone fragments.
MK 66/6 [KP] Child, c 12 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
Some very disintegrated fragments of cranial vault and base;
damaged maxillae and mandible; vertebrae, pelvis, ribs,
scapulae and long bone shafts in fair condition; a few other
scraps.
Teeth:
0 7 6 5 4 3 / 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
Attrition 1. No caries. The incisors are distinctively shovel
shaped.
Anomalies: The sagittal sinus turns left. There is one wormian bone. This is in the sagittal suture, immediately adjacent
to the lambda point. It measures 14.5mm sagittally, 17.2
transversely.
MK 66/7 & 8 [MN] Mixed remains of two infants. (CW)
66/7
Infant, c 810 wks. In situ.
A few fragments of cranial vault. Fragments of vertebrae and
ribs; most long bones; a few other scraps.
66/8
Newborn or premature. In situ.
Clearly distinguishable from 66/7 by duplication of humeri,
ulnae, etc, which are much shorter here. Mixed with 66/7.
MK 66/9 [OC] Infant, c 46 wks. In situ.
(CW)
A few scraps of cranial vault, vertebrae, ribs, scapulae and
long bones.
MK 66/10 [PC] ?Female, 2530 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A few fragments of pelvis; L and R tibiae; 11 tarsals and a
few other foot bones.
MK 66/11 [PD] Female, adult. In situ.
(CW)
A few much damaged fragments of vertebrae, pelvis, ribs;
some broken long bones; a few small bones of hands and
feet.
Pathology: Well-marked osteophytosis is present on the bodies of the L1 and L2 vertebrae.
66/11-2 Child, c 34 yrs. ND.
Fragments of the shafts of a L and R tibia and fibula.
MK 66/12 [PE]
(CW)
66/12
Male, 5570 yrs. In situ.
A fragmented skull; all vertebrae except the atlas; sacrum,
ribs, pieces of scapulae; clavicles, humeri, femora; a few
other limb bones of a powerfully built man. Most in poor
condition.
Teeth:
A
X 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 X 6 7 X
8 7 / 5 4 3 / / / / 3 4 5 6 7 8
A
CA
Attrition 4. The caries on lower L6 is too extensive to recognise its origin. Extensive tartar. Enamel hypoplasia of lower
R 3.
Anomalies and pathology: There is a six-piece sacrum due to
assimilation of a lumbar vertebra. Most rib cartilages and the
xiphisternum are fully ossified. OA is widespread and severe
in this skeleton. It is present in the spinal column, especially
in the cervical and lumbar segments. OP is also present on
almost all vertebrae, with ankylosis of the C2C4 segments.
Schmorls nodes are present on the T8T12 vertebrae. OA is
also present on both sacroiliac joints (on the sacrum). It is

extensive on the ribs and clavicles. It is well-marked proximally on both ulnae and is present distally on the R ulna and
R radius. Six L carpals and 5 R carpals are grossly deformed
by the disease and there is extensive eburnation on the L
scaphoid, lunate and capitate and the R capitate. It is also
present, with eburnation, on the bases of both first MCs and
the L fifth MC. All MC bases have some degree of arthritic
lipping.
The shoulder joints are interesting There is a margin of
osteoarthritic lipping round the glenoid fossa of the L scapula, with a small area of eburnation. The R scapular glenoid
fossa is remodelled by very severe OA. This can be appreciated from the difference in measurements between the two
bones. The maximum vertical and transverse diameters of
the glenoid fossae are:
L
R
Vertical
45.2
65.3
Transverse
30.6
42.4
To correspond with this, the head of the R humerus has also
been extensively remodelled by arthritic changes (see Fig
36.4). The surface is eroded and there is a pendant flange of
bone curling down from its inferior margin. The total effect
must have been an almost complete disintegration of the R
shoulder joint.
66/12-2 Newborn infant. ND.
Identifiable from a fragment of mandible.
MK 66/13 [PB]
(CW)
66/13 Child, c 2022 mths. In situ.
Fragments of cranial vault, mandible and shafts of long
bones.
66/13-2 Child, 1214 mths. ND.
Damaged mandible.
MK 66/14 [QO] A few much broken and eroded fragments
of at least two persons. ND.
(CW)
66/14 Male, 2225 yrs.
A R innominate and a few other scraps.
66/14-2 Child, c 1012 yrs.
Vertebral and long bone fragments.
MK 66/15 [QG] Female, 4060 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
Vertebrae T12L5; damaged pelvis; a few bones of forearms
and hands; bones of lower limbs in fair condition.
Pathology: There is a mild osteophytosis of T12 and
Schmorls nodes on L2, L3 and L4.
MK 66/16 [RR] Male?, adult. ND.
(CW)
Some leg and foot bones.
MK 66/17 [RT] Male, 2535 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A badly smashed skull including a broken mandible. A few
limb bones in poor condition; some very small, disintegrating scraps of pelvis, ribs, scapula, etc. The skull was a long
ovoid in norma verticalis. Sutures infused throughout.
Teeth:
C
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / 2 3 4 5 X 7 U
8 7 X 5 4 3 2 / 1 2 3 / 5 6 7 8
Attrition 1. A large occlusal cavity in upper L 6. Extensive
enamel hypoplasia on I1, I2, C, M1 and M2 teeth. There is a
small enamel pearl on the lingual surface of upper R 2.
Pathology: Second degree cribra orbitalia of the L orbit.
MK 66/18 [RS] Female, 4060 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A damaged skull. Damaged vertebrae, pelvis and ribs; L and
R humeri, ulnae and radii; 3 MCs; a few other post-cranial
elements. The skull is an asymmetrical ovoid of medium
build.
Teeth:
U 7 6 / 4 3 / 1 / 2 3 / 5
8 7 X 5 / / / / / / / 4
507
Attrition 2. No caries. Extensive tartar. Enamel hypoplasia

on the canines and upper R 6.
Anomalies and pathology: There is a L mastoid notch bone.
The L4 and L5 vertebrae both have a detached neural arch.
There is a well-healed fracture of the R clavicle. It shows
severe anterior angulation of the lateral fragment, at the junction of the lateral quarter with the rest of the bone. Slight OA
is present on the head of the R humerus. The L humerus, at
300mm, is 13.2mm shorter than the R, but it is uncertain
whether this is pathological or not. OP is present on ten of
thirteen vertebrae, where the feature can be estimated.
Schmorls nodes are present on two of fourteen vertebrae,
the T10 and T12. The superior border of the L acetabulum
is slightly deformed and its floor is roughened and extensively pitted in its superior quadrant. Immediately above the
defective margin of the acetabulum, there is a cavity in the
bone, measuring about 16mm in vertical diameter and about
10mm transversely. This cavity extends posteriorly over the
superior margin of the acetabulum to a depth of about
15mm. Its appearance strongly suggests a chronic abscess
cavity. The possibility of tuberculosis would need to be considered. See report, above.
MK 66/19 [QJ] Female, 4060 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A fragmented cranium, partly reconstructible. It is a long
ovoid in norma verticalis. The frontal bone has very weak
brow ridges. There is no tuber occipitale. The mastoid
processes are moderately developed.
Teeth:
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 / 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Attrition 3. No caries. Tartar negligible. Extensive enamel
hypoplasia on most teeth.
Pathology: First degree cribra orbitalia is present in both
orbits.
MK 66/20 [RV] Male, 2023 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A broken and defective pelvis; vertebrae L1 to L5; L and R
femora, tibiae and fibulae; 7 tarsals. A lightly built man.
Pathology: The proximal third of the L tibial shaft is rough
and greatly thickened and enlarged. The surface is minutely
pitted, it is patchily craggy and its markings are obscured by
cortical hypertrophy. The distal end of this bone is also somewhat deformed on the lateral surface, about 50mm proximal
to the ankle joint. It is rough and thickened, though much less
so than the proximal end. The L fibula is grossly abnormal in
its distal third. It, too, is pitted, irregular and much thickened,
with a circumference more than twice that of the R fibula.
There is also a large orifice in the lateral surface of the bone.
It measures about 2214mm in diameter and opens into a cavity 12mm deep. This fistula begins 55mm proximal to the tip
of the malleolus and extends to within 33mm of it. This condition of tibial and fibular lesions leaves little doubt that they
are due to a chronic osteomyelitis. The fistula of the fibula has
smoothly rounded margins throughout most of its extent.
The floor of the cavity is partly smooth, partly rough, but the
roughness seems, to some extent, to be aggravated by soil erosion. The L talus survives and is normal.
MK 66/21 [RU] Female, 2123 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
L5 vertebra; a damaged pelvis; long bones of thighs and legs;
patellae; 11 tarsals, 7 MTs.
Anomalies: A large acetabular crease is present bilaterally.
MK 66/22 [UT] Female, adult. In situ.
(CW)
A calva, smashed into several dozen fragments. Parts of 6
thoracic vertebrae; fragments of long bones of both arms.
Pathology: Slight osteophytosis on three of the vertebrae.
MK 66/23 [SS] Child c 23 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
Damaged L and R femora and tibiae.
508
MK 66/24 [SQ] Male, adult. In situ.

(CW)
Damaged L femur, L and R tibiae and fibulae of a strongly
built man.
Pathology: There is an osteochondritic pit, c 9 12mm, in the
middle of the medial condyle of the L femur.
MK 66/25 [SR] A few fragments of at least two persons. (CW)
66/25 Male, adult. In situ.
Damaged L and R femora and fibulae, and a few much damaged bones of feet and other scraps of a tall, lightly built man.
The L femur was more than 515.2mm in length, which
would indicate a stature in excess of 1.850m (6ftflin.).
66/25-2 Child, c 68 yrs. ND.
A damaged L femur and three other post-cranial scraps.
MK 66/26 [WL] Parts of three persons.
(CW)
66/26-1 Male, 4060 yrs. ND.
A severely smashed skull; including a few fragments of jaw.
Damaged humeri, R tibia and a few other tiny fragments. The
skull was heavily built, with large rugged mastoid processes;
prominent brow ridges and strong nuchal markings.
Teeth:
8 7 6 5 4 /

Attrition 4. No caries. Slight tartar.
66/26-2 Child, 1214 yrs. In situ.
A dozen frags of lower limb bones.
66/26-3 Infant, 23 mths. ND.
The L femur.
MK 66/27 [SP] Part of two persons.
(CW)
66/27-1 Child, 910 yrs. In situ.
Damaged vertebrae T7L5; fragments of pelvis and ribs; R
humerus, ulna and radius and L femur (all damaged).
A few scraps of cranial vault; L petrous temporal; R scapula;
damaged shaft of R femur and a few other long bone fragments.
MK 66/28 [UN] Child, c 3 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A fragmented skeleton, including pieces of skull, vertebrae,
ribs and long bones. The jaws survive and show:
Teeth:
0 0 e d / b a a / c d e 0 0
0 0 e d / b a a b c d e 0 0
Attrition 1. No caries. No tartar or enamel hypoplasia.
Pathology: Both orbits are defective but enough remains to
show that extensive cribra orbitalia was present bilaterally.
MK 66/29 [WA/WB] Parts of three persons.
(CW)
66/29-1 Male, adult. In situ.
A severely smashed skull; a few damaged vertebrae, some
long bone shafts and other scraps.
Teeth:
U 7 6 / 4 3 2 1 1 ? 3 4 5 6 7 8

Attrition 1. No caries. The upper R 2 is a small peg-shaped
tooth which is displaced lingually. The upper L 2 is entirely
suppressed. The upper L 3 and 4 are a normal canine and
premolar respectively. Upper L 1 is a much larger tooth than
upper R 1 and it seems to have developed thus as a compensation for the suppression of upper L 2.
66/29-2 Child, c 67 yrs. ND.
A few vertebrae, rib and long bone fragments
66/29-3 Infant, 48 wks. ND.
The proximal half of a R ulna.
MK 66/30 [TR] Female?, adult. In situ.
(CW)
L and R tibia; R talus and calcaneus; a fragment of R fibula
shaft. A few other post-cranial scraps.
Pathology: The R fibula fragment shows a Potts fracture
which has healed with a thick deposit of callus. There is some
evidence of an overlying osteitis, suggestive of some infection
of the bone, possibly because the fracture was compound.
MK 66/31 [UK] Male, 5065 yrs. In situ.

(CW)
A few damaged vertebral, pelvic and rib elements; most long
bones but almost all damaged; a few other post-cranial
scraps.
Anomalies and pathology: The L3 vertebra has no neural
arch. If it was detached as is likely (rather than spina bifida),
the fragment has not survived. There is a 6 piece sacrum. Of
the surviving vertebrae (T5L5), most show moderate or
well-marked OA or osteophytosis. T5 and T6 have a
Schmorls node on their contiguous surfaces. OA is also
extensive on the distal articular surface of the R radius in the
R carpal bones, eg the hamate (with eburnation), the multangulum major and also in the L hamate. It is present, with
eburnation, in the L acetabulum and is severe on the head of
the L femur. No doubt this is due to the effects of a severe
mid-shaft fracture of the L femur, which has healed firmly,
with a mass of callus, but with a combination of overlap of
the proximal and distal fragments and of angulation of the
shaft. The result is that this bone is 38.5mm shorter than the
R femur.
The R innominate is extremely deformed by trauma (see
Fig 36.9). There has been synostosis between it and the
sacrum, but the condition is not fully assessable owing to
post-inhumation damage. It is clear that this innominate sustained a severe fracture and at least a partial dislocation of
the R sacroiliac joint, which is not obliterated. There is a
mass of callus below and anterior to the sciatic notch.
Anterior to this callus is a linear irregularity which extends
vertically through the bone for about 95mm. Its lower end is
just posterior to the obturator foramen; its upper end appears
to run into a smooth sinus which extends from just lateral to
the pre-auricular sulcus to emerge on the dorsal surface of
the bone above the sciatic notch. This linear irregularity
seems to be Y-shaped where it comes into the floor of the
acetabulum. It must be a severe fracture which has partly dislocated the lateral half of the innominate in a cephalic direction. The sciatic notch is deformed by this and it appears that
the R sacral ala may also have been fractured and displaced
upwards. A mass of bone, on the R ilium, at the level of L5
was synostosed or articulated with it. (Again, post-inhumation damage blurs the picture.) The floor of the acetabulum
is rough and shows the deep Y-shaped fracture which had
split it. The superior and posterior margins of the acetabulum are roughened by osteoarthritic lipping. It is difficult to
infer the precise nature of the injury which caused this
remarkable lesion. It seems probable that it was related to the
severe fracture of the L femur but why a L femoral break
should produce this curious pattern of R innominate trauma
is obscure. To envisage the two fractures as having occurred
at different times seems, perhaps improbable and, even if it
were so, it still does not explain how the innominate fracture
occurred. (It is the kind of injury which is common enough
in high speed traffic accidents, especially when pedestrians
are hit by cars.)
In addition to this fracture complex, there is a small
osteochondritic pit in the distal articular surface of the R
tibia.
MK 66/32 [VG] Parts of at least two persons.
(CW)
66/32 Child, c 9 yrs. In situ.
Tibiae, fibulae, tali and calcanei.
66/32-2 Unsexed, adult. ND.
A very few small fragments.
MK 66/33 [UL] Child, c 7 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A badly smashed skull, with fragments of both jaws.
Vertebrae, ribs, L humerus and many other small scraps.
Teeth:
0 e d / / /
0 e d c b a a b c d e 0
Attrition 1. No caries.
MK 66/34 [UM] Infant, 23 mths. ND.
(CW)
A few cranial and long bone remains.
MK 66/37 [UM] Infant, c 9 mths. ND.
(CW)
Fragments of vertebrae, ribs and long bones.
MK 66/38 [VO] Adolescent, 15 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A fragmented calvaria; a few vertebral and rib fragments and
some damaged long bones.
Pathology: The damaged L and R orbital roofs both show a
trace of cribra.
Extra bone: Damaged L femur and tibial shaft of an adult
(?male).
MK 66/39 [TT] Male?, adult. In situ.
(CW)
L tibia and fibula; 12 tarsals, 10 MTs, 7 phalanges of toes.
Pathology: There is a small pit, 67mm in diameter, in the middle of the articular surface of the base of each hallucial phalange.
They have the appearance of small osteochondritic lesions.
MK 66/40 [VF] Unsexed, adult. ND.
(CW)
Distal half of L tibia and fibula 12 tarsals; 8 MTs; a few
other scraps.
MK 66/41 [VC] Parts of two persons
(CW)
66/41 Male, 2430. In situ.
Fragments of pelvis; long bones of lower limbs, mostly intact,
13 tarsals; a few other small bones.
Pathology: The L acetabulum has a pit in it, in the superoposterior quadrant. It is about 10.59mm across and 4mm
deep. It is not quite the usual position of an acetabular
crease, nor does it resemble the normal appearance of one. It
suggests an ostechondritic type of lesion, such as commonly
occurs in a femoral condyle. The head of the L femur shows
no abnormality.
66/41-2 Child. ND.
A few fragments of rib of a very young child.
MK 66/42 [VD] Female, adult. In situ.
(CW)
Two small fragments of innominate; 2 of vertebrae; L and R
damaged femora.
MK 66/43 [VJ] Child, c 12 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A much damaged mandible; parts of most vertebrae; a few
rib and long bone fragments.
Teeth:

0 7 6 5 / / / / / / / 4 5 6 7 0
Attrition 1. No caries. Light tartar. Enamel hypoplasia on
both M1s.
Pathology: The L5 vertebra has a detached neural arch.
Extra bone: A few fragments of an adult L humerus and ulna.
MK66/46 [AAH] Female, 4060 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A fragmented skull. Badly broken vertebral, pelvic and rib
fragments; a few much damaged long bones.
Teeth:
A
A
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 /
7 X X 4 3 2 / / / / 4 X 6 7 8
A
A
Attrition 3. No caries. Moderate deposits of tartar on most
teeth. A large abscess around L upper 6 has discharged
through a fistula, 9.7mm in diameter, on to the external surface of the maxilla and also through another opening,
10.6mm in diameter, in the lingual side of the alveolus. The
enamel of many teeth is much deformed crinkled and
ridged by hypoplastic defects. The mandible has wellmarked tori, bilaterally, on its lingual surface.
Anomalies and pathology: The sacrum has 6 segments. A
wormian bone is present in the L lambdoid suture. The
sagittal sinus turns left.
509
MK 66/47 [VH] Fragments, at least three persons. NIS? (CW)

66/47-1 Female, adult (young?).
A broken calva, with unfused sutures.
66/47-2 Female?, adult (young?).
A broken calva, with unfused sutures.
66/47-3 Male, adult.
Broken calvaria with unfused sutures. A damaged R humerus
and L femur of a very powerfully built man.
Extra bone: A few other scraps cannot be allocated between
these three persons.
MK 66/54 [VE] Unsexed, adult. ND.
(CW)
Damaged femora, tibiae and a few other lower limb bones.
At least two persons are represented here.
MK 66/55 [WN] Male, 4060 yrs. In situ
(CW)
Cranium. Vertebrae C1C4, T1L5. Pelvic fragments; all
long bones in fair condition; bones of feet and a few other
post-cranial remains of a man of medium build. The skull is
ovoid in norma verticalis. The frontal bone rises steeply from
medium brow ridges. There is bilateral bossing in the
metopic region. The sagittal contour passes in a smooth
curve through the vertex, which descends to a well-rounded
occiput with no true tuber. The mastoid processes are sturdy. The orbits are rectangular and set almost level. The
palate and dental arcade are U-shaped. There is a narrow,
rather pointed chin and negligible gonial eversion.
Teeth:
A
/ 7 X 5 4 3 / 1 / 2 3 4 5 6 7 X
X 7 X 5 4 3 / / 1 2 3 4 5 X 7 X
A
Attrition 3. No caries. Extensive tartar on all teeth.
Anomalies and pathology: There is slight senile ossification
of a few costal cartilages. Four very flat button osteomata
are present on the frontal bone. The largest is only 9mm in
diameter. Slight osteophytosis is present on 5 thoracic and 3
lumbar vertebrae. Slight OA is present on the L and R scapulae and humeral heads. There is also a rim of early OA
around the R acetabulum. There is a well-healed fracture of
the body of the middle L rib.
MK 66/56 [WV/XT/YC] Parts of 3 persons. ND.
(CW)
A L5 vertebra; the distal half of a L femur; one MT. Two
fragments of mandible probably belong here.
Teeth:
/ / / / / X 7 X
66/56-2 Unsexable, adult.
A fragment of mandible showing:
Teeth:
/ / / 6 7 /
66/56-3 Child, 34 yrs.
A fragment of femur.
MK 66/57 [WM] Male, adult. In situ.
(CW)
2 carpals; MCs; part of L femur; and MTs; 14 phalanges
of a strongly built man.
Pathology: Extensive periosteitic graining of the medial surface of the L tibia is present, with slight blurring of the anterior border of the bone and slight extension of the periostitis
on to the lateral surface. The L fibula is also lightly affected
by a similar process. The medial surface of the R tibia is also
affected in the same way but to a lesser extent.
MK 66/58 [WP] Child, c 18 mths. In situ
(CW)
A fragmented skull; parts of vertebrae, pelvis and ribs; most
long bones in fair condition.
Pathology: Very early cribra appears to be present in both
orbits, but there is a possibility that this may be a
pseudopathological effect due to soil erosion.
510
MK 66/59 [XH] Male, 2428 yrs. In situ

(CW)
A broken skull. All vertebrae except T3; pelvis; L scapula;
many ribs and fragments; most long bones in good condition;
a few other post-cranial elements. The damaged and incomplete skull is ovoid in norma verticalis. The frontal bone rises
rather steeply from very weak brow ridges. The mid-sagittal
curve passes smoothly through the vertex as it descends to an
occiput with no tuber. The orbits are rectangular and set
somewhat obliquely.
Teeth:
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Attrition 2. No caries. Light tartar.
Pathology: The R tibia is much deformed (Fig 36.5). The
shaft is thickened and irregular throughout its distal half, and
especially its distal third. The surface is roughened and thick
from periostitis or osteitis. A small sinus enters the bone
about 20mm proximal to the ankle joint. A margin of
osteoarthritic lipping marks the anterior border of the ankle
joint. The appearance somewhat suggests the result of an
oblique fracture of the distal third of the bone but this
is uncertain it may have been a primary infective lesion,
perhaps a low grade osteomyelitis. The R fibula is not fractured and the R talus and calcaneus are within normal
limits.
MK 66/60 [WO] Female, 2124 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
Fragments of vertebrae T10L5; also of pelvis, ribs, long
bones and a few other post-cranial elements of a well-built
woman.
MK 66/61 [XJ] Male, 3545 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
An almost complete skeleton, apart from the cranial base and
facial elements. The broken skull is elliptical in norma verticalis. The frontal bone rises from moderately prominent
brow ridges; there is a slight tendency to scaphocephaly and
it is plagiocranial, with flattening of the R inferior part of the
occipital squama. The mastoid processes are fairly stout but
muscle markings are weakly developed.
Teeth:
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Attrition 3. No caries. Light tartar. Some over-crowding of
the anterior teeth.
Pathology: The vertebral column is abnormal. There are 13
thoracic vertebrae, the first one having a pair of cervical
type ribs. The articular facet for the head of the R rib on
T13 is irregular with an osteoarthritic lip to it. The L5 vertebra is asymmetrical: it has an accessory anomalous articulation with the R ala of the sacrum. There is also some
asymmetry and irregularity of the inferior intervertebral
articular processes of L4 and L5 in each case the left
process is slightly folded back on itself posteriorly. Also, 26
ribs are present, virtually complete. The accessory vertebra is
a T1 or T13 since it bears a costal facet on the body and has
no foramen transverarium.
MK 66/62 [YQ] Child, c 2 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A much broken cranial vault; a few scraps of vertebrae and
ribs; damaged humeri.
Pathology: The L orbit survives and shows an area of cribra,
about 17 18mm. It is raised well above the level of the surrounding bone.
MK 66/63 [ZR] Male, adolescent, 15 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A fragmented skull. Most of the rest of the skeleton is in very
good condition.
Teeth:
0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
Attrition 1. No caries. Light tartar. Enamel hypoplasia on the
second incisors and canines.
MK 66/65 [NH] Various. NIS.

(CW)
An agglomeration of fragments from at least ten individuals,
including four adult males, ?three adult females and at least
three infants. The three juveniles were aged about 18 mths,
45 mths and 46 wks, as estimated from lengths of long
bones.
Pathology: One adult rib of uncertain sex has a well-healed
fracture of the body.
MK66/66 [AAE] Male, 4050 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A fragmented calvarium; a broken mandible. All vertebrae,
pelvis, rib fragments; most long bones in fair condition; some
small bones of hands and feet.
Teeth:
A
X X X X X / / / / / / X X X X X
8 X X 5 4 3 / / 1 X / 4 5 6 7 X
Attrition 3. No caries. Extensive tartar.
The missing lower L2 may, perhaps, have been knocked out
rather than lost from disease. There is no evidence of alveolar infection around it.
Anomalies and pathology: The sagittal sinus turns left. There
is OA throughout the cervical vertebrae; osteophytosis in the
thoracic and lumbar regions; and Schmorls nodes on two
vertebrae. OA is also present in the distal articular surface of
both humeri, with slight eburnation of the L capitaulum.
There is early OA on both innominate bones at the sacroiliac articulation; and also slightly round the margins of both
acetabula. There is a well-healed fracture of the body of a L
middle rib. An osteochondritic depression, about 15 9mm,
is present on the medial condyle of the R femur. Partial
repair of this lesion has taken place.
MK 66/68 [VT] Various. ND.
(CW)
Fragments of at least three persons.
66/68-1 Female?, 1819 yrs.
Fragments of mandible, vertebrae, ribs, clavicle, long bones
and a few other post-cranial remains of a very lightly built
person.
Teeth:

2 3 4 5 6 7 U
Attrition 1. No caries. Some tartar. Pseudo-caries, from
post-inhumation changes, is present on all teeth.
A few fragments of skull and vertebrae.
66/68-3 Male?, adult.
Fragments of tibial shaft, 1st MT and a few other scraps.
MK 66/69 [NG] Various. NIS?
(CW)
Another medley which is not easy to disentangle. Virtually all
surviving bones are extremely broken and eroded but it is
possible to identify remains of at least five persons.
A fragment of a large L femur of a very powerfully built man;
a thick fragment of tibial shaft; a large L2 vertebra.
66/69-2 Female, adult.
Lightly built fragments of humeri and other long bones. A
damaged mandible may belong to this person:
Teeth:

U 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / / / / 5 6 7 U
Attrition 1. No caries. Light tartar on a few teeth. Wellmarked enamel hypoplasia on the 12, C, P2 and M1 teeth.
Fragments of humeri and other long bones.
66/69-4 Child, c 6 yrs.
Fragments of jaw; humeri; long bone scraps; and scapula.
L innominate, humerus, femur and a few other scraps.
No anomalies or pathology are detectable in any of these
remains. Many small fragments cannot be apportioned with

confidence to any of these skeletons.
MK 66/70 [SB] Various NIS.
(CW)
Fragments of at least four persons.
66/70-1 Male, adult. A fragment of mandible; damaged vertebrae, pelvis and ribs; a few long bones and other scraps of
a strongly built man.
Teeth:

/ 7 6 5 / / / /
Attrition 3. No caries. Extensive tartar. The 6 is worn to a
deeply hollowed cup, lined with secondary dentine.
66/70-2 Unsexed, adult.
Fragments of long bone and a few other scraps.
66/70-3 Child, c 12 yrs.
Fragments of femur and tibia; a few other very small scraps.
66/70-4 Child, c 18 mths.
A few vertebral and long bone scraps.
MK 66/71 [SC] Various. NIS.
(CW)
Several dozen much disintegrated fragments of at least seven
persons. This assemblage is difficult to unravel and not all
fragments can be reliably apportioned between the various
identifiable individuals:
66/71-1 and 2 Two males, adults.
66/71-4 Probable female, adult.
66/71-5 Child, c 89 yrs.
66/71-6 Child, c 56 yrs.
66/71-7 Newborn infant.
Fragments of four jaws show:
(1)
/ 7 6 / / / / / / / 3 / 5 6 7 /

Attrition 1. No caries. Very light tartar.
(2)
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 /

Attrition 1. No caries. No tartar but enamel hypoplasia on 3.
(3)
A
/ / / / 5 6 X X

Attrition 4. The pulp cavity of 6 has been just opened by
attrition but no evidence of caries is detectable.
(4)
Child, 56 yrs:

0 e d / 0 0 0 0 / d e 0
Attrition <1. No caries.
Anomalies and pathology: The R humeral shaft of the 56 yr
old child (71-6) has an epicondylar (epitrochlear) process. A
damaged R tibia, probably female, has a thickened swelling
on its lateral surface, at about the junction of its middle and
distal thirds. Owing to post-inhumation damage it is uncertain whether this is a small area of callus around a wellhealed fracture or the result of organisation of a haematoma
under the periosteum.
MK 66/72 [TD] Scraps of at least five persons. NIS/ND. (CW)
Almost all are pieces of rib or damaged long bones. There are
four L tibiae, three of which are from adult males (72-1, -2,
-3), one from a child about 8 yrs old (72-4). Fragments of a
34 yr old child (72-5) are also identifiable. Little can be said
about these incoherent scraps. A fragment of mandible
shows:
Teeth:

/ / 3 4 5 6 7 /
Pathology: A L tibia has an area of osteitis on the lower third
of its subcutaneous surface. It measures c 50mm proximodistally 20mm transversally.
511
MK 66/73 [VZ] At least four individuals. ND.

(CW)
An extremely smashed and eroded mixture of at least four
skeletons.
R ulna, L femur and tibia, and a few other fragments of a
powerfully built man.
Another L femur.
66/73-3 Child, c 5 yrs.
Fragments of cranial vault, orbits, mandible and long bone
shafts.
66/73-4 Child, 23 yrs.
Frontal region of cranial vault, with R orbit.
There are many small fragments of bone which cannot be
confidently allocated among these four persons. Some of
these fragments are probably from a fifth individual, perhaps
female. Two fragments of jaw show:
Teeth:
/ 2 3 4 / 6 7 /

Teeth:

/ 7 / / / / / /
These fragments are probably from different skeletons.
Pathology: The R orbit of child 73-4 shows well-marked
cribra orbitalia.
MK 66/74 [QT] An incoherent assortment of small fragments from at least four persons. ND.
(CW)
66/74-1 Male, 4560 yrs.
Pubic symphysis and other pelvic elements.
66/74-3 Child, 2fi3 yrs.
Fragments of skull, jaw and long bones.
66/74-4 Infant, c 3 mths.
The surviving scraps in all these inhumations are very small,
except for one very eroded length of a male femoral shaft.
Pathology: An hallucial 1st phalanx, almost certainly male,
has OA of its base.
MK 66/76 [OX/OY/OZ] The fragmented remains of at least
four persons. NIS.
(CW)
L and R innominates, fragments of the shafts of humeri, R
ulna, femora, tibiae and other post-cranial elements of a
strongly built man. A damaged mandible probably belongs
here.
Teeth:

/ 7 6 5 4 3 / / / / 3 / 5 6 7 /
Attrition 3. No caries. Light tartar on most teeth. Some
enamel hypoplasia of R lower 4, 3 and L lower 3.
Pathology: A damaged sacrum is synostosed to the L5 vertebra by osteophytotic lipping. The L5 is tilted on the
sacrum and slightly rotated to the left. There is an anomalous articulation between these two bones, on the R sacral
ala. A fragment (about four-fifths) of a R acetabulum shows
severe roughening and pitting of its floor, from OA, and a
craggy rim of osteophytotic lipping around its supero-lateral
margin.
Vertebrae, ribs, humeri, MTs, etc. A fragment of mandible
probably belongs to these remains.
Teeth:

/ / 3 / / / / 3 4 5
512
66/76-3 Unsexed, adult.

Fragments of maxillae and mandible.
Teeth:
5 4 / / /
/ / / / / / / / 5 6 7 U
66/76-4 Newborn infant.
A few fragments of cranial vault; ribs and R radius.
Various fragments of bone cannot be apportioned with confidence between the 3 adults.
Pathology: One of these fragments is a L ulna with mild OA
of its distal extremity.
MK 66/77 [NE] A few badly broken fragments of at least
four persons. NIS?
(CW)
Identifiable from some lightly built long bones. Some fragments of cranial vault, vertebrae and ribs probably also
belong to this person.
Identifiable from 2 fragments of innominate, and some of a
very heavily built R femur; a L tibia; an L5 vertebra. A fragment of mandible probably belongs with this skeleton.
Teeth:

/ / 3 4 5 6 7 /
There is marked over-crowding of the teeth: the 5 is displaced lingually and tightly compressed between its neighbours.
The L tibia is 380.1mm long, indicating a stature of about
1.744m.
Pathology: The L5 vertebra has extensive osteoarthritic lipping around the superior and inferior margins of the body.
66/77-3 Infant, 68 wks.
Humerus and other post-cranial scraps.
66/77-4 Newborn.
Humerus, ulna, ribs and a few other scraps.
MK 66/78 [RA] Remains of at least four persons. ND. (CW)
66/78-1 Male, 3050 yrs.
Fragments of vertebrae, pelvis and lower limb bones.
66/78-2 Female?, 1922 yrs.
Fragments of vertebrae, pelvis and long bones, including an
almost intact R femur.
66/78-3 Infant, 812 wks.
Fragments of cranial vault, mandible, vertebrae, ribs, scapula and long bones.
66/78-4 nfant, Newborn.
Fragments of skull, scapulae and other post-cranial scraps.
Pathology: The L and R acetabula of the adult male have
extensive osteoarthritic lipping around the rim, with early
eburnation on the R side. The head of the R 1st MT is also
arthritic.
MK 66/79 [SD] Fragments of at least four persons. NIS.(CW)
66/79-1 Female, ?2535 yrs.
A calva, much eroded by soil action. Fragments of vertebrae,
pelvis and long bones.
Pathology: Bilateral second degree cribra orbitalia.
Fragments of mandible; vertebrae and long bone shafts of a
strongly built man with powerful muscles.
Teeth:

8 7 6 5 4 3 / /
Pathology: An S1 segment shows extensive osteophytotic lipping and OA: it was probably ankylosed to the L5 vertebra.
66/79-3 Child, c 34 yrs.
Damaged femur and a few other scraps.
66/79-4 Infant, 48 wks.

Clavicles, L radius and a few other scraps.
MK 66/81 [QY] Various. NIS?
(CW)
A few dozen fragments of at least four persons. Little can be
said about these muddled and defective remains, but the following are identifiable.
66/81-1 Male?, adult. L tibia and fibula, etc.
66/81-2 Male?, adult. L tibia, etc.
66/81-3 Female?, adult. L and R tibiae, etc.
66/81-4 Infant, Newborn or a few weeks.
Pathology: A few vertebrae, which cannot with confidence be
allocated between the three adults, have arthritic and osteophytotic changes.
MK 66/82 [KD] ND.
(CW)
66/82-1 Female, 4060.
A few fragments of cranial vault and base; broken maxillae
and mandible; some damaged long bones and other post-cranial scraps.
Teeth:
8 7 6 5 4 3 / /
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 / 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Attrition 3. No caries. Slight tartar on the buccal surface of
the maxillary molars and the lingual surface of the mandibular molars.
66/82-2 Child, c 1112 yrs.
Damaged tibiae and a few other scraps.
MK 66/83 [VY] Parts of at least three persons. NIS?(CW)
66/83-1 Female, 3555 yrs.
A fragmented skull, a few damaged fragments of long bones
and other post-cranial scraps.
Teeth:

/ 6 7 8
A damaged calva; maxillae; mandible; a few disintegrating
post-cranial scraps.
Teeth:
A
U 7 6 / / / / / 3 4 5 6 7 /
8 / 6 5 / / / / 1 2 3 4 5 6 X
A
Attrition 3. No caries. The dental attrition curves up in an
arch from lower R 3 to lower R 6, and down in a trough or
inverted arch from lower L 2 to 6. This leaves a gap between
the two left side jaws, in which occlusion was no longer effective. It suggests that the affected teeth were used for some
occupational habit, perhaps as tools.
Anomaly: An inca bone is present on this calva. It measures
about 1817.5mm.
66/83-3 Child, 68 yrs.
A few tiny fragments of pelvis and long bone shafts.
MK 66/84 [RC] Various. ND
(CW)
A few dozen fragments from at least four persons. Little can be
said about these mixed scraps but the following are identifiable:
Fragments of R femur, etc.
66/84-2 Female?, 1924 yrs.
Fragments of pelvis, R femur and tibia, etc.
66/84-3 Child, ?810 yrs.
Fragments of long bones.
66/84-4 Infant, 26 wks.
Clavicle, long bones and a few other scraps.
Pathology: An adult R fibula, of uncertain sex, has a small
exostosis projection postero-medially, immediately distal to
the head of the bone. This feature is suggestive of callus due
to repair of a fracture (with negligible displacement). It is difficult to assess, however, and it may be due to ossification of
a haematoma which resulted from the torn fibres of a muscle

or tendon. An L5 vertebra (?male) has OA of all four intervertebral facets. A mid-thoracic vertebra (?female) has a
Schmorls node on its inferior surface.
MK 66 [GK] Context 1738. NIS?
(CW)
Twenty small fragments from at least three persons:
(a) Female, adult.
Fragments of cranial vault; L talus; a few other scraps.
(b) Child, c 18 mths.
Femoral fragments.
(c) Infant, 612 wks.
Petrous temporal, innominates and fragments of long
bones.
MK 67/1 [DS] Male, 3040? In situ.
(SA)
A male skeleton in fair condition, although few measurements could be taken, and the height could not be estimated. The sciatic notch is narrow and deep (R=35). A small
part of the R mandible is present, containing only an M2 or
M3. One loose incisor is also present. The attrition score is
3+, suggesting a middle-aged individual.
Non-metric traits: A precondylar canal is present on both sides.
Pathology: Schmorls nodes are present in the T811 and L2
vertebrae.
MK 67/2 [EY] Probable female, 45+ yrs. In situ
(SA)
A skeleton in fairly poor condition, as most bones were broken or eroded. Estimated height from femur and tibia
1.551m. The sciatic notch was wide, although the angle only
measured 48 (R), and there was a pre-auricular sulcus, suggesting a female. Most of the sutures of the skull were obliterated. The age was estimated at 45+, from the teeth.
Teeth:
/ / 6 / / /
/ 5 4 3 2 /
Molar attrition score of the M1 was 5++
Non-metric traits: There is a possible maxillary torus near
the L premolars.
Pathology: A large lump is present near the L sciatic notch,
which is suggestive of a fractured L ilium. There are medium osteophytes on the L5, and small ones on the S1.
MK 67/3 [EX] ?Female, young-middle-aged. In situ. (SA)
This skeleton was very fragmentary, with no cranium. The
size of the bones suggested a possible female. The epiphyses
were fully fused and there were very slight osteophytes on the
vertebrae, suggesting that the individual was young or middleaged. The estimated height from the tibia is 1.665m.
Pathology: There are very slight osteophytes on the T46
vertebrae, and Schmorls nodes in the T56 and T8.
MK 67/4 & 5 [FJ] Two adult males, one mid 20s, other
mid 30s. Both In Situ.
(SA)
Two intermingled adult individuals, plus one baby (67/5-2).
The sciatic notches were narrow (R = 40, L = 30) and the
bones were large, suggesting males. Heights were estimated
from femurs and tibiae at 1.759m and 1.750m. The fragments of skull belonging to one of these individuals showed
partial fusion of the sutures. The pubic symphysis suggested
an age of 2023 for one, and the teeth suggested an age of
3545 for the other.
Teeth:

/ / / 5 6 7 /
Slight calculus, slight hypoplasia, and no resorption. The
molar attrition scores for the M1 and M2 were 4b and 5+
respectively.
Non-metric traits: Wormian bones are present in the lambdoid suture.
Pathology: Large osteophytes were present on the L3 vertebra, and also on some toe bones.
513
67/5-2 Baby, the only remaining part was the temporal bone.
MK 67/6 [GH] Female, 18 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A badly smashed skull, including fragments of jaws. Parts of
all vertebrae, mostly in poor condition; damaged pelvis; long
bones and a few other post-cranial remains.
Teeth:
1 / 3 4 5 6 7 0
0 7 6 5 4 3 / / / / / 4 5 6 7 0
MK 67/7 [GJ] ?Male, 1521 yrs. In situ.
(SA)
A skeleton in poor condition. The sciatic notch appeared
narrow, although the R measured 82 (L=50). Tooth eruption suggested an age between 1521 yrs. The cranial sutures
were closed but not fused.
Teeth:
U 7 6 O 4 / / 1 1 2 3 4 O 6 7 U
U 7 6 O 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 O 6 7 U
Since the second premolars usually erupt before the M2s, it
is possible that they would never have erupted fully.
Slight/medium calculus, slight hypoplasia.
Non-metric traits: Wormian bones are present in the lambdoid suture.
MK 67/8 [HN] ?Female, 2535 yrs. In situ.
(SA)
The skeleton of a probable female in fair condition. The sciatic notch was wide, although it only measured 45 (L), and
the general size of the cranium and long bones suggest a
female. The teeth suggest an age of 2535 yrs, although the
wear was uneven. The cranial sutures were fused, but not
obliterated. Estimated height from femur and tibia 1.576m.
Teeth:
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / 2 3 4 5 6 7 X?
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C?
Slight/medium calculus, slight hypoplasia and resorption.
Both the upper lateral incisors are rotated, and the upper R
M3 is peg-shaped.
Non-metric traits: Parietal foramina are present on both
parietals.
Pathology: Very slight Schmorls nodes in two lower T vertebrae and L3 vertebra.
MK 67/9 [GQ] Male, 3040 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A few small fragments of cranial vault and base; damaged jaw
fragments. Most vertebrae in poor condition; pieces of pelvis;
some broken long bones and other post-cranial scraps.
Teeth:
3 2 / / 2 3
8 / 6 / / 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pathology: Four vertebrae have mild OP.
MK 67/10 [GX] ?Female, middle-aged/old. In situ.
(SA)
Adult post-cranial skeleton in poor condition and some fragments of child. The size of the adult long bones suggested a
female, and the presence of osteophytes on her vertebra (C6
or 7) indicate that she was middle-aged or old. The height
was estimated from the femur and tibia at 1.623m.
67/10-2 Child, c 7 yrs. ND.
Teeth:
O e d O / O

There were also two incisors, one premolar and two molars
which appeared to belong to an adult.
MK 67/11 [GP] ?Female, 3545 yrs. ND.
(SA)
This skeleton was in fair condition. The general size of the
bones suggested a male, but the sciatic notch was quite wide
(R = 59) and a pre-auricular sulcus was present, suggesting
a female. The attrition patterns of the teeth suggested an age
of 3545 yrs. Estimated height from femur 1.598m.
Teeth:

8 7 6 5 4 / / / / 3 4 5 6 7 8
A
514
Slight calculus, slight hypoplasia and medium resorption.

Non-metric traits: Possible third trochanter on the R femur.
MK 67/12 [HL] Various
(SA)
This context contains the bones of two main individuals, plus
a few of a third.
67/12
Male, aged 1825 yrs. In situ.
Fairly large bones on which the epiphyses had only recently
fused. The sciatic notches measured 47 (R) and 56 (L).
Estimated height from humerus 1.700m.
Teeth: There is part of one R mandible with an M2 or M3
present. There are also three loose molars, one large canine
with slight hypoplasia, and one premolar. All except one
molar probably belong to the same individual, that is the
young male. Three molars have attrition scores of 2, and one
of 3.
Pathology: There are large Schmorls nodes on the T11L5.
Non-metric traits: Wormian bones in the lambdoid suture.
67/12-2 Male, adult. ND.
The other had very eroded bones, suggesting that the eroded
skull belongs to this one. Estimated height from humerus
1.783m.
Non-metric traits: Possible septal aperture in the R humerus.
Pathology: The T1 has OA on the L facet and medium OP.
67/12-3 ND.
A frontal bone and some others may belong to a third individual.
MK 67/14 [HM] Male, 3545 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A badly smashed and incomplete skull, including a reconstructible mandible. 16 vertebrae, rib fragments, L and R
scapulae, clavicles and humeri. A few other post-cranial
scraps.
Teeth:
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 / 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 / 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Attrition 3. No caries. Extensive tartar. Slight overcrowding
of anterior mandibular teeth.
Anomalies and pathology: The sagittal sinus turns left. Small
tori mandibulares. The R clavicle has been fractured at its
midpoint and is well-healed.
MK 67/15 [HD]
67/1
Female, 4060 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A damaged skull; 20 vertebrae, rib fragments, scapulae,
humeri. Most of these remains are in poor condition. The
skull is ovoid in norma verticalis. The frontal bone rises
steeply from negligible brow ridges; the sagittal curve passes
smoothly back into a well-rounded occiput, with a low tuber
occipitale. Nuchal and other muscle markings are weak. The
mastoid processes are short and blunt. The palate and dental arcade are a diverging U-shape.
Teeth:
A A
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 / 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
/ 7 6 5 / 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 / 7 8
Attrition 4. No caries. Extensive tartar, especially on the
bucal surfaces of the upper molars and on both surfaces of
the anterior mandibular teeth. These latter are slightly
procumbent.
Pathology: There is mild OA of the margin of the glenoid
fossa of the R scapula.
L humerus, R clavicle, damaged shafts of femora and tibiae.
MK 67/16 [HE] Female, 2024 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A fragmented skull. Parts of all vertebrae; broken pelvis, rib
fragments; most long bones in fair condition; a few other
scraps.
Teeth:
/ 7 6 5 4 U U /
0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 / 3 4 5 6 7 0
Attrition 1. No caries. Moderate tartar. Enamel hypoplasia

on the canines and second premolars. The missing upper R
2 and 3 were lying side by side at the same level in the alveolus, with the deep rooted 3 on the palatal side and the
stumpy rooted 2 labially. The lower R 8 is impacted, the
lower L 8 just starting to force its way past lower L 7.
Anomalies and pathology: The R humerus has a septal aperture. Schmorls nodes are present on both surfaces of the
T11 vertebra, inferiorly on L3 and superiorly on L4. Large
squatting facets are present on both tibiae.
MK 67/17 [HJ] Male, young/middle-aged? ND.
(SA)
A skeleton represented only by the tibiae and fibulae in poor
condition. The size of these bones suggested a male, with no
signs of old age. Estimated height from tibia 1.725m
MK 67/18 [HH] Male, young/middle-aged. ND.
(SA)
A large skeleton in poor condition. The cranium was very
fragmentary, and all the long bones present were broken.
There was slight lipping of the vertebrae, suggesting that the
individual was probably middle-aged. The obturator foramen was large and oval, suggesting a male.
Non-metric traits: Possible third trochanter on the R femur.
Pathology: The vertebra has Schmorls nodes.
MK 67/19 [HF & HU] Various
(SA)
At least three individuals are represented in this context.
67/19
Male, 2535 yrs. In situ.
Most of the bones belong to this adult, aged from the teeth.
The general size of the skeleton, and the narrow deep sciatic
notch (L=36, R=49) suggested a male. Estimated height
1.721m from femur and tibia. The main sutures of the skull
were closed but not fused, except the occipital sphenoid,
which was obliterated.
Teeth:
/ / 6 / 8
6 3 / / / / / / 5 6 7 /
C
Slight calculus, no hypoplasia, and no resorption. The caries
is buccal.
Non-metric traits: There are very small wormian bones in
the lambdoid suture, and parietal foramina on the L and possibly the R.
Pathology: Schmorls nodes are present in T4-6 and T1011.
Other bones present represent at least one juvenile (67/19-2,
NIS?), probably approaching maturity from the size of the
bones, and at least one very fragmentary baby (67/19-3,
NIS?).
MK 67/20 [JO] Male, 3040 yrs. In situ.
(SA)
A post-cranial skeleton in good condition. The sacral index
(101.9) and the narrow, deep sciatic notch (R=58, L=63)
suggest a male individual. There was some osteophytosis on
the lumbar vertebrae and the ribs, suggesting that death
occurred in middle age. Estimated height was 1.626m from
femur.
MK 69/1 [EI] Adult, young? In situ.
(SA)
This skeleton in poor condition was unsexable, since both
cranium and the pelvis were missing, and the long bones
were broken and eroded. There were no signs of old age.
MK 69/2 [FV/GF] Male, 2530 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A few small fragments of cranial vault and base; a mandible.
Fragments of all vertebrae, a damaged pelvis; long bones
(many broken); a few small bones of hands and feet.
Teeth:

X 7 6 5 4 3 / / / / 3 4 5 6 7 X
Attrition 3. No caries. Enamel hypoplasia on both canines.
Pathology: Seven vertebrae have early osteophytotic lipping
of their bodies. Two have slight arthritic changes at their
costal articular facets. There is some evidence of the effects
of tearing the interosseous ligaments immediately proximal

to the ankle joints. This takes the form of a roughness and
low exostoses on the opposing surfaces of both tibiae and
fibulae.
MK 69/3 [FM] Child, 18 mths2 yrs. In situ.
(SA)
The skeleton of a child in poor condition. The estimated age
from the teeth is 18 mths2 yrs. The metopic suture was still
patent.
Teeth:
d e
U e d e
MK 69/4 [GQ] Child, 8-9 yrs. ND.
(SA)
The tibiae and fibulae of a child in fair condition. The
lengths of these bones suggest an age of 89 yrs.
MK 69/5 [ID] Female, 3555 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
Skull in very good condition. A few rib fragments; long bones
and some other post-cranial elements, mostly of upper limbs.
The skull is ovoid in norma verticalis. The frontal bone rises
steeply from low brow ridges and the mid-sagittal contour
continues in a flattish curve through the parietals, to descend
to a smoothly rounded occiput with no tuber. There is a shallow post-coronal sulcus. The mastoid processes are short and
blunt but fairly sturdy. Markings for the nuchal musculature
are moderately well-developed. The orbits are rectangular
and set almost level. The facial skeleton and mandible are
lightly built.
Teeth:
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
8 / X 5 4 X / X X / 3 4 5 X / X
A
A
Attrition 3. No caries. Moderate tartar.
Anomalies and pathology: There is an anomalous articulation between the R side of the L5 vertebra and the R ala of
the sacrum. This is a large articular surface, with extensive
osteoarthritic lipping and roughening of its surface. OA and
osteophytosis are well-marked in much of the vertebral column; also on the costal facets of at least two segments. It is
present on the articular facets of three ribs out of ten.
Arthritis is present on the head of the L humerus and is
extensive, with eburnation, on the head of the R humerus. It
also occurs on the lateral end of both clavicles and on the
acromial processes of the scapulae. The R acromion has an
extensive area of eburnation on its inferior surface.
MK 69/6 [IS] Male, adolescent, 1415 yrs. In situ
(CW)
A much broken skull. All vertebrae, pelvis, long bones and
many other post-cranial elements in good condition.
Teeth:
0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
Attrition 1. No caries. Enamel hypoplasia on the medial and
lateral incisors, the canines and first molars.
No anomalies or pathology.
MK 69/7 [IZ] Child, c 12 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A badly smashed skull, including damaged maxillae and
mandible. Most vertebrae, fragments of pelvis; most long
bones in fair condition and many other small elements.
Teeth:
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
0 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / / / 4 5 6 7 0
C
Attrition 1. The caries cavity is interstitial distally.
Anomalies and pathology: The odontoid peg is strongly bifid.
Medium squatting facets are present on both tibiae. Mild
cribra orbitalia present in the R orbit.
Extra bone: A few fragments of adult long bones and clavicle
are also present with this inhumation.
MK 69/8 [JL] Child, c 12 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A fragmented skull, including broken jaws. Damaged vertebrae, fragments of pelvis and ribs, a few pieces of long bones.
Teeth:
515
7 6 / / / 2 / / / 3 4 5 6 7
7 6 5 4 3 2 / / 2 / / 5 6 7
Attrition 1. No caries. Slight tartar. Slight enamel hypoplasia
of canines.
Anomalies: The sagittal sinus turns left.
MK 69/9 [JN] Male, 4060 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A smashed skull, with a reconstructible mandible. All vertebrae; fragments of pelvis, ribs, a few long bones and other
scraps of a fragmented and deficient skeleton.
Teeth:
A
A
A
/ 7 6 5 / 3 2 1 1 / / 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 / / / / / / / / 6 / 8
A
Attrition 4. No caries. Although the attrition has worn down
the teeth almost to the alveolus, secondary dentine has sealed
the pulp cavities. Tartar is gross on both jaws.
Anomalies and pathology: Extensive bilateral mandibular
tori are present. A wormian bone is present in the R lambdoid suture. OA is found on the C3 and C4 vertebrae.
Fifteen out of 22 vertebrae have osteophytosis. Arthritic
changes are also present at both shoulder joints: slight on the
R glenoid fossa and the heads of the humeri, moderate on the
L glenoid fossa. There is also roughness and lipping of the tip
of the R acromion. Both elbow joints are similarly affected by
arthritis, with humeri and ulnae involved, the R side being
worse than the L.
MK 69/10 [JO] Child, c 1011 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A smashed skull, including fragments of jaws. 20 vertebrae;
pelvic and rib fragments; some damaged long bones and a
few other scraps.
MK 69/11 [JQ] Child, c 12 mths. In situ.
(CW)
A few broken fragments of cranial vault, ribs, long bones
and other scraps.
MK 69/12 [JR] Unsexed, adult. In situ.
(CW)
Both femora, tibiae, and patellae; 14 tarsals; a few other
small bones of hands and feet. A second L and R patellae,
and a third R patella are also present.
MK 69/13 [JS] Male, adult. In situ.
(CW)
Damaged shafts of femora and tibiae of an exceptionally large
and powerfully built man. A few other post-cranial scraps.
MK 69/14 [JT] Unsexed, adult. In situ.
(CW)
A fragment of shaft of a R femur, R tibia and scraps of fibula.
MK 69/15 [JU] Male, adult. In situ.
(CW)
A damaged thoracic vertebra; a fragment of R ilium; shafts of
L femur and tibia; a few other small post-cranial scraps.
MK 69/16 [JV] Unsexed, adult. In situ.
(CW)
L and R tibiae and calcanei; L talus; a few damaged tarsals,
MTs and phalanges.
Anomalies and pathology: A large squatting facet is present
on the L tibia; (the R tibia is damaged). There is a depression in the middle of the lateral condyle of the R tibia. It is
oval in outline, measures 14.5mm in antero-posterior diameter, 11.6mm transversely and is about 3mm deep with a
finely rough and pitted floor. This appears to be due to an
osteochondritic lesion.
MK 69/17 [JW] Probably female, adult. In situ.
(CW)
L and R tibiae; damaged fibulae; L calcaneus; one MT.
MK 69/18 [JX] Probably male, adult. In situ.
(CW)
Both femora, patellae, tibiae and fibulae (all broken and
damaged, except the L tibia) of a moderately tall man; L calcaneus; parts of six MTs and a few other scraps.
Anomalies and pathology: The L tibia has a medium squatting facet. There is a L carpal scaphoid with two tiny areas of
ivory eburnation at its sites of articulation with the greater
and lesser multangular bones. Very early OA is present on the
516
condyles of both femora; also on the R patella. Both tibial

shafts have well-marked periosteitic graining and osteitic
thickening of the cortex. It is more extensive on the R tibia,
where it extends along most of the shaft, than on the L. The
subcutaneous, posterior and lateral surfaces of the bone are
involved. The fibulae are both extensively affected by the
same condition, and again the R is worse than the L. There
is an atrophic area on the head of a finger phalanx. Also,
there is ankylosis of the R hallucial 1st and 2nd phalanges
(Fig 36.6), with dorsi-angulation of the distal element and
extensive, irregular destruction of the phalangeal head. This
combination of inflammatory reaction in the shafts of tibiae
and fibulae, with ankylosis and destruction of distal elements
of the fingers and toes, is highly typical of leprosy and it is
almost certain that this person suffered from the disease.
However, in the absence of the skull, the diagnosis must
remain less than 100% certain.
MK 69/19 [JY] Unsexed, adult. In situ.
(CW)
A fragment of vertebrae; damaged L humerus and L ulna; L
and R patellae; damaged tibiae and fibulae; R talus. A small
squatting facet is present on the L tibia.
MK 69/20 [JZ] A much damaged medley of at least two
persons.
(CW)
69/20 Male, 3545 yrs. In situ.
Sacrum; R innominate; L and R humeri; parts of two powerful femora.
Pathology: Mild OA is widespread in this skeleton. It occurs
on the sacrum and ilia at both sacro-iliac joints; on both calcanei, both naviculars and the L cuboid. There is also a very
early degree of it on the inferior surfaces of the R talus. It is
well marked on the head of the R humerus. A small exostosis is present on the lateral epicondyle of the R humerus. It is
probably due to organisation of a blood clot as a result of
tearing some muscle fibres.
69/20-2 Probably female, adult. ND.
Damaged L and R femora and tibiae; L patella; a few other
small post-cranial bones. Both tibiae have medium squatting
facets.
MK 71/11 [KH] Male, 1623 yrs. In situ.
(SA)
The tibiae, fibulae and feet of a large individual with partly
fused epiphyses, suggesting a male, aged 1623 yrs.
Estimated height from tibiae 1.712m.
MK 71/13 [KG] Unsexed, adult, young. In situ.
(SA)
This skeleton, although in good condition, consisted only of
the legs and feet. The sex was unidentifiable, since the bones
were medium in size. Estimated height from fibula 1.616m.
There were no signs of old age.
MK 71/15 [MP] NIS
(CW)
71/15-1 Child, c 2 yrs.
A broken skull, including L and R petrous temporals, and
fragments of jaws. A few broken long bones and other postcranial scraps.
Teeth:
e d c / a / / / d e
e d / / / / e
71/15-2 Infant, c 6 mths.
Fragments of skull, including L and R petrous temporals.
Some broken and defective long bones.
MK 71/18 [NB/NF] Male, 2535 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
Several dozen fragments of a smashed skull. The mandible is
largely reconstructible. Most vertebrae; most of the pelvis;
many ribs; long bones in fair condition but broken; numerous small bones of hands and feet.
Teeth:
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / 2 / / 5 6 7 8
Attrition 1. No caries. Light tartar. Slight periostitis of R

mandibular medial surface.
MK 71/19 [ND] Child, 22fi yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A few small fragments of skull, including a damaged mandible.
Vertebral, pelvic, long bone and other post-cranial elements.
Teeth:

e d c / / a / c d e
MK 71/20 [NB/NC] Fragments from two infants.
(CW)
71/20 Infant, c 3 mths. In situ?
A few fragments of cranial vault, jaw, vertebrae, ribs and long
bones.
71/20-2 Infant, c 46 mths. ND
Identifiable from duplication of a few fragmentary remains.
Anomaly: A R upper rib from one of these individuals is
incipiently bifid.
MK 71/21 [MV] Female, middle-aged? In situ.
(SA)
The post-cranial skeleton in fair condition of a fairly robust
female with a wide sciatic notch (L=74). The estimated age
from the pubic symphysis is approximately 3040 yrs, which
agrees with the osteophytosis present around the acetabulum, femur head, and knee joints. Estimated height from
femur and tibia 1.627m.
MK 71/22 [MX] Female, 3550 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
Skull in fair condition but somewhat broken and defective. Most
of the post-cranial skeleton in fair condition. The skull is a long
ovoid in norma verticalis. The frontal bone rises rather obliquely from brow ridges which are moderately well-developed medially. The area for nuchal and other muscle attachments are
well-developed. The orbits are rectangular and set almost
level. The palate and dental arcade are a diverging U-shape.
Teeth:
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
MK 71/23 [NH/NE] Male, adult. In situ.
(CW)
Fragments of skull, vertebrae, pelvis, long bones and other
scraps. All these remains are badly smashed and deficient.
Teeth:

X X X / X X X X X X X X / / X X
Anomalies and pathology: The L infra-orbital foramen is
double. OA is widespread and severe in parts of this skeleton.
The R elbow joint is extensively affected on all three bones
the humerus, ulna and head of radius, with the ulna most
affected. The head of the R humerus is slightly arthritic and
it is evident, from the extremely powerful deltoid tuberosity,
that this man used his arm vigorously. There is also gross OA
at the lateral extremity of the L clavicle. Fragments of at least
six vertebrae survive and show well-marked arthritis of the
posterior intervertebral joints and osteophytotic lipping of
their bodies. A fragment of the rim of the R acetabulum
shows arthritis and it is gross, with eburnation, on a fragment
of the L acetabulum. It is well marked on the head of the R
1st MC and slight on fragments of a L tarsal navicular bone.
There is also a well-healed L Potts fracture.
MK 71/24 [NG] Child, c 2 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A skull, smashed into several dozen small fragments. Many
pieces of vertebrae, ribs, pelvis and scapulae. Most long
bones in fair condition. A few other scraps.
Teeth:
0 e d c
e d c / / / b / d e
MK 71/25 [NI] Child, c 7 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A skull in quite good condition. All vertebrae; rib fragments,
pelvis, damaged scapulae and clavicles; all long bones and a
few small elements of hands and feet.
Teeth are mostly present.

Attrition 2. No caries. Enamel hypoplasia on the unerupted
upper R 3 and L 3, also on lower R 3 and L 3.
The following cranial measurements were taken:
L
173.2
100B/L
80.7
B
139.8
100H/L
65.9
H
114.2
10002/01
89.8
37.3
100NB/NH
53.7
01
33.5
02
NH
39.1
NB
21.0
Anomalies: Five out of ten cervical foramina transversaria are
double. The sagittal sinus turns left.
MK 71/26 [NJ] Male, 4060 yrs. In situ.
(CW)
A fragmented skull but both jaws are reconstructible. All vertebrae; a broken pelvis; ribs, scapulae, clavicles, long bones
and many small bones of hands and feet but almost all these
remains are extensively broken and damaged.
Teeth:
A
8 7 6 5 4 X / / 1 2 3 4 5 X 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Attrition 4. No caries: the lower R 7 has been eroded so that
the pulp cavity must have been encroached on but it has
managed to resist caries by sealing itself off, at alveolus level,
with secondary dentine. The periodontal abscess cavity
around upper L 7 has discharged through a fistula on the lingual side of the alveolus.
Pathology: Two vertebrae have arthritic changes and at least
15 have some degree of OP. OA is widespread. It is wellmarked at the R shoulder joint on the scapula and humerus;
it is fairly severe on all three bones at the R elbow joint; and
at the carpal articulation of the R radius. Similar, though less
severe, changes are found in the same joints of the L arm and
forearm. The acetabula and heads of both femora are arthritic. It is also slight or incipient in a few of the intertarsal joints,
notably on both naviculars. Periosteitic graining or roughness is present on the tibiae, light on the R, more marked on
the L. It also occurs on the L 1st pollicial phalanx.
MK 72 [AA, AC] Context 800. Various. NIS.
(SA)
Fragments of adult skull, pelvis, rib, 3 tibiae, femur, scapula,
2 vertebrae, and MT. At least one male, and one unsexed
adult. Also L radius, pelvis and unfused juvenile vertebrae.
MK 72 [AB, AH] Context 801. Adult+Newborn. NIS.(SA)
Fragments of adult skull and ribs; four fragments of a newborn baby.
MK 72 [AD] Context 802. Adult male? ND
(SA)
Fragments of frontal bone (coronal suture partly fused), distal half of humerus, fragment of femur, ribs, MTs, fibula.
Possibly all one male.
MK 72 [AE] Context 803. Adult. NIS.
(SA)
Adult phalanx.
MK 72 [AF] Context 804 Various. NIS.
(SA)
Fragments of adult skull and long bones, including an
arthritic and eburnated femoral head, one femoral condyle,
the proximal end of a L ulna, head of a radius, distal end of
an ulna, distal end of a R humerus, R calcaneum, and fragment of L calcaneum. Not necessarily one individual, but
probably at least one male.
Two vertebrae, proximal end of a tibia, L scapula, R radius,
probably representing two children. The length of the radius
suggests one child is aged c 18 mths.
MK 72 [AG, AN] Context 805 Various. NIS.
(SA)
Fragments of skull, ribs, phalanges/MTs, humerus, radius,
ulna, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, R maxilla, and female
temporal bone.
Teeth:
517
A
/ / 6 5 / / / /
Attrition on the M1 is 5++. The estimated age is 45+. Also
the mandible of a child aged c 10 yrs, and a lower R canine
and premolar of a child aged c 8 yrs + 24 mths.
Mandible: O 6 d / / / / / / / /
C
There is hypoplasia and pitting on the M1. The mandible is
a very strange shape, especially at the right gonion and
condyle, where it appears twisted.
MK 72 [AJ] Context 806 Adult. NIS.
(SA)
Fragments of adult skull, humerus, and upper R canine.
MK 72 [AK, AL] Context 807 Adult and sub-adult. NIS.
(SA)
Fragments of adult fibula and phalanges/MTs. Fragments of
?femur and tibial distal epiphysis of sub-adult.
MK 72 [AM] Context 808 Various. NIS.
(SA)
Fragments of adult skull, at least 2 femurs (male?), 2 humeri
(one female), 2 ulna, a radius, 2 lumbar vertebrae (one with
large OP), L calcaneum, and phalanges.
Fragments of juvenile R femur, and younger juvenile L
femur.
MK 72 [AO] Context 813 Various. ND.
(SA)
This context consisted of a large number of fragments of a
number of individuals. There are at least two females, two
males and one child. The angle of one L sciatic notch was
84.
Teeth:
/ / / / 5

The premolar is very worn, suggesting possible age 3545+.
MK 72 [AP] Context 809 Adult. NIS.
(SA)
Some adult phalanges, fragments of skull, fragment of
?humerus.
MK 72 [AQ] Context 810. Adult. NIS.
(SA)
Fragments of skull and phalanges.
MK 72 [AR] Context 802/811 Various. NIS.
(SA)
Fragments of 2 vertebrae, skull, femoral condyles, phalanges,
all adult, and the humerus of an infant aged less than 3 mths.
MK 74/1 [GX] Female, 1925 yrs. In situ.
(SA)
A skeleton in fair condition, although the surface of the cranium was very eroded. The sciatic notches are fairly wide,
with angles of 62 (R) and 70 (L), and the skeleton is small
and gracile, suggesting a female. The age from epiphyseal
fusion was estimated at 1925 yrs. All the main sutures of the
cranium were closed but not fully fused.
Teeth:
/ 7 6 5 / 3 / 1 / / / 4 5 6 7 8
0 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / / / / / 6 7 8
There was slight hypoplasia and slight resorption. The upper
R medial incisor is shovelled.
Non-metric traits: There is a small epipteric bone on the L
(R is missing).
There was also an extra maxilla with this skeleton, for which
the estimated age was 45+.
Teeth:
5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
MK 74/2 [HH] Male, 45+. In situ.
(SA)
This skeleton was in good condition. The large size of the
skull and long bones suggest that this was a male individual.
The pelvis was in poor condition, and the sciatic notch could
not be measured. The main cranial sutures were all obliterated endocranially and almost obliterated ectocranially. The
teeth suggested an age of 45+, and the ossification of ligaments and presence of osteophytes on the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae agree with this estimate. Estimated stature
from tibia 1.695m.
518
Teeth:
X X X 3 / /
X X X X X / / /
X X X X X
/ / / / / X X X
A?
There is considerable alveolar resorption, and probably periodontal disease.
suture, including a large ossicle at the R of the lambda. A
parietal foramen is present on the L parietal only.
Pathology: OA is present on the C35 facets, and the C6T6
bodies. The acromio-clavicular joint was also arthritic. The
osteophytes present on T12L1 are considerable.
MK 74/3 [HC] Child, 1112 yrs. In situ.
(SA)
This skeleton of a child was in fair condition. The lengths of
the long bones and the eruption stage of the teeth suggested
that the age at death was 1112 yrs.
Teeth:
U 7 6 / 4 3 / 1 1 2 3 4 5 / / U
U 7 6 5 4 3 / 1 1 2 3 4 / 6 7 U
There was slight calculus and hypoplasia. Molar attrition was
between 2 and 2+ in all cases.
Pathology: Cribra orbitalia may have affected the L orbit (R
is missing).
MK 74/4 [HJ] Child, 18 mths. In situ.
(SA)
The skeleton of an infant in fair condition. The age was estimated at 1218 mths from the long bones, and 18 mths 6
mths from the teeth.
Teeth:
U o d / / / / / / d o /
o d o a / o d o
Pathology: Possible cribra orbitalia.
MK 74/5 [HK] Male, 3545 yrs. In situ.
(SA)
The skeleton of a robust adult in middle age. The skull and
long bones suggest a male, but the pelvis was too eroded for
study. All the main sutures of the cranium were fused and
partially obliterated. The estimated age from the teeth was
3545 yrs. The long bones were in poor condition and the
height could not be estimated. The teeth of a younger individual were also present.
Teeth:

8 7 / 2 / / 2 3 4 5 6 7
There was slight calculus, hypoplasia and resorption.
Teeth of younger adult:
2 2 3 5
2 3 4 5
The upper incisors of this individual are shovelled.
Non-metric traits: The metopic suture is still present, but
almost obliterated. There are wormian bones in the coronal
and lambdoid sutures, and at the lambda and R asterion.
There is small parietal notch bone on the R. A parietal foramen is present on the R parietal only.
Pathology: There may be cribra orbitalia. Possible parietal
thinning may be due to post-mortem erosion.
MK 74/6 [HQ] Newborn. In situ.
(SA)
The skeleton of a newborn infant in fair condition.
Teeth:
u u / o o

Pathology: There is slight thickening of the bone on the anterior of the femur.
MK 74/7 [JF] Child, 56 yrs. In situ.
(SA)
The skeleton of a child in fair/good condition. The length of
the long bones and the state of eruption of the teeth suggests
an age of 56 yrs 24 mths. The lambdoid and sagittal sutures
are partly fused. The pelvis is fused at the ischio-pubic ramus.
Teeth:
/ d / / / / b / d e O
O e d / / / / / / d e O
Non-metric traits: Parietal foramina are present on both

sides.
Pathology: There is possible cribra orbitalia.
MK 74 [JJ] Context 501. Female, adult. NIS.
(SA)
Fragments of L tibia, skull, pelvis, radius, and one upper R
canine. All probably female. The radial facet appears slightly arthritic, suggesting an old woman.
MK 74 [JN] Context 502. Various. NIS.
(SA)
The L femur, R tibia and R humerus of one female, all of
which appear more curved than usual. Estimated height from
tibia 1.459m. There is also the L ulna of an adult male, the
facet of which is deformed and enlarged. The mandible of a
female aged possibly as old as 60+ was also present, but is
not necessarily the same individual as the first woman.
Teeth:

8 X X 5 4 3 / / / X X / X X X X
A
Wear on the M3 was 5++.
Pathology: osteogenesis imperfecta or rickets?
MK 86/1 Context 3707. Child, c 2 yrs. In situ.
(SA)
A skeleton in fair condition, although wet when seen. The
lengths of the long bones suggest an age of 2430 mths, and
the teeth suggest an age of 2 yrs + 8 mths. There are also a
few fragments of adult skull and mandible.
Teeth:
U o d o b a a b c d
U o / o / a a b O d o U
MK 86/2 Context 3104 Various. NIS.
(SA)
Two individuals are represented in this context: a middle-aged
male (86/2-1), and a child aged 8 yrs (86/2-2). The long bones
of the adult were large and robust, but no other sexual indicators were present. Estimated height from radius 1.762m.
Teeth (Child):

U 6 e / / / / / / / d e 6 U
Pathology: There is slight lipping on one T vertebra and on
the radius and ulna heads. The cortex of the femur is very
thick (c 12mm), but does not appear diseased.
MK 86/3 Context 3007 Various.
(SA)
At least three individuals are represented here, an old male
(86/3-1, In situ?), a young female (86/3-2, NIS?), and a newborn baby (86/3-3, NIS). The male consisted of a large
robust humerus, fragments of a skull and a robust mandible,
and vertebrae.
The female consisted of a gracile mandible and a pelvis with
a very wide sciatic notch (R=65). Estimated height from
humerus (which was incomplete, and measured by estimate):
approximately 1.829m.
Teeth (Male):

X X X X 4 3
There was slight calculus and hypoplasia and considerable
resorption.
Female L Mandible: / / /
There are also two lower molars, one upper molar, one upper
premolar and one upper mesial L incisor. The lower teeth do
not appear to fit the mandibles.
Non-metric traits: The male mandible has gonial eversion on
the R, and the skull had double condylar facets and a slight
pre-condylar tubercle. The atlas had a double facet form.
Pathology: The C7(?) was very arthritic on the body and the
condyles, with large osteophytes. All the vertebrae have ossified ligamentous attachments.
MK 86 Context 3201. Various. NIS.
(SA)
Three fragments of adult skull, and a R first MT. Also a fragment of the R femur of a newborn infant.
MK 86 Context 3202. Adult. NIS.

(SA)
One R second MC.
MK 86 Context 3204. Various. ND.
(SA)
A fragment of the L femur of a child aged c 1015 yrs. A R
femur, R phalanx, and sacrum of an adult. The sacrum had
six segments and was very curved, suggesting a male. The
sacral index was 115.1 (normally in the female range, but the
six segments may account for this).
MK 86 Miscellaneous contexts. Various. NIS/ND
(SA)
A number of fragments of at least three adult crania, at least
two of which were female. Also three fragments of the skull
of a baby. One maxilla and mandible of a female (belonging
to one of the skulls), two maxillae and one mandible. Seven
C vertebrae belonging together, plus three C and four T vertebrae which probably do not, and one S1. Fragments of
?seven adult (three female and one male) and one juvenile
pelves, including one pubic symphysis of an old individual.
Eight fragments of different femurs. Three fragments of different tibiae. Seven fragments of humerus, at least two male
and one child. Seven fragments of different sternums (4
manubriums). Nine fragments of scapula of at least three
male and one female. Other fragments include ribs, phalanges, ulnae, radii, clavicle.
The skull and maxilla/mandible of the young female may
belong with the following: vertebral column (C2T12), L
humerus, L radius, L ulna, both clavicles. Two cervical vertebrae were congenitally fused. All the bones were unfused or
just fusing, suggesting an age of c 18 yrs, which is consistent
with the age of 1518 suggested by the teeth.
The sacrum and three L vertebrae of a male aged 30+
were present. The sacral index (5 segments) was 106.0.
The L and R radii of a ?male, in middle-age, suggested a
height for this individual of 1.830m.
The fibula, tibia, radius and ulna of a newborn baby were
also present, possibly belonging with the baby skull.
Teeth: (Female)
C
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 / 1 2 O / 5 6
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / 2 3 / 5 6 7 U
Slight hypoplasia. Caries is interproximal. The upper L
canine is at an abnormal angle, and not erupted. All the
molars are worn to 2 or 2+ stage.
Teeth: (Others)
/ 7 6 5 / / 1 3

Slight calculus and medium resorption. Estimated age from
attrition is 2535 yrs (M1 = 3+, M2 = 2+). The M3 is pegshaped.
/ U U / U

The unerupted incisor is shovelled. Estimated age c 6 yrs.

O / / / / /
Gonial eversion is present on this mandible. Age could not
be estimated.
519
Jarrow
JA 65/1 [CB, FK] Male, 3550 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: good. Well-preserved skull and 5 C vertebrae.
Determination of age: tooth wear severe.
Determination of sex: nuchal crests medium, mastoid
processes small, brow ridges medium.
Teeth:
A
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 / 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A
A
Heavy calculus.
Non-metric traits: Large jugular fossa on R temporal, L normal.
Pathology: Spinal OP on C35. Cervical OA on C35, erosion superior & inferior surfaces.
An additional unsexed, adult patella. [CB]. NIS.
(SA)
JA 65/2 [FL] Child, c 2 yrs. Sax? NIS.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few small fragments of cranial bones.
JA 65/3-1 [HS] Female, 3040 yrs. Sax? ND.
(CW)
Condition: poor? A very incomplete skeleton.
Determination of age: tooth wear very severe with gross
bevelling of crowns.
Height: 1.637m from L femur.
Teeth:
U 7 6 5 / / / /

65/3-2 Female: R femur, stature 1.559m. NIS.
JA 65/5 [LH] Child, c 910 yrs. Med. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: fair. Maxilla and mandible only.
Determination of age: tooth eruption.
Teeth: O 6 e U / / / 1 2 c d e 6 O
/ 6 e / U 2 1 1 2 U / e 6 O
Slight calculus. Slight hypoplasia
JA 65/8 [MX] Male, 3545 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Damaged and fragmented skeleton. Skull,
arms, legs, torso present.
Determination of age: tooth wear gross on all teeth.
Determination of sex: large mastoid process, bones large and
robust.
Height: 1.702m from femur + tibia.
Teeth:
C
U 7 6 X 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 X 7 ?
U X 6 / 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 X X U
Heavy calculus. Gross hypoplasia. Cervical caries.
Pathology: Spinal OP: C37, T112, L1S1.
OA (Cervical): C37 posterior intervertebral joints. OA
(Thoracic): Most costo-vertebral articulations affected. OA
(Lumbar): L1-S1 posterior intervertebral joints.
Ankylosing Hyperostosis: L45 fused.
Trauma: Fracture at base of L MC1. Fracture of styloid
process of L ulna, well healed but distorted (no radius fracture). Exostosis posterior L femur (285mm) c 50mm prox to
lateral condyle. Small raised prominence ant L tibia middle
third.
General arthritis: Both scapular glenoids and humerus
heads, R elbow (eburnation on capitulum), L prox ulna &
radius, R dist rad-ulna joint, R carpus, L thumb, L knee,
heads both MT1s.
Extra bone from grave area of JA 65/8 [LO], Context 5248.
NIS. Med.
(CW)
65/38 ?Male patella.
65/39 ?Female clavicle.
65/40 Juvenile mandible, c 7 yrs.
520
JA 65/9 [MV] Female, 2535 yrs. Med. In situ.

(CW)
Condition: poor. Grossly fragmented and somewhat incomplete.
Height: 1.578m from femora?
Teeth:
A
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 U
Heavy calculus.
JA 65/10 [MT] Female, 2535 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Most of the skull in fragments, L vertebrae,
pelvis, rib fragments, L humerus, both radii.
Determination of age: tooth attrition moderately heavy.
Height: 1.544m from radius & humerus?
Teeth:
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 / 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Non-metric traits: Posterior superior spines of both innominates project downwards to replace the long posterior sacroiliac ligament and articulate with the third transverse tubercle
of the sacrum.
65/10-2 Child, c 7 yrs. NIS.
4 frags of skull, prox radius, dist femur.
JA 65/11 [NB] Male, 4050 yrs. SaxMed [Unphased]. In
situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Much damaged and incomplete body.
Determination of age: tooth attrition gross.
Teeth:
8 7 6 5 4 3 / 4 5 6
6 4 3 2 / 1 2 3 X X X X /
Pathology: Trauma: Small well healed fracture, with negligible displacement, of the R MC5.
General arthritis: Prox articulation of both ulnae, distal ends
both radii.
JA 65/12 [MU] Male, 4050 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Almost nothing of the skull except damaged mandible, and nothing below mid-thigh level.
Determination of age: gross attrition on all teeth.
Height: 1.736m from humerus.
Teeth:

8 7 X 5 / 3 / / / / / 4 5 6 7 8
Non-metric traits: 6 L vertebrae. 4 sacral segments?
Pathology: Spinal OP: most C, most T, most L.
OA (Cervical): Zygapophyseal joints. OA (Thoracic):
Zygapophyseal joints and costo-vert articulations (20/25
ribs). OA (Lumbar): Zygapophyseal joints.
Ankylosing Hyperostosis: Fusion of T56, T710, L12,
L46.
General arthritis: Sterno-clavicular joints, scapular glenoids,
both elbows at olecranon fossa, R prox radius and ulna, both
acetabuli with well marked lipping of rims, both femoral
heads. No eburnation.
Miscellaneous pathology: Kyphosis and rotation of mid-thoracic spine. T6 slightly wedged. L MC1 had prominent ridge
along radial margin, 1st and 2nd phalanges of index finger
fused together at c 95 angle.
JA 65/16 [SE] Male, 3545 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: good. Almost complete skeleton, skull fragmented.
Determination of age: tooth wear heavy.
Determination of sex: robust bones.
Teeth:
C
X X 6 5 4 3 / / / / 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 X 5 / / / / / / / 5 6 7 8
Heavy calculus. Medium hypoplasia
Non-metric traits: R emarginate patella?
Pathology: Spina Bifida: L5
Spinal OP: C37, T34, 712, L35.
OA (Cervical): C36 zygapophyseal facets.

Trauma: Fracture L MT5 at proximal third, well healed with
moderate displacement and little callus.
General arthritis: Both first metatarso-phalangeal joints, R
with eburnation. Distal L radio-ulnar joint, gross.
Miscellaneous pathology: L4 wedged to R. Ischial bursitis L
Hallux valgus both feet.
65/16-2 [PY]
Frags of an adult. NIS.
JA 65/17 [SF] Male, young. Med? NIS.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few fragments of cranial vault and skeleton.
JA 65/18 Child, c 5 yrs. Med? NIS.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Fragments of calva, femur and tibia shafts.
JA 65/21 [SH] Female, 5060 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Much fragmentation.
Determination of age: some degeneration.
Determination of sex: gracile skull.
Height: 1.659m.
Pathology: OA (Cervical): C56 bodies collapsed. OA
(Thoracic): T6 wedged to left.
Trauma: Well healed Colles fracture of R radius, with considerable deformity. Marked dorsi-angulation of distal end,
8.1mm shorter than L. Tip of styloid process R ulna also
avulsed. Exostosis of dorsal-distal R tarsal navicular, c 10mm
wide.
General arthritis: OP and OA on vertebral coloumn. OA
both surfaces of Sacro-iliac joints. Also head of L humerus,
and margin of glenoid fossa of L scapula.
JA 65/22 [SG] Male?, adult. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Very incomplete skeleton. L femur and
tibia plus a few other fragments.
JA 65/23 [ABP, ZO] Child, 6 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Extremely defective skeleton.
Determination of age: stage of tooth eruption/calcification.
Length of tibial diaphysis (212mm).
Teeth:

6 e d e d 6
JA 65/24 [AFH] Male, 2530 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Incomplete, lightly built, skull very damaged.
Determination of age: tooth wear light.
Height: 1.642m from femur.
Teeth:
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 / 1 2 3 4 / 6 7 U
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 / 4 5 6 7 U
Gross hypoplasia.
Pathology: Trauma: Cut on fragment of L rib, unhealed,
possibly made ante-mortem. Small unidentified metal object
found between ribs on excavation.
JA 65/27 [AHB] Male, 4050 yrs. LS/EMMed [Sax]. In
situ.
(CW)
Condition: good. Nearly complete, apart from some small
bones of the hands and feet.
Determination of age: moderate tooth attrition, some degeneration.
Determination of sex: long bones large.
Height: 1.730m from L Fem+tib.
Teeth:

4 X X X 8
Pathology: General arthritis: early OA both faces of both
sacro-iliac joints. Also on R talo-navicular and calcaneocuboid joints and head of R MT1.
Degenerative change: OP of vertebral bodies.
Miscellaneous pathology: Schmorls nodes of 5 vertebrae.
JA 65/30 [AKE] Male, 1920 yrs. Med. In situ.

(CW)
Condition: good. Almost complete skeleton apart from the
skull which is damaged and deficient.
Determination of age: tooth attrition light.
Teeth:
8 7 6 / / / / / 1 / / / / 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / 2 3 4 5 6 7 U
Slight hypoplasia.
Non-metric traits: 6 sacral segments.
Pathology: Spina Bifida: S13.
65/30-2 A few fragments of an adult female. NIS.
JA 65/31 Child, 34 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: good. Well preserved down to pelvis but lower
limbs do not survive. Skull in good condition.
Cranial index: 80.5 (Brachycranial).
Non-metric traits: Anomalous pteria (temporal articulates
with frontal due to small strip of bone extending from it on
both sides).
JA 65/33 Male?, 13 yrs. LS/EMMed [Sax]. In situ. (CW)
Condition: fair. Moderately well preserved apart from the
skull of which little remains except for the jaws.
Teeth:
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 / 6 7 U
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 U
JA 65/34 [AKK] Female, adult. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Only a part of the lower limbs survive.
Height: 1.680m from tibiae.
Miscellaneous pathology: Both MT5s bowed medially more
than is usually found.
JA 65/36 [AJV] Unsexed, adult. Med. In situ.
(SA)
One adult patella.
JA 65/42 [QE] Unsexed, adult. Med? NIS.
(SA)
One adult patella.
JA 65/43 [RV] Unsexed, adult. Med? NIS.
(SA)
One adult patella.
JA 67/1 [GX] Male, 4555 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Most of skeleton present.
Determination of age: tooth wear medium-heavy.
Determination of sex: robust skull.
Teeth:
A
A A
/ 7 X / X 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 X X X X
X 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 X 7 ?
A
A
Pathology: Spinal OP on C, T and L vertebrae.
OA (Cervical): Yes(?) OA (Thoracic): Heads and tuberosities
of >5 ribs. OA (Lumbar): L L5S1 artic.
Trauma: 3 fractures in 2 frags of mid R ribs. Well healed
midshaft fracture of R radius and callus.
General arthritis: Severe OA both acetabuli, gross erosion
floor of L. Both SIJs. Both scapular glenoids and humeri
heads. Distal humeri and prox ulnae, distal R radius, L
femoral head with eburnation, R femoral head, both patellae,
carpals, MCs and phalanges.
Miscellaneous pathology: Ischial bursitis both sides.
67/1-2 Child, 911 yrs. A few vertebrae, long bones etc.
NIS.
JA 67/2 [HG] Child, 1314 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Fragments of pelvis, legs and feet.
Determination of age: length of R tibia (303mm).
JA 67/3 [HY] Female, 4555 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair-poor. Badly smashed skull, vertebrae fair,
pelvis, ribs and long bones much broken and deficient.
521
Determination of age: tooth wear medium.

Height: 1.627m from radius.
Teeth:
C
8 7 6 X / / / / 1 2 3 4 X X 7 8
/ 7 / / / / / / / 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Heavy calculus. Slight hypoplasia. Caries interstitial mesial.
Pathology: General arthritis: Slight OA lateral R clavicle, L
humeral head and L femoral head.
Degenerative change: Ossification L 1st costo-sternal cartilage.
JA 67/4 [JK] Male, 19 yrs. Med [Unphased]. In situ. (CW)
Condition: good. Skull smashed but most vertebrae, pelvis
ribs and upper limbs in good condition.
Determination of age: tooth wear slight.
Teeth:
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
No calculus.
Non-metric traits: Epicondylar process R humerus.
Miscellaneous pathology: Schmorls nodes (no details).
JA 67/5 [KC] Female, 2527 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, a few vertebrae, pelvic fragments and some long bones and other frags.
Determination of age: very slight tooth wear; pubis.
Teeth:
8 7 6 / 4 3 / / 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Medium calculus
Non-metric traits: Sacralisation of L5.
Pathology: Trauma: Exostosis/OP lipping of infero-medial
border L patella.
67/5-2 Frags of verts, long bones, R maxilla (U765432/),
of unsexed adult. NIS.
JA 67/6 [JQ] Male, adult. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Damaged parietals and occipital, some vertebrae and rib frags and a few other post-cranial frags.
Non-metric traits: Large inca bone (5552mm) with
extremely convoluted sutures.
JA 67/7 [KD 7] Male, 2428 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Frags of mandible, vertebrae, pelvis, 4 long
bones in fair condition, a few other frags.
Teeth:

6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 U
C
CA
Caries interstitial distal on R M1, whole crown decayed on L.
JA 67/9 [KS] Female, 3944 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair-poor. Smashed skull, broken vertebrae, pelvis
and ribs, some long bones fair, a few other frags.
Determination of age: pubis; tooth wear medium.
Teeth:
U 7 6 / / U / / / / U 4 5 6 7 U
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 U
Medium calculus.
67/9-2 [KX] Verts, ribs and long bones of adult female, different from 67/9. Med? NIS.
Pathology: Osteochondritis Dissecans: Small pit (33mm) on
base of 1st hallucial phalanx.
Trauma: Well healed Colles fracture of R radius.
67/9-3 [KX] Male?, 1819 yrs. Med? NIS.
Condition: poor. A few frags of vertebrae, broken pelvis, long
bones and other scraps.
522
Determination of age: tooth wear very slight.

Teeth:
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 /
7 6 5 / 3 / /
Gross hypoplasia.
Non-metric traits: L septal aperture.
JA 67/10 [KO] Male, adult. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. A few frags of skull and jaws, most of postcranial skeleton.
Teeth:
7 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 4 5 6 7 8
JA 67/11 [LW] Female, 5065 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Cranium, vertebrae, pelvis, long bones and
some other fragments.
Height: 1.558m from tibia.
Teeth:
CAA
C
U 7 X 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 X
U 7 6 5 4 / / X / / / / / X 7 U
Caries interstitial distal on M1, prox on M2.
Non-metric traits: L pterion is in form of X.
Pathology: OA (Cervical): Vertebral pathology present
(recording sheet lost).
Trauma: Colles fracture of R radius and R ulna styloid process.
General arthritis: OA both scapular glenoids and humeri
heads with eburnation. OA head L MT1 and R MTP1, bases
of L MT2-4, slight on cuboids. OA distal R radius (prob secondary to fracture). OA R mandibular condyle and temporal
glenoid fossa.
JA 67/12 [KY] Female, 3545 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. C7T1 vertebrae, R humerus and R femur
plus a few other fragments.
Determination of sex: gracile bones.
Pathology: Osteochondritis Dissecans: Pit in base of hallucial
first phalanx.
67/12-2 [KY] Male, adult. Med? NIS.
Condition: poor. Smashed skull, postcranial fragments
including tibiae and femora.
Teeth:
/ 7 6 5 / / / / / / / X / 6 / ?

67/12-3 [KY] Female, adult. Med? NIS.
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, all vertebrae, most long
bones and other frags. Apparently not the same as 67/12.
Teeth: / 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 /
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 U
Slight calculus.
JA 67/13 [KZ] Female?, adult. LS/EMMed [Sax]. In situ. (SA)
Condition: good. Tibiae, fibulae and feet only.
Height: 1.572m from fibula.
Pathology: Osteochondritis Dissecans: Pits bilaterally proximal MT2s, possibly developmental defect.
JA 67/14 [LN] Child, c 7 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In situ. (CW)
Condition: poor. Smashed skull, vertebral, pelvic, rib, long
bone and other frags.
Determination of age: tooth eruption/calcification.
Teeth: / / c d e 6
U 6 e d c / 1 1 / / d e 6 U
Pathology: Cribra Orbitalia: L. Cribriotic.
JA 67/16 [LM] Child, 911 yrs. Med. In situ.

(CW)
Condition: good. Smashed skull, pelvis, vertebrae, ribs and
long bones.
Determination of age: diaphyseal lengths, tooth eruption/
calcification.
Teeth:
U 6 e 4 O 2 1 1 2 3 4 / 6 U
U 6 5 4 O 2 1 1 2 O 4 e 6 U
C
Slight calculus. Lower R canine unerupted and lies almost
horizontal in alveolus.
Non-metric traits: L supra-orbital notch, R & L supra-orbital
grooves, R & L pterygoid spurs, lambdoid wormians (3L,
4R), L foramen transversarium of atlas incomplete.
Miscellaneous pathology: R ramus of mandible perforated
and partly destroyed by an infection. Hole is c 13.8
12.5mm. Cause may have been fracture.
JA 67/17 [MG] Child, c 12 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor
A severely broken skull, a few leg and foot bones.
Determination of age: tooth eruption/calcification; tibia diaphyseal length 265mm.
Teeth:
/ / 3 4 e 6 7 U

Non-metric traits: L parietal foramen, small inca bone, R
supra-orbital notch, R & L post-condylar canal, L double
hypoglossal canal.
Pathology: Cribra Orbitalia: R No, L Porotic.
JA 67/19 [MD] Male, 5060 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: good. Smashed skull, vertebrae, pelvis, ribs, etc,
all long bones. Most broken but otherwise good.
Determination of age: pubis and skull.
Determination of sex: robust skeleton.
Teeth:
? / 6 5 4 3 / X / / 3 4 5 6 7 /
8 7 6 5 / / / / / 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Slight calculus.
Non-metric traits: Large R third trochanter, xiphisternal
fusion.
Pathology: OA (Thoracic): Gross OA trans artic facet R 9th
rib and T9.
Trauma: Fusion of phalanges of L thumb, possibly due to
fracture.
General arthritis: OA of vertebrae, sacro-iliac joints, R shoulder. Slight on L scapula and L & R acetabuli, also patella.
OA proximal phalanx R thumb, slight OA R lesser multangular. OA L talus.
DISH: Extensive OP vertebrae, L12 fused.
Miscellaneous pathology: Craggy ischial tuberosities L & R.
JA 67/20 [MC] Female, 4550 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, vertebrae, pelvis, ribs, long
bones and other post-cranial elements.
Teeth: / 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / / 3 / 5 6 / /
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Medium hypoplasia
Pathology: Osteochondritis Dissecans: Two pits on proximal
surface L navicular (6 3 and 5 3mm).
Miscellaneous pathology: Anterior epiphyseal dysplasia of L4.
67/20-2 6 frags pelvis and long bones of child, c 910 yrs
(possibly same as 67/21-2 or 67/17). NIS.
JA 67/21 [MB] Child, 89 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Skull fragments and post-cranial skeleton.
Teeth: U 6 e d c 2 1 1 2 c d e 6 U
6 e d / / 1 1 2 / d e 6
Non-metric traits: R & L double infra-orbital foramina.
67/21-2 A few long bones of child, aged 910 yrs (poss same
as 67/20-2 or 67/17). NIS.
JA 67/22 [LX] Child, 810 yrs. LS/EMMed [Sax]. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: good. Smashed skull and most of post-cranial
skeleton.
Determination of age: tooth eruption/calcification, long bone
lengths.
Teeth:
2 1 1 2 / d e 6
6 e d O 2 1 / / / d e 6
Slight hypoplasia.
Non-metric traits: Incomplete transverse foramen of atlas, R
& L infero-lateral mental tuberosities, R & L post-condylar
canal.
Pathology: Cribra Orbitalia: R: Porotic.
Spina Bifida: S1
JA 67/23 [ME] Child, 89 yrs (SA), c 7 yrs (CW).
SaxMed [Med]. In situ.
Condition: poor (SA); fair-good (CW). Fragmentary skull
and broken post-cranial bones.
Determination of age: lengths of diaphyses (SA); lengths of
long bones (CW).
JA 67/24 [NE] Male, 5570 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Skull, vertebrae, damaged pelvis and long
bones, a few other fragments.
Determination of sex: fairly robust skull.
Teeth:
A
X X 3 / 1 1 2 / X 5 X
? X X 5 4 3 / X X X 3 X X X X ?
C C
Caries interstitial contiguous.
Pathology: Cribra Orbitalia: R Porotic, L Porotic.
Osteochondritis Dissecans: Pit on head L humerus
(1913mm) and healed pit on head R humerus (c 6 5mm).
General arthritis: Early OA head R humerus and proximal L
ulna, also base and head of R MC1 and base of distal hallucial phalanx.
Degenerative change: Vertebral disease (sheet lost).
JA 67/26 [ND] Female?, adult. LS/EMMed [Sax]. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fairgood. A few frags of cranial vault and jaw,
vertebrae and pelvis fair, long bones good.
Determination of sex: pelvis damaged but probably female,
skull appeared male, long bones medium.
Teeth:
/ / / 4
8 7 X / 4 3 2 / / / / /
Slight calculus. A loose canine and premolar both with radiculitis.
Pathology: OA (Thoracic): T10 L artic with transverse
process of rib, gross.
Osteochondritis Dissecans: Pit distal R humerus?
General arthritis: OA sacro-iliac joints?
Degenerative change: OA, Schmorls nodes etc of vertebrae
(sheet lost).
JA 67/27 [MJ] Child, 12 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair-good. Smashed skull and post-cranial skeleton.
lengths.
Determination of sex: possibly male (based on ?)
Teeth:
C C
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 / 2 3 4 5 6 7 U
523
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 U
C
Gross hypoplasia. Caries interstitial on upper premolar,
occlusal on upper M1 and ? on lower M1.
JA 67/28 [NF] Child, 2fi3 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In situ. (CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, vertebrae, ribs and long bone
fragments.
lengths.
Teeth:
e d b c d e
e d c b d e
Miscellaneous pathology: Some anterior bowing of femora, L
more than R. Possibly very mild rickets.
JA 67/29 [NG] Female, 2427 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, pelvis, all vertebrae, rib frags,
most long bones.
Determination of age: pubis and skull.
Height: 1.322m.
Teeth:
? X X 5 4 3 / / 1 / 3 4 5 6 7 ?
8 X X 5 4 3 / / / 2 3 4 5 6
C C
Heavy calculus. Caries occlusal on M1, interstitial distally on
premolar.
Pathology: Spinal OP: C17, T112, L15.
Infection: Severe sinusitis, especially of L maxillary sinus; R
also affected.
Degenerative change: Some collapse of bodies of T7 and T9.
Osteophytes are gross.
Miscellaneous pathology: Dwarf (see Wells 1979). At least 4
mid ribs have concave external surfaces from above down.
JA 67/30 [NJ] Female?, 3050 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few fragments of vertebrae, pelvis, ribs
and some damaged long bones.
Pathology: Infection: Mild osteitis proximal half L fibula.
JA 67/31 [NH] Child, 612 mths. LS/EMMed [Sax]. In
situ.
(SA)
Condition: poor.
Most of skeleton present.
Determination of age: tooth calcification.
Teeth:
u u u /
u / / / / / o o u u
JA 67/32 [NN] Male, 5060 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, jaws, T10L5 vertebrae,
pelvis, long bones, etc.
Teeth:
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 U
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 U
C
Slight calculus. Caries tiny occlusal cavity. Small diastemata
(c 3.5mm) between upper canines and first premolars.
Non-metric traits: L epicondylar process.
Pathology: Trauma: Well-marked exostosis on R navicular,
antero-lateral corner, presumably from tear of middle and
lateral fibres of dorsal cuneonavicular ligament.
Infection: Periostitis R tibia. Osteitic thickening of frontal
bone and pitted area on L parietal.
67/32-2 Adult foot bones. NIS.
67/32-3 Tibia of newborn (77mm). NIS.
JA 67/33 [NL] Male, 4855 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Vertebrae, frags of pelvis, long bones, etc.
Determination of age: pubis.
524

Pathology: Trauma: 2 fractures L ribs, well healed. Fracture
just proximal of midshaft L radius.
General arthritis: Slight OA L ilium at SIJ. OA with eburnation distal L ulna, and slight OA proximally.
Degenerative change: OP vertebrae.
JA 67/34 [NK] Female, 2527 yrs?. LS/EMMed [Sax]. In
situ.
(CW)
Condition: good. Frags of pelvis, 7 long bones in good condition, a few other frags.
JA 67/35 [OE] Female, 3045 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Broken skull, vertebrae, pelvis, ribs (mostly
damaged), long bones, etc.
Determination of sex: strongly built woman.
Teeth:
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / / 3 4 5 6 7 U
8 7 X 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Heavy calculus.
JA 67/36 [OY] Male, 1617 yrs. LS/EMMed [Sax]. In
situ.
(CW)
Condition: good. Smashed skull and most of post-cranial
skeleton.
diaphyseal lengths.
Teeth:
O 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / / 3 4 5 6 7 O
/ 5 6 7 O
Medium calculus. Hypoplasia.
Non-metric traits: Metopism.
Pathology: Osteochondritis Dissecans: Small pit proximal R
navicular (4 2.5mm).
JA 67/37 [OD] Female?, 16 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, broken pelvis and vertebrae,
rib frags, most long bones, etc.
Teeth:
? 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ?
O 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 O
JA 67/38 [OA] Male?, adult. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Some leg and foot bones.
JA 67/ 39[OE] Child, 56 mths. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, some long bones and vertebrae.
Determination of age: long bone lengths.
67/39-2 Frags of adult hand bones (probably part of 67/35).
NIS.
JA 67/40 [PJ] Male, 1617 yrs. LS/EMMed [Sax]. In situ. (CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, vertebrae, pelvis, ribs, long
bones, etc.
Teeth:
O 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 O
O 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 O
Slight calculus.
JA 67/41 [OM] Child, 22fi yrs. LS/EMMed [Sax]. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Very smashed skull, a few broken long bones
and other fragments.
Determination of age: tooth eruption/calcification, long
bone lengths.
Teeth:
c d e
e d c b a a
JA 67/42 [OX] Child, 34 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In situ. (CW)
Condition: fair. Frags of vertebrae, pelvis and long bones.
Determination of age: long bone lengths.
JA 67/43 [PF] Male, adult. Med [Unphased]. In situ. (CW)
Condition: fair. Frags of skull and jaws, pelvis, most long

bones, foot bones.
Height: 1.709m.
Teeth:
/ 5 / 3 / / / / 3 / / X X /
/ X X 5 4 / / / 5 6 7 /
Medium calculus.
Non-metric traits: L parietal foramen.
Osteochondritis Dissecans: Poss pit in semilunar notch R
ulna, dist R radius, prox R talus, med condyles both femora.
Infection: Slight periostitis proximal third R fibula.
General arthritis: Gross OA both SIJ, both acetabuli, gross
with eburnation on head L femur.
Miscellaneous pathology: Craggy outgrowths over acetabuli
above caves extending c 22mm into ilium on L and c 15mm
on R.
67/43-2 Teeth of child, 56 yrs. NIS.
67/43-3 Frags of pelvis, ribs, long bones of female, 2530
yrs. NIS.
JA 67/44 [PE] Female, 2628 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Badly smashed skull, vertebrae, pelvis, long
bones, etc.
Determination of age: tooth wear slight; pubis.
Determination of sex: heavily built woman.
Teeth:
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 2 3 4 5 X 7 8
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Slight calculus.
JA 67/45 [PM] Female, 2022 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In situ.
Condition: fair. Broken facial bones, vertebrae, long bones,
etc. (CW)
Determination of age: tooth wear very slight; epiphyseal
fusion, pubis.
Teeth:
8 7 6 5 / / / 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
JA 67/46 [PH] Male?, adult. SaxMed [Med]. NIS. (CW)
Condition: poor. Frags of skull, a few damaged long bones.
Determination of sex: mastoids and femoral articulations
suggest female, sciatic notch and orbital margin male.
Teeth:
U 7 6 / 4 3 2 / / / / / 5 / 7 U

Trauma: A long exostosis on the L femur at insertion of
Adductor longus (62mm long, c 17mm wide, rises c 11mm
from linea aspera). Typical riders bone.
JA 67/48 [PK] Female?, adult. Med. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: fair. Tibiae, fibulae and feet only.
JA 67/49 [PO] Male, adult. LS/EMMed [Sax]. In situ. (CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, some vertebrae, pelvic and
rib frags, broken long bones, etc.
Determination of age: tooth wear mediumheavy; some
degeneration.
Teeth:
C
8 7 X 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 X
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C
Heavy calculus. Caries occlusal from attrition opening pulp
cavity on lower M2, interstitial distally on upper premolar.
Osteochondritis Dissecans: Pit in base 1st hallucial phalanx

(74.5mm).
Infection: Periostitic roughening both fibulae shafts.
General arthritis: Slight OA shoulder joints.
Miscellaneous pathology: Erosion of superior and inferior
surfaces of C67 bodies.
JA 67/50 [PN] Female, 4247 yrs. LS/EMMed [Sax]. In
situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, damaged vertebrae, pelvis,
ribs, long bones, etc.
Determination of sex: tall, strongly built woman.
Teeth:
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Slight calculus. Medium hypoplasia.
67/50-2 R maxilla ( / 7 / 5 / 3 2 / ). Medium attrition. NIS
JA 67/51 [PG] Female, adult. Med [Unphased]. In situ. (CW)
Condition: fair. Frags of skull, a few bones and frags from
lower limbs.
Determination of sex: very lightly built woman.
JA 67/52 [OB] Male, 1620 yrs. Med. NIS.
(SA)
Condition: poor. L femur and R tibia only.
Determination of age: femur only partially fused.
Determination of sex: bones large.
Non-metric traits: L third trochanter.
JA 67/53 [MT] Female?, adult. NIS.
(CW)
L patella, L calcaneus, 1 metacarpal, 3 metatarsals, 1 pollicial phal.
JA 69/2 [NC] Unsexed, adult. Sax. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Very small fragments of adult cranium.
JA 69/3 [PO] Child, 34 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Very smashed skull and jaws, a few vertebral,
rib and long bone frags.
Teeth:
e d c / /
O e / / / d e
JA 69/6 [QI] Male, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Very fragmented.
Pathology: Spinal OP: one frag T.
JA 69/7 [QC] Unsexed, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Leg and foot bones.
Osteochondritis Dissecans: Pit on superior surface of R calcaneus (c 6.54mm).
JA 69/8 [RS] Child, c 9 mths. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few tiny frags of skull and long bones.
JA 69/9 [RR] Child, c 46 mths. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few frags of skull, ribs and long bones.
JA 69/10 [QJ] Male, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few frags of pelvis, vertebrae and long bones.
Infection: Poss periostitis distal L tibia. Thickening and
roughening prox R femur.
General arthritis: Gross OA head R femur and acetabulum.
Miscellaneous pathology: R linea aspera deviates medially. A
carpal prox and middle phalanges are ankylosed (at c 120),
possibly hairline fracture or leprosy.
69/10-2 Newborn infant femur frag. NIS.
JA 69/11 [VZ] Male, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few very eroded frags of vertebrae, pelvis,
ribs and long bones.
525
JA 69/12 [TD] Child, c 79 yrs. Sax. In situ.

(CW)
Condition: poor. A few frags of lower limb bones.
Determination of age: length of tibia (c 230mm).
JA 69/14 [WR] Male, 4550 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few frags of skull, some vertebral, pelvic,
long bone and other frags.
Pathology: Schmorls Nodes: T12
Spinal OP: C3, 6, T12, L1
OA (Cervical): C7
General arthritis: Gross OA base of 1st phalanx.
69/14-2 Frags of child, c 89 yrs. NIS.
JA 69/15 [UW] Male, 5575 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair-good. Skull, all vertebrae, broken pelvis,
most long bones intact, ribs, other frags.
Teeth: Gross radiculitis around the only surviving (loose)
tooth, a premolar. A few other teeth present in fill.
Trauma: Severe midshaft fracture L femur, well healed but in
bad position.
Miscellaneous pathology: Extensive thickening, roughening
and bowing of femora, tibia, humeri, ulna, radii, fibulae. Ribs
very thickened, innominates slightly deformed. Skull thickened, a few pits in external table of vault c 7 5mm. Pagets
Disease (Wells and Woodhouse 1975; see Figs 36.1415).
A few loose bones in the fill (some OA) probably belong to
the same skeleton.
JA 69/16 [WC] Female, 3545 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair-good. Skull in good condition, vertebrae,
pelvis and long bones fair, a few other frags.
Determination of sex: skull very gracile and feminine.
Teeth:
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 U
U X 6 5 4 3 2 1 / 2 3 4 5 6 X U
Some overcrowding of anterior teeth.
Miscellaneous pathology: L side of palate is defective, posterior half is absent, possibly congenital, no evidence of infection. Gap is 14mm ant-post, 11mm transversely.
69/16-2 Frags of skull, ribs, etc of child 23 yrs. NIS.
JA 69/17 [WS] Female?, 2535 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Fragmentary skull and L humerus.
Determination of age: tooth wear.
Teeth:
/ 7 6 5 4 /
U 7 6 5 4 3
Slight calculus. Slight hypoplasia.
69/17-2 [WS, WV] Child, c 5 yrs. Sax. NIS.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Fragmentary skull and both humeri. Also
frags of scapula and ribs.
Teeth:
U U e d / / / / / / d / U U
U U e d / / / / / / d e U U
JA 69/18 [WU] Child, newborn. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few tiny scraps of skull, and long bones.
JA 69/19 [WT] Child?. Sax. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Frags of juvenile ribs, vertebrae, cranium
and two humeri.
JA 69/20 [XJ] Male, 4055 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair-good. Skull, vertebrae, pelvis, ribs, long
bones and other post-cranial frags.
Determination of age: tooth wear heavy.
Determination of sex: skull not particularly robust.
Teeth: U 7 6 5 / 3 / / / 2 3 / 5 6 7 U
U / X 5 4 3 / / 1 2 / / 5 6 / /
526

Pathology: General arthritis: Slight OA R humerus head.
Gross OA R acetabulum and R femoral head with eburnation
and granular pitting of the bone. V slight OA in a few intertarsal joints of both feet and on a base of L 1st metatarsal.
JA 69/21 [YQ] Unsexed, adult. Sax. In situ.
(SA)
One adult phalanx was all that remained of the in situ burial.
69/21-2 Child. Fragments of cranium and rib. NIS.
JA 69/22-1 [YJ] Unsexed, adult. Sax. ND.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Adult cervical vertebra, frags of phalanx,
ribs and clavicle, large ?unfused femoral head.
69/22-2 Frags of juvenile cranium. NIS.
JA 69/23 [YS] Child, 1011 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Mandible, some vertebrae, R ilium and some
broken long bones.
Determination of age: humeri lengths (245mm), tooth calcification/eruption.
Teeth:

O 6 5 4 3 / / / / / / / 6 O
Heavy calculus on canine.
69/23-2 [YS] Unsexed, sub-adult. Sax. NIS.
(SA)
Condition: fair. Frags of large ribs and vertebrae, two clavicles, phalanges, frag of tibia.
Determination of age: ribs, vertebrae and clavicles not completely fused.
JA 69 [KU] Context 3084. NIS.
(SA)
69/24
Adult: four vertebrae, three fragments of cranium,
part of an ulna, large phalanx and fragments of rib. One L
vertebra has OP.
69/25
Juvenile: fragments of rib, ulna, small fragment of
cranium. Length of ulna suggests an age of c 6 mths.
JA 69 [MG] Context 3116. NIS.
(SA)
69/26 Fragments of adult skull
69/27 Frags of juvenile skull and ribs.
69/28 Frags of juvenile femur of a different individual.
69/46 Pelvis of a mature female.
JA 69 [OH] Context 3129. NIS.
(SA)
69/30: Fragments of an adult ulna or fibula, and part of an
adult mandible.
Teeth:

/ / 6 / / / / / / / / / / / / /
Slight calculus, hypoplasia and resorption. The attrition
score on the M1 is 4b, suggesting an age of 2535 yrs.
69/31 Cranium of a child aged less than 12 mths.
69/45 Fragments of juvenile tibia
JA 69/32 [OK] Context 3113. Child. NIS.
(SA)
Fragment of juvenile cranium.
JA 69/33 [OL] Context 3168. Male?, adult. NIS.
(SA)
Fragments of skull, ribs and phalanx, possibly of a male.
JA 69/34 [QO] Context 4468. ?Adult. NIS.
(SA)
Very eroded fragments of toe bones and cranium.
JA 69 [QW] Context 3421. NIS.
(SA)
69/35
Two adult cervical vertebrae, part of a sternum,
fragments of ribs, and six phalanges.
69/36
One fragment of juvenile cranium.
JA 69 [RU] Context 3129. NIS.
(SA)
69/37 Small fragments of adult.
69/38
Small fragments of juvenile, including one small
(?deciduous) molar.
JA 69/39 [SO] Context 3289. Adult. NIS.
(SA)
Part of shaft of an adult femur.
JA 69 [WN] Context 3149. Juvenile and adult. NIS.
SA)
69/40
Fragments of juvenile scapulae, pelvis and ribs.
Part of a mandible of a child aged 89 yrs.
Teeth:

2 1 1 2 / d e 6 O
69/41
Parts of an ?adult femur, ulnae, and temporal bone,
possibly female.
JA 69 [YM] Context 3149. Child and adult. NIS.
(SA)
69/43
Fragments of juvenile skull, scapula, rib and ulna.
The lambdoid suture of the skull has wormian bones present.
69/42 Fragments of various adult bones.
?JA 69 Cuneiform bone from an adult foot.
JA 70/3 [HI] Child, 810 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Some skull frags, vertebrae, long bones, etc.
Teeth:
6 e d c / / d e
1 / c d e 6
Non-metric traits: R post-condylar canal.
JA 70/6 [HH] Female, middle-aged. LMed. In situ. (SA)
Condition: fair. Lower limbs and pelvis only.
Determination of sex: wide sciatic notch.
Height: 1.601m from fibula.
Non-metric traits: L third trochanter.
Pathology: General arthritis: OA with eburnation head R
MT1.
Degenerative change: OP and possible OA around femoral
head and acetabulum.
JA 70/8 [PY] Child, 1112 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few frags of skull, jaw, ribs, long bones, etc.
Teeth:

/ 6 O / 3 / /
Non-metric traits: L atlas bridge.
Pathology: Osteochondritis Dissecans: Distal epiphysis of
tibia with pit 9 6mm.
JA 70/9 [AHJ] Male, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: unwashed. Not fully examined.
Determination of age: tooth wear slight-medium.
Teeth:
U 7 6 5 4 3 / / 1 / 3 4 5 6 7
U X 6 5 4 3 2 / / / 3 4 5 6 7 U
Non-metric traits: Upper L M2 has 4 roots.
JA 70/10 [JN] Child, c 4 mths. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Disintegrated and eroded skull and a few
frags of post-cranial skeleton.
Determination of age: humerus length c 85mm.
JA 70/11 [JT] Child, 5+ yrs. Sax. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Frags of cranium, radius, ulna, humerus,
femur, pelvis, ribs and vertebrae.
JA 70/12 [QR] Child, c 4 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few eroded frags of cranial vault, vertebrae, ribs and long bones.
JA 70/13-1 [IF] Child, c 2 yrs. Sax? ND.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Frag of ulna and maxilla.
Determination of age: ulna suggests 12 yrs, maxilla 24 yrs.
Teeth:
U e d / / /

No calculus.
70/13-2 Distal adult humerus (large) and rib frag. ND.
JA 70/14 [IW, QF] Male, 4050 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. A few skull frags, badly damaged vertebrae
and pelvis, frags of long bones.
Determination of age: degeneration.
Pathology: OA (Lumbar): L5 gross OA of proximal joints
(distal missing).
Ankylosing Hyperostosis: Two mid-thoracic vertebrae fused
by OP. Gross OP all surviving verts.
Osteochondritis Dissecans: L acetabulum has a small pit

7 5mm.
Trauma: Colles fracture L radius, healed with usual displacement and excess of callus.
General arthritis: OA of SIJs. OA of R femoral condyles,
gross on proximal tibia and patella. OA distal L radius probably secondary to fracture.
JA 70/15 [JX] Male?, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Frags of jaw, a few scraps of pelvis, long
bones and fingers.
Teeth:
A
X 7 X 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
X 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 / 7 8
Pathology: General arthritis: Early OA distal articulation L
radius.
JA 70/16 [MG] Child, newborn. Sax. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Fragmentary remains of cranium, ribs,
humerus, tibia, etc.
JA 70/17 [PQ] Child, 1012 yrs. LMed. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, vertebrae, pelvic and long
bone frags.
Non-metric traits: R & L precondylar tubercles, R & L third
trochanters.
JA 70/21-1 [PC] Male, middle-aged. Med? NIS.
(SA)
Condition: fair. Frags of skull and most of skeleton (no pelvis
or teeth).
Non-metric traits: Ossicle at lambda, parietal foramina.
Pathology: General arthritis: Marked OA at elbow joints, OP
both distal humeri, eburnation with pitting of the capitulum
of L humerus.
70/21-2 [PC] One humerus and possible L tibia of a
?female. NIS.
JA 70/23 [MP] Child, c 46 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair? Frag of frontal, R temporal and pieces of
long bone shaft.
Determination of age: metopic suture fused, femoral length c
190mm.
70/23-2 4 frags of long bones of newborn infant. FeL1=71;
TiL1=64. NIS.
JA 70/24 [OY] Male, 4350 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Frag of mandible, vertebrae, pelvis, long
bones, etc.
Teeth:
C
6
8 X /
Caries probably interstitial, large cavity.
Pathology: Schmorls Nodes: T1112, L2
Spinal OP: T912, L12
OA (Lumbar): L4S1 bodies?
General arthritis: Severe OA both patellae, slight on R
femoral condyle.
70/24-2, 70/24-3 Frags of long bones etc of two children
aged c 22.5 yrs. NIS.
JA 70/26 [PP] Female, 5065 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, vertebrae, pelvic frags, 3 long
bones, etc.
Determination of age: tooth wear medium; OA pubis.
Determination of sex: pelvis.
Teeth:
6 5 4 3 2 /
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 X
527
4 5 6 7
/ / 3 4 5 6 7 8
C
Caries buccal cervical.

Pathology: Infection: Periostitis and osteitis both parietals
(low grade pitting and roughness, slightly striate).
General arthritis: OA pubic symphysis.
70/26-2 Frags of vault, ribs, long bones of a child, 2024
mths (probably part of 70/32). NIS.
JA 70/27 [PV] Male, adult. Med. NIS.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A broken and defective skull, and a few tiny
post-cranial frags.
Teeth: / 4 / / / 1 2 /

JA 70/28 [PB] Male?, 4555 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, frags of vertebrae, ribs, pelvis
and some long bones.
Determination of age: pubis; tooth wear slight.
Determination of sex: sexing difficult.
Teeth: 8 7 6 5 4 3 / 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 / / 3 4 5 6 7 /
Heavy calculus.
70/28-2, 70/28-3 Frags of two children, 912 yrs and c 2 yrs.
NIS.
JA 70/30 [PU] Male?, adult. Med. NIS.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Fragments of cranium, scapula, phalanx/
metatarsal, vertebrae.
Determination of age: vertebrae unfused on surface, may
belong to another individual.
JA 70/31 [PL] Female, 4060 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, damaged vertebrae and ribs,
a few long bone frags.
Teeth:
C C
/ 7 6 X 4 3 2 1 1 / X X 5 X X /
/ 7 X X 4 3 2 1 / 2 3 4 5 X 7 ?
C
Caries interstitial distal on M2s, mesial on M1.
Non-metric traits: Double L mental foramen, double hypoglossal canal, R atlas bridge. Possibly identical twin with JA 70/35.
Pathology: Infection: Sinusitis L & R maxillary antra.
General arthritis: OA with eburnation distal R radius.
JA 70/32 [PO] Child, c 2 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Five long bones of lower limbs.
Determination of age: tibiae lengths 135137mm, fibula
134mm.
JA 70/33 [PR] Child, c 78 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few vertebral, pelvic, rib and long bone
frags.
JA 70/34 [PT] Child, c 3 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Fragmented skull, a few frags of pelvis, ribs,
long bones, etc.
Determination of age: length of femur 195mm.
70/34-2 Frags of another child (pelvis, humerus, ulna,
femur, tibia), c 2 yrs. NIS.
JA 70/35 [PK] Female, 4060 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Broken and incomplete skull, a few small
frags of vertebrae and long bones.
Teeth: C
C
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 X X 5 4 3 2 / 1 / / 4 X X 7 8
C
528
All caries buccal cervical.

Pathology: Spinal OP: C24, L5
OA (Lumbar): L5 distal.
70/35-2 Fragment of another R mandible, slight wear,
( / 7 X 5 4 / ). NIS.
JA 70/36 [SS, QG] Child, 57 yrs. Med. In situ. (CW, SA)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, vertebrae, pelvis, ribs,
long bones, etc (seen by CW); L femur with distal epiphysis
and proximal tibial epiphysis, and frag of ?fibula (seen by
SA).
Determination of age: tooth eruption/calcification (67 yrs,
CW); length of femoral diaphysis (56 yrs, SA).
Teeth: 6 e d / / O O / / d e 6
6 e d / / / 1 / / d e 6
Non-metric traits: R & L post-condylar canal, R parietal
foramen.
Pathology: Infection: Gross maxillary sinusitis bilaterally.
Miscellaneous pathology: Foraminal index very low (65.0),
may be just a normal variant.
JA 70/37 [RA] Male?, adult. Sax. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Very eroded femoral shaft and fragment of
tibia.
JA 70/38 [PA] Unsexed, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few frags of vault and jaws, some badly
damaged vertebrae and frags of long bones.
Teeth: / 2 3 / 5 6 7 /
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 / 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
JA 70/39 [PI, OE] Male, 5060 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Smashed skull, a few vertebrae, ribs, pelvis
and long bone frags.
Teeth:
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 / 1 2
Non-metric traits: L septal aperture, L third trochanter.
Spinal OP: T1112
General arthritis: Gross OA with eburnation L humerus at
elbow. Gross OA R acetabulum rim.
70/39-2 [OE] Frags of child 810 yrs. NIS
70/39-3, 4 [OE] A few frags of?female and ?male. NIS.
JA 70/40 [PG] Female?, adult. Med. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: fair. L humerus, R tibia and femur, frag fibula,
frag scapula.
JA 70/43 [OZ] Male?, adult. Sax. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: fair. Lower limbs only. See also 70/74 & 70/141,
other parts of same individual.
Non-metric traits: Third trochanters both femora.
JA 70/44 [PJ] Female, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: v poor. T12L5 vertebrae, frags of pelvis and a
few long bones.
JA 70/45 [PH] Child, 1314 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Most of skeleton.
Determination of age: lengths of diaphyses.
Teeth: U 7 6 5 4 2 1 1 2 c 4 5 6 7 U
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ? 2 3 4 5 6 7 U
Slight calculus. Slight hypoplasia. One lower incisor was
apparently congenitally absent, and at least one upper canine
had not erupted.
Non-metric traits: Parietal foramina.
Pathology: Cribra Orbitalia: R. Porotic.
JA 70/46 [PF] Child, 34 yrs. Med. In situ.

(CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, a few vertebrae, ribs, pelvic
frags, long bones, etc.
Teeth: e d / / / / / c d e
e d c / / / b c d e
JA 70/47 [QE] Child, 1012 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Broken mandible, vertebrae, pelvic and rib
frags, some damaged and eroded long bones.
Determination of age: tooth calcification/eruption.
Teeth:
6 e d c 2 1 1 2 c d e 6
JA 70/48 [RT] Child, 22fi yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, frags of vertebrae, pelvis,
ribs, scapulae and long bones.
Determination of age: tooth eruption/calcification; long bone
lengths (HuL1=133, FeL1=168, UlL1=101, RaL1=98mm).
Teeth: e d c / a / b c d e
e d c b / / b / /
Small abnormally shaped incisor in roof of palate, apparently about to erupt through incisive foramen.
Non-metric traits: Well marked inferior lateral mental tubercles.
Pathology: Cribra Orbitalia: L Porotic.
JA 70/50 [PD] Female, 45+ yrs. Sax. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: fair. Skull and fragmentary post-cranial skeleton.
Determination of age: very heavy wear on remaining M3.
Teeth: / / / / / X X X ?
8 X X X / / / / / / 3 / 5 X / ?
Medium calculus. Slight hypoplasia
Non-metric traits: Lambdoid wormians.
JA 70/51 [PX] Female?, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Some damaged leg and foot bones.
JA 70/52 [PE] Child, 78 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, many vertebrae, pelvic, rib
etc frags, some long bones.
Teeth:
C
6 e d / 2 1 1 2 / d e 6
6 e d / / / 1 2 c d e 6
Caries interstitial distal.
Non-metric traits: Sagittal sinus turns left.
JA 70/53 [PW] Child, 67 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Badly smashed skull, pelvic, vertebral frags,
long bones.
Teeth: 6 e d c / / / / c d e 6
6 e d / / O O / / d e 6
Non-metric traits: Lambdoid wormians (1 L, 2 R).
Pathology: Sinusitis: Chronic sinusitis L maxilla.
70/53-2 Frags skull, R mandible (O 6 O / ), long
bones, child 56 yrs. NIS.
JA 70/55 [AHC] Child, 12 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Skull frags, damaged vertebrae, frags of
pelvis, long bones, etc.
Determination of age: tooth eruption/calcification; diaphyseal length.
Teeth: O 6 5 4 3 / / / / 3 / / 6 7 U
7 6 5 4 3 2 / 1 2 3 / 5 6 7 U
Also two incisors and two molars (loose).
Non-metric traits: R Huschkes foramen.
70/55-2 Frags tib and fib sub-adult 1516 yrs. NIS.
70/55-3 Frags jaw, scap, child c 2 yrs. NIS.
JA 70/56 [RR] Male?, 1214 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair-good. Vertebrae, pelvis, ribs, femora and a
few other post-cranial frags.

Determination of age: diaphyseal length.
Determination of sex: pelvis?
[AEU] = Lower part of same individual
(SA)
Child, at least 56 yrs. Condition: poor. Distal ends of both
tibiae and a fibula, and various foot bones.
JA 70/57 [ABI] Female?, adult. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Frags of humeri, femora, tibiae, etc.
JA 70/58 [QY] Female, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Skull unwashed and smashed, C25 vertebrae, L clavicle and a few other post-cranial frags. See also
70/127, part of same body.
Determination of age: medium tooth wear.
Teeth:
8 7 / 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 / / 5 6 7 8
Heavy calculus.
JA 70/59 [WM] Male?, 3545 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Fragmentary skeleton.
Determination of age: molar attrition.
Determination of sex: bones small but fairly robust, skull
indeterminate, sciatic notch narrow.
Teeth:
/ 7 X / / 3 3 4 5 / 7 /
Non-metric traits: Lambdoid wormians.
JA 70/60 [RL] Child, 67 yrs. Med. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: good. Most of skeleton.
Determination of age: length of long bones (c 6); tooth
eruption/calcification (67).
Teeth:
C
U 6 e d c ? a / b c d e O
U O e d c b / / b c d e O U
Upper L incisor apparently never erupted. Caries is interproximal.
Non-metric traits: R parietal foramen.
70/60-2 Two femora, talus, ribs, mandible, and foot bones
of adult. NIS.
70/60-3 Radius and pelvis of older child. NIS.
JA 70/61 [WK] Male, 5070 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In situ.
Condition: poor. Calvarium, mandible, a few vertebrae,
some other post-cranial frags. (CW)
Determination of age: tooth wear medium; some degeneration.
Determination of sex: medium robust skull.
Teeth: X X X / X / / 1 / X / X X X X
X X X 5 4 3 2 X X 2 3 4 5 6 7
Heavy calculus.
Pathology: OA (Cervical): C3-6, gross on C3-4. OA
(Thoracic): T1 superior.
General arthritis: Gross OA R acetabulum, slight on L
scapular glenoid.
Miscellaneous pathology: Skull is plagiocranial.
70/61-2 Vertebrae, pelvis, long bones, etc of child c 68 yrs.
NIS.
JA 70/62 [SP] Female, 2226 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few badly smashed and eroded remains
of pelvis and femora.
Determination of sex: bones gracile; pelvis.
JA 70/64 [QS] Child, 1824 mths. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Badly smashed skull, very few post-cranial
scraps.
Teeth: d o
/ d / / c d o
529
JA 70/66-1 [SM] Female?, adult. Sax? ND.

(CW)
Condition: poor. A few very tiny frags of vault and mandible,
3 slivers of long bone.
Teeth:
/ 7 6 5 4 / / / 4 5 6 7 /
70/66-2 3 frags vault, R femoral head of child c 811 yrs.
NIS.
JA 70/68 [TP/TR] Male, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Frags of pelvis, L radius, frags of lower limbs.
Non-metric traits: R acetabular crease.
Pathology: Infection: Light periosteal graining on shafts of
both tibiae.
70/68-2 Duplication of some tarsal elements, etc. NIS.
JA 70/69 [YQ] Male?, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. R patella and a few frags of much eroded
femora and lower leg bones.
Determination of sex: bones robust.
JA 70/70 [VE] Female?, 3040 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few frags of vault, R temporal, a few frags
of long bones.
JA 70/71 [SH] Female, 4060 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Skull, maxilla and mandible, a few small
frags post-cranial skeleton.
Determination of age: medium tooth wear.
Determination of sex: skull gracile.
Teeth: / 4 3 / / / / 3 4 / 6 7 8
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 / 2 3 4 / 6 7 U
Slight overcrowding anterior mandibular teeth.
JA 70/72 [RQ] Child, c 6 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few vertebral, pelvic, rib and long bone
frags.
Determination of age: diaphyseal lengths (FeL1=247mm).
JA 70/73 [WX] Male?, 1920 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair-good. All vertebrae, pelvis and most long
bones.
Determination of age: R humeral head epiphysis loose, L just
fused.
Teeth: 8 7 6 5 / 3 / 1 //2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 / / / 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Upper third molars very small. Extra upper L incisor (missing).
JA 70/74 [SJ] Female, 4045 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
= Middle part of 70/43. Condition: poor. Broken pelvis, c 20
small post-cranial fragments.
Non-metric traits: L acetabular crease.
JA 70/75 [SN] Female?, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Very badly fragmented skull, a few small
Teeth:

U 7 6 / / /
Also 3 molars, 4 premolars, 1 canine, 4 incisors.
Non-metric traits: Sagittal sinus turns L.
JA 70/76 [TT] Male, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few scraps of vault, pelvis and long bone.
JA 70/77 [TI, XD] Male, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few damaged vertebrae, frags of long
bones, distal parts of legs and feet.
Pathology: Osteochondritis Dissecans: Pit c 11 8mm distal
R tibia. Very early lesion base R 1st hallucial phalanx.
General arthritis: Slight OA heads both MT1s.
530
JA 70/78 [TK] Female, 5060 yrs. Sax. In situ.

(CW)
Condition: fair. Badly smashed incomplete skull, vertebrae,
a few frags of scapula, clavicle, arms.
Determination of age: tooth wear medium-heavy; some
degeneration.
Determination of sex: very gracile.
Teeth: / 7 6 5 4 3 2 /
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
Medium calculus. Pulp cavity of upper R M1 is open but
plugged with secondary dentine.
Pathology: General arthritis: Slight OA transverse articular
facets of 2 ribs, and R scapular glenoid border.
JA 70/79 [TO] Male?, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Distal femora, both tibiae.
Height: 1.731m from L tibia.
Extra bone from area of skels 70/76-79 [TL] NIS. (CW)
Condition: poor. Muddled complex of broken frags of more
than 3 individuals (adult male, adult female, probably from
70/76-79). Also infant c 34 mths (70/220).
JA 70/81 [VR] Child, c 68 mths. SaxMed [Med]. In situ.
Condition: poor. Badly smashed skull, a few frags of vertebrae, long bones, etc. (CW)
Determination of age: diaphyseal lengths.
JA 70/82 [ZV] Child, c 4 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, a few frags of vertebrae,
pelvis, ribs, some long bones.
Teeth: e d / / /
e d / / / / / / / e
Pathology: Trauma: Exostosis on L tibia medial border c
20mm distal to head.
Infection: Osteitis/periosteitis R humerus, roughening over
insertion of deltoid.
Miscellaneous pathology: L femur extensively bowed in distal half with splaying of distal end, R also affected to lesser
extent. L tibia and fibula bowed laterally, R also but less. All
show signs of periostitis. Possible rickets? (see Fig 36.13).
70/82-2 Female, 2535 yrs. Med. NIS.
Condition: poor. Broken mandible, a few small frags of pelvis
and long bones. (Probably part of 70/124).
Determination of sex: bones gracile.
Teeth:
C
8 7 6 5 4 / / / 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 / 4 5 6 7 8
Medium calculus. Medium hypoplasia. Caries interstitial
mesial.
Pathology: Osteochondritis Dissecans: Pit c 9.5 6.5 on
medial condyle L tibia.
Trauma: Exostosis posterior edge L femoral head.
Infection: Periosteal new bone L tibia medial just below head.
70/82-3 Frags of distal humeri of adult, trace of OA L troch
surface. NIS.
JA 70/83 ABK Female, 5575 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Badly smashed skull, vertebrae, pelvis, ribs,
some long bones and hand and foot bones.
Determination of age: degenerative changes.
Teeth:
X X X X X / / X / / / X X X X X
Cribra Orbitalia: L Porotic.
Osteochondritis Dissecans: Small pits base both MT1s
(5 4mm, 5 5mm).
General arthritis: OA vertebrae, L & R scapular glenoids and
humeri with lipping, both clavicles, L distal radius, both
hamates and capitates, MC1s, bases of several finger phalanges, eburnation on a cuneiform and severe on both scapular acromions.
DISH: Synostosis of C56 and T910.
Degenerative change: Extensive OA heads and tubercles of
several ribs and vertebral facets. Vertebral pathology (sheet
lost).
70/83-2 Adult male. NIS.
70/83-3, 4, 5 Three children, 1112, 23, and 45 yrs. NIS.
JA 70/84 [VY] Male?, 4553 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Some small frags of vault, a few vert, pelvic,
rib, long bone, etc frags. See also 70/97, displaced bones
from same body.
Determination of sex: difficult, quite gracile.
Non-metric traits: Sagittal sinus turns L, R septal aperture.
JA 70/86 [AEV] Child, 1112 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair-good. Smashed skull, pelvis, broken lower
limb bones, many other frags.
Determination of age: tooth eruption/calcification. Dental
age high compared with long bone lengths.
Teeth: O 6 e d O / 1 1 2 O 4 5 6 O
7 6 e d O 2 1 1 2 O d e 6 7
C
Caries occlusal. Considerable asymmetry of eruption.
JA 70/87 [SA] Child, 48 wks. Sax.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few broken frags of vault, cranial base
and post-cranial skeleton.
Determination of age: diaphyseal length of humerus
(75mm).
JA 70/88 [VN] Child, 6 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair-good. Smashed skull, much of post-cranial
skeleton.
Determination of age: tooth eruption/calcification; diaphyseal lengths.
Teeth: e d O O / O O
6 e d c b O O O O
Non-metric traits: L&R Huschkes foramen.
70/88-2 Frags of child c 12 yrs. NIS.
L mandible: 3 4 5 6 O
JA 70/89 [SK] Child, 13 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In situ. (SA)
Condition: poor. Very fragmentary skeleton.
Determination of age: long bones suggest 13 yrs, teeth
1218 mths.
Teeth: Two unerupted deciduous teeth.
70/89-2 Part of adult maxilla containing two premolars.
NIS.
JA 70/90 [YN] Male?, 1718 yrs? Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Frags of jaws, a few vertebral, long bone
and other frags.
Teeth: / / O 4 5 6 7 U
O 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 O
Medium calculus. The upper L canine lies almost horizontally in the floor of the nasal fossa in the anterior part of the
antrum.
JA 70/91 [UD] Child, 2430 mths. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Severely smashed skull.
Teeth: e d / / / / / c d e
e d c b a a b c d e
Non-metric traits: L&R Huschkes foramina.
Pathology: Cribra Orbitalia: R Cribriotic, L Trabecular.
JA 70/92 [SO] Male, 2530 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In situ. (CW)
Condition: poor. R innominate, four long bones and a few
other frags.

Pathology: Spinal OP: L4
70/92-2 L mandible (/ / / d e O), child aged 56. NIS.
JA 70/93 [AHG] Child, c 1011 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A smashed skull, C13, a few other postcranial scraps.
Non-metric traits: Supra-orbital grooves, parietal foramina,
sagittal sinus turns L, Huschkes foramina, R double hypoglossal canal, R precondylar tubercle, post-condylar canals.
Pathology: Cribra Orbitalia: L Porotic.
JA 70/95 [TH] Female, 15 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: good. Badly smashed skull, vertebrae, pelvis,
Determination of age: tooth eruption/calcification; epiphyseal fusion.
Teeth: O 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 3 4 5 6 7 O
O 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 O
70/95-2 Mand, verts, ribs, hum head of ?F adult. NIS
70/95-3 Child 45 yrs. NIS.
JA 70/96 [UL] Male, 2022 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Frags of smashed skull, broken pelvis, some
lower limb bones, etc.
Determination of sex: lightly built man.
Teeth: / / / / / 6 O U

Pathology: Sinusitis: Early sinusitis L antrum.
JA 70/97 [TM] Male, adult. Med. NIS.
(CW)
= Part of 70/84 (displaced bones). Condition: poor. A few
small frags of skull, shaft of L humerus, 5 other frags.
Determination of sex: humerus very robust.
JA 70/98 [XP] Male, adult. Med. In situ.
(CW, SA)
Condition: poor. Severely smashed pelvic and vertebral frags,
a few broken long bones, etc.
Teeth: L maxilla
/ / 3 4 5 X X
Non-metric traits: L acetabular crease.
Pathology: Trauma: Well-healed Potts fracture L fibula.
Neoplasms: Small button osteoma shaft L femur, c
10 20mm.
70/98-2 L maxilla ( / / 3 4 5 6 O), 10-11yrs. NIS.
70/98-3 Frags of child c 5yrs. NIS.
JA 70/99 [TA] Child, 1214 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In situ.
Condition: poor. Frags of femora, tibiae and fibulae, a few
foot bones. (CW)
Determination of age: diaphyseal lengths (TiL1=283).
JA 70/100 [AHA] Male, 5070 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: good. Skull and C1-5 vertebrae (whole skeleton
present on photo).
Determination of age: tooth wear medium (much antemortem loss).
Teeth: ? X X X X / 2 1 / 2 3 X X X X ?
X X / / X X X ? X X X X ?
JA 70/101 [TJ] Child, c 7 yrs. Med. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: fair.
Teeth: U 6 e d / / O O / / d e 6 U
6 e / U O O / c d e 6
Slight calculus. Slight hypoplasia
70/101-2 Frags adult male. NIS.
70/101-3 Frags sub-adult. NIS.
531
70/101-4 Frags child c 4 yrs. NIS.

JA 70/102 [AGV] Female, 5060 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In
situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Smashed skull, vertebrae, pelvic, rib, long
bone and some other post cranial elements.
Teeth: U X X / / / / / / X 3 / 5 6 7 U
U 7 6 5 4 / / / / / / 4 5 X 7 U
Heavy calculus.
Non-metric traits: R third trochanter.
Pathology: Trauma: Fracture R ulna styloid process with
slight deformation (radius not affected). Exostosis distal R
humerus.
General arthritis: Lipping head R MC1. OA with eburnation
distal R ulna. Slight OA distal R humerus.
Degenerative change: Vertebral pathology (sheet lost).
Also, frags of adult (70/102-4), adolescent (70/102-2) and
child (70/102-3), all small. All NIS.
JA 70/104 [VW] Child, c 9 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Skull fragmentary and still in clay matrix.
Long bones present.
Determination of age: diaphyseal length.
Teeth: 6 e d / / 1 / / / d e 6
6 e d d e 6
JA 70/105 [UM] Unsexed, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Badly smashed skull, damaged vertebrae,
pelvic frags and a few other post-cranial frags.
Teeth:
A
A
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A
A
Large abscesses in mandible.
Pathology: Degenerative change: Vertebral pathology (sheet
lost).
JA 70/106 [UW] Child, 2430 mths. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Both femora, tibiae, fibulae and a few other
70/106-2 R femur (FeL1=265) of child, c 7 yrs. NIS.
JA 70/107 [VO] Male, 5570 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Frags of vertebrae, pelvis, ribs and long
bones, etc.
Pathology: General arthritis: OA clavicle, acromial process R
scapula, heads of several ribs and corresponding vertebral
costal facets.
70/107-2 Frags of a child, 35 yrs. NIS.
JA70/108 [VD] Male, 2629 yrs. Med? NIS.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Nine post-cranial elements, including
L12, 2 frags of pelvis, L ulna and radius.
Height: 1.706m from ulna.
Pathology: Spinal OP: L1-2
JA 70/109 [WN] Female, 4060 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Damaged skull, all vertebrae, pelvic frags,
long bones, etc.
Determination of sex: sexing difficult, skull fairly strongly
male, pelvis, long bones etc apparently female.
532
Teeth:
U 7 6 5 4 3 / 1 / 2 3 4 5 6 7 U
U 7 6 5 4 3 / 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ?
No calculus.
Pathology: Infection: Mild periostitis and osteitis L fibula
shaft.
JA 70/110 [UC] Child, 1216 mths. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Frags of vault and jaw, vertebrae, ribs, long
bones, etc.
Determination of age: tooth eruption/calcification; diaphyseal lengths (FeL1=c .125; TiL1=c 115).
Teeth:
/ / / / / / b / d o
JA 70/111 [UO] Male?, adult. SaxMed [Med]. In situ. (CW)
Condition: poor. Damaged mandible, a few frags of vertebrae, ribs and long bones.
Teeth:
? 7 6 5 / / / / / / / / / / 7 8
Spinal OP: C46
OA (Cervical): C3, C5. OA (Thoracic): T1
Trauma: Well healed Colles fracture R radius. Prominent
exostosis of L ulna at site of insertion of Triceps tendon.
General arthritis: Slight OA L clavicle medial and lateral
ends.
JA 70/112 [UN] Female, adult. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few post-cranial elements: T11L4, part
of pelvis, damaged long bones of legs, etc.
Spinal OP: T1112, L3
Miscellaneous pathology: The R ilium has a cavity above the
rim of the acetabulum, c 14 12mm, 6mm deep.
70/112-2 Frags inc R ulna & radius, of ?F, 1819 yrs. NIS.
JA 70/114 [UZ] Female?, adult. SaxMed [Med]. In situ. (SA)
Condition: poor. Part of a fibula, L tibia and small part of R
tibia.
JA 70/115 [TW] Male, 1718 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: good. Most bones distal to mid-femora.
Determination of age: epiphyseal fusion.
JA 70/116 [VU] Male?, 4560 yrs. Med? NIS.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few frags of vault, mandible, 9 vertebrae,
part of pelvis, some damaged long bones.
Teeth:
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pathology: Spinal OP: T7, 1011, L35.
OA (Lumbar): L5S1.
JA 70/117 [VC] Female?, adult. Med. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: fair. Both femora, one patella and hand bones.
Determination of sex: bones gracile.
70/117-2 Frags cranium, rib, phalanx, canine, pubis (28.8
yrs), cf 70/112?
JA 70/118 [VF] Male?, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. 21 foot bones or fragments.
JA 70/120 [WT] Female?, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. 2 tiny frags of skull, 3 loose teeth, a few
pieces of long bone shaft.
Teeth: 1 molar, 1 premolar, 1 canine.
JA 70/121 [WO] Child, c 2 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Smashed skull, L humerus.
Determination of age: diaphyseal length (HuL1=c 100).
Tooth calcification/eruption.
Teeth:
e d / / / / / / d e
e d / / / / / / d e
JA 70/122 [WB] Female, 1623 yrs. Med. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: fair. R arm, frags of L arm, pelvis and legs.
Determination of age: all epiphyses only partially fused.
Determination of sex: bones thin and gracile, sciatic notch
wide.
Teeth:
7 6 e 4 / / / / / / 4 e 6 7
Slight calculus. Slight hypoplasia. Possible retention of
deciduous molars.
Also, frags of child 612 mths (70/122-2); two or three adult
?males (70/122-3 and 4). All NIS.
JA 70/123 [WF] Male, c 3040 yrs. Med. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: fair. Frags of skull and most of skeleton.
Determination of age: pubic symphysis.
Determination of sex: bones large and robust, sciatic notch
narrow.
Teeth: 4 3 2 / 1 2 3 4

Medium calculus. Slight hypoplasia
Non-metric traits: Parietal foramina, lambdoid wormian bones.
Pathology: Trauma: Large exostosis arising from anterior of
R femoral shaft, c 143mm long. Probably myositis ossificans
(see Fig 36.11).
70/123-2 Frags of adult tibia and fibula. NIS.
JA 70/124 [VX] Female, adult. Med. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Fragmentary post-cranial skeleton.
Determination of sex: bones gracile, sciatic notch wide.
Miscellaneous pathology: The femora and tibiae show quite
marked anterior-posterior bowing, but this is not thought to
be pathological.
JA 70/127 [XH] Female?, adult. Sax. In situ.
(SA)
= Lower part of 70/58. Condition: fair. R tibia and frags of
L, patella, frags of fibulae and feet.
JA 70/128 [VZ] Female, 5565 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Frags of skull, some vertebrae, pelvis and rib
frags, a few long bones and frags.
Teeth: 8 7 6 5 /
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 8
Pathology: Spinal OP: L1,3
Also [WU]: Small frags of adult (70/128-3) and infant c 48
wks (70/128-2).
JA 70/130 [US] Female, 4855 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair-good. Smashed skull, vertebrae, pelvis and
rib frags, long bones, etc.
Determination of age: tooth wear medium. Pubis?
Teeth: 8 7 6 5 / / / 1 / / / / / 6 / U
8 7 6 / / / / / / / / / 5 / 7 8
Pathology: General arthritis: OA vertebrae. Synostosis posterior joints T45 bilaterally. Very slight OA cuboids and naviculars. OA R SIJ of innominate.
Degenerative change: Wedging to L of T5, T12, L12.
Extreme hollowing superior and inferior faces of bodies of
L15, slight on lower thoracics.
JA 70/131 [XS] Child, newborn? Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few long bones and other small frags.
Determination of age: diaphyseal lengths (FeL1=65,
TiL1=57, FiL1=54, HuL1=59).
JA 70/132 [YF] Male?, adult. Sax. In situ.

(SA)
Condition: poor. Foot bones and part of a scapula.
Determination of sex: foot bones are large.
JA 70/133 [YX] Male, 4055 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, damaged pelvis, some vertebrae, rib frags, long bones, etc.
Teeth: / 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 / 2 3 4 5 /
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 / X X X X ?
A A
Heavy calculus. A large abscess around lower incisors, eroded anterior face of alveolus below tooth roots.
Pathology: Cribra Orbitalia: R: Por.
General arthritis: A trace of OA around both acetabular rims.
Slight OA R scaphoid. Very early OA lipping distal R radius.
Degenerative change: OP vertebrae.
Miscellaneous pathology: Anterior epiphyseal dysplasia
superior border L4.
JA 70/134 [XU] Female, 3944 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: good. Badly smashed skull, all vertebrae, pelvis,
rib frags, some broken long bones, etc.
Teeth:
C
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 / 3 4 5 6 / ?
8 7 X X / X / X X / 3 X 5 6 7 8
Heavy calculus. Caries interstitial mesial.
Non-metric traits: Large anomalous articulation between R
transverse process of L5 and R sacral ala (much deformed by
OA).
Pathology: OA (Cervical): Bodies much eroded, probable
collapse of discs. OA (Thoracic): OA facets of 4+ ribs. OA
(Lumbar): L45 eroded, implying collapse of discs.
Trauma: Very badly repaired mid-shaft fractures of R ulna
and R radius, firm union but ulnar deviation of distal fragments at c 40.
General arthritis: OA verts. OA R mandibular condyle (L
damaged). Slight OA lateral R clavicle, glenoid fossa R
scapula, heads both humeri, distal R radius.
Degenerative change: OP verts.
70/134-2 [XU] Frags vert, rib, pelvis, long bones etc of child
912 mths. NIS.
70/134-3 [XU] Female, adult. Med? NIS.
Condition: poor. 2 small frags of vault, mandible, a few postcranial frags.
Teeth:
U / / 5 4 3 2 1 / / /
Non-metric traits: Small epicondylar process R humerus.
JA 70/136 [WL] Child, 67 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Smashed skull, vertebrae, pelvic and rib
frags, a few damaged long bones.
Determination of age: tooth calcification/eruption; diaphyseal length (HuL1=173).
Teeth: e e
O 6 / O
Pathology: Infection: Asymmetrical humeri with osteitic
reaction proximal third of each - low grade osteomyelitis?
Miscellaneous pathology: Slight mushroom deformity of
head R femur?
JA 70/137 [WW] Female, 5065 yrs. Med. In situ. (CW)
Condition: poor. A few broken frags of pelvis, some long
533
bones including femora, other post-cranial frags.

Non-metric traits: Third trochanters both femora.
70/137-2 Frags skull and femoral head (large) of adult male,
possibly part of 70/143. NIS.
70/137-3 Unsexed, adult. NIS.
Condition: poor. A few disintegrated remains (some may be
part of 70/137).
Pathology: Spinal OP: T11
Trauma: Base MC1, irregular exostosis, part of bone cracked
by, eg, hammer blow. Well healed fracture on 2 frags of R
fibula.
70/137-4 Frags of child, c 2+ yrs. NIS.
JA 70/138 [WP] Male?, adult. Med. NIS.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Frags of adult skull.
Determination of sex: large nuchal crest.
Non-metric traits: Ossicle at the lambda, wormian bones
present in lambdoid suture, parietal foramina.
JA 70/139 [YA] Male, 2535 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, vertebrae, pelvis and rib
frags, a few long bones, etc.
Teeth:
AC C
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Medium calculus. Caries interstitial proximal (mesial) on
M2, most of M1 destroyed.
Pathology: OA (Thoracic): Slight OA angles of 3+ ribs and
transverse processes of vertebrae.
Degenerative change: Vertebral pathology (sheets lost).
70/139-2 L ulna and radius of adult ?female (probably part
of 70/150). NIS.
JA 70/140 [XJ] Male, 4248 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Broken mandible, frags of vertebrae, pelvis,
Teeth:
U 7 6 / / / / / / / / / / 6 7 U
A
A
Small periodontal abscesses discharging buccally.
Pathology: Trauma: Second arthritic articulation on anterior
surface R scapula (c 42 29mm), chronic unreduced dislocation of shoulder.
General arthritis: Remodelling R scapular glenoid. Gross OA
R acetabulum and femoral head with eburnation of head and
large flange of OP around it. Small frags of L hip joint show
similar. Slight OA R ulna semilunar notch.
JA 70/141 [XR] Female?, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
= Upper part of 70/43. Condition: poor. Lumbar vertebrae,
frags of ribs, L forearm.
Pathology: Schmorls Nodes: L1, 3
Spinal OP: L2
JA 70/142 [XX] Male, 2124 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. 7 vertebrae, pelvis, some long bones.
Miscellaneous pathology: L5 vertebra is wedged to R.
JA 70/143 [XW] Male, 5060 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Vertebrae, forearms, legs, pelvis.
534

Non-metric traits: R vastus notch.
Pathology: Trauma: Oblique fracture L tibia through proximal part of shaft, involving condyles and joint surface, shortening of bone. Head of fibula synostosed to tibia. Medial
condyle of tibia slopes down and medially c 45 from horizontal (see Fig 36.7).
Infection: Periostitis, osteitis and swelling distal third of R
tibia.
General arthritis: OA both SIJs. Gross OA both knee joints
(all bones affected). Mild OA in several intertarsal joints of
both feet.
70/143-2 Frags of child c 2 yrs. NIS.
JA 70/144 [XQ] Male?, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Damaged L5, a few frags of femoral shaft.
JA 70/145 [YE] Male?, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few leg and foot bones.
JA 70/146 [YY] Female?, 4045 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few tiny scraps of vault and jaws, pelvic
and rib frags, a few splinters of long bones.
Teeth:
A
6 5 4 3 / /
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 U
JA 70/147 [XM] Male, 2426 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. L15 vertebrae, pelvis and a few damaged
long bones.
Pathology: Spinal OP: L1-4
JA 70/148 [XN] Female, old. Med. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: fair. Most of the skeleton was present.
Determination of sex: gracile bones, wide sciatic notch.
Pathology: Infection: Possible TB (see Miscellaneous pathology: General arthritis: OA with eburnation distal ulnae.
Degenerative change: OP proximal ulnae and distal radii.
Miscellaneous pathology: Proximal half of R femoral shaft
shows marked side to side flattening, distal normal. The head
and neck have been lost, leaving a pitted irregular surface.
The pelvis is missing. Intense destruction suggests tuberculosis as most likely cause (see Fig 36.8).
70/148-2 Large femora, innominate and arm bones of adult
male. NIS.
JA 70/149 [XO] Female, 2224 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In
situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. A few frags of vault, scraps of pelvis, damaged long bones and some small bones of hands and feet.
JA 70/150 [ACI] Female, 2426 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: good. Skull intact (uncleaned), vertebrae complete, broken pelvis, some long bones, a few bones of R hand.
Non-metric traits: Sacralisation L6 with anomalous facets
both sides.
70/150-2 Adult male. Frag R tibia, 5 incisors, 12 other frags.
NIS.
JA 70/151 [ABS] Female, 4247 yrs. Med. In situ. (CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, vertebrae, pelvis, long bones,
hands and feet.
Determination of age: pubis?; tooth wear medium.

Teeth:
C
C
X X X / / 3 / / / / / / 5 X X X
8 X X 5 4 / / / / / / 4 5 6 7 8
C
C C
C C C
Caries cervical on M2 and M3, interstitial on rest.
Pathology: Trauma: Healed fractures in bad position on the
L. MC3 and 4 with transverse fusion between the two (see
Fig 36.10). Also of 1 phalanx.
General arthritis: Very slight OA L scapula glenoid. Severe
OA both transverse processes T9 and T10 and on articular
facets of those ribs.
70/151-2 [ABS] Mandible frag (6 e d ) of child c
6 yrs. NIS.
70/151-3 [AFE] Male, adult. Med. NIS.
Condition: poor. Frag of pelvis, ribs, scapula, R ulna, frag
femur.
70/151-4 [AFE] L petrous temporal, frags of long bones,
etc, child 23. NIS.
JA 70/152 [YW] Child, 1213 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In
situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Smashed skull, a few vertebrae, pelvic, rib
and long bone frags.
Determination of age: tooth eruption/calcification (suggests
1213 yrs); diaphyseal lengths (suggest 89 yrs).
Teeth: 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Miscellaneous pathology: Very small ?chronically ill or
undernourished child according to discrepancy between dental and long bone ages.
JA 70/153 [ZS[ Male, adult. SaxMed [Med]. In situ.(CW)
Condition: poor. A much smashed post-cranial skeleton.
Pathology: Osteochondritis Dissecans: Pit proximal inferior
articular surface L talus, pit base hallucial first phalanx.
JA 70/154 [YU] Male, 1819 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. 13 vertebrae or frags, broken pelvis, clavicles, long bones, etc.
Determination of age: head of humerus unfused.
Non-metric traits: Six sacral segments, L third trochanter.
JA 70/155 [ACQ] Male, adult. SaxMed [Med]. In situ. (CW)
Condition: poor. Frag of frontal, maxilla, a few post-cranial
frags.
Teeth: / 4 5 6 7 8

70/155-2 Female?, 4060 yrs. SaxMed [Med?] NIS.
Condition: fair. Frag of maxilla, R patella, a few frags of long
bone etc.
Teeth: / / / 3 2 / / 2 3 4 5 /

Medium calculus.
Pathology: Osteochondritis Dissecans: Pits distal L humerus,
superior R talus, distal R tibia.
JA 70/157 [ACH] Child, 67 yrs. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull (unwashed), frags of vertebrae, ribs, pelvis and long bones.
Determination of age: tooth eruption/calcification; diaphyseal lengths (HuL1=213, FeL1=291).
Teeth:

6 e / / 2 1 1 2 / d e 6
JA 70/159-1 [ZR] Female?, adult. Med. NIS.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Frag of mandible, 3 small frags of pelvis, 3
frags of long bone.
Teeth:
U 7 6 X / / / / / / / / X
Non-metric traits: Inferior lateral mental tubercles both sides.
70/159-2 Frag of mandible and frag tibia of child 1218
mths. NIS.
JA 70/160 [ZA] Child, 12 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In situ. (CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, some vertebrae, ribs, long
bones and other frags.
Determination of sex: possibly female.
Teeth: O 6 e d O / /
U 7 6 e / / / / / / 3 / e 6 7 U
Slight hypoplasia.
JA 70/161 [AAK] Male?, 2123 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In
situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair-good. Skull, most vertebrae, pelvis, long
bones, etc.
Determination of age: pubis and epiphyses; tooth wear
slightmedium.
Determination of sex: not very robust.
Teeth: 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 / / / 4 5 6 7 8
Non-metric traits: Small epicondylar process L humerus (c
34mm).
Pathology: Osteochondritis Dissecans: Pit on a hallucial first
phalanx.
JA 70/162 [AAP] Male, adult. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: good. Mid-femora downwards.
70/162-3 A few frags of adult. NIS.
70/162-2 A few frags of child c 23yrs. NIS.
JA 70/163 [AAD] Male, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few smashed frags of skull, vertebrae, ribs
and long bones.
Teeth: ? / 6 5 4 3 / / / / 3 4 / 6 7 U
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 / 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Slight calculus.
Non-metric traits: Bilateral tori mandibulares.
Pathology: Osteochondritis Dissecans: Small pit on R inferior articular process of a mid-thoracic vertebra.
JA 70/164 [AAM] Child, c 13 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull (uncleaned), broken vertebrae, pelvis, ribs, long bones, etc.
Determination of sex: possibly male.
Teeth:
O 7 6 5 4 / / / / / 3 4 5 6 7 O
Pathology: Osteochondritis Dissecans: Large pit (2316mm,
c 4mm deep) on medial condyle L femur.
JA 70/165 [ABF] Unsexed, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few very disintegrated scraps of long bones.
JA 70/166 [ABA] Child, 68 wks. SaxMed [Med]. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few scraps of vertebrae, pelvis, ribs and
long bones.
535
Determination of age: diaphyseal length (FeL1=89).

JA 70/167 [ABP] Female, 4060 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In
situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Severely fragmented skull, vertebral, pelvic
and long bone fragments.
Teeth: ? X 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 X ?
U 7 6 5 4 / / / X 2 3 4 5 6 7 U
Heavy calculus.
JA 70/169 [ABQ] Female?, 5070 yrs. Sax. In situ. (CW)
Condition: poor. Fragments of broken eroded calva, a few
long bone fragments.
Determination of age: totally obliterated cranial sutures.
JA 70/171 [ABR] Male?, 1718 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In
situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Smashed skull, vertebrae, pelvic frags, broken long bones, etc.
Teeth: O 7 6 5 4 3 2 / 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 O
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 / / 3 4 5 6 7 O
Gross hypoplasia.
superior border L5.
70/171-2 Fragments of child. NIS.
JA 70/172 [AHE] Male, adult. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few frags of vault, vertebrae, pelvis, ribs
and long bones.
Pathology: Spinal OP: L13.
OA (Lumbar): L4 inferior.
Miscellaneous pathology: Ankylosed 1st and 2nd phalanges
of a finger.
JA 70/173 [ABV] Sub-adult, 1618 yrs? Sax. In situ. (CW)
Condition: poor. A few frags of vault, mandible, shaft of
humerus, distal epiphysis R femur.
Teeth:
U 7 6 / / / / / / / / / / 6 7 U
JA 70/174 [ACS] Unsexed, adult. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few eroded splinters of long bone.
JA 70/175 [ABT] Male, adult. Med. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Mid thigh downwards. See also 70/151-3.
Determination of sex: strongly built.
Pathology: Trauma: Small exostoses anterior border both
fibulae immediately distal to head.
Infection: Slight periostitic graining both tibiae, medial surface of shaft.
JA 70/176 [ACG] Male, 3035 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In
situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Severely smashed skull, most of post-cranial
skeleton, but extensive breakage of long bones, etc.
Determination of sex: strongly built, muscular.
Teeth: 8 7 6 5 4 / / / / / / 4 5 6 7 8
U 7 6 5 / / / / / / / / e 6 7 8
No calculus. Lower left second deciduous molar retained,
premolar unerupted.
Pathology: Schmorls Nodes: T ++, L ++
General arthritis: A large surplus mandibular condyle has
OA lip or tiny exostosis at one end.
JA 70/177 [AGX] Male, 4560 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In
situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Nine vertebrae, frags of pelvis and ribs, some
long bones, etc.
536

Pathology: Osteochondritis Dissecans: Small pit at base of
left MT1 (4.5 3mm)
JA 70/178 [AHH] Male, adult. SaxMed [Med]. In situ. (CW)
Condition: poor. Badly smashed skull, frags of vertebrae,
damaged long bones.
JA 70/179 [AGW] Male?, 5060 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In
situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Damaged vertebrae, pelvis, ribs and long bones.
Pathology: Osteochondritis Dissecans: Small pit (c 6 4mm)
1st hallucial phalanx.
JA 70/180 [AEQ] Male, 4060 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In
situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Broken calvaria, face, rib, long bones and
other frags, perhaps representing more than one person.
JA 70/182 [AEJ] Child, c 9 mths. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Very smashed skull, a few damaged long
bones and other post-cranial scraps.
Determination of age: diaphyseal lengths (RaL1=c 74;
UlL1=c 80; FeL1=c 115).
JA 70/185 [ADL, ABW] Male?, 2325 yrs. Sax. In situ.
Condition: fair. Four vertebrae, frags of pelvis and long
bones [ADL] (seen by CW); a number of fragmentary foot
bones, frags of adult tibia and fibula [ABW] (seen by SA).
Determination of age: pubis, iliac crest.
Determination of sex: lightly built man.
JA 70/187 [AEX] Child, 24 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Fragment of skull and L mandible.
Teeth:
d e U U
Slight calculus.
JA 70/189 [AHK] Child, c 6 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Badly smashed skull, frags of vertebrae,
pelvis, ribs and long bones.
Determination of age: diaphyseal length (HuL1=220); tooth
eruption/calcification.
Teeth:
O e d / / / / / / d e O
JA 70/190 [AHB] Male, adult. SaxMed [Sax]. In situ. (CW)
Condition: poor. Broken skull, vertebrae, pelvic and rib
frags, damaged long bones, etc.
Determination of sex: powerfully built.
Teeth:
C
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 / / / / 3 4 5 6 7 8
Caries interstitial distal.
Non-metric traits: 6-piece sacrum.
Miscellaneous pathology: L5 wedged to L, L6 to R
JA 70/192 [ADU] Unsexed, adult. Sax. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Fragments of two adult tibiae, various frags
of fibulae and foot bones.
JA 70/194 [AHI] Male, middle-aged? SaxMed [Med].
ND.
(SA)
Condition: fair/good. No skull, most of post-cranial skeleton.
Determination of sex: robust bones, narrow sciatic notch.
70/194-2 L humerus of adult (probably part of 70/178).
JA 70/195 [AGZ] Male, 4555 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Damaged calva, fragmented jaws, some vertebrae, long bone and other frags.

Teeth: C
8 7 6 5 4 3 / / 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 / / 3 2 / / 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Slight hypoplasia. Caries occlusal.
Non-metric traits: Small epicondylar process L humerus.
Miscellaneous pathology: Two mid R ribs have a kind of button, flat-topped exostosis, which articulate with each other
(see Fig 36.12).
JA 70/197 [AEW] Child, c 2 yrs. Sax? ND.
(CW)
Condition: poor. About 100g of severely smashed skull.
Teeth: e d / / / a b / d e
e / / / /
JA 70/199 [AGE] Male, 35-45 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In
situ.
(SA)
Condition: good. Well-preserved skull and upper torso.
Determination of sex: large robust bones and skull.
Teeth:
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 / 2 3 / 5 6 7 /
A
Medium calculus. Slight hypoplasia.
Non-metric traits: L parietal foramen, L septal aperture.
JA 70/201 [AER] Unsexed, adult. Sax? ND.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Lumps of hard clay containing some adult
teeth, some of which show possible signs of burning.
JA 70/209 [ZK] Context 4392. Child, newborn? Sax. NIS.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A severely smashed skull and 3 post-cranial
frags.
JA 70/221 [JM] Context 4221. Child. NIS.
(SA)
Very fragmentary humerus and radius.
JA 70/222 [KF] Context 4221. Male, adult. NIS.
(SA)
Large ulna and part of fibula, adult sacrum, and one lumbar
vertebra with Schmorls nodes.
JA 70/224 [KY] Context 4260. Child. NIS.
(SA)
Fragments of cranium, rib and mandible (no teeth).
JA 70/225 [MM] Context 4260. Adult. NIS.
(SA)
Fragments of 3 vertebrae and part of radius of an adult. The
vertebrae were starting to develop osteophytes.
Context 4285 (JA 70/226229). NIS.
(SA)
JA 70/226 [QH] Adult: Section of adult femur and tibia,
adult ribs, and vertebrae showing signs of osteophytes.
JA 70/227 [QH] Child: Part of the temporal bone of a child.
JA 70/228 [SW] Adult: Frags of adult rib, one very thick.
JA 70/229 [SW] Child: Small humerus, probably of a child
aged c 10 yrs.
JA 70/230 [ADH] Context 4011. Child, c 23 yrs. Sax.
ND.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Smashed frags of skull, frag of mandible,
clavicle, small frags of vertebrae and ribs.
JA 70/233 [GT] Context 4236. Child, c 6 mths. ND. (SA)
Fragments of skull and part of mandible with one unerupted
molar.
JA 70/235 Child, c 7 yrs. In situ.
(SA)
Tibiae & femur. Excavated with 70/123.
JA 71/32 [NY] Female?, 1415 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In
situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Damaged frags of skull, some vertebrae and
a few long bones, etc.
Teeth: / / 3 2 1 / 2 3 4 / /
O 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / 2 3 4 5 6 7 O
Medium hypoplasia.
JA 71/34 [UC] Child, 78 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: good. Broken skull, vertebrae, ribs, pelvis, long
bones, etc.
Determination of age: diaphyseal lengths, tooth eruption/calcification.
Teeth: 6 e d / / / / / / d e 6
6 e d c 2 1 1 O c d e 6
Non-metric traits: R double hypoglossal canal.
JA 71/35 [SG] Male, 2730 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair-good. Post-cranial skeleton nearly complete.
Determination of sex: very strongly built.
Teeth: 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 / 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / / / / 5 6 7 U
Slight calculus. Slight hypoplasia. Deformed roots of upper
L M3 and upper R second incisor.
JA 71/36 [UD] Male, 4348. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: fair. Badly smashed skull, vertebrae, pelvis, ribs,
long bones, etc.
Teeth: / 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 X 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 / / / / 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pathology: Degenerative change: Vertebral pathology (sheet
lost).
JA 71/37 [RJ] Female, 4060 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Badly smashed skull, vertebrae, pelvis and
ribs, long bones (some fairly good), etc.
Teeth: 8 7 / / / / / / 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ?
8 7 6 5 4 3 / / 4
Heavy calculus.
JA 71/38 [RM] Male, 4350 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Skull, vertebrae, pelvis, long bones, etc.
Determination of sex: skull robust.
Teeth:
A A
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 3 4 5 6 7 U
Pathology: Osteochondritis Dissecans: Healed lesion distal
lateral R humerus (9 10mm).
Trauma: Extensive exostosis of R fibula just proximal to
malleolus, from extensive tear of interosseous membrane.
Slight corresponding tear on R tibia.
General arthritis: Early OA sacro-iliac joints.
superior border of L5.
JA 71/39 [SA] Male, 45+ yrs. Sax. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: good. Almost complete, apart from the lower legs
and feet.
Determination of age: tooth wear heavy, all cranial sutures
completely obliterated.
Determination of sex: bones large and robust, sciatic notch
narrow-medium.
Teeth: 8 X X X 4 3 / / / / 3 / X X X X
X X 6 5 4 3 2 1 / 2 3 4 5 6 X X
Non-metric traits: Very small lambdoid wormians.
537

Spinal OP: C35, T312, L15
OA (Cervical): C35 facets, C57 bodies.
Trauma: Glenoid of R scapula small, roughened and pitted
with abnormal anterior margin and roughening of ventral
aspect of scapula, suggesting persistent anterior dislocation
of humerus, the head of which is missing.
Miscellaneous pathology: Skull very tall and narrow, suggesting
the condition of oxycephaly or steeple-headedness. However,
although the cranium appeared square and tall, the indices do
not reflect this, and the condition may not be pathological.
JA 71/40 [UA] Child, c 23 yrs. Sax? NIS.
(CW)
Condition: poor. Four badly eroded frags of vault.
Context 1786. Sax? NIS.
(SA)
JA 71/43-1 [SZ] Male?, 2535 yrs.
Condition: poor. Fragments of cranium and mandible.
Determination of sex: prominent supra-orbital ridges.
Teeth:
4 5 6 7 8
No calculus. Slight hypoplasia.
71/43-2 [SZ] Fragments of adult cranium and mandible,
different individual from above. Lower half of adult humerus
and radius, two hand bones, fragments of phalanges, one vertebra and one patella.
Estimated age from the teeth is 45+ yrs.
Teeth:
6 5 / / / / / U?/ / / / X X
No calculus or hypoplasia, slight resorption. Attrition on the
M1=6.
71/43-3 [SZ] Three fragments of juvenile rib and one fragment of juvenile cranium. Also one fragment of adult sternum
(unfused edges), perhaps from 71/43-1?
JA 73/1 [PD] Male, c 2528 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(CW)
Condition: poor. A few cranial frags, damaged vertebrae, ribs
and pelvic frags, a few long bones, etc.
Determination of age: pubis; tooth wear slightmedium.
Teeth: / 7 6 5 4 3 2

JA 75/1 [DD] Child, perinatal. PMed. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: good. Skeleton of a very small infant.
Determination of age: long bone lengths suggest foetal,
mandibular suture unfused.
75/1-2 Extra ulna, possibly also foetal. NIS.
JA 75/2 [EE] Child, newborn. PMed. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: good. Complete skeleton.
Determination of age: slightly larger than 75/1. Mandibular
suture unfused.
JA 75/3 [DC] Child, newborn. PMed. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: fair. Newborn infant. .
Teeth: / / / / u
/ / / / / / / / / /
Also frags of a foetus (75/3-3) and a second newborn infant
(75/3-2). NIS.
JA 75/4 [DS] Child, newborn. PMed. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: fair. Almost complete skeleton.
Determination of age: similar size to 75/2 and 75/3;
mandibular and metopic sutures unfused.
JA 75/5 [CV] Child, newborn. PMed. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: fair. Most of the skeleton.
Determination of age: similar size to 75/4; mandibular and
metopic sutures unfused.
Teeth: / / / u / / / / / /
u / u u u u u u u
538
JA 75/9 [DM] Child, perinatal. PMed. In situ.

(SA)
Condition: fair. Most of skeleton.
Determination of age: probably newborn, but bones not
measurable; mandibular and metopic sutures unfused.
Teeth: / / / u u u / / / /

JA 75/11 [EC] Child, foetal. PMed. In situ.
(SA)
Determination of age: very small infant; mandibular symphysis unfused.
JA 75/14 [EW] Child, 68 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Most of skeleton.
Determination of age: calcification/eruption of teeth.
Teeth: U / / c / /
O / d c / O / / c d e /
75/14-2 Two frags adult humerus, possibly from 75/16? NIS.
JA 75/15 [LT] Female?, 1618 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Skull in fair condition, rest poor.
Determination of age: epiphyses partly fused; pubic symphysis and tooth wear.
Determination of sex: bones small; L sciatic notch very wide,
R narrow.
Teeth: 7 6 3 / / 3 4 5 6 7 O
U 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 / / 3 / 5 6 7 U
Slight hypoplasia.
Non-metric traits: Lambdoid wormians, parietal foramina.
JA 75/16 [LM] Female?, young? Sax. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Distal humerus and frags of fibula, ulna,
pelvis, ribs, vertebrae, scapula, sternum, clavicle.
Determination of age: no signs of old age.
Determination of sex: bones medium-small, sciatic notch
very wide.
JA 75/21 [HU] Female, 2535 yrs. Sax. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Broken skull and post-cranial skeleton.
Determination of age: cranial sutures obliterated but tooth
wear medium.
Determination of sex: gracile bones, wide sciatic notches.
Teeth: 8 7 6 5 / ? / / 1 / / 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 / 4 / 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Slight calculus. Slight hypoplasia. R lateral incisor (or
canine?) erupting across towards incisive foramen.
JA 75/55 [HZ] Child, 03 mths. PMed. In situ.
(SA)
Pathology: Porotic Hyperostosis: Periosteal thickening of
parietals, suggestive of anaemia.
JA 75/66 [JA] Child, newborn. PMed. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: good. Most of the skeleton.
75/66-2 Part of an adult scapula. NIS.
JA 75/77 [LK] Female, 2535 yrs. Med. In situ.
(SA)
Determination of age: tooth wear medium; clavicle only partly fused.
Determination of sex: gracile bones, wide sciatic notch.
Teeth: 8 7 6 5 4 3 / / / 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 / / / / 3 4 5 6 7 8
C
C
Slight calculus. Slight hypoplasia. Occlusal caries in L lower
M2 and M3, and interproximal in both lower M3s and L M2.
Non-metric traits: Coronal and lambdoid wormian bones,

torus palatinus, parietal foramina, double infra-orbital
foramina both sides, enamel pearls at roots of both upper
M2s. Possible sacralisation of L5.
75/77-4 [LK] Child, c 18 mths. Med? NIS.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Skeleton of baby. Part of 75/82 (not examined), recovered from the grave of 75/77.
Teeth: e / / / / / / / e d U
U o d o / / / / o d o U
JA 75/88 [KS] Unsexed, 2535 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In situ.
Condition: good. Broken skull and most of post-cranial
skeleton. (SA)
Determination of age: pubic symphysis; tooth wear slightmedium.
Determination of sex: sciatic notches medium-wide, but
mastoids and mandible large.
Teeth: ? 7 6 5 4 3 2 / 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C C
Slight calculus. Buccal caries.
Non-metric traits: Sagittal sinus turns L; R parietal foramen;
R femoral third trochanter.
Osteochondritis Dissecans: Small pit in both proximal hallucial first phalanges, probably vascular.
JA 75/91 [JT] Child, c 3 mths. PMed. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Fragmentary skeleton of very small baby.
Determination of age: similar age to the single humerus in
75/104.
75/91-2 Pair of humeri of slightly older baby, c 6mths. NIS.
JA 75/93 [MW] Female, 3545 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In
situ.
Condition: poor. Most of skeleton. (SA)
Determination of sex: wide sciatic notch.
Teeth: 8 / 6 5 4 3 2 / / / 3 / 5 / / 8
8 X 6 5 4 3 2 / 1 2 3 4 5 / 7 8
C
Medium calculus. Slight hypoplasia.
Non-metric traits: Septal apertures of both humeri.
Pathology: Trauma: L radius and ulna show healed parry
fractures.
JA 75/94 [MV] Child, c 8 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In situ. (SA)
Determination of age: diaphyseal lengths (78 yrs), tooth
eruption/calcification (c 8 yrs).
Teeth: O 6 e d / O / / / / d e 6 O
O 6 e d c / / / O / d e 6 O
Non-metric traits: Lambdoid wormian bones, sagittal sinus
turns left, R parietal foramen.
Pathology: Cribra Orbitalia: R Poss, L Poss.
JA 75/95 [LW] Male, 2535 yrs. Med. In situ.
(SA)
Determination of age: pubic symphysis; tooth wear
slightmedium.
Determination of sex: large mandible and long bones, narrow L sciatic notch (R wider).
Teeth: 8 7 6 5 / / / /
8 7 6 / / 3 4 5 6 7 8

JA 75/96 [LJ] Female, 3545 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: fair. Broken skeleton.
Determination of age: tooth wear mediumheavy.
Determination of sex: gracile bones and wide sciatic notch.
Teeth: 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 / 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 / / 2 3 4 5 6 / /
C C
C
Medium calculus. No hypoplasia. Maxillary M3s small.
Pathology: Degenerative change: OP of upper and mid thoracic vertebrae (lower missing).
JA 75/98 [MA] Female, 2535 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In
situ.
(SA)
Condition: fair. Most of skeleton, broken.
Determination of sex: wide sciatic notches.
Teeth: / 3 4 5 6

Non-metric traits: R parietal foramen.
JA 75/100 [LZ] Female, 2535 yrs. SaxMed [Med]. In
situ.
(SA)
Condition: good. Most of skeleton.
Determination of sex: gracile bones and very wide sciatic
notches.
Teeth:
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
/ 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
539
/ 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C?
Non-metric traits: Ossicle at lambda, R parietal foramen, 3
supra-orbital foramina on L, anterior mandibular teeth very
crowded.
Pathology: Schmorls Nodes: L14
JA 75/101 [MD] Child? Sax. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Fragments of childs cranium and one long
bone. Part of unfused tibia with epiphysis, c 16 yrs? Probably
more than one individual: 75/101-2. NIS.
JA 75/104 [KF] Child, c 6 mths. PMed. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Fragmentary skeleton of baby.
75/104-2 Small humerus of smaller baby, c 3 mths, poss part
of 75/103 (not examined). NIS.
JA 76/1 [DT] Child, c 6 mths. Sax. In situ.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Fragmentary skeleton of baby.
Teeth:
/ / / / / u U
JA 76/4 [GM] Male, 3545 yrs. Sax. NIS.
(SA)
Condition: poor. Frontal bone, part of face, L femur and
tibia, patella, calcaneum, pelvis.
Teeth:
A
C
/ 7 / 5 4 3 2 / / / / 4 / 6 / 8

Slight hypoplasia. Caries interstitial.
Pathology: Infection: Small periosteal deposits present on
shaft of L tibia.
61/6
62/5
64/18
66/55
66/59
66/61
67/19
VN
WN
XH
XJ
HF,
HU
HH
HK
code
Mean
Number
Minimum
Maximum
females
MK 61/80
MK 64/29 AAF
MK 64
UN
MK 66/19 QJ
cxt 1754
MK 66/18 RS
MK 66/79-1SD
MK 67/8 HN
MK 67/15 HD
MK 69/5 ID
MK 71/22 MX
MK 74/1 GX
Mean
Number
Minimum
Maximum
MK 74/2
MK 74/5
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
males
skel no.
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
4060
2535?
2535
4060
3555
3550
1925
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
sex
45+
3560
3050
4060
45+
3545
4060
5070
5060
4060
2428
3545
2535
age
H'
LB
138
140
144 129 106

136
139 133 101
97
1
97
GL
86
186 134 130 99 91

9
8
5
4
3
175 125 124 97 86
195 144 134 100 100
184 134
185 133 131 100
195
188 136
175 140 131 100

187 125
183 144 129 97 86

185 126 124 100 100
189 135 134
196 138 131 104

8
7
2
2
189 130 129 101
202 144 133 106
199 130
192 138
189
200
200
191
193
202
Table 36.14 Wearmouth cranial measurements
69
6
61
74
61
70
66
69
71
74
71
2
68
73
73
68
G'H
15
90 88
6
3
83 15
93 129
83 129
89
93 121
92
93
91
91 129
2
1
83
99
99 129
83
GB
49
6
43
54
50
50
54
43
49
49
52
2
48
56
56
48
NH'
23
6
21
26
21
26
22
22
23
23
24
2
23
25
25
23
NB
40
6
32
44
41
44
38
32
42
41
42
2
42
42
42
42
O'1
35
6
33
37
34
37
36
34
33
35
33
2
32
34
34
32
O2
47
8
42
52
44
50
50
45
42
52
44
50
48
2
47
49
49
47
G'1
B'
126
123
121
125
S1
125
114
120
122
S3
128 119
124
126
124
124
S2
115
113
121
122
S'1
114
127
118
115
121
S'2
91
96
95
94
97
S'3
124
127
136
122
114
124
124
124
106
107
109
108
109 92
115 100
123 99
112 97
109 109
112 115
37 96 124 125 121 108 114 98

5
8
8
8
6
8
9
6
33 88 120 114 114 105 108 92
42 105 129 136 124 112 123 100
125
127
120
122
98 122 123
88 129 132
118
97 121 124 122 105 119 100
92 125 114 120 109 108 98
105
95
42 96
34 94
33
40
38
41 96 125 127 122 116 119 96

2
7
6
7
6
6
7
6
39 89 121 121 114 110 112 91
43 107 131 139 130 122 127 102
89 125 121 130 110 112 102

131 139
114 124
97
99
93
43 94
39 93
107
G2
nasal orbital
index index
72.7 71.0 96.7 46.8 88.1

8
5
5
6
6
66.6 67.5 90 40.7 79.3
79.9 75.1101.8 51.8103.7
51.8103.7
73.0
72.0 71.0 98.6 42.3 81.6
51.5 85.4
72.3
40.7 94.7
79.9 75.1 94.1

66.6
78.6 70.8 90.0 46.5 79.3

68.2 67.5101.8 48.0 84.0
71.3 70.7 99.2
69.8 67.1 92.6 46.0 78.1

6
2
2
2
2
65.3 64.4 89.2 44.1 76.2
72.8 69.8 95.9 47.9 79.9
65.3
71.9
72.2 64.4 89.2

68.0
72.8 69.8 95.9 44.1 79.9
47.9 76.2
68.5
cranial H/L H/B

index index index
540
65/1
69/20
70/195
71/38
71/39
FK
XJ
AGZ
RM
SA
65/8
67/1
67/19
67/24
70/27
70/61
70/100
70/199
3545
GX 4555
MD 5060
NE 5570
PV Adult
WK 5070
AHA 5070
AGE 3545
3550
4055
4555
4350
4565
65/10
65/21
67/9-2
67/11
67/35
75/100
Mean
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
sex
141
141
139
143
138
150
148 134 105
139 97
155
142 128 105
150 134 101
143 129 97
140
MT
SH
KX
LW
OE
LZ
2535
5060
4555
5065
3045
2535
F
F
F?
F
F
F
132
142 123
132 126
134
130
175 134 125
170
182
176
174
175
181 134 125
92
89
94
99
99
187 147 133 101

8
7
5
5
178 140 128 97
194 155 139 105
191
194
186
192
179
182
178
194
87
87
94
94
94
1
94
98
3
97
99
99
139
140
99
92
99
97
85 126
87
65
62
83 126
96 145
1
1
96 145
93 126
3
1
86
97
95
97
86 126
58
64
64
70
1
70
68
3
65
75
75
65
65
LB GL G'H GB
134 110
123 103
H'
187 140 134 101

5
5
4
4
175 138 123 92
198 143 140 110
193
189
198
179
175
WC 3545 F 177 136 125

SH 4060 F 196 138
LT 1621 F? 170 128
females, medieval
Mean
JA 69/16
JA 70/71
JA 75/15
females, Pre-NormanE. Med
Mean
Number
Minimum
Maximum
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
males, medieval
Mean
Number
Minimum
Maximum
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
males
Pre-NormanE. Med
skel no.
code age
Table 36.15 Jarrow cranial measurements
48
48
50
45
48
48
54
1
54
49
3
48
51
51
48
49
23
24
21
24
24
25
1
25
24
3
22
27
27
24
22
38
39
36
40
40
44
1
44
41
3
37
44
37
44
41
NH' NB O'1
33
34
31
34
34
35
1
35
35
3
34
36
36
36
34
O2
36
G2
103
B'
47
50
43
45
45
49
2
47
50
47
50
37
30
39
43
39
39
92
89
93
92
90
95
92
94
95
100
87
47 103
1
8
99
108
105
100
47 106
100
102
108
99
101
48 34 98
2
2
4
44 32.3 91
51.8 36 103
99
97
51.8 32.3 91
44
G'1
34
2
34
34
34
34
FL
S1
124
125
134
139
S2
120
121
122
114
120
S3
112
119
121
123
109
S'1
113
116
123
125
124
S'2
118
129
119
120
111 97
111 101
111 94
119 98
104 100
109 98
113 94
117 95
93
5
90
97
97
91
96
90
93
S'3
88
96
98
88
88
88
120 118 122 107 105
96
120 112 127 105 100 100
119 118
106 104
122 121 122 111 107
120 120 116 107 109
127 124 113 109 110
123 125 116 107 110

136 132
116 119
121 116 109 104 102
136 124 120 116 112 97

7
7
7
8
8
8
123 119 113 108 104 94
154 130 129 127 119 101
124
125
121
121
125
117
119
127
108
126 119 119 112
123 128 113 109
126 130 120 110
144
137
141
154
28 130 131 119 117 120

2
4
4
5
5
5
27 124 124 114 109 113
28 142 139 122 123 125
27 127
127
124
142
28
FB
77.2 96.7
80.0101.4 53.1 96.6
69.5 95.0 49.6 82.1

65.0 87.4 45.6 82.5
89.9
89.5
90.2
90.1 45.9 79.1
76.4 69.6 91.0 48.0 85.6
77.5
77.9 67.7 86.9 48.7
75.1 71.4 95.0 47.2 84.8
77.0
74.3
86.4
74.3 70.5 91.5 50.6 84.6
77.0 70.5 91.5 50.6 84.6

70.6
75.3
78.7 72.4 89.9 45.9 79.1

7
5
4
1
1
72.2 68.9 89.5
82.4 74.9 90.2
78.5
76.5 68.9
74.9
81.1
79.7 71.7
82.4 73.8
80.5 72.6
72.2
75.3 72.9 95.1 49.4 87.1

5
4
4
3
3
70.4 65.0 87.4 45.6 82.1
79.8 80.0101.4 53.1 96.6
73.1
74.4
70.4
79.8
78.9
cranial H/L H/B nasal orbital

index index index index index

541
542
Table 36.16 Wearmouth post-cranial measurements

males
Skel no.
code
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
2535
(M)
2530
(N)
2535
3545
(S)
1725
ZH
3545
ZE
3560
PE
5570
RT
2535
RV
2023
SQ
Adult
SR
Adult
WL
4060
UK
5065
VC
2430
WN
4060
WM
Adult
XH
2428
XJ
3545
AAE
4050
NE
Adult
RA
3050
SB
Adult
DS
2030
FJ
2030
FJ
3040
GJ
1521
GQ
3040
GP
3545
HL
1825
HL
Adult
HM
3555
HJ
Y-MA?
HH
Y-MA
HF,HU 2535
JO
3040
FV
2530
JN
4060
JZ
3545
KH
1623
NB,NF 2535
NH,NE Adult
NJ
4060
HH
45+
HK
3545
61/17
61/43
61/59
61/66
61/70-1
64/20
64/23
66/12
66/17
66/20
66/24
66/25
66/26
66/31
66/41
66/55
66/57
66/59
66/61
66/66
66/77-2
66/78-1
66/70-1
67/1
67/4
67/5
67/7
67/9
67/11
67/12
67/12-2
67/14
67/17
67/18
67/19
67/20
69/2
69/9
69/20
71/11
71/18
71/23
71/26
74/2
74/5
Mean
Number
Minimum
Maximum
Standard Deviation
age
sex
M?
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M?
M
M?
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
FeL1 FeL1 FeHd FeHd FeE1 FeE1 FeD1 FeD1 FeD2 FeD2 TiL1 TiL1 TiD1 TiD1 TiD2TiD2
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
459
52
52
83
30
444 444
483
467
476
435
501
515
440 477
461 456
444 436
447 448
473 475
423 426
52
51
51
49
51
86
88
86
82
89
45
48
50
46
47
469
85
56
50
46
46
48
83
79
79
81
50
463
49
428
49
50
34
34
79
80
84
25
26
27
23
26
26
36
31
31
46
445
44
50
87
27
29
27
26
26
37
38
26
74
75
83
50
87
477 477
51
50
85
499 499
55
56
91
81
464
18
423
515
23.6
50
11
46
55
2.7
50
21
44
56
2.9
456
18
426
499
21.0
27
28
48
458
438 433
447 446
36
33
32
35
38
28
24
25
83
86
25
40
24
27
82
50
27
27
25
38
87
85
80
81
478
25
27
25
29
27
90
49
470
29
28
82
11
74
88
3.8
84
19
75
91
4.0
39
323 316
38 356 362
37
36
31
346
422 419
31
36
37
31
36
20
24
24
22
24
42
34
41
25
23
23
35
386
33 354 350
32 365 366
383
35 351
31 375 380
34 322 324
380
34
39
32
40
39
35
35
36
38
38
33
39
40
33
325
33 396 399
32
381
31
375 371
36
31
35
35
38
38
37
30
38
34
372 373
40
28
26
35
33
21
26
24
26
31
34
387
30
35 363 362
31
36
26
35
37
38
36
27
22
26
25
23
24
23
25
27
22
26
24
24
24
26
30
24
24
23
23
25
29
24
26
29
31
22
25
23
22
34
24
28
31
26
28
24
27
29
25
34
40
39
38
32
27
22
21
31
2.2
26
25
23
29
1.5
35
22
31
40
2.9
370 365
34 368 368
38
41 402 401
39 358 368
31
37
45
42
40
33
35
43
43
40
21
24
25
30
21
20
25
25
29
22
35
25
30
41
2.8
37
25
31
45
3.7
36
23
29
43
3.8
24
24
20
30
2.4
24
22
20
29
2.2
370
19
322
422
23.6
366
19
316
419
25.8
543
Table 36.16 (contd)

males (contd)
skel no.
FiL1
L
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
61/17
61/43
61/59
61/66
61/70-1
64/20
64/23
66/12
66/17
66/20
66/24
66/25
66/26
66/31
66/41
66/55
66/57
66/59
66/61
66/66
66/77-2
66/78-1
66/70-1
67/1
67/4
67/5
67/7
67/9
67/11
67/12
67/12-2
67/14
67/17
67/18
67/19
67/20
69/2
69/9
69/20
71/11
71/18
71/23
71/26
74/2
74/5
Mean
Number
Minimum
Maximum
Std Dev
FiL1 HuL1 HuL1 HuHd HuHd RaL1 RaL1 UlL1 UlL1 ClL1 ClL1
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
316
347
47
50 251 249 278
meric
index L
244
255
271 273
158
71.4
157
70.1
81.4
78.6
83.2
73.0
252
70.1
70.0
72.3
70.1
65.4
67.2
64.7
70.8
67.1
60.0
68.8
57.2
79.0
354
329 328
53
53 241
260
144
323 324
346 350
308 310
43
51
45
44 241 241 263 265

50
265 284 287 150
45
230
249 135
54
309 162
72.1
80.7
80.6
72.0
78.8
70.7
83.0
86.9
65.7
81.4
75.3
68.4
69.5
65.2
62.7
66.0
68.1
64.8
65.4
70.8
68.6
65.0
59.5
68.6
68.9
70.2
78.9
64.5
61.5
68.2
66.1
65.7
80.0
258
251
75.2
82.8
87.3
83.1
83.9
68.4
49
350
323
341 344
48 240
72.7
248 272
1.722
1.633
1.783
1.699
1.759
1.725
78.4
71.0
65.7
48
335
306
49
42
324 331
52
52
363
52
51 258 261
271
50 267 274
339
12
310
363
16.0
49
14
42
54
3.7
49
11
44
53
2.7
351
370 327
1 10
306
346
12.5
77.8
68.2
75.9
78.9
73.2
291 163 157
71.7
69.4
79.8
68.4
87.5
71.3
70.9
70.7
64.1
65.3
63.3
55.3
71.1
52.5
61.1
71.0
58.9
66.7
55.0
1.731
1.651
1.685
1.671
1.673
1.712
1.731
1.815
1.804
1.701
275 150 150

7
7
8
249 135 135
309 163 158
20.1 9.4 8.6
76.2
22
68.2
87.5
6.1
75.5
25
64.1
87.3
5.8
66.3
24
52.5
78.9
5.3
66.3
22
55.0
78.4
5.6
1.719
41
1.591
1.884
0.065
246
249 253
252
147
224
233
81.6
72.5
70.5
76.0
245
10
224
267
12.0
255
11
230
274
12.4
153
264
9
246
284
12.6
1.709
1.591
1.677
1.764
1.726
1.649
1.648
1.833
1.840
1.795
1.755
1.687
1.680
1.751
1.670
1.740
1.605
1.744
1.730
1.884
1.605
1.759
1.750
75.3
66.2
138
135
47
49
height
1.678
1.706
78.3
54
48
cnemic
index R
153 154
142
370
337
meric cnemic
index R index L
544
Table 36.16 (contd)

females
skel no.
MK 61/28
MK 61
cxt 1156
MK 61/70-2
MK 64
cxt 1754
MK 66/1
MK 66/11
MK 66/15
MK 66/18
MK 66/21
MK 66/42
MK 67/2
MK 67/3
MK 67/3
MK 67/8
MK 67/10
MK 67/16
MK 69/5
MK 71/21
MK 71 /22
MK 74/1
MK 74
cxt 502
Mean
Number
Minimum
Maximum
code
age
sex
FeL1 FeL1 FeHd FeHd FeE1 FeE1 FeD1 FeD1 FeD2 FeD2 TiL1 TiL1 TiD1 TiD1 TiD2TiD2
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
EU
(N)
2535
3035
F
F
412
440 438
44
43
24
24
23
34
30 329 326
34
343
31
31
22
75
73
74
31
43
21
23
(S)
UN
2535
3050
F?
F
435 434
47
46
77
76
30
25
25
38
35
34 354 353
36
32
24
25
GA
PD
QG
RS
RU
UD
EY
DT
EX
HN
GX
HE
ID
MV
MX
GX
JN
Adult
F
Adult
F
4060 F
4060 F
2123 F
Adult
F
45+
F
Adult
F
YMA F
2535 F
MAOld F?
2024 F
3555 F
2535 F
3550 F
1925 F
Adult
F
70
24
22
22
21
21
33
32
34
32
34
358
348
28
35
31
35
19
23
20
23
73
24
33 344 344
32
31
33
22
23
31
30
30
34
33
29
20
22
23
21
408
442
438 441
441 446
440
408
460
425 426
435
402 405
414
435
401 400
430 425
11 12
401 400
460 446
43
43
42
43
45
41
44
44
42
49
46
44
10
41
49
73
24
20
23
24
72
32
29
31
31
29
31
33
32
35
371
29
362
326 328
350 350
34 322 320
29
353
32 334 334
33
291
33
16
29
38
32 339 341
12
8 13
29 322 291
34 354 371
25
75
43
45
43
47
44
10
42
47
75
77
82
75
76
9
72
82
74
75
76
78
74
9
70
78
22
24
23
27
22
23
22
24
16
22
30
34
23
23
22
25
23
12
20
25
34
29
31
37
32
30
31
33
23
23
23
24
21
24
29
32
12
28
37
32
13
29
35
22
20
19
23
12
19
29
22
13
19
25
545
Table 36.16 (contd)

females (contd)
skel no.
FiL1
L
MK 61/28
MK 61
cxt 1156
MK 61/70-2
MK 64
cxt 1754
MK 66/1
MK 66/11
MK 66/15
MK 66/18
MK 66/21
MK 66/42
MK 67/2
MK 67/3
MK 67/3
MK 67/8
320
MK 67/10
MK 67/16
MK 69/5
MK 71/21
MK 71 /22
MK 74/1
MK 74
cxt 502
Mean
Number
Minimum
Maximum
320
1
FiL1 HuL1 HuL1 HuHd HuHd RaL1 RaL1 UlL1 UlL1 ClL1 ClL1
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
321 330
43
43
43
323 329
45
47 232
300 313
41
226
41 217
250
250
meric
index L
meric cnemic
index R index L
cnemic
index R
79.5
68.8
72.5
69.7
69.7
72.7
1.558
1.618
78.5
69.8
73.1
67.1
75.6
1.627
72.8
67.6
65.3
65.6
62.9
68.4
66.1
64.8
66.0
71.9
63.7
71.7
69.7
91.9
67.7
75.0
67.6
63.9
60.7
1.653
1.628
1.576
1.627
1.627
1.551
1.692
1.665
1.576
1.623
1.539
1.564
1.627
1.552
65.5
1.459
68.3
13
60.7
75.6
1.598
18
1.459
1.692
237
76.9
302
322
43
45
296
45
45
239
256
79.2
77.6
65.7
299
44
44
226 240
218
244
44 204 207 223 228
223 225 244 246 141 141
287
45
211 216 238 241 131 125
294
306 317
8
4
287 294
323 330
44
9
41
45
40
77.3
79.2
87.1
65.3
71.9
62.9
43 219 218 241 242 136 133

7
6
5
8
5
2
2
40 204 207 223 228 131 125
47 232 226 256 250 141 141
72.9
16
62.9
87.1
87.0
68.9
67.5
79.0
78.6
73.9
64.9
64.5
80.0
67.4
75.8
71.9
12
62.9
87.0
72.4
12
64.5
91.9
69.6
height
Table 36.17, a foldout, is at the end of the volume.
37 Faunal remains
37.1 The animal bones from

Wearmouth
survival of a group. The latter were more frequent in

those contexts dated post-medieval. The identified
bone has been assessed in broad chronological groups,
as the numbers presented would be meaningless in
smaller groups and also the problem of redeposition
precludes close dating. Where a particular context had
a date covering several centuries, the material was
included in the group appropriate to its latest date, on
the assumption that the later bone was more likely to
have survived. In total, 2286 bones were identified, 168
of which were Anglo-Saxon and 2118 medieval.
by Barbara Noddle, revised by Sue Stallibrass

Introduction
Since Noddle wrote this report in 1992, there has been
no significant rephasing of the data and this report is
mainly Noddles original; no re-analysis was possible
to the extent that it was carried out for Jarrow (see Ch
37.2, p 552). The site had complex stratigraphy, which
made it difficult to assign precise dates to the majority
of the contexts. Deposits, therefore, were grouped into
broad categories: Saxon, medieval and post-medieval
(the latter period is not considered here). Most of the
Anglo-Saxon deposits had been removed in subsequent developments at the site.
None of the excavated material was sieved, so small
bones are very probably severely under-represented.
This is particularly the case for fish bones. However,
the standard of recovery by hand appears to have been
quite high, as evidenced by the recovery of occasional
bones of rat and marine fish. The presence of many
neonatal bones in the medieval deposits indicates that
preservation conditions in the soil were benign, even
though site formation processes had caused much
physical damage and relocation.
Methods of recording and analysis

Besides a straightforward count of identified specimens
(conventionally referred to as NISP, or number of
identified specimens) the concept of minimum numbers of individuals (MNI) was employed. The statistic
is controversial, but in the authors (ie Noddles) opinion is useful in sites of this type. It was assumed that
the bones in each context represented different individuals. The use of this statistic to some extent counterbalances taphonomic losses, although probably not
greatly. Noddle did not calculate MNIs for fish nor for
single specimens, and the deer species were all grouped
together.
The age at death of the individual was determined,
where possible, according to its stage of maturation.
The stages used are four: neonatal, juvenile, immature
and mature. Both dental information and epiphyseal
fusion are used to define them, and they have been
described in the Jarrow section (Ch 37.2, below, esp
Table 37.2.2). The age at which food animals are used
provides useful economic information, which will be
discussed below. Complete bones and commonly
occurring mature bone ends were measured according
to the method of von den Driesch (1976).
Shellfish remains were identified by Janet Bradley
and were recorded by context. It has been possible,
therefore, to allocate identifications to sub-periods of
activity at the site (eg Saxon and Late Saxon, Medieval
and Late Medieval). This has not been possible for the
vertebrate remains, which were recorded by Noddle by
their initial designation as Saxon or medieval, not by
context number.
The nature of the material

Approximately 75kg of animal bone was presented for
analysis, of which only 56% by weight could be identified (NB this includes the post-medieval material).
This is a low proportion, and indicates that most of the
bone had been redeposited on at least one occasion
and was, probably, a very small proportion of the
material originally present. In these circumstances
taphonomy plays a major part not only in the anatomical composition of the sample but also in the specimen
proportions, large bones of cattle being more durable
than the bones of other species. Cattle bones (and
those of horses, although very few were identified here)
are also large enough to be a nuisance when left lying
about, and are therefore cleared to an out-of-the-way
place or pit where they have a better chance to survive
than smaller fragments which can be trodden into the
ground for example. Scavengers such as dogs, birds of
prey, pigs and even rats are capable of removing bone;
fish is particularly likely to be lost in this manner.
There tended to be two types of context grouping;
those where less than 10 fragments were presented, presumably having been found scattered, and those where
there were at least 25, suggesting at least the partial
The Anglo-Saxon period

The proportions of species are set out in Tables 37.1.1
and 37.1.2. The collection of animal bones from
deposits assigned to the Saxon period is extremely
small (NISP = 168), since few levels of this period survived. It is dominated by bones from domestic species:
cattle, sheep/goat, pig and fowl (in that order).
546
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
547
Table 37.1.1 Numbers of identified specimens
Table 37.1.2 Minimum Numbers of Individuals
NB. Noddles original tables for each period gave the overall
total, plus NISPs for minor species, and percentages for
major species. NISPs for major species have been backcalculated from the percentages and are given here in italic.
These figures may thus be very slightly inaccurate (but the
percentages are accurate).
NB. Noddles original tables for each period gave the overall
total, plus percentages for major species. MNIs for major
species have been back-calculated from the percentages and
are given here in italic. These figures may be very slightly
inaccurate (but the percentages are accurate). Some of the
rarest species were not awarded MNIs by Noddle. This is
particularly the case for fish, but also applies to species represented by a single identified specimen. Deer species (red,
fallow and roe) have been grouped together to reach an
MNI=1%.
Saxon
NISP %
Cattle
Sheep
Goat
Pig
Horse
Dog
Cat
Red deer
Fallow deer
Roe deer
Brown hare
Rabbit
Badger
Polecat or ferret
Rat sp.
Domestic fowl
Goose
Duck
Pigeon
Gull
Large bird
Songbird
Crow
Cod family
Herring
Ray
Fish
Total
Medieval
NISP
%
67
30
3
29
4
40
18
2
17
2
3
1
1
2
10
2
2
<1
<1
1
6
1
<1
10
168
796
343
10
472
9
22
65
2
2
1
1
10
2
23
236
22
4
8
3
1
3
5
49
4
1
24
37
16
<1
22
<1
1
3
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
1
11
1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
2
<1
<1
1
2118
The rank order remains very similar if Minimum

Numbers of Individuals (MNIs) are used, although the
relative contributions of cattle and pig decline slightly.
That of sheep rises slightly and that of domestic fowl
doubles from 6% to 12%. MNIs are useful for their
indication of the numbers of individual animals
required to account for the bones recovered (eg they
suggest that approximately equal numbers of pigs and
fowls were killed at, or brought to, the site). The differences in body sizes makes it clear that beef was available in much greater quantities than all other types of
meat. If the individuals represented were all complete
carcasses (rather than single joints of meat), then beef
contributed approximately 88% of the available meat,
mutton 6% and pork 6%. The contribution of meat
(and possibly eggs) by domestic fowl and goose was
insignificant in terms of quantity, but may have been
highly valued in terms of quality and variety.
The numbers of bones that could be assigned a
developmental age at death are extremely small (Table
37.1.3). Two of the five pig bones are neonatal, and a
Saxon
MNI
%
Cattle
Sheep
Goat
Pig
Horse
Dog
Cat
25
16
3
10
3
32
21
4
13
4
Deer species
Brown Hare
Rabbit
Badger
Polecat or ferret
Rat sp.
Domestic fowl
Goose
Duck
Pigeon
Gull
Large bird
Songbird
Crow
Cod family
Herring
Ray
Fish
Total
1
9
2
77
1
12
3
Medieval
MNI
%
165
104
8
121
9
12
22
29
18
1
21
2
2
4
11
76
22
2
13
4
564
further two are from immature individuals, indicating

that pigs were raised on the site primarily for meat.
The cattle and sheep bones are both equally divided
between those from immature (ie prime meat providing) animals and those from mature animals (raised
primarily for live products such as milk, wool, traction
and breeding stock). The lack of neonatal and juvenile
sheep and cattle bones cannot be ascribed to preservation conditions (since neonatal pig bones survived) but
could be a factor of very small sample sizes. The occasional goat bones probably represent individuals kept
for the qualities of their milk and meat.
Other species represented in the Saxon collection
that probably were eaten by people living at
Wearmouth include goose and pigeon. Both of these
species could have been either wild or domestic. The
lack of sieving at the site precluded full recovery of fish
bones and it is likely that bones of fish are severely
548
Table 37.1.3 The age ranges of the major species (in percentages) according to Noddles age stages
Cattle
Sheep
Pigs
Saxon
Medieval
Saxon
Medieval
Saxon
Medieval
neonatal
juvenile
immature
mature
total
14%
24%
40%
21%
9%
10%
16%
19%
45%
40%
44%
43%
40%
47%
45%
36%
55%
18%
20%
14%
11
73
9
58
5
76
Table 37.1.4 Distribution of identified fragments of shells of marine molluscs and crustacea by period
Saxon
Later Saxon
Late Saxon/
Saxo/Norman
Medieval
Late
Late Medieval/
Medieval
EPM
19
18
98
12
2
3
11
233
12
7
2
11
99
6
10
1
2
1
1
Early Medieval
Periwinkle
Mussel
Oyster
Limpet
Cockle
Spindle shell
Whelk
Dog whelk
Banded chink shell
Edible crab
Total shell
2
1
3
20
1
4
1
29
3
4
3
1
1
28
44
434
36
20
1
9
27
1
5
153
269
133
605
1
1
10
Totals
Note: These are total counts for shell fragments. See Table 37.1.5 for counts that identify unique anatomical zones for the commoner species
Table 37.1.5 Distribution of identified fragments of shells of marine molluscs and crustacea by period using
unique anatomical zones for the commoner species ie: periwinkle, mussel, oyster, limpet and cockle
Saxon
Later Saxon
Periwinkle1
3
Mussel2
(mussel valves)
Oyster2
(oyster valves)
2
Limpet1
Cockle2
Spindle shell1
3
Whelk1
Dog Whelk1
20
Banded chink shell1
Edible crab
Total shell
1 single shell
Late Saxon/ Saxo/Norman

Early Medieval
2
1L:1R
3
3L
1
5
2 bivalve
Late
Medieval
17
4
3L:1R
74
39L:35R
10
2
3
3
1L:2R
156
84L:72R
9
7
Late Medieval/
EPM
Totals
26
10
83
42L:41R
4
5
316
27
14
1
7
25
1
5
111
180
98
432
1
1
1
2
1
28
1
1
1R
Medieval
1
2
L left valve
1
1
R right valve
Key for Tables 37.1.4 and 37.1.5

Common name
taxonomic name
Common name
taxonomic name
Periwinkle
Mussel
Oyster
Limpet
Cockle
Littorina littorea
Mytilus edulis
Ostrea edulis
Patella vulgata
Cardium edule
Spindle shell
Whelk
Dog whelk
Banded chink shell
Edible crab
Neptuna antiqua
Buccinum undatum
Nucella lapillus
Lacuna vincta
Cancer pagurus
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
under-represented. This is particularly true of small

species such as salmon, eel and flatfish (such as flounder). The absence of bones of these species should not
be taken as necessarily indicating their absence from
the site. The presence of some bones of gadoids (fish
of the cod family), indicates that some offshore fishing
took place and that fish, either fresh or dried, was consumed at the site.
Tables 37.4 and 37.5 present the identifications for
remains of shellfish and crustacea (edible crabs). Table
37.4 includes all identified shells and fragments,
whereas Table 37.5 attempts to avoid potential multiple counting of crushed shells by using unique anatomical zones for the major species. It is clear that the
numbers of shells recovered are low, and that the
amount of meat represented by shellfish is very small
when compared to that provided by cattle etc.
However, shellfish and fish can provide important protein on meatless days in the Christian calendar. It is
notable that almost all of the shellfish are gastropods
not bivalves and that most of them could have been
obtained from the middle shore. One Saxon context
(2065) produced one periwinkle and a group of 13
dogwhelks (Nucellus lapillus). The latter is an unusual
species to target for food, although it can occur in
dense quantities in the barnacle zone of rocky shores.
There are no oysters from Saxon or Late Saxon
deposits (0/10 = 0%), and only three from Late
Saxon/Early Medieval plus Saxon-Norman deposits
(3/10 = 30%). Monkwearmouth is less than 2km from
the North Sea coast, where a variety of coastal habitats
exist, including both sandy and rocky shores.
The few bones of horse and cat probably indicate
scattered remains of working animals.
Two species whose bones may be intrusive into the
Saxon deposits are rat and rabbit. Both of these animals burrow. The rat bones were not identified to
species level and may be from black rat (Rattus rattus)
or brown rat (Rattus norvegicus). The latter is recorded
as not having been introduced into Britain until the
18th century, but burrows strongly. The black rat does
not burrow so strongly, but is thought to have died out
after a brief introduction to limited areas of Britain in
the Roman period and not to have been reintroduced
until the re-establishment of urban settlements in the
9th to 10th centuries. Similarly, the rabbit is known
from documentary evidence to have been introduced
to Britain in the 12th century, and is absent from many
large collections of animal bones from Saxon deposits
at other sites (Yalden 1999). The presence of rat and
rabbit bones in Anglo-Saxon deposits at Wearmouth,
therefore, is probably due to (a) their intrusion by burrowing or (b) the mixing of Saxon and later deposits by
other site formation factors. Further bones of both
species were recovered from medieval and postmedieval deposits at the site.
There are no bones of deer or hare in the (very
small) collection from Saxon deposits but there are single bones from two members of the mustelid (weasel)
549
family, which are uncommon on archaeological sites of

any period. Badgers are valued for their pelts and have
been eaten for many centuries. Noddle does not record
what skeletal element was found, but the presence of a
badger bone does suggest that an individual was hunted and its corpse exploited (possibly for hair, skin, fat
and/or meat). Given the fact that only a single bone was
found, it seems unlikely that it represents the remains of
an animal living (ie burrowing) and dying at the site.
Badgers preferred habitat is deciduous or mixed woodland, in proximity to pasture or arable land where
earthworms are abundant. The other mustelid bone
could come from either a wild polecat (Mustela putorius)
or its domestic form: the ferret. Ferrets were used
mainly for flushing rabbits out of their warrens, whereas a wild polecat is likely to have been hunted for its pelt
and/or to prevent it predating the domestic fowl at the
site. Polecats live in a wide variety of habitats including
farmland and river banks, and are often associated with
farms and buildings on the edges of settlements, especially in winter when they can find both shelter and
prey. They also favour rubbish dumps and an animal
may have been attracted to Wearmouth by refuse left
lying around. Noddle comments that if the bone is from
a domestic ferret, and genuinely Saxon in date, then it
is an extremely interesting find. Other possibilities are
that it is from a ferret, but intrusive from later levels, or
that it is from a wild polecat (in which case, there is no
reason to doubt a Saxon date).
Overall, the very small Saxon collection indicates a
community that was probably self-sufficient, raising
cattle and sheep for a variety of purposes including live
products as well as the end product of meat, and keeping pigs on site (either in sties or free-ranging) almost
exclusively for their meat. The food supply was supplemented by meat and, probably, eggs of domestic
fowl, together with the occasional goose or pigeon
(either domestic or wild). A few shellfish were gathered, probably from the local coast. Some fish were
available, including deep-sea species that would have
been caught from boats offshore. Working horses and
cats probably would have been seen around the site.
There are no bones from hunted high-status species
such as deer and hare, but the presence of single bones
from a badger and a polecat (or ferret) indicate that
wildlife were exploited occasionally, possibly for their
pelts. While the presence of rat and rabbit bones in
Saxon contexts would be very interesting (as very early
examples in Britain) if the dates could be confirmed,
the complex reworking of the deposits at the site,
together with the burrowing lifestyle of these species
makes it far more likely that their presence was caused
by later intrusive activities.
The medieval period

This collection of over 2000 identified bones (NISP =
2118) has a very similar distribution of species to the
collection from Saxon deposits (see Tables 37.1.1 and
550
37.1.2). The main differences concern the slightly higher proportion of pig bones, which are more common
than those of sheep, and a rise in the numbers of bones
of domestic fowl (13% of the total domestic food
species NISP compared to 7% in the Saxon collection).
Minimum Numbers of Individuals confirm the relative
increase in the numbers of pigs represented. Meatweight calculations for the major food domesticates
indicate that pork contributed 10% of the meat in the
diet, but beef still contributed approximately 84% with
mutton reduced to 6% (chicken and goose combined
contributed less than 1% of the meat supply).
The ages at death of all three major farm animals
cattle, sheep and pigs, are spread across all four stages
(Table 37.1.3): neonatal (14%24%), juvenile
(10%19%), immature (40%47%) and mature
(14%36%). These categories in Noddles analyses
correspond roughly to the following: for sheep, less
than 36 months old; 612 months; 13 years and over
3 years; the stages are broadly similar for pigs, while
cattle take slightly longer to mature. The patterns for
sheep and pigs are very similar, with significant numbers of animals dying in the two youngest age categories, while the bulk of animals were culled in the
prime meat stage and only a few (represented by
14%18% of the ageable bones) were kept on until
maturity for other purposes. In the case of pigs, mature
animals would be kept purely as breeding stock. The
mature sheep could have provided extra clips of wool as
well as more stock, but it is very clear from the age distribution that these flocks were kept primarily for the
provision of meat and not for wool or milk production.
Among the sheep/goat bones are a few identifiable
specifically as goat (10/353 = 3%). Goats are often
kept for their milking qualities, their milk being particularly easily digested by humans. They were probably
kept at Wearmouth as specialist providers of milk,
although their distinctively flavoured meat and their
skins would have provided useful additional commodities.
As with the sheep and pig bones, almost half of the
ageable cattle bones derive from animals killed at the
prime meat-providing age. But over one-third of the
ageable cattle bones (36%) come from mature animals,
indicating either that they could not sustain such a high
culling rate as the more fecund pigs and sheep, or that
the adults were valued for other products such as traction and milk.
Every flock and herd of domestic livestock incurs a
proportion of unintended deaths, especially in the earliest age groups. Skins of newborn calves and lambs
(and kids) are used in parchment preparation. It is possible that the neonatal bones at Wearmouth represent
animals killed for their skins. However, the continuation of deaths into the juvenile category of all three
species cannot be linked to parchment production.
The most plausible explanation is that cattle,
sheep/goat and pigs were all raised at home at
Wearmouth and that inevitable losses were incurred in
situ of young stock. Skins, of course, could have been

utilised whether or not the deaths were intentional.
Given the emphasis on prime meat production indicated by the high percentages of immature bones, it is
possible that some very young animals were killed for
meat, eg as sucking pig. The meat produced would
have been very small in quantity, but very high in tenderness.
Horse, dog and cat are represented by a few bones,
probably the disturbed remains of working animals.
Compared to the Saxon collection, there is an
increase in the range of species represented by occasional finds, but this may simply reflect the larger sample size (NISP = 2118 cf NISP=168). In addition to all
of the species present in the Saxon deposits (excepting
badger), the medieval collection includes identified
specimens of all three British species of deer (ie red,
fallow and roe), brown hare, duck, gull and crow as
well as a few bones of non-gadid fish and occasional
crab claws.
There is also a change in emphasis among the shellfish, towards oysters. Gastropod shells continue to
occur in low numbers, but oysters contributed 74/111
shells (67%) in the medieval collection, and 156/180
shells (87%) in the late medieval collection. This indicates a change in coastal exploitation from rocky or
stony middle shorelines (during the Anglo-Saxon period) to creeks or estuaries. It is possible that the oyster
beds were cultivated (or, at least, managed in some
way).
The deer and hare bones are very scarce and all six
occur as single items. Fallow deer are thought to have
been reintroduced to Britain and well established in
parks by the Normans (possibly after small-scale introductions or imports as venison during the Roman and
Anglo-Saxon periods). Red deer can also be kept in
parks but their natural habitat is woodland. Roe deer
live in woodland and are unsuitable as park animals
due to their behaviour. Noddle does not mention
whether any of the deer specimens are of antler rather
than bone. Five deer bones out of a total of more than
2000 identified specimens is an extremely low proportion and probably indicates either the presence of
antler fragments as raw material for artefact manufacture and/or occasional meals of venison (possibly salted joints rather than whole carcasses). Woodland in the
river valleys or on the hills, and secular or ecclesiastical
emparkments could have provided local habitats for all
three species. The single identified hare bone may indicate the opportunistic taking of an animal by someone
working in the fields.
The identified bird bones, too, suggest that the
inhabitants of Wearmouth did not enjoy a high status
diet in terms of species, since prized waders and game
birds such as plovers and woodcock are absent. All of
the birds represented could have been eaten, especially the duck which, like the goose and pigeon, could
have been either wild or domestic. Crows, however, are
more likely to have been commensals than food items.
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
The presence of bones of rabbit, rat and polecat or

ferret in medieval deposits is unremarkable in terms of
date, but it is possible that some or all of these are
intrusive from post-medieval activities. The significance of the mustelid identifications as wild polecat or
domestic ferret has been discussed in the Saxon section (above). If the two bones are from domestic ferret
and they and the rabbit bones are genuinely medieval,
then they may indicate that the inhabitants of
Wearmouth had access to a warren from which they
could obtain their own rabbits. Ten rabbit bones out of
2103 identifications, however, seems a very low number for what could have been a regular supply, and it is
more likely that rabbits were occasional gifts from elsewhere, or intrusive.
The livestock
Measurements are included in Appendix 37.1. There
are very few measurable bones or bones with relevant
morphological characteristics in the Anglo-Saxon collection.
Cattle
The medieval cattle bones are quite large compared to
those from other medieval sites, possibly due to good
grazing conditions beside the estuary. No horncores
were recovered. Although the cattle may have been
naturally hornless (polled), this absence of horncores is
probably due to their removal to a workshop (unexcavated or elsewhere). The position of the nutrient foramen on the femur was recorded for five specimens.
Three have the foramen in the supracondylar fossa (the
usual position for medieval cattle), one has it medial to
the fossa (a position that becomes more common
through time) and one has two foramina: one in each
position. Noddle interprets this (admittedly limited)
information as indicating a basic continuity in stock
with occasional cross-breeding.
Sheep
Most of the measurements of medieval sheep bones
indicate animals of a similar size to those at contemporaneous sites. The distal humerus, however, tends to
be quite large, which Noddle takes to reinforce the
suggestion that there was plenty of first-class mutton
available at Wearmouth. Only one horncore was found.
Although it was not measurable, it was massive, indicating a type of sheep that was horned, at least in the
male.
Measurement ratios are indicated in Appendix
37.1. They are few in number but do give some idea of
the type of animal. Because most of them come from
young animals, the sheep appear to be more primitive
than they probably were. The scapula neck ratio for
the medieval period indicates an animal of good meat
conformation for the period. The metacarpal also
551
indicates a better than average animal for the medieval

period. Overall, a smaller version of the present day
Swaledale may be envisaged.
Pigs
The small number of measurements available for pig
bones is not sufficient to allow any definite statements
about the species. There is always a wide range of data
owing to sexual dimorphism, to which must be added
the possible presence of large wild boar. A lower third
molar and a metacarpal from medieval deposits do
appear to be from wild boar on the basis of size.
Overview of the medieval collection

The material from medieval deposits indicates a community that, while self-sufficient in its lifestyle, was
able to enjoy a standard of living that was higher than
many contemporaneous sites, although it could not be
termed high status.
The three main domestic livestock species: cattle,
sheep/goat and pigs, were all raised on site and,
although adult cattle may have been valued for their
provision of live products such as traction and milk, the
emphasis for all three species was the production of
meat of prime quality.
Remarkably, given Noddles particular interest in
pathology, there is not a single reference to a pathological specimen in the original report. This, together
with the measurements indicating large (?well-fed) cattle and, possibly, larger sheep, suggests that the animals were well nourished and well looked after.
Genetically, they may have been the precursors of
regional breed developments, with occasional deliberate cross-breeding with selected stock.
There is a possibility that neonates were exploited
for their skins, but it is unlikely that parchment production was the prime reason for their early deaths,
which are more likely to have been due to natural causes or a desire for very tender meat.
The relative rise in the number of bird bones, particularly those of domestic fowl, in the medieval collection, is typical of sites in Britain. Diets appear to
have become more varied in the medieval period in
terms of species exploited. But the absence of game
birds and the extreme paucity of bones from game
mammals demonstrates that this site, while privileged
in terms of meat quality, had very little access to high
status species.

The site has complex stratigraphy caused by reworking
of deposits. This precludes precise dating of most contexts and has left very few intact deposits of Saxon
date. It has also aided the physical breakage of bones
into fragments. However, the chemical preservation
conditions in the soil appear to have been good.
552
In both the Saxon and the medieval periods, the

site appears to have been self-sufficient, relying on the
major domestic species of cattle, sheep/goat and pig.
Cattle were the commonest species in terms of numbers of identified specimens, numbers of individuals,
and quantities of meat in both periods. Pigs and
domestic fowl became relatively more common in the
medieval period, when all species appear to have been
kept primarily for meat. Fish are under-represented
owing to the lack of sieving during excavation, but it is
clear that marine species of the cod family were
exploited in both periods. It is likely that bones of
smaller fish such as herring and freshwater and estuarine species failed to be recovered because of their
particularly small sizes. Shellfish remains were present
in small numbers in both periods, with oysters and
crab becoming more important in the medieval period, indicating a more varied diet. In the medieval period, people at Wearmouth were able to eat meat of
prime quality, but they had little or no access to highstatus foods such as wading birds and venison.
Similarly, they do not appear to have had their own
dovecote or rabbit warren, although there is a possibility that, with the aid of ferrets, rabbits were exploited. There are occasional hints in both periods of the
exploitation of wild animals such as badger, roe deer
and, possibly, polecat. The presence of bones of burrowing animals such as rats and rabbits throughout
the site is difficult to interpret with confidence. While
these could be in situ, it is likely that at least some of
them are intrusive.
37.2 The animal bones and

marine shells from Jarrow
by Barbara Noddle and Sue Stallibrass with a
contribution from Terry OConnor
A note on the post-excavation analysis
The animal bones from Jarrow were originally reported upon by the late Barbara Noddle. Three separate
batches of bones were sent to her, as the excavations
progressed, and she wrote separate reports upon those
three groups (Noddle archive reports 1981; 1984;
1987; see Appendix H). About one-third of the total
collection is now archived at Bedes World Museum,
Jarrow, but the location of the remainder is currently
unknown. Since Noddles work, the phasing for the
site has been refined, but some of her conclusions
referring to bones as Anglo-Saxon or Medieval cannot be adjusted to the refined phasing, since her
archive is not sufficiently detailed and the bones themselves cannot be reanalysed. Numbers of specimens
have been reanalysed by phase, but the measurement
data have not. Noddle separated out the bird, small
mammal and fish bone for other specialists to examine.
Wherever possible, the birds and small mammals
reported upon by OConnor (archive reports 1986;
1987) have been assigned the new phasing, but some

of the records in OConnors archive are ambiguous
(eg the same context letter code could refer to more
than one year) and cannot be fully utilised. The archive
report on fish bone by Andrew Jones and Andrew
Hutchinson (Jones and Hutchinson 1989) is reproduced separately almost in its entirety. Again, it has not
been possible to apply the refined phasing to Jones and
Hutchinsons archive, but it is unlikely that the broad
conclusions are affected. The marine mollusc shells
were identified by Mrs Janet Bradley in 1988 and her
archive has been adjusted by OHanlon to take the
revised phasing into account. This report was compiled by Sue Stallibrass using Noddles archive records
and reports, the shellfish database and those bird and
small mammal identification that could be allocated a
firm context and phase. Stallibrasss synthesis and
reanalysis was greatly facilitated by Lowthers work on
the phasing and the upgrading to computer of
Noddles database by Shane Hansom.
The site and the aims of this report

The aims of this report are, to some extent, limited by
factors relating to the methods of the sites excavation
and the history of its analysis. However, this is
inevitable with any site where there is a delay between
excavation and publication, and this report seeks to
maximise the data recovered and available today.
Noddle always took care not to over-interpret archaeological data. Hopefully, the current author has also
made it clear in the following sections where the data
are ambiguous or lacking.
The monastic site at Jarrow is an important one
nationally: it has a long history that can be related to
and compared with the archaeological evidence (see
Vol 1, Ch 4). As an early Christian foundation, it
allows the comparison of Anglo-Saxon and medieval
forms of ecclesiastical lifestyles. Very few sites in northern Britain have produced faunal remains from 7th to
11th-century deposits. Although a monastic site is
unlikely to be typical of domestic settlements of the
period, it offers a glimpse of at least some of the animals utilised in the region, and provides potential for
comparison with ecclesiastical sites further afield, such
as Canterbury, Hartlepool, Whithorn and Winchester.
This report aims to provide data that can be used in
enquiries to try to establish how uniform ecclesiastical
lifestyles and diets were throughout the country in the
Anglo-Saxon/Early Medieval period, and to what
extent they took on local attributes. The report will
also examine the Later Saxon period to see if there are
any faunal differences that might relate to its abandonment and/or use as a secular settlement in the 9th to
11th centuries. For each period of occupation, the
report seeks to establish how self-sufficient the resident
community was in terms of meat provision, and
whether or not there are any indications of high-status
occupation.
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
Methodology
Recovery methods
The animal bones and marine shells were collected by
hand during the excavations. Many small items will,
undoubtedly, have been missed because of the lack of
bulk sediment sieving, but the recovery of some bones
of small mammals and birds indicates that levels of
recovery were generally good. The lack of sieving has
implications for the analyses of small items such as fish
bones, particularly those from species likely to have
been caught in freshwater and estuaries, for instance
eels and flounders, which tend to be smaller than deepsea fish such as cod. It will also have biased against the
recovery of bird bones and against the collection of
bones and teeth of juvenile domestic animals such as
lambs and piglets. However, most of the bones of the
main domestic animals are big enough to have had a
good chance of being recovered during excavation, and
the collection is comparable with those from various
other sites of similar period, since very few sites are
completely sieved.
The phasing
Since the original phasing of the site was given to
Noddle, some refinements have been made, corresponding to the sequence utilised throughout this publication. This faunal report utilises the refined phasing
wherever possible and explicitly states where this has
not been the case. The later (post-medieval) material is
not included in this report. Table 37.2.1 presents the
phases.
Noddles database for large mammalian and
bird remains
Noddle did not record bones individually but grouped
them by context in her recording tables which were
subsequently transcribed to a computer database.
Thus, it has been possible to update her original
records into a database with the refined phasing.
Although Noddle usually recorded most of the larger bird bones (ie those of domestic fowl and goose)
herself, bones of smaller birds and mammals were
553
separated out and sent to other specialists. For her first

report, Noddle (archive report 1981) sent all of the
bird bones to Don Bramwell. Noddle identified 103
bones from Anglo-Saxon deposits and 633 from
medieval deposits. From the associated bird bones,
Bramwell identified the remains of 33 individuals (listed as 33 specimens) from 22 different species of bird
(Bramwell archive listing). About one-third of the individuals were domestic fowl and geese. Bramwell treated all of the bird bones as deriving from a single
assemblage, despite the fact that the contexts probably
combined Anglo-Saxon and medieval deposits. His
archive report simply lists the species by habitat, with
no indication of context or period. It has been impossible, therefore, to include any of his identifications in
the tables, despite the fact that some interesting species
were recorded.
OConnor (archive reports 1986; 1987) identified
two further batches of small bird and mammal bones.
These two batches do not quite tally with the groups
reported on by Noddle in her two subsequent reports
(Noddle archive reports 1984; 1987) since both batches contain contexts excavated in various years including
the 1960s and the 1970s. OConnors identifications do
include context information but, unfortunately, the letter codes are not always accompanied by a year or
trench code (this may have been Noddles omission
when she separated out the material to be sent). As the
same letter code (eg NM) could occur in more than one
year of excavation, some of OConnors identifications
cannot be attributed unambiguously to a particular
context. Wherever the context was identifiable, the data
have been amalgamated with Noddles large mammal
and bird data in the tables presented here (although
they have not been added to her database). A minority
of the letter codes remain ambiguous; some of these
may refer to identifications from stratified deposits that
should have been considered here. When the bird bones
are discussed below, reference is made to the disallowed data, since they add several identifications and
are pertinent to the consideration of the site as a whole.
Thus it must be remembered that bird bones are probably under-represented, not just through any bias
against the recovery of small items, but also through the
bias of incomplete recording.
Table 37.2.1 Period groups used for analysis of the faunal remains
Period
date
nature of occupation
Saxon
Later Saxon
Late Saxon/Early Medieval
Norman
Medieval 1
Medieval 2
Medieval 1 and/or 2
Med 2/
Earlier post-medieval
79th C
911th C
c 9th12th C
AD 10721083
12th14th C
14thmid 16th C
12thmid 16th C
14thmid 16th C/
mid 16thmid 18th C
monastery
lay occupation/abandonment
uncertain whether pre- or post-refoundation of monastery
Aldwin building phase
the Durham cells
domestic and farm buildings present
secular occupation
554
Numbers of identified specimens

For each context, the database contains information on
the numbers of specimens (NISP) identified to each
species (or taxonomic group). Since all of the bones
were recovered by hand, it must be remembered that
there will have been a bias against the recovery of
smaller bones of larger animals (particularly the foot
bones and loose teeth of the smaller species such as
sheep or young piglets) and against the recovery of any
bones of smaller animals (such as birds and fish). The
NISPs, therefore, are likely to under-represent the
smaller species.
Minimum numbers of individuals
Within each context, for each species or taxon, there is
also a record of the numbers of those bones retaining
evidence of age at death, and a record of the minimum
numbers of individuals (MNIs) represented. Noddle
assumed that no individual was represented in more
than one context. Her method utilised the maximum
[number] of an anatomical part, together with any further individuals of obviously different age and size
(Noddle archive report 1981, 1). Presumably, her
method required some predetermined anatomical part
to be present, since there is not an MNI for every
species in every context (eg a species could be represented by five fragments, none of which retained any
evidence of age at death, and none of which qualified
as indicating an MNI). The method of calculating
Minimum Numbers of Individuals (using a common
and major element that is relatively large) avoids the
bias against the recovery of smaller bones, so helps to
counteract the bias seen in the simple counts of identifiable fragments (NISP). However, it has biases of its
own, particularly in small samples (where the identification of a single bone of a species can be taken to represent one individual!).
Ageing stages for vertebrate remains
There are two ways of ageing bones by visual inspection: (i) the state of eruption and wear of the teeth in
the lower jaw, and (ii) the state of growth and epiphyseal fusion of post-cranial elements (for instance, the
ends of the long bones fuse on to their main shafts in a
known sequence in modern animals). Noddle grouped

the various states into broad stages that combine the
two lines of evidence. This gives a simplified picture of
the ages of the animals. The advantage of the method
is that it is robust and gives a general indication of the
material without implying potentially spurious accuracy. Noddle was well aware that the sequences are much
better known than the potential ages at which each
stage was reached and outgrown. The disadvantage of
her method is that it ignores details that are present
and which might be informative. Noddles age stages
are defined on p 550 and presented in Table 37.2.2.
Cattle, sheep, goats and pigs can be exploited for a
variety of purposes and products. All can provide meat
and all (particularly pigs) can provide offspring to continue those supplies. Cattle, sheep and goats are good
providers of milk. In addition, cattle can be used for
traction and transport, and sheep can provide annual
supplies of wool. The relevance of Noddles four age
groups to considerations of lifestyles at Jarrow is discussed below.
Newborn (N)
Newborn animals can indicate accidental deaths
incurred at the site at which they were bred (likely to
be at least 10% of animals born). They can also indicate high-status wealthy sites that can afford to slaughter or to buy extremely young animals whose meat was
very tender but also very small in size. Foetal or neonatal animals are also, occasionally, slaughtered for their
skins for making parchment or vellum. There is also
the possibility that newborn animals were killed in
order to maximise the amounts of milk available for
human consumption.
Juvenile (J)
Juvenile animals, dying in their first year or so of life,
may also be accidental deaths or a relatively expensive
source of tender meat. Yearlings are prone to death in
their first winter, when they have lost the protection
provided by the antibodies in their mothers milk but
have to survive the winter weather conditions.
Yearlings may also be culled as surplus to requirements
for breeding stock. This is particularly the case for
pigs, which mature fast and which are also very fecund.
Table 37.2.2 Noddles age stages combining sequences of bone and tooth development
Stage
bones
teeth
Newborn
All bones small, with juvenile character.

No fused epiphyses
No permanent teeth
Juvenile
Bones larger. Only the earliest group of epiphyses fused

(scapula, proximal radius, second phalanx)
Only the first molar fully erupted.

Second molar may be partially erupted.
Immature
Latest fusing group of epiphyses unfused (proximal humerus,

distal radius, ulna, femur, proximal tibia)
All molars erupted, but posterior cusp

of lower third molar not in wear
Mature
All long bones fused
All teeth in full wear
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
555
These may be deliberately selected for slaughter for

bacon in their first winter, when the weather is cold
enough for the raw meat to be cured slowly, without
putrefying.
approximately 52,267 oysters or 31,360 limpets (and

one person would need to eat 700 oysters every day if
oysters were their only source of calories).
Immature (I)
Anatomical measurements
Immature animals are at the prime stage for meat: they

have just about reached their full adult size. If they are
kept any longer they will simply carry on consuming
more and more food but not provide any more meat in
return.
When Noddle measured the bones, she did this using

Driesch (1976) after sorting the bones into Saxon
and medieval on the basis of the initial phasing. Since
the anatomical data were not recorded by context, it
has not been possible to revise the phasing for the measurements. The refinement of the phasing was not particularly radical, and any general trends between
Anglo-Saxon and Medieval measurements should be
broadly valid, but it is not possible to look at possible
changes through shorter timespans (eg Later Saxon,
Medieval 1 and Medieval 2) and individual measurements of interest cannot be guaranteed to date to the
period to which they were originally assigned. This is
unfortunate, since there is growing evidence from
archaeological sites that animals were bred to be larger
during the medieval period, two to three centuries
prior to the well-documented developments of the
18th century (Davis and Beckett 1999). Any attempt
to utilise the Jarrow material to address this question
would require the measurements to be taken again,
and this is not possible for the two-thirds of the material whose location remains unknown.
Mature (M)
Mature animals may provide rather tough meat, but
that consideration is secondary to their other uses
while still alive such as the provision of offspring for
meat or for breeding stock, milk, wool and traction (or
any combination of these).
For any individual, different numbers of elements
are relevant to each age category. For instance, any
bone in the body can be indicative of a Neonatal stage
of development, but only a few epiphyses are relevant
to the Immature stage. Because of this fact, it is not
possible to use the ageing data to make statements
such as there were more Mature than Immature cattle. However, it is possible to compare the age distributions of different species within a single time period
(eg the cattle were relatively more mature than the
sheep) and to compare the age distributions of the
same species in different periods. Noddle commented
that about half of the domestic fowl bones are from
immature birds, presumably raised to provide meat (ie
chicken) rather than eggs.
Meatweight calculations
The MNI can be used to calculate weights of meat available from the various species. For this, it should be
demonstrated that whole carcasses are represented, not
just joints of meat, but Noddle only recorded which
bones of the body were present in her second report
(Noddle archive report 1984) which concerned the
medieval kitchen midden deposits excavated in trenches
7502 and 7604. These deposits did contain all parts of
the body of all three major domestic species (cattle,
sheep/goat and pig). For the purposes of this report, it
has been assumed that whole carcasses of the major food
species are represented throughout the collection. The
meatweights have been calculated by Stallibrass using
Noddles MNIs and weights obtained for modern animals of similar conformation to medieval stock. Many of
the data were kindly provided by Ms Louisa Gidney,
from her own stock of Dexter cattle and Manx Loghtan
sheep. Meatweights have not been used for the shellfish,
but it is clear from Baileys (1978) figures that the entire
collection of shellfish remains from the site represents
less meat than a single cattle carcass. Bailey (1978, 39)
calculated that a single red deer carcass (which is smaller than a cattle carcass) is equivalent in calorific terms to
Shellfish and crustacea

The shellfish and crustacea (crab) remains were
recorded as identified fragments in a manner that is
directly comparable to the records of the numbers of
identified specimens of vertebrate bone fragments.
Since each shell can be broken up into many recognisable pieces (permitting multiple counting of a single
shell), the numbers of unique anatomical zones were
also recorded for the commoner species. Usually, the
apex of the shell was taken as the unique anatomical
zone. This method is similar in principle to the calculation of Minimum Numbers of Individuals for vertebrates. It is especially useful when comparing the
frequencies of species where one has fragile shells (eg
mussels) while the other is robust (eg cockles). The
unique zones refer to individual shells (or valves) and
not to individuals. It must be remembered that some
species (such as cockles, mussels and oysters) have two
shells per individual while others (such as periwinkles
and limpets) have a single shell. Some contexts contained concentrations of shellfish remains suggesting
that these were deposited in a single event. These contexts are mentioned in the period summaries.
The species identified

Noddle commented in all three of her archive reports
that the bones were well preserved but very fragmentary. They were distributed among a large number of
556
Table 37.2.3 Distribution of identified fragments of bones of mammals, birds and fish, and shells of
marine molluscs and crustacea by period
Total ID
Mammal
Bird
Fish
Shell
Saxon
Later Saxon
Late Saxon/
early med
Norman
Medieval 1
311
51
16
237
680
141
3
265
495
177
na
6353
82
7
na
57
2373
397
46
2678
Medieval 2 Medieval 1 or 2 Medieval 2/

EPM
5980
586
496
4555
458
112
625
782
790
45
na
483
Totals
11169
1516
1186
15410
Note: The fish report was undertaken before the final revision of the phasing. The sub-phases were grouped slightly differently (the
Norman period was not separated) and the early post-medieval material was grouped together with post-medieval and modern.
Table 37.2.4 Distribution of identified fragments of mammal bone by period

Saxon
Cattle
170
Sheep
74
Goat
1
Pig
43
Horse
15
Dog
5
Cat
1
Red deer (Cervus elaphus)
Fallow deer (Dama dama)
Deer species
(probably Cervus or Dama)
Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus)
2
Brown hare (Lepus europaeus)
Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)
Badger (Meles meles)
Ferret (Putorius furo)
Beaver (Castor fiber)
Black rat (Rattus rattus)
Brown rat (Rattus norvegicus)
Rat sp
Watervole (Arvicola terrestris)
Field vole (Microtus agrestis)
cf Field vole
vole sp
mouse/vole
Mouse sp (Mus or Apodemus)
Apodemus sp
House mouse (Mus domesticus)
rodent sp.
Common shrew (Sorex araneus)
Mole (Talpa europaea)
Total mammal
311
Later Saxon
469
76
6
47
16
49
4
7
L Saxon/
Norman
early medieval
230
129
5
108
13
4
2
2
48
22
1
10
1
1
Medieval 1
Medieval 2
Medieval
1 or 2
Medieval 2/
EPM
Totals
374
224
2
141
2
5624
2609
59
2142
110
149
212
98
6
1
1080
543
8
586
25
24
60
25
1
3101
1407
23
1114
33
58
87
55
4
1
152
134
13
93
6
9
41
3
1
5
5
1
3
6
6
17
6
2
4
4
1
2
3
1
1
1
2
12
5
34
2
6
2
2
4
3
6
22
1
1
680
495
contexts, some of which appeared to contain redeposited material. Noddle noted that the fragmentation
was ancient, but that it was not possible to ascertain
whether it had been caused deliberately prior to the
initial deposition of the bones (eg in order to extract
the marrow contained within them), or whether some
of the fragmentation was due to later disturbance.
Because of the high degree of fragmentation (which
also may be a reflection of good recovery standards on
the part of the excavators), about 60% of the fragments
82
2373
3
2
5980
458
790
14
14
11
4
1
2
37
5
35
3
6
2
3
4
5
6
1
1
3
2
11169
could be identified to species or taxon, and the rest

were not recorded.
For many sheep/goat bones, it is difficult to distinguish those of sheep from those of goats. Noddles
Sheep category may contain some bones of goats, but
her Goat category contains only those that could be
identified specifically as deriving from goats.
Occasional fragments of goat bones were recovered
from every period at Jarrow. They formed between 1%
and 9% (usually between 1% and 4%) of the total
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
557
Table 37.2.5 Distribution of identified fragments of bird and amphibian bone by period
Saxon
domestic fowl (Gallus)

32
domestic Goose/Greylag
18
(cf Anser anser)
small Goose
(cf Branta sp eg B. bernicla/leucopsis)
domestic Duck/Mallard
(Anas platyrhynchos)
Teal (Anas crecca)
Anas sp.
feral pigeon (Columba livia)
Black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix)
Barn Owl (Tytus alba)
1
Crow (Corvus corone)
Rook (Corvus frugilegus)
Jackdaw (Corvus monedula)
Curlew (Numenius arquata)
Golden Plover (Pluvialis apricaria)
Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus)
cf Lapwing
Redshank/greenshank
(Tringa totanus/nebularia)
Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola)
small wader
tiny wader sp.
tern/shearwater
Great Black Backed gull
(Larus marinus)
Gull sp.
Blackbird (Turdus merula)
cf blackbird
Fieldfare (Turdus pilaris)
large Thrush (eg T. pilaris/viscivorus)
small thrush (eg T. philomelos/iliacus)
Starling (Sturnus vulgaris)
House Sparrow (Passer domesticus)
cf Goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis)
Chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs)
small passerine
Total bird
51
Later Saxon
>87
47
L Saxon/
Norman
early medieval
122
48
362
306
56
Medieval 2
>450
54
Medieval
1 or 2
82
26
Medieval 2/
EPM
36
7
1
2
4
1
8
1
12
1
1
1
7
2
1+1?
19*
3
2
3
2
3
1
2
1
18
3
5
1
>141
177
>821
672
89
2
397
1
1
>586
11
18
2781
>6584
>1122
256
11
2
1
21
1
1
1
7
25*
3
2
1
1
3
3
2
5
2
1
1
1
1
5
Totals
Frog
Bone totals
Medieval 1
112
45
2
1
18
1
1
4
11
1
1
1
3
>1516
29
570
835
>12714
Notes
* partial skeletons of at least three nestlings included in count as one bone each
? dating not certain
domestic fowl > indicates presence of ribs and phalanges not included in count
sheep/goat bones for each period. Goats milk is often

valued because it is particularly easy for people to
digest and can be used as a food for people who are
frail or unwell. Goats and ewes milk is also good for
making cheeses.
It is difficult to distinguish between the bones of
domestic geese and those of their wild progenitor, the
greylag goose (Anser anser). Indeed, given the location
of Jarrow, wild greylag geese may well have interbred
with domestic birds. Given the persistent presence of
goose bones in almost every collection (it is only absent

from the very small assemblage dating to the Norman
period), and the extremely sparse evidence for the
exploitation of definitely wild geese and ducks, it seems
possible that most, if not all, of the goose bones derive
from domestic birds. Table 37.2.3 presents the distributions of total numbers of identified specimens of
bones of mammals (N>11,000), birds (N>1,500) and
fish (N>1,100), and shells of marine molluscs and
crustacea (N>15,000).
558
Saxon
Later Saxon
Periwinkle
Mussel
Oyster
Limpet
Cockle
Blunt tellin
Spindle shell
Great Scallop
Whelk
Dog whelk
Thin tellin
Peppery furrow shell
Trough shells
Edible crab
146
77
5
4
2
3
124
93
9
36
2
Total shell
237
L Saxon/
Norman
early medieval
5869
408
11
58
7
32
10
14
Medieval 1
1456
840
294
65
10
4
2
2
1
Medieval 2
1258
2286
940
52
8
6
2
265
Medieval 2/
EPM
Totals
504
89
138
33
12
1
1
1
105
110
256
5
6
1
9494
9313
1653
267
47
15
5
3
2
2
2
1
1
5
483
15410
1
1
1
1
Medieval
1 or 2
1
1
6353
57
1
2
2678
4555
782
Note: These are total counts for shell fragments. See Table 37.2.7 for counts that identify unique anatomical
zones for the commoner species
using unique anatomical zones for the commoner species ie: periwinkle, mussel, oyster, limpet and
cockle
Periwinkle1
Mussel2
(mussel valves)
Oyster2
(oyster valves)
Limpet1
Cockle2
Blunt tellin2
Spindle shell1
Great scallop2
Whelk1
Dog Whelk1
Thin tellin2
Peppery furrow shell2
Trough shells2
Edible crab
Total shell
1 single shell
Saxon
Later Saxon
L Saxon/
Norman
early medieval
117
15
121
22
5844
69
32
3
1400
207
5L:10R
10L:12R
34L:35R
1L:2R
10L1:106R
1L:1R
3L:3R
3L:3R
33
45
7
Medieval 1
103L:108R
11
2 bivalve
Medieval 2/
EPM
Totals
1209
525
503
22
103
52
9329
915
266L:259R
11L:11R
29L:23R
694
97
206
360L:334R
55L:42R
103L:103R
47
10
4
2
2
1
183
Medieval
1 or 2
211
139
Medieval 2
34
4
6
2
18
7
1
1
1
4
3
1
1
1
1
1
5971
47
2
1888
1
2477
L left valve
1
2
653
369
R right valve
Key for Tables 37.2.6 and 37.2.7 (additional to those defined on p 548)
Common name
taxonomic name
Common name
taxonomic name
Blunt tellin
Great scallop
Thin tellin
Tellin crassa
Pectin maxima
Tellin tenuis
Peppery furrow shell

Trough shells
Scrobicularia planum
Spisula species
1222
194
31
15
5
3
2
1
2
1
1
5
11727
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
559
Table 37.2.8 Relative proportions of identified specimens of the major food species
Cattle, sheep/goat and pig are expressed first as percentages of their own total. This total (cattle + sheep/goat + pig) is then
expressed as a percentage of the total including identified specimens of domestic fowl (chicken) and goose. These latter totals
are then expressed as a percentage of the total identified specimens, this time including the main shellfish species (periwinkle,
mussel and oyster: using unique anatomical zones ie numbers of shells not numbers of fragments of shells)
Saxon
Cattle
Sheep/Goat
Pig
Total C, S/G & P
Fowl (F)
Goose (G)
L Saxon/
early medieval
N
%
Norman
170
75
43
288
59
26
15
85
469
82
47
598
78
14
9
82
230
134
108
472
49
28
23
74
48
23
10
81
32
18
9
5
83
47
11
6
121
47
20
7
7
0
Total
338
main domestic vertebrates
C + SG + P
F+G
Periwinkle
Mussel
Oyster
Totals
Later Saxon
288
50
117
15
2
472
61
11
25
3
<1
728
640
598
130
121
22
6
877
68 472
15 168
14 5844
3
69
<1
6
6559
7
3
89
1
<1
Medieval 1
Medieval 2
59 1030
28 551
12 586
92 2217
49
25
26
86
3101
1430
1114
5645
55
25
20
92
152
147
93
392
39
38
24
78
374
226
141
741
50
30
19
95
12
2
413
51
7
1
82
26
16
5
35
7
4
1
8
-
303
55
88
2525
6109
81
7
32
3
66 2267
6 358
26 1400
2 207
211
4343
50 5645
8 464
32 1209
5 525
5 694
8537
123
Medieval
1 and/or 2
N
%
Medieval 2/
EPM
N %
500
66
5
14
6
8
392
108
503
22
97
1122
783
35
10
45
2
9
741
42
103
52
206
1144
65
4
9
5
18
Table 37.2.9 Minimum Numbers of Individuals (MNIs) for the commoner species
Cattle
Sheep
Goat
Pig
Horse
Dog
Cat
Roe deer
Hare
Rat
Fowl
Goose
Pigeon
Totals
Periwinkle
Mussel
Oyster
Limpet
Cockle
Shellfish totals
Saxon
Later Saxon
8
10
1
4
2
26
5
1
3
L Saxon/
Norman
early medieval
17
15
1
11
1
1
Medieval 1
Medieval 2
Medieval
1 or 2
33
23
50
31
4
42
3
4
5
16
16
1
13
2
3
25
3
1
3
Medieval 2/
EPM
7
4
1
1
1
8
7
7
2
1
8
2
15
Totals
151
107
8
103
11
9
10
1
1
1
48
11
2
25
51
55
98
154
57
15
458
117
10
1
2
121
12
3
33
32
2
130
169
5844
35
3
45
7
5934
1400
106
108
47
10
1671
1209
266
360
34
4
1873
503
11
55
18
7
594
103
29
103
4
3
242
9329
471
633
194
31
10658
Numbers of identified specimens are presented by

species and period in Table 37.2.4 (mammals), Table
37.2.5 (birds) and Table 37.2.6 (shellfish). Because it
has not been possible to refine the phasing of the original report on the fish bones, these cannot be presented in a comparable format (but see Jones and
Hutchinson, below). The shellfish data are also presented in Table 37.2.7 using the unique anatomical
zones (see above for methodology). This method of
recording reduces the total number of identified
11
45
shellfish fragments to N>11,000. In particular, it

reduces the recorded numbers of undiagnostic mussel
shell fragments.
Table 37.2.3 demonstrates that shellfish remains
were more common than vertebrate remains but it
must be remembered that the quantities of meat provided by shellfish are very small when compared to that
provided by a large mammal. Overall, the commonest
species recorded at Jarrow are: periwinkle (N=9052),
cattle (N=5624), sheep (N=2609), pig (N=2142),
560
Table 37.2.10 Relative proportions of Minimum Numbers of Individuals of the major food species
Cattle, sheep/goat and pig are expressed first as percentages of their own total. This total (cattle + sheep/goat + pig) is then
expressed as a percentage of the total that includes domestic fowl (chicken) and goose. Percentages are not applicable (na) for
very small samples
Saxon
Cattle
Sheep/goat
Pig
Total C, S/G & P
8
11
4
23
35
48
17
26
6
3
35
74
17
9
Fowl (F)
Goose (G)
Total
23
main domestic vertebrates
C + SG + P
F+G
Later Saxon
23
100
L Saxon/
early medieval
N
%
17
16
11
44
39
36
25
Norman
Medieval 1
Medieval 2
na
1
2
na
33
23
25
81
41
28
31
50
35
42
127
39
28
33
Medieval
1 and/or 2
N
%
16
17
13
46
35
37
28
Medieval 2/
EPM
N %
7
4
11
8
7
7
2
8
2
15
50
53
91
142
52
14
35
15
70
30
44
9
83
17
oyster (N=1124) and domestic fowl (N=>1122).

These same species tend to be the commonest in every
period, although their relative proportions do change,
as shown in Table 37.2.8. Table 37.2.9 presents the
data for Minimum Numbers of Individuals (MNIs) for
the commoner species of mammals and birds. Table
37.2.10 presents the relative proportions of the MNIs
for the major food species.
The Anglo-Saxon period

The Anglo-Saxon faunal collection derives from contexts relating to the early monastery and is one of the
smallest from the site for various reasons, including the
fact that these were the earliest layers and therefore the
ones most likely to have been disturbed by subsequent
activities at the site. But the original quantities deposited at the site may also have been small. The floors of
the buildings were almost clean (apart from a few small
fragments of fish bone and marine mollusc shell), and
it is possible that rubbish was disposed of elsewhere.
No rubbish pits were discovered, and refuse may have
been thrown into Jarrow Slake to be taken away by the
tide. Alternatively, the scarcity of faunal remains may
be a genuine reflection of a small population inhabiting
the site, one that may not have eaten a lot of meat. This
latter suggestion could be tested by trace element
analysis of human bones relating to this period at the
site.
Tables 37.3.3 and 37.2.8 emphasise the small numbers of bones of mammalian species and the relatively
high frequencies of shellfish recovered from AngloSaxon deposits (eg 170 fragments of cattle bone and a
minimum number of 117 periwinkle shells). The relative proportions of identified fragments of bones of the
three major domestic mammals are similar to those in
several other periods at the site: 59% cattle, 26%
sheep/goat and 15% pig. However, the relative proportions using the MNIs emphasise the importance of
2
1
na
na
81
10
89
11
127
15
89
11
46
6
88
12
11
3
na
na
na
na
sheep: 35% cattle, 48% sheep/goat and 17% pig. Note

that, using this method, there appear to have been
more sheep/goats represented than cattle, although the
relative proportions of pigs and their bones are very
similar in third place. In no other period at Jarrow do
estimated numbers of sheep/goat exceed those of cattle
in this way. In all other periods, the MNI for cattle
exceeds or approximately equals that for sheep/goat.
The MNI results are probably more realistic than the
unadjusted NISP counts (in terms of the relative numbers of animals slaughtered or dying of natural causes)
but, when meatweights are calculated (Table 37.2.11),
it is clear that cattle provided the greatest amount of
meat to the diet, even in the Anglo-Saxon period (82%
beef, 11% mutton and 7% pork).
Figure 37.2.1 presents the raw data for all fragments of cattle, sheep/goat and pig bones retaining
information regarding age at death. The collection
from the Anglo-Saxon period is very small, particularly for sheep/goat. There are equal numbers of
Immature and Mature sheep/goat bones, with even
fewer in the Juvenile category. This distribution suggests that some sheep/goats were slaughtered for meat
while others were kept into maturity for other supplies
(such as wool, breeding stock and, perhaps, milk).
The cattle bones show an almost complete absence
of bones from Neonatal and Juvenile animals, with an
emphasis on Mature and, to a lesser extent, Immature
bones. Even for the Anglo-Saxon assemblage, which is
likely to have undergone the greatest degree of postdepositional diagenesis, it is unlikely that Neonatal and
Juvenile cattle bones are severely under-represented
due to taphonomic processes. Much smaller and more
fragile bones (such as bones of fish, domestic fowl,
and Juvenile sheep/goat and pigs) were recovered successfully from Anglo-Saxon deposits. The emphasis on
bones from Mature and Immature cattle suggests
that the animals were kept for traction and breeding
as well as for meat. It is unlikely that they were kept at
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
561
Table 37.2.11 Relative proportions of meatweights of the major food species

Percentages have only been calculated for cattle+sheep/goat+pig and are not applicable (na) for very small samples. In all
cases, the meat contributed by domestic fowl and goose forms less than 1% of the total. Meatweights have been calculated by
multiplying the MNI for each species with an average meatweight for that species obtained by Stallibrass for modern animals
of similar conformation (many of these data were kindly supplied by Louisa Gidney from her own observations). These
meatweights are: cattle: 165kg; sheep/goat: 16kg; pig: 27kg; domestic fowl: 0.4kg; goose: 2kg
Saxon
Kg
Later Saxon
Kg
L Saxon/
Norman
early medieval
Kg
%
Kg
%
Cattle
Sheep/Goat
Pig
1320
176
108
82 4290
11
96
7
81
96 2805
2 256
2 297
Total
1604
4467
3
14
Fowl (F)
Goose (G)
84
8
9
Kg
Medieval 2
Kg
Medieval
1 and/or 2
Kg
%
81
8
11
Medieval 2/
EPM
Kg %
27
na 5445
368
na 675
84 8250
6 560
10 1134
83 2640
6 272
11 351
3358
192
6488
9944
3263
220
3
4
<1
3
4
the site for milking since a milking economy often

involves the slaughter of excess young (Neonatal)
calves.
Using the original phasing (which did not differentiate between Anglo-Saxon and Later Anglo-Saxon
contexts), Noddle noted that the glenoid articulation
surface of a cattle scapula has a defect in it that may
represent a minor trauma or developmental anomaly.
In addition, 8% (2 of the 24) lower third molars (M3)
from Saxon deposits are missing their third cusp (the
hypoconulid). This is a congenital abnormality that is
relatively common (typically about 15%) in RomanoBritish cattle jaws, but which is rare in medieval collections.
The pig bones show the typical emphasis on bones
of Immature pigs that is indicative of animals raised for
their meat. Noddle noted the very large size of one pig
astragalus found in a context originally allocated to the
Saxon period, and suggested that this could be from
a wild animal.
The other domestic food species represented in the
Anglo-Saxon collection are domestic fowl and goose.
The bones occur roughly in the proportion of two
domestic fowl bones to every one goose bone, which is
an unusually high proportion of goose. Perhaps local
flocks of greylag geese were exploited. The low-lying,
damp ground adjacent to the site would have made
excellent grazing for birds whether wild or domestic.
(NB Although fowl and geese are quite well represented in terms of numbers of identified specimens, there
are no records in Noddles database for Minimum
Numbers of Individuals for either of these taxa.)
The other domestic species represented by a few
bones are horse, dog and cat. These are likely to have
been working animals. Noddle commented that the
dog bones were generally scattered around the site and
that no burials or partial skeletons were found (in any
period). A single bone of a barn owl was recovered;
possibly a remnant of a commensal bird using the
165
Medieval 1
112
108
na
na
buildings as a roost. Other wild species that are represented in the Anglo-Saxon group include roe deer (two
fragments), fish and shellfish. Roe deer live in wooded
habitats. The bones are probably the remains of a
hunted individual, possibly a gift to the monks at the
cells. If the large pig astragalus also represents a wild
boar then this animal, too, was probably hunted in
woodland and may have been given to the monks (if it
dates to the Anglo-Saxon rather than the Later AngloSaxon period).
The fish bones comprise nine of the salmonid
(salmon) family and six of the gadid (cod) family.
Given their small size, the salmonid bones are probably under-represented. The shellfish comprise predominantly periwinkles, plus a few mussels and
limpets, and the occasional tellin, oyster and cockle.
The overall impression of the small collection from
Anglo-Saxon deposits at Jarrow is one of a modest diet
that included domestic animals kept mainly for purposes other than meat (such as wool, traction, breeding stock and milk), although the pigs and some of the
cattle and sheep were slaughtered at a prime age for
meat. At least one goat is represented, which may have
been kept for milk. This diet was supplemented by
chicken and goose and wild resources gathered from
the middle shore or caught in the estuary. The cod
bones could indicate some deep sea fishing (NB the
fish bones could derive from Anglo-Saxon and/or Later
Saxon deposits). The birds, fish and shellfish would
have contributed only a small proportion of the meat,
but would have added variety to the diet, which may
have included birds eggs. The venison from the roe
deer (and, possibly, a little wild boar meat) may well
have been a gift. The sample size is too small to suggest whether or not the community was self-sufficient
by raising its own domestic animals, and it is not possible to assess the relative importance of meat and vegetables to the monks diet without analysing the bones
of the people themselves.
562
Fig 37.2.1 Histograms of age at death of the main domestic species. S Stallibrass, AMacM
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
The Later Saxon period

The Later Saxon period is the only time that the site is
thought to have been entirely occupied by lay people
rather than by monks or a mixture of monks and lay
persons. The Later Saxon collection is quite small, but
is substantially larger than that recovered from Saxon
deposits (N=821 identified fragments of mammal and
bird bones). Although the actual numbers of identified
shellfish remains are similar in the two collections, the
relative frequency of shellfish is much smaller in the
Later Saxon collection, suggesting less exploitation of
the shore. The main species of shellfish remain the
periwinkle plus some mussels and occasional oysters,
cockles and tellins. In addition, there is a significant
minority of limpets, which must have been gathered
from a rocky shore rather than from the immediate
vicinity of the site.
The other main difference between the AngloSaxon and Later Saxon period is the exceptionally high
proportion of cattle bones. Cattle bone fragments form
almost 80% of the NISP for cattle plus sheep/goat plus
pig. This strong emphasis on cattle is never seen again
in any of the later collections at the site and marks out
the Later Saxon collection. The high proportion of cattle is at the expense of both sheep/goat and pig, whose
proportions relative to each other remain very similar
to those seen in the Anglo-Saxon period. All three
methods of quantification emphasise the importance of
cattle bones. Among the three major domestic species,
cattle account for 78% of the identified specimens and
74% of the numbers of individuals, and beef formed
96% by weight of the available meat.
The ageing data include slightly more examples of
Immature than Mature fragments. This suggests that
raising (or purchasing) cattle for meat was important,
but that many had been kept on for other purposes
such as traction and breeding stock. It is unlikely that
the cattle were raised for milk and dairy products at the
site, since there are no bones from Neonatal calves. In
fact, given the small number of Juvenile bones, it is
possible that the cattle were not raised at the site at all.
Identified goat bones form 7% of the sheep/goat
bones, which is the highest representation of goat
excepting the Medieval 1 and/or 2 collection. Given
the tiny numbers of goat bones identified throughout
the sequence, however, the differences may not be significant in terms of the animals exploitation. The ageing evidence for the sheep/goats and the pigs is very
similar to that seen in the Anglo-Saxon collection.
Both species probably were raised at the site, and both
were utilised for meat production, with a few animals
kept on for breeding stock.
Domestic fowl and geese contributed small but significant numbers of fragments and individuals. There
are almost twice as many domestic fowl bones as bones
of geese, but the Minimum Numbers of Individuals
suggest that there were almost equal numbers of geese
and fowl. The fowl and geese together contributed
563
30% of the total MNI for the five major domestic

species (ie cattle, sheep/goat, pig, fowl and goose).
This is the highest proportion of any period at Jarrow.
The next highest contribution in terms of MNIs by
fowl and goose is in the following (Late Saxon/Early
Medieval) period. In all of the medieval periods, fowl
and goose contribute 11% or 12% of the domestic
food species MNIs.
Like the geese, the ducks could have been either
domestic or wild (mallard), and are highly likely to
have been part of peoples diet. Given the very small
numbers of duck bones (N=3), it may be more likely
that they derive from an occasional hunted bird, since
domestic birds should have been available for a more
sustained contribution to the diet (unless they were
obtained from elsewhere). The lapwing and redshank/greenshank were probably wild food items. All
are middle-sized waders, known to have been utilised
for food. Lapwings are typical of open country, often
farmland or pasture, and tend to move to wet areas in
the winter, often near the coast. Redshank and greenshank are similar in size to each other and to the lapwing and both like marshes and moors and spend the
winters on estuaries and mud-flats. The starling could
have been eaten but is more likely to have been a resident at the site and to have died a natural death.
Similarly, the house mouse and other rodent bones are
likely to be the remains of commensals. If they had
been caught by the cat(s), they would almost certainly
have been consumed beyond recovery. Like the cat
bones, the dog and horse bones are probably the occasional and casual remains of working animals that died
at the site.
The only bones of wild mammals that were, presumably, hunted are those of red deer and badger.
Badger meat has a strong flavour, but several recipes
survive that suggest that it has been an acceptable part
of peoples diet for several centuries.
The fish bones from the Saxon period are
described above, and it is possible that some or all of
them derive from contexts redefined as Later Saxon
rather than Anglo-Saxon. Similarly, the abnormal cattle and pig bones noted by Noddle (and described
above) could date to this period.
Noddle comments that there was a waste piece of
worked bone in context 2007. The working of bone is
discussed further by Riddler (Ch 31.5 above).
Overall, the Later Saxon collection stands out for
its exceptionally high dependence on cattle for the provision of meat, and the relatively sparse use of shellfish.
The domestic birds also appear to have been quite
important, although the different methods of quantification give slightly conflicting results. It is the only collection with more than six ageable cattle fragments that
has no examples of Neonatal calf bones. This may be
significant and may indicate that people living at the
site in the Later Saxon period were obtaining their cattle from elsewhere, even though they were raising their
own sheep and pigs. This hint at a greater dependency
564
on (or interaction with) other sites could be compared

with other aspects of the Later Saxon material. Was
there less emphasis on self-sufficiency during the secular occupation of the site?
The Later Saxon/early medieval period

The deposits allocated to this group may pre-or postdate the refoundation of the monastery. The collection
is exceptional for its large quantity of shellfish remains.
One context stands out in particular: pit context 626 in
trench 7103. Context 626 contained a Minimum
Number of 5021 periwinkles. It also produced several
mussel and limpet shells, but not a single fragment of
oyster shell. Two other contexts produced over 100
fragments of periwinkles. Context 624 was the base of
a hearth in the same kitchen area, while context 2841
was part of the fill of the enclosure trench in trench
7803. Again, neither of these contexts contained a single fragment of oyster shell. Even if these three contexts are discounted as being exceptional, the late
Saxon/early medieval period produced more than three
times the numbers of periwinkles recovered from either
of the two preceding periods. Mussel shells are similarly much better represented in this period, as are
limpet shells (although to a lesser degree). Numbers of
oyster and cockle shells, though, remain very low.
It is not possible to compare the relative frequencies
of shellfish with those of fish, since this period was not
separated out when the fish bones were analysed but,
given the low numbers of fish bones recovered from the
periods pre- and post-dating the Late Saxon/early
medieval period, it seems unlikely that fish bones were
common. Birds are also relatively more frequent in this
period than in any other, occurring in a ratio of one to
three identified bird and mammal bones.
The majority of the mammal bones derive from the
three main domestic food species. Cattle bones
account for approximately half of the identified specimens, with sheep/goat bones very slightly outnumbering those of pig. This ratio is very similar to those
observed in the Anglo-Saxon and Medieval 1 collections, and may suggest that the animal remains derive
from monastic rather than secular occupation at the
site. Although the estimates of Minimum Numbers of
Individuals increase the relative importance of sheep to
a level almost equal to that of cattle, it is clear that beef
still formed the major supply of meat (84%).
The ageing data for the cattle suggests that the animals were raised at the site: there are a few bones of
Neonatal and Juvenile calves. Again, the numbers of
Immature and Mature bones suggest that, although
some cattle were raised and slaughtered for meat, others were kept on for other products before being
slaughtered. Four per cent of the sheep/goat bones
were identified specifically as goat. The ageing data are
sparse, but nearly one-third of the ageable bones are
from lambs or kids that died within eighteen months of
their birth, while nearly half of the bones derive from
fully mature adults. This indicates a mixed economy

using home-raised flocks. The ageable pig bones indicate a classic home-raised meat economy.
The majority of bird bones derive from domestic fowl
and geese. Fowl outnumber geese by about 3:1. The
domestic meat supply may have been supplemented very
occasionally by hunted wild species: there are single
bones of roe deer (a woodland species) and brown hare
(an animal of pasture and arable fields). The teal bone
must come from a wild bird, but these duck are very
small and do not provide a great deal of meat (although
they are a favourite sporting target). The redshank/
greenshank is also likely to have been hunted for food.
The pigeon may well have been eaten, but the presence
of a single bone strongly suggests that the bird was wild,
and not raised in a dovecote as a staple food supply. The
other bird species represented by occasional bones
include jackdaw, a tern or shearwater (the identification
is not definite), and one or more finches (possibly
including goldfinch). All of these could have been eaten
by people, but alternatively they could simply have died
at the site, which would have provided roosting and
nesting sites in the buildings and any trees or shrubs that
might have grown among them. Besides the wild bird
bones that may derive from commensals, there are also
a few scattered bones of domestic dogs, cats and horses.
Although the numbers of shellfish are comparatively high in this period, even the cache of 5021 periwinkles in context 626 would have provided less meat than
a single sheep. However, their contribution is significant in terms of alternative food supplies. The
meatweight that they could have provided would have
been equivalent to approximately ten domestic fowl, or
two or three geese (or one quarter of an adult sheep).
The Late Saxon/early medieval collection resembles
those from the Anglo-Saxon and Medieval 1 periods
rather than that from the Later Saxon period, and may
be indicative of monastic rather than secular occupation.
The overall impression is of a self-sufficient community
raising its own sheep and pigs and, probably, its own cattle, fowl and geese. The cattle and sheep were multi-purpose, but the pigs were raised for meat. The domestic
birds could have provided both meat and eggs, and peoples diet was sometimes supplemented by shellfish.
There is no reason to suggest that the shellfish were
utilised as emergency food. They were probably locally
abundant and would certainly have been easy to harvest.
They would also have been a good source of protein for
meatless days in the Christian calendar. Remains of
wild species are very scarce. The fact that most wild
species are represented by a single bone may suggest that
they were occasional gifts to the community; they certainly do not indicate any constant source of supply.
The Norman period

This is the period of Aldwins later 11th-century building works. Deposits attributed to this period relate
specifically to the construction of the monastic build-
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
ings during the short period from 10721083, and

unlike occupation deposits would not be expected
to yield much animal bone. The collection from
deposits of this period is very small, and the fish bones
were reported on before the contexts relating to this
period were separated out for analysis. The usual
domestic food mammal species are represented in similar proportions to those seen in the preceding and following periods. The ageing data is very sparse and the
cattle bones show an emphasis on Mature examples.
This could indicate imported meat (?for the building
workers?), but may just be a quirk of the exceedingly
small sample size. In contrast, the sheep/goat and pig
evidence indicates that these animals were raised at the
site: the pig bones include a foetal as well as a neonatal bone, and the sheep/goat bones include a neonatal
bone from a kid. People seem to have been living at the
site and raising animals there while the construction
work was under way or, at least, very shortly afterwards, unless all of the material is redeposited from
earlier layers. Redeposition is possible but, given the
fragile nature of foetal and neonatal bones, it seems
unlikely that all of the material is derivative, and
Cramp was careful to include only contexts that could
be related directly to the Norman buildings. It may be
significant (or it may be a factor of sample size) that
there is not a single fragment of bone from horse, dog
or cat in this collection. Bones from these three commensal species are present in every period at this site
apart from the Norman rebuilding phase. Perhaps the
nature of the occupation was different: it may have
been less well established and more transient. Goose is
not represented. Although this could be a sample bias,
it is notable that the subsequent medieval periods have
very few goose bones (unlike the Anglo-Saxon to early
medieval collections). The absence of goose bones in
the Norman collection could indicate the start of the
medieval pattern. Although there are no bones from
wild birds, there is a single bone from a roe deer. The
shellfish show the usual predominance of periwinkles,
with a few limpets and mussels but no oyster shells.
The single dog whelk may have been collected together with the limpets on a rocky shore.
In sum, very little can be said about the faunal
remains from this period, excepting they mainly resemble those from the preceding periods and that the sample size is very small.
The Medieval 1 period

This is the period of the Durham cells at Jarrow. Some
of the material derives from kitchen midden deposits in
the south-eastern part of the site. The sample size is
much larger than any of the Anglo-Saxon collections,
and there are almost equal numbers of identified fragments of bones and shells (approximately 2500 of each).
The shellfish remains are dominated by periwinkles, plus mussels and limpets and, for the first time,
there is a significant minority of oyster shells (the
565
Minimum Numbers of Individuals of mussels and oysters are equal). Several other species, including edible
crab, are represented by occasional shell fragments.
These occurrences could be due to the sample size:
individual shells of commensal species could have been
collected with those being targeted for harvesting.
There are concentrations of shells in four contexts
(each one in a different trench). In each case, the concentration consists almost entirely of a single species:
two of periwinkles (each of these occurs in a pit in the
kitchen area), one of mussels (another kitchen pit) and
one of oysters (in a levelling layer over the ditch). The
oysters occur in context 2858 in trench 7602 and are
dated to the later part of the period (Medieval 1b).
Unlike periwinkles, limpets and mussels, oysters are
never exposed on the shore. They remain below the
water level in the creeks and estuaries in which they
grow. Either this period marks a deliberate exploitation
of a local habitat that was not utilised to any serious
extent in the Anglo-Saxon periods or the oysters were
imported from elsewhere. It is possible that they were
cultivated rather than wild.
The fish remains also indicate the greater exploitation of a resource that was hardly utilised in the AngloSaxon period: deep-sea fish. The numbers of fish
bones are small, but almost exclusively derive from
members of the cod family (cod, haddock and ling).
Only one or two bones could be identified to the
salmon family. This is a complete reversal of the
Anglo-Saxon collection.
The three major food species occur in very similar
proportions to those seen in the Late Saxon/Early
Medieval period, with cattle accounting for half of the
identified specimens and equal amounts of sheep/goat
and pig bones. All three species appear to have been
raised at the site. There are several examples of
Neonatal and Juvenile bones of each, and there
appears to be an emphasis on slaughter for meat
(Immature bones) for all three, although several sheep
and cattle were kept on into maturity. Domestic fowl
are also well represented, but goose bones are less
common (there is a ratio of 6:1 fowl:goose bones). It is
not possible to suggest whether the four duck bones
are from wild mallard or domestic birds. Similarly, the
pigeon bones could be from wild birds (possibly commensals) or from domestic pigeons raised for food.
The eight bones are unlikely to indicate that pigeons
were raised at the site. The black grouse, the redshank/greenshank and the tiny wader are likely to have
been caught and eaten, but the other species (eg the
rook and jackdaw) may have been commensals. The
perching birds (passerines) could have been food
items, commensals, or the remains of owl or raptor pellets. They include fieldfare, a small thrush species
(such as redwing or song thrush) and starling.
The small mammal bones may also have been
deposited in pellets. The species include mouse, vole,
water vole and black rat. The black rat is likely to have
lived in the buildings, since it likes warm conditions.
566
It was reintroduced into Britain around the 9th10th

centuries on ships from the Baltic region. Although it
is a good climber it is not as fond of burrowing as the
brown rat, and the presence of its bones in the
Medieval 1 period at Jarrow is likely to be original
rather than intrusive.
The larger wild mammals include red deer and roe
deer, which are likely to have been hunted in wooded
environments. There is also one fragment identified as
fallow deer, a species that was reintroduced to Britain
in the medieval period as a park animal. This must
have come from a high status estate. There are also
occasional bones of brown hare and a single fragment
from rabbit. Rabbits were reintroduced into Britain in
the 12th century. At first they were kept in warrens to
provide food for high-status (often royal) and/or ecclesiastical sites. They were often kept on islands to prevent their escape, and there was an early warren on the
Farne islands (Yalden 1999, 159). The single occurrence of a rabbit bone in a Medieval 1 deposit at Jarrow
is very unlikely to indicate the presence of a warren at
the site itself. Either the animal was a gift, or the bone
derives from an animal that died at the site after burrowing down into medieval deposits. Noddle took care
to exclude obviously recent bones from her database
records, and this single occurrence need not be dismissed as intrusive.
The other wild mammal represented (by two bones)
in the Medieval 1 period at Jarrow is beaver. This is an
unusually late occurrence of beaver at an archaeological
site in Britain (B Coles, pers comm) although they are
known to have survived well into the medieval period
(Yalden 1999). Beavers are highly regarded for their
thick warm fur, but it is unlikely that these are the
remains of an animal obtained solely for its skin
(although it is unlikely that the skin was wasted). The
bones are an ulna and a humerus from context 1198 in
trench 7502. This is part of the kitchen midden. The
bones are probably from a single individual, and comprise most of a front leg, which is one of the meatiest
parts of the body. Noddle commented that there are
records of beaver being eaten during Lent since it qualified as a fish due to its watery habitat. Interestingly,
there are no fish bones from this context, and only a few
comminuted fragments of mussel and oyster shell(s).
The mammal collection from context 1198 is quite rich
in species, both domestic and wild. There are 145 cattle bones, 77 pig bones and 49 sheep/goat bones. In
addition, there are two fragments of red deer and a further two of hare (both hunted species like the beaver).
Unusually, there are no bird bones at all, not even
domestic fowl. There are, however, six bones of dog
and two of cat: species not believed to have been eaten
at Jarrow, although their remains were found here on
the kitchen midden. Noddle does not make any comments concerning the presence or absence of cut marks
on any of the bones. Bones of horse, dog and cat are
scattered throughout the Medieval 1 deposits and probably represent abandoned remains of working animals.
The Medieval 1 collection shows many similarities

with the Anglo-Saxon and early medieval collections.
Some of the main differences (eg the increased use of
deep-sea fish and oysters) are typical of the medieval
period generally, and need not reflect any changes in
the nature of the occupation at the site. The wider
range of species exploited (especially of birds) is also
typical of the medieval period, but may also be partly
due to the greater sample size. The site appears to have
been self-sufficient in terms of supplies of domestic
animals for food, but the presence of hunted deer does
suggest that the site received gifts from elsewhere.
The Medieval 2 period

Some lay and farm buildings were present during this
monastic phase, and many faunal remains were recovered from the continuing midden dumps in the southeastern part of the site, as well as from deposits in the
south-western part of the site. The Medieval 2 collection is the biggest from Jarrow and comprises 7000
identified specimens of bones and 4500 fragments of
shell from marine molluscs.
Although their fragmentary state emphasises the
importance of mussel shells in the numbers of identified specimens, the Minimum Numbers of Individuals
show that periwinkles are still the most numerous
shellfish (N>1200) in this period. In fact, oysters outnumber mussels by 360:266. As in the Medieval 1
period, there are occasional shells of a variety of other
species, which were probably gathered incidentally
during the harvesting of the target species. The number of oyster shells implies that there was a constant
source for them, although it is not possible to suggest
whether this was a local source exploited by the inhabitants of the site or whether the oysters were obtained
from a market or travelling trader.
Several contexts contain concentrations of shellfish
remains. Unlike the previous periods, three of these
have concentrations of two or three different species.
All three (contexts 1188, 1190 and 1191) are layers in
the rubbish dump outside the east range, in the second
kitchen area. Three others (contexts 464, 2570 and
2609) are dumps downslope in the south-western part
of the site. Of these, context 464 has a cache of periwinkles, while the others have concentrations of oyster
shells, as does context 3072, which was the last deposit
at the end of the monastic occupation of the South
Range.
The fish bone collection is the largest from the site,
and is dominated by bones from cod and haddock and
other members of the cod family, all of which are most
likely to have been caught out at sea. Other marine
species include herring (probably grossly under-represented due to the small size of its bones), mackerel,
gurnard and thornback ray. The flatfish could have been
caught in the estuary or out at sea. Of the 496 fragments
identified to taxon, only thirteen derive from freshwater
fish: eleven from the salmon family and two from pike.
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
Mammal bones outnumber those from birds in a

ratio of 10:1. The ratios of cattle, sheep/goat and pig
bones using numbers of identified specimens and
Minimum Numbers of Individuals are very similar to
those in the Medieval 1 collection, as are the ageing
data for all three species (excepting for the slightly
greater emphasis on neonatal piglets in the Medieval 2
collection). The ratio of domestic fowl to goose (7:1) is
also extremely similar.
The duck and pigeon bones could be from domestic or wild birds, but the small goose (probably a
Branta species such as the Brent goose) and the teal are
wildfowl species. There are also several species of
wader and game birds, all of them often found at
medieval sites and known from documentary evidence
to be sought after as food items. Apart from the woodcock, which is found in wooded habitats and may have
been hunted in similar locations to roe deer, the majority of the hunted birds live in open, often watery habitats, and they may have been caught quite close to the
site. The identified species include curlew, golden
plover, a small wader and a tiny wader. The tiny wader
is a very small sandpiper or plover, probably dunlin or
ringed plover. One Greater Black Backed gull bone
may represent a food item. There is one crow bone,
possibly from a commensal, and it is very likely that
the jackdaws lived at the site since the bones include
the partial skeletons of at least three nestlings.
The passerines, again, could have been food items for
people or the remains of regurgitated owl or raptor
pellets. The species identified include blackbird, small
thrush, starling, house sparrow and chaffinch. Many of
the small mammals are also likely to have been prey
items. These include mole, shrew, woodmouse or
yellow-necked mouse, field vole, watervole and brown
and black rat. The brown rat was not introduced
to Britain until the early 18th century, but it is a burrowing animal and its bones are assumed here to
be intrusive in the Medieval 2 deposits although
OConnor did not comment on their state of preservation.
There are a few rabbit bones and, interestingly, a
single bone from a ferret, the animal used to catch rabbits since at least the 13th century. Perhaps the site had
acquired its own warren, or at least the right to hunt
rabbits in another of the churchs estates. By this time,
warrens were no longer so rare or so restricted in ownership. The numbers of rabbit bones are so low, however (N=6), that it was definitely not a major
contributor to the diet. Far more meat would have
been provided by the various deer that were hunted,
together with the occasional brown hare.
The bones of horse, cat and dog are probably the
remains of discarded working animals. Noddle mentions a waste piece of worked bone from context 1769.
The Medieval 2 collection is so very similar to that
from the Medieval 1 period that it is unlikely that there
was any major change in the nature of the occupation
and use of the site.
567
The Medieval 1 and/or 2 (undifferentiated

medieval) material
Some of the contexts could not be assigned a date
more specific than medieval. In addition, Noddles
reports did not discriminate between the two periods
in her presentations of metrical data and her descriptions of pathological or anatomical anomalies. The
undifferentiated medieval collection of animal bones is
similar in size to the Anglo-Saxon collections, although
there are significantly more fish bones.
The shellfish collection is dominated by periwinkles, and oysters far outnumber mussels and limpets.
Occasional shells of other species are probably incidentals, although the crab may have been collected
deliberately. Two contexts have concentrations of
shells. There was a large number of periwinkles in context 628, which was a pit near the Medieval 1 winkle
pits and oysters dominated the collection from context
2566.
The fish bone collection is very similar to that from
Medieval 2, with most bones deriving from members
of the cod family (including cod, haddock, ling, whiting and saithe). Only a few bones of flatfish (such as
flounder and plaice) were found, together with a few
salmon and trout bones and even fewer of gurnard and
herring. Conger eel, a ray and a cartilaginous fish were
represented by single occurrences. It is clear that deepsea fishing was much more important than the
exploitation of estuarine or riverine species (although
the size differences between the bones of salmon and
those of cod mean that the former are probably underrepresented in an unsieved collection).
Perhaps surprisingly, given the close resemblance of
the two medieval collections, the animal bones from
undifferentiated medieval deposits are slightly different
from them both in some ways. Sheep/goat and cattle
are equal in terms of numbers of identified species and
numbers of individuals and at least 9% of the identified
sheep/goat bones derive from goats. The ages at death
of the three main domestic species are similar to those
seen in the earlier periods, although there is slightly
less emphasis on Immature sheep/goats.
Domestic bird bones are quite well represented and
geese contribute as much as they did in the AngloSaxon rather than the medieval periods (in terms of
numbers of identified specimens). Other birds are very
rare: two jackdaw bones and two gull bones may indicate incidental deaths. The absence of small birds and
mammals may reflect an absence of owl or raptor pellets in this relatively small sample.
All of the main game mammals are represented in
small numbers: red, fallow and roe deer, brown hare
and rabbit. The only other species present are the
ubiquitous horse, dog and cat. Noddle mentions a
waste piece of worked bone from context 393.
The undifferentiated medieval material increases
the overall sample size for the two medieval periods.
Since they were so similar, it is not possible to suggest
568
whether or not the undifferentiated collection dates

more to one period or the other. Although the dating
was not specific, it is unlikely that the undifferentiated
collection includes much disturbed or redeposited
material since it contains a greater representation of
the more fragile smaller items such as fish, bird and
sheep bones. Perhaps the nature of the contexts was
slightly different.
Body parts
In her analysis of material from the kitchen midden,
Noddle (archive report 1984) looked at the parts of the
body that were present for the three main mammal
species. Since there were plenty of metapodials and
head bones (including loose teeth), she concluded that
whole animals were slaughtered at the site. There was
no evidence for the importation of joints of meat. Also,
given the relative frequencies of sheep carpals and
tarsals, Noddle suggested that the midden deposits
were primary refuse. Such small bones are unlikely to
have been picked up and deposited independently
once they had become disarticulated from the larger
foot bones. The paucity of sheep first phalanges she
assigned to a practice of leaving toes on skins to facilitate handling at tanneries (the sheepskins being
removed somewhere, presumably off site). The scarcity of cattle first phalanges also suggests that no skin
working was undertaken at the site (whether mature
skins for leather or very young skins for parchments).
The almost total lack of cattle horncores also probably
indicates their removal to artisans elsewhere, although
it is possible that the cattle were polled (ie naturally
hornless). The bones were too highly fragmented for
Noddle to record butchery marks.
The Medieval 2/Early Post-Medieval

period
The occupation at the site became secular during this
period. The fish bones were not separated out for this
period and cannot be discussed, but there is a high
proportion of mammal bones and a low proportion of
bird bones. The sample size is similar to that for the
Later Saxon period.
For the first time at Jarrow, oysters are the most
important shellfish. Their number of individuals
equals that of periwinkles, but the meat size of oysters
is larger. Mussels are also quite well represented, but
limpets (from rocky shores) are scarce. Two contexts
had concentrations of oyster shells, and both date from
the end of the medieval occupation. Context 1185
(which also contained several periwinkle and mussel
shells) was the top layer of the second kitchen dump
outside the East Range and 1634 was a dump into an
outhouse at the very end of the medieval occupation. It
is possible that most, if not all, of the shellfish relate to
the late medieval rather than to the early post-medieval
occupation.
The mammal bone collection is dominated by the

three main species in similar ratios to those seen during the monastic occupation of the site. Using numbers
of identified specimens, cattle account for half with
sheep/goat bones outnumbering those of pigs, but
Minimum Numbers of Individuals suggest that there
were equal numbers of sheep and cattle. Very few
bones could be aged, but there is an emphasis on
meaty animals of all three species. Domestic fowl and
goose bones are present, but in low proportions compared to the earlier periods. Other birds are extremely
scarce. There is one duck (?wild or domestic) bone and
one bone from a jackdaw. There are a few bones from
game mammals (six red deer and two brown hare
bones) but it is not possible to say whether these are
late medieval (like the shellfish concentrations) or early
post-medieval. Apart from horse and cat (dog is missing for the first time since the Norman period) the only
other animal represented is the black rat.
The Medieval 2/early post-medieval collection is
interesting for the way in which it suggests a change in
occupation or usage of the site. Birds and shellfish
became less important and the main domestic animals
were relied upon almost entirely for meat. But there
was not a return to the predominance of cattle bones
seen during the secular occupation of the Later Saxon
period, although cattle still provided the greatest quantity of meat. Other deposits, not considered in this
report, are dated to the post-Medieval period, and it
would be interesting to see how the latest material
studied here compares with the later usage of the site.
Pathology and abnormalities

In her second and third archive reports, Noddle
described pathological and congenital abnormalities
without giving context numbers for the examples. The
following sections are almost verbatim from Noddles
descriptions. They are presented here for information
and as a source for scholars synthesising data on
pathology. The first section refers to the kitchen midden material (Noddle archive report 1984). The
century dates may not be strictly accurate but a
medieval date can be assumed.
The kitchen midden deposits
Cattle
None of the (unquantified) cattle lower third molars
had reduced or absent hypoconulids. Two cattle frontal
bones (one 13th and one 14th century) have a large
foramen on the anterior intercornual ridge. This was
first described by Ryder at medieval York (Ryder 1970)
and seems to be quite common in older animals, particularly steers (Noddle nd, unpublished data).
Osteodystrophic lesions were found on the distal joint
surface of a first phalanx, on a mandibular condyle,
and on a distal astragalus joint. Each of these was
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
Fig 37.2.2 Left bovine mandibular condyle, 15th century

(another was found from a 16th-century deposit). The
whole of the articular surface has been lost, leaving a smooth
polished surface of cancellous bone. This could have resulted
from post-mortem treatment, or could be an extreme form of
arthritis. Viewed from above. Photo: B Noddle
dated to the 13th century. A 15th-century mandible
exhibits extreme and abnormal wear. The animal was
probably in its teens when it died. Also in 15th-century
deposits were a mandibular condyle, a distal
metacarpal joint and a distal second phalanx joint,
each with osteodystrophic lesions. A metatarsal joint
shows arthritic degradation and there are examples of
high and low ring bone on the first phalanx.
There are several 16th-century pathologies of cattle
bones. Two mandibular condyles appear to have been
ground down (see Fig 37.2.2). These are either
extreme forms of arthritis or are examples of postmortem alteration. An example from medieval Lincoln
(OConnor 1982) may be a less advanced form of the
same condition. The dorsal spine of a thoracic vertebra
has an abscess cavity and a sacral vertebra shows signs
of arthritis. Two metacarpals have osteodystrophic
lesions. The posterior shaft of one of them bears exostoses, possibly due to an infected flexor tendon sheath.
Two proximal metatarsals show early signs of spavin.
One first phalanx has a distal osteodystrophic lesion
and high ring bone, and another has proximal arthritis
and osteomyelitis on the medial face of the shaft, possibly due to foul in the foot (see Fig 37.2.3). A third
phalanx has foreshortening characteristic of laminitis.
The overall picture from these cattle bones is one of
aged and sometimes lame animals. The aetiology of the
lesions is not yet fully understood, but one potential
cause is minor trauma, possibly related to over work.
Arthritic conditions are often age-related and may be
exacerbated by stress. It would seem that at least some
of the mature cattle at Jarrow were slaughtered for meat
when they were at the end of their useful lives.
In contrast to the foot problems suffered by some of
the cattle, the sheep and pigs were mainly relatively
healthy, except for some dental problems.
569
Fig 37.2.3 Bovine first phalanx, 16th century, viewed

from anterior aspect. The proximal joint shows arthritic
changes. There are exostoses and osteomyelitis on the
medial aspect, possibly due to foul in the foot. Photo:
B Noddle
Sheep
There were four examples of sheep mandibles with
non-severe periodontal disease at the M1/P4 junction.
Three of these are 15th century and one is 16th
century. There was also a 16th-century example of a
cervical vertebra with an arthritic lesion on the anterior centrum.
Pigs
In 13th-century deposits, there was a pig maxilla with
abnormal dental wear, a pig radius with a tendon
indentation on the posterior shaft (possibly caused by
chronic elbow damage) and a pig metacarpal with
osteomyelitis on the medial surface of the shaft (probably the result of a foot infection). In the 15th century,
there was a pair of pig maxillae, the left side having a
crowded tooth row and the right side with periodontal
disease. In the 16th-century deposits, there was a
palatal bone with osteomyelitis and an occipital
condyle with an osteodystrophic lesion. A pig
mandible with a crowded tooth row lacks a second
molar and the eruption of the third molar appears to
have been delayed. The abnormal wear of the remaining teeth suggests the chewing of a sty barrier. A pig
ulna has a cleft in the proximal joint surface: a lesion
very common in modern fast-growing pigs.
Horse
A 15th-century context has a pelvic bone and a femur
with small exostoses at the muscle insertions, probably
the result of overextending the muscles in a fall.
Cat
A 15th-century deposit has a maxilla and mandible
with cramped tooth rows.
570
Red deer
There are 15th-century examples of a pelvic bone with
a cavity in it (probably due to an abcess), and a femur
with exostoses (probably due to periosteal bruising).
Other deposits
This second section refers to pathologies and abnormalities recorded by Noddle (1987 archive report)
from a range of contexts and trenches across the site.
Sometimes Noddle omitted to mention any dating evidence.
Cattle
The majority of abnormalities concerned cattle bones.
Some of the cattle lower third molars are missing their
posterior cusp (the hypoconulid). The prevalences are:
2 of the 24 (8%) Anglo-Saxon specimens and 4 of the
32 (12%) medieval specimens. The only Anglo-Saxon
example of an abnormality is a scapula with a small
lesion in the glenoid cavity. All of the following derive
from medieval contexts.
The most interesting specimen was an example of
syndactyly in a young calf bone from context 2144.
This was a double third phalanx, which probably
carried a single hoof in life. Most of the other abnormalities were found among the phalanges; mostly
defects in the compact surfaces of the joints. These
took the form of small deep holes, shallow pits or clefts
on the distal surface. A total of six bones were affected: four first phalanges, one second phalanx and one
third phalanx. Noddle notes that these defects are very
common among modern bones. Really pathological
specimens include two cases of ringbone (one high and
one low), and a second phalanx affected by arthritis. A
third phalanx has the characteristic stubby shape
caused by chronic laminitis. Another third phalanx has
a posterior extension to the joint surface, which
Higham et al (1981) believe to result from heavy traction work.
Abnormal bones other than phalanges include a
few bones affected by abscesses. There are two small
examples in pelvic bones and a rather larger one that
distorted the neural spine of a thoracic vertebra. A
chostrochondral junction was enlarged, probably as a
result of rickets.
Sheep
The only abnormal sheep bone is a distal humerus
with exostoses, thought to be the result of multiple
minor traumas.
Pig
Most of the abnormal pig bones were affected by
osteomyelitis. These include two fifth metapodials, one
third phalanx and a badly affected mandible. A newborn piglet radius was enlarged by rickets. A distal
humerus has a long split in the condylar joint surface;
a trait that is common in modern pigs. A mandible
contains overlapping premolar teeth, possibly caused

by slow bone growth as a result of malnutrition. A
maxillary premolar appears to be pitted by caries.
Cat
There are two cat bones with healed fractures.
Domestic fowl
There is one fowl bone with a healed fracture.
Measurements and morphological traits

Appendix 37.1 presents all of Noddles measurements,
using the unrefined phasing. While individual bones
may have been incorrectly dated, it is unlikely that the
main trends are invalid.
Noddle commented in each of her three reports on
the relatively large size of the medieval cattle bones. In
her comparison of the Jarrow material with collections
from sites further south, she found only one site to
have cattle bones of similar size. This was the AngloSaxon ecclesiastical site at North Elmham in East
Anglia. Noddle commented that the presence of larger
cattle in the medieval period (including 15th and 16th
centuries) should not be surprising, since Kerridge
(1967) had already argued from documentary evidence that improvements in livestock breeding had
started in the 16th or 17th centuries, up to two hundred years before the famous experiments of the 18th
century. Since Noddle wrote her reports, Davis and
Beckett (1999) and others have noted good archaeological evidence for larger domestic animals appearing
in the later medieval period, particularly at high status
and ecclesiastic sites. It is possible that some of the
increases in size of cattle, sheep, pigs and domestic
fowl began in the 14th century (Thomas 2002).
There are several reasons why bones of animals can
be larger than average, including sexual dimorphism
(eg male cattle are larger than females), better nutrition, deliberate breeding selection for larger animals,
and deliberate selection of larger animals for consumption. The pathological alterations of some of the cattle
bones in the kitchen midden suggest that prime animals were not selected at Jarrow. Noddle suggested
that the coastal lowlands around Jarrow could have
provided exceptionally good grazing land that permitted the development of a large local race of cattle. This
is certainly possible. The measurements of the commoner skeletal elements, such as the metapodials, suggest that there was visible sexual dimorphism in the
cattle, and that the larger animals were more common
than the smaller ones. It is possible that the mature cattle (ie those whose remains could be measured) were
old traction animals such as plough oxen, and that the
measurements are biased towards the larger, male animals. The two suggestions (ie that good nutrition led
to a local large race and that old male working animals
predominate in the measured sample) are not mutually exclusive.
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
As a veterinary anatomist, Noddle was interested in

non-metric traits that are associated with conformation
(the size and shape) of the animals, and noted how
some of these traits changed through time. In her study
of the medieval kitchen midden material, she noted the
location of the nutrient foramen on cattle femurs. This
is nearly always situated on the posterior surface of the
distal shaft. Noddle (1983) noted that in modern cattle 70% or more (depending on the breed) have the
foramen on the medial rather than the lateral side. In
contrast, only about 30% of earlier stock have medial
foramina. At Jarrow, 64% of the 22 cattle femurs from
the medieval kitchen midden have the foramen in the
modern position. Similarly, in the much smaller sample studied for her third report, three out of five further
specimens (60%) have the foramen in the modern
position, ie on the medial side. Does this support her
suggestion that these are early improved livestock?
Another attribute that changes through time in
Britain is the size and shape of cattle horncores. If
there were a relatively high proportion of larger horncores of the type more commonly found in postmedieval deposits elsewhere, then this might support
the hypothesis that some of the cattle bones found at
Jarrow come from early improved types of stock.
Unfortunately, very few cattle horncores were found at
Jarrow. There were none that were measurable from
the kitchen midden, and the single cattle horncore in
the material studied for the third report was moderate
in size and oval in shape (Noddle archive report 1987,
3). It remains possible, of course, that some postmedieval material was included with the medieval
category that Noddle studied. However, the later
refinements of the phasing were relatively minor, and it
is very unlikely that all of the larger measurements and
modern attributes derive from mis-dated material.
The current authors conclusion is that the evidence
tends to support the hypothesis that some of the
medieval cattle at Jarrow were examples of improved
stock. This takes the evidence at face value, with the
caveat that some individual items may have been misplaced. Although this fits in with Davis and Becketts
(1999) findings that improvements began in the 15th
and 16th rather than the 17th and 18th centuries, the
problem at Jarrow will remain unresolved with regard
to precisely when these larger, slightly different, animals were bred.
Noddle similarly combined measurement data with
observations of morphological traits in her study of the
sheep bones. Overall, she found the dimensions of the
sheep bones to be similar to those from contemporary
sites elsewhere in Britain. There were very few measurable sheep bones from Anglo-Saxon deposits, and
the limited evidence suggested that there was little
change in size between the Anglo-Saxon and medieval
periods.
In her kitchen midden report, Noddle observed an
increase in the widths of the sheep distal tibiae between
the 15th and 16th centuries. She considered this
571
change to be significant, since her own (unpublished)

observations of modern sheep had demonstrated that
this dimension shows very little difference between
groups of sheep with markedly different body sizes. In
the 15th-century collection, the modal width was
25mm (N=14, range = 2228mm, mean = 25mm)
whereas, in the 16th century, there was a bias in the
measurements towards 26+mm (N=26, range =
2428mm, mean = 26mm ). An increase in average
size could be due to changes in male:female ratios, better nutrition, or genetic change. Noddle suggested that
better nutrition in the early growing stages of life could
have been attained if ewes were no longer used for
dairying. When milk is taken from ewes for consumption by humans, the lambs tend to be weaned relatively early. With a switch from primarily ewes and
nanny-goats milk to cows milk by the post-medieval
period (a national trend), it is possible that lambs left
to suckle for longer would grow into stronger, larger,
adult sheep. Noddle implied that a move from
sheep/goat to cattle dairying could have occurred at
Jarrow during the medieval period. This might be
testable using lipid analyses of residues in ceramics.
Noddle also looked for evidence of genetic change
in sheep, similar to that observed for the cattle femurs.
She looked at two morphological indices: the shape of
the neck of the scapula, and the width to depth ratios
of proximal metacarpals, as well as the position of the
nutrient foramen in the femur. Primitive sheep are
characterised by a long thin scapula neck, expressed as
the ratio between the neck length (measured from the
glenoid to the base of the spine) divided by the minimum neck width. Modern meat breeds of sheep have
shorter, broader scapula necks. The trait appears to be
linked to tail type, the primitive type with a long scapula neck having short tails. The sample sizes from the
kitchen midden at Jarrow are very small, and the
ranges and mean ratios are very similar for the 15th
century (N=5, range = 0.931.08, mean = 0.99) and
the 16th century (N=7, range = 0.901.09, mean =
1.01). The undifferentiated medieval material studied
for the third report again shows similar ratios (N=7,
range = 0.971.10, mean = 1.02). These mean ratios
close to 1.0 are intermediate between primitive and
modern meat types of sheep, and are similar to those
observed by Noddle for modern Welsh mountain
sheep. There are some ratios indicating long, narrow
scapula necks in all periods, and some indicating short,
broad necks in all periods (including the 13th century,
for which the two examples are 0.94 and 1.18). The
sole ratio available for an Anglo-Saxon sheep scapula is
intermediate at 1.0.
It seems clear that the sheep had a variety of forms
throughout the medieval period. Noddle commented
that the sheep horncores had oval cross-sections and
appear similar to those of modern Welsh mountain
sheep. These comparisons by Noddle do not imply
that the sheep at Jarrow had direct genetic links with
Welsh livestock, simply that they were intermediate
572
between primitive and modern types of British sheep,

and that their skeletons bear a resemblance to those of
the sheep in the region where Noddle lived.
The second morphological trait studied by Noddle
concerns the proximal metacarpal. In primitive sheep,
the width is similar to the depth (ie the anterior-posterior dimension), giving a ratio close to 1.0. For the
kitchen midden material, the sample sizes are extremely small, and can only be used to give an indication of
the nature of the material. The average ratio for 13thcentury metacarpals is 1.36 (N probably = 3) whereas
the average ratio for 15th-century metacarpals is 1.46
(N probably = 3). The actual values for these ratios are
not given by Noddle. Interestingly, the sole ratio available for 17th-century material (not otherwise considered in this report) indicates a more primitive type,
with a ratio of 1.24. These data cannot be used to support or reject the hypothesis that new types of sheep
were being utilised at Jarrow during the course of the
medieval period, but may indicate, like the scapula
data, that there was a range of morphological types of
sheep present at the site (at least in carcass form, if not
as live animals).
The third study involved the position of the nutrient foramen in the femur, which is probably genetically controlled (Noddle 1978). The location of the
foramen on the shaft can occur in an anterior proximal, posterior distal or posterior midshaft position. In
any sheep population, examples of all three may occur,
but usually one position is dominant. The proximal
position is usually dominant in both archaeological
and modern breeds in Britain, and the midshaft position is rare. This is not the case at Jarrow, where the
total of 20 specimens from all periods represented in
the kitchen midden have foramina that are evenly distributed between the three locations: 35% proximal,
35% distal and 30% midshaft. Parallels for relatively
high proportions of femora with midshaft foramina
have been noted by Noddle for Neolithic sheep in
Orkney (a very high proportion) and, to a lesser extent,
for modern sheep in Shetland (higher than most other
modern breeds). Similarly high proportions of distally located foramina were observed by OConnor
(1989) for Viking-period sheep from Coppergate and
for post-medieval sheep from Walmgate, both in York,
and by Noddle for modern Swaledale sheep (an old
breed from the northern Pennines). Noddle believed
that a relatively high proportion of distally located
foramina in sheep femora may relate to forms originating in northern Britain.
There are few measurable pig bones from AngloSaxon contexts. Most of them are unremarkable, but a
large astragalus may be from a wild animal. The
medieval pig bones and teeth show a wide range of
sizes. Some of the long bones are large, and their average dimensions are larger than those recorded by
Noddle (1975) for 13th and 14th-century sites in
southern Britain. Noddle speculates that the large
17th-century pigs mentioned by Youatt two hundred
years later (Youatt 1847) may have had their origins

earlier than the 17th century. She also mentions a reference by Martin (1852) to the famous
Northumberland hog of 1543. Martins comments
suggest an animal weighing more than 80 stone (over
500kg) and Noddle infers from his descriptions that
there was a tradition of large pigs in this area.
The uncertainties regarding precise dates for individual bone measurements, caused by the complexities
of the stratigraphy and the taphonomic history of the
material, leave any conclusions regarding changes
through time very tentative. But the ranges of sizes
recorded by Noddle (an experienced anatomist and
archaeozoologist) do suggest that evidence exists at
Jarrow for some early improvements and changes in
the sizes, conformation and genetic composition of the
domestic livestock during the medieval period.
Precisely when these changes occurred cannot be
ascertained from the extant records, nor can much of
the material be re-examined. But any future excavations at the site should take care to obtain well-stratified and well-dated material for this line of
investigation to be pursued in more detail.
Very few horse or dog bones could be measured.
Noddle comments that the horse bones are small. The
dog bones are also from small animals: using
Harcourts (1974) indices, they had shoulder heights
between 301345 mm.
The domestic fowl bones were numerous and
included a number of immature specimens, indicating
that some birds were raised for meat rather than egg
production. There are sufficient mature specimens for
several measurements to be taken, mostly from
medieval contexts. Noddle compared the few AngloSaxon measurements with those available for Hamwic
(Coy and Bourdillon 1980) and North Elmham
(Bramwell 1980). The Jarrow fowl femora are, on average, larger than those at the other two sites, but the
humeri and tarsometatarsi are not. These inconsistent
differences could relate to genuine differences in conformation, but might relate simply to the statistical
effects of small sample sizes. Domestic fowl are known
to demonstrate considerable size variation even within
a single breed, due to sexual trimorphism (hens are
smaller than cockerels which, in turn, are smaller than
capons, ie castrated males). Noddle considered some
of the medieval fowl tibiotatarsi at Jarrow to be particularly long. She suggested that these exceptionally long
leg bones derived from game fowl since they are similar in size and proportion to modern examples and to
a large group of 18th-century game fowl from Usk that
she had studied (Noddle nd, unpublished).
The red deer bones vary considerably in size. In
Britain, there is a well-documented reduction in size
from the large animals typical of the early Holocene
(when there was plenty of woodland to provide prime
habitat for them) to the present day, when most red
deer live in open landscapes and are much smaller than
their ancestors (Noddle 1982). The red deer bones
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
from the 13th century are as large as those from

Mesolithic sites, and there is one large metacarpal from
a 15th-century context, but smaller bones (comparable
to modern specimens) are present in 14th and 16thcentury deposits, suggesting that the size decrease
began to occur during the medieval period.
One factor that needs considering with regard to
the measurements and genetic composition of all of the
animals represented by skeletal material at Jarrow is,
where did the animals come from? Some of the red
deer may have been brought as gifts of meat and the
animals need not have been hunted locally. Venison is
traditionally kept for a few days before consumption,
so time taken to transport it to Jarrow need not have
rendered it unfit to eat. The range of sizes, therefore,
could indicate not only sexual dimorphism but also the
mixing of bones from animals of different genetic stock
from different habitats and geographical locations.
Similarly, the observed variability of the domestic livestock could also indicate mixing of animals raised in
the immediate vicinity with those raised in other areas.
These areas might have included those obliged to render tithes to the monastery, or those with links of
patronage etc. Although the geographical locations of
these potential sources need not have been particularly widely spread, they would almost certainly have
included flocks and herds that were not closely related
genetically, and which grazed or browsed on a range of
different types of vegetation, at different stocking rates.
All of these variables could lead to different levels of
nutrition as well as to genetic variation.
The unassigned bird bones from Jarrow

Most of the bird bones identified from excavations at
Jarrow have been described and discussed above in
Table 37.2.5 and in the period sections. Some bird
bone identifications could not be included because of
post-excavation losses in stratigraphic information. In
a very few instances (one bone each of domestic goose,
feral pigeon, barn owl and house sparrow), context
information was available, but secure dating was not.
The identifications of bird bones from contexts of
ambiguous stratigraphic origins or date are presented
in Table 37.2.12 alongside those already mentioned
and discussed. In total, 62 fragments were identified
from ambiguous contexts; 17 from domestic birds such
as fowl, goose and duck, and 45 from wild species.
These latter are important evidence because only 129
were identified from the securely dated collection. The
addition of these identifications not only increases the
relative importance of wild birds at the site in terms of
numbers of specimens, but also introduces additional
information regarding species and habitats exploited.
Bramwell identified the bird bones extracted from
the first group of bones studied by Noddle (Bramwell
archive listing). These came from contexts excavated
between 1963 and 1969, when they were identified as
being either Saxon or medieval in origin. Bramwell
573
grouped the species into habitat type. Four of the

species nest in buildings: the barn owl, starling, jackdaw
and stock/rock dove (Columba oenas/livia). Bramwell
thought stock dove the more likely identification and
noted that the three bones came from juveniles.
Although it is possible that juvenile stock doves were
captured, this species tends to live in woodland and
nest in trees, whereas rock doves are more likely to nest
in or near buildings, where they are more accessible. It
is also possible that these immature dove bones are
from domestic birds, either bred on the site in a dovecote or adapted building, or imported as food items.
A second group live in estuaries or along the shore,
two habitats that were adjacent to the site. Single specimens were identified for two species of wild goose
(greylag and barnacle) and two species of wild duck
(teal and widgeon). In addition, Bramwell identified
bones of heron, gull and ruff. Although these numbers
are very small, they almost double the numbers of
wildfowl recorded in Table 37.2.5. Bramwell suggested
that wildfowling might have been conducted using
snares and/or falconry. The birds of open grassland or
moorland also indicate that hunting for game species
has been under-represented by the exclusion of these
bones. He identified bones of curlew, jack snipe, partridge and skylark; all birds valued as food items in the
medieval period. Woodland birds include two more
game species: wood pigeon and woodcock, together
with blackbird. Blackbirds may well have lived in bushes or shrubs at the site, but the other two are likely to
have been hunted or snared.
OConnor identified a total of 195 bird bones, of
which 166 (85%) have been included in Table 37.2.5
and discussed in the text. Of these well-dated bones,
only five (3%) come from post-medieval deposits, and
it is probable that most, if not all, of the remaining 29
specimens derive from medieval or Saxon contexts (see
Table 37.2.12). This analysis adds a further four
species to the site list: tawny owl, a small corvid (which
could be another jackdaw rather than a magpie or jay),
a large wader (probably a godwit) and snipe.
Interestingly, the possible godwit bone was found
together with one bone each of two other game or wildfowl species: redshank and woodcock. The context was
excavated in trench 6509. Individual bones of barn
owls were identified from three more contexts (making
a total of five bones from five different contexts at the
site). This suggests that barn owls were persistent or
intermittent residents at the site. The masonry buildings at Jarrow must have provided attractive roosting
sites for them, and they may also have benefited from
the presence of small mammals associated with the
buildings and their contents.
It would be inappropriate to add the bird bone identifications from ambiguous contexts to those from
securely dated deposits, since it is possible that a very
few of them are from post-medieval contexts, but the
fact remains that they were deposited at the site and
they are most probably contemporaneous with the
574
Table 37.2.12 Fragments of bird bone identified by Bramwell (nd) and OConnor (nd 1 and nd 2) from
contexts with ambiguous stratification or dating evidence compared with stratified and dated identifications
Totals from securely stratified
and dated contexts
Various periods,
SaxonMed2/EPM
domestic fowl
dom Goose/Greylag (Anser anser)
small goose (cf Branta bernicla)
Domestic duck/Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos)
Widgeon (Anas penelope)
Teal (Anas crecca)
Anas sp.
Wood pigeon (Columba palumbus)
feral pigeon (Columbia cf livia)
Black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix)
Partridge (Perdix perdix)
Barn owl (Tyto alba)
Tawny owl (Strix aluco)
Crow (Corvus corone)
Rook (Corvus frugilegus)
Small corvid (Corvus sp.)
Jackdaw (Corvus monedula)
Heron (Ardea cinerea)
Large wader cf godwit (Limosa sp.)
Curlew (Numenius arquata)
Golden Plover (Pluvialis apricaria)
Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus)
cf Lapwing (cf Vanellus vanellus)
Redshank/greenshank (Tringa sp.)
Ruff (Philomachus pugnax)
Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola)
Snipe (Gallinago gallinago)
Jack snipe (Lymnocryptes minimus)
small wader
tiny wader sp.
tern/shearwater
Great Black Backed gull (Larus marinus)
Lesser black-backed/Herring gull (Larus sp)
Gull sp
Blackbird (Turdus merula)
cf blackbird (cf Turdus merula)
Fieldfare (Turdus pilaris)
large Thrush (Turdus sp.)
small Thrush (Turdus sp.)
Skylark (Alauda arvensis)
Starling (Sturnus vulgaris)
House Sparrow (Passer domesticus)
cf Goldfinch (cf Carduelis carduelis)
Chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs)
small passerine
Total bird
>1122
256
1
11
2
1
21
1
1
Bramwell nd
Almost certainly
Saxon or med
9
3
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
OConnor nd 1 & nd 2
Very probably Saxon
or medieval
3
2
3
1
1
7
25*
2
1
3
2
1
1
3
1
4
1
3
1
1
2
1
1
2
5
2
1
1
2
1
18
1
1
4
11
1
1
1
3
>1518*
* partial skeletons of at least three nestlings included in count as one bone each
domestic fowl > indicates presence of ribs and phalanges not included in count
1
1
1
1
1
1
33
3
2
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
Anglo-Saxon and medieval material. Because of

Noddles selective inclusion of most of the domestic
bird bones in her original database, the bones sent away
for identification elsewhere are primarily from wild
species. In Table 37.2.5 (confined to securely dated
contexts), the proportion of identified bones of probably domestic birds (ie domestic fowl, domestic
goose/greylag, domestic duck/mallard and feral pigeon)
is 93% compared to 7% from wild birds (N=1518). In
contrast, the ratio of bird bones from ambiguous contexts is 35% ?domestic to 65% wild (N=62). Overall, it
is likely that slightly less than ten per cent of the bird
bones deposited at Jarrow in the Anglo-Saxon plus
medieval periods derive from wild species.

The faunal remains from Jarrow show some interesting
trends and similarities through time, with one period
that stands out as being rather different. In all periods,
the people living at the site appear to have raised their
own livestock, particularly sheep and pigs. Cattle, too,
were usually raised on site but they may have been
imported during the Norman rebuilding phase. Apart
from the Anglo-Saxon period, when sheep/goats may
have been more commonly slaughtered than cattle,
cattle bones predominated and beef was always the
greatest contributor to the meat in peoples diets.
Some of the cattle and sheep were slaughtered when
mature, presumably after they had been utilised for
other resources such as traction, breeding stock, wool
and possibly milk. At least some of the medieval cattle
appear to have been kept on into old age and may have
worked quite hard. Horses, dogs and cats were present
at the site in all period groups excepting the Norman
rebuilding phase. The overall impression is one of a
modest, working community. Throughout all of the
periods, the occasional presence of bones of game
species such as deer and hare suggest that gifts were
brought to the site from other parts of the churchs
estates. In all periods, the domestic farm animals were
kept alongside fowl and geese, and the numbers of
fowl, in particular, are quite important, particularly as
many of them appear to have been kept for meat rather
than for their eggs. For some reason, geese are less
important in the medieval periods than they were in
the Anglo-Saxon periods, and it seems slightly surprising that there was no dovecote on the site in the
medieval period. Even non-monastic sites tended to
utilise birds and fish quite extensively in the medieval
period. The changes in the utilisation of fish at Jarrow
are mirrored elsewhere. The development of deep-sea
fishing in the medieval period is a widespread phenomenon throughout Britain and mainland Europe,
and the development at Jarrow of the exploitation of
oysters during the medieval period may be a parallel
expansion of resource utilisation. But the local supplies
of periwinkles and, to a lesser extent, mussels and
limpets continued to be used through all periods.
575
Apart from the Norman rebuilding phase, when the

sample size is very small but may hint at a less substantial form of occupation at the site, the main period to
show a distinction is the Later Saxon period, when the
site was secular. Here, there was less utilisation of the
local shellfish, and a very great dependency on cattle.
It is not possible to suggest the relative importance
of vegetables and meat in peoples diets by using the
faunal and botanical remains, nor the relative importance of marine and terrestrial foods. This can only be
done by stable isotope and trace element analysis of
human bones. It would be interesting to compare the
diets of the Later Saxon people with the inhabitants of
the monastic cells (both Anglo-Saxon and medieval),
although there is always the complicating factor of the
possible/certain presence of lay people at the site.
37.3 The fish remains from Jarrow

by A K G Jones and A R Hutchinson
Introduction
The site is located at the mouth of the River Tyne, a
still important transport route and formerly a major
source of fish (Piper 1986, 78). The mud flats of the
Slake could also have yielded a harvest.
The fish remains discussed in this report were collected by hand during excavation. A small number
were submitted to Alwyne Wheeler of the Fish Section,
British Museum (Natural History) who identified a
number of the bones but produced no report, as the
assemblage was known to be incomplete. The authors
were asked to examine and comment on all the bones
from the site in the late autumn of 1988. Since then
there has been refinement of the site phasing, but this
has not affected the general conclusions, but reference
should also be made to the shellfish which supplements
the fish bone evidence reported on here (see Ch 37.2,
above).
Identifications were made by comparing the ancient
specimens with the specially prepared skeletal collections of the Environmental Archaeology Unit,
University of York. Fish nomenclature follows CLOFNAM (Hureau and Monod 1978). Identifications were
coded and entered into the DATATRIEVE database
management system available to the University of York
Vax cluster mainframe computer system.
Most of the layers that produced fish bones were
dated to one of the following main phases of occupation: Saxon; Late Saxon; Medieval 1; Medieval 2 and
Medieval. The bones dated to medieval periods of
occupation were divided into three groups for the following reason. Two distinct phases of medieval occupation were apparent in several trenches. The early
group was designated Medieval I and the later group
Medieval 2. A number of layers that were clearly of
medieval date but could not be assigned definitely to
either Medieval 1 or Medieval 2 were placed in the
third group (medieval). Bones from post-medieval
576
contexts are recorded in the archive and not presented

here. Despite this attempt to include as many bones as
possible in the temporal analysis, a number of layers
could not be dated securely to one of these broad phases and have been omitted from the analyses examining
changes in the assemblage during the occupation of the
site. All bones have been included in Table 37.3.1.
The distribution maps (Figs 37.3.137.3.3) were
originally drawn using the graphics package UNIEDIT. We are greatly indebted to Dr Robert P Fletcher
of the University of York Computing Service for his
considerable help with this aspect of the work. The
plots were subsequently scanned and prepared for
publication like the other finds distribution plots by
Ardle Mac Mahon. The images of a fish, representing
the number of bones from a given phase from each
trench, were plotted near the centre of the trench.
Results
A total of 3,928 fish bones were collected from the site.
Approximately half of these (2008) were identified to
species or family. The remainder were small unidentifiable fragments, the majority of which appeared to be
from large gadid fishes. Table 37.3.1 shows the numbers of identified fragments for each taxon from the
whole site. Table 37.3.2 shows the number of bones
recovered according to taxon and phase for remains
recovered from layers assigned to the different periods.
Identifications that are not definite are indicated by a
question mark.
Discussion
Two features of the assemblages of fish from Jarrow are
immediately apparent from Table 37.3.2. First, there
were very few fish remains in the early phases of occupation and, second, that generally the diversity of
species increases with the passage of time.
The Anglo-Saxon and Late Saxon deposits yielded
very few bones from a small number of fishes compared to later deposits although in this phase there was
a large quantity of shellfish. Figure 37.3.1 shows the
approximate location of the bones. It is noteworthy
that almost all fish remains were found in the southern
part of the monastic complex which is an area of rubbish disposal outside the main buildings, but the floor
of Building A, identified as a refectory, is of opus signinum which could easily be swept clean. As the early
phases of occupation are of considerable archaeological and historical interest, further discussion of the
small assemblages of fish bones is justifiable.
The Anglo-Saxon layers produced a modest total of
32 fish bones, 17 of which were unidentifiable. Of
those that could be determined, nine were from the
salmon family (four definitely from salmon, Salmo
salar) while the remaining six were from the cod family, Gadidae. Five were definitely from cod, Gadus
morhua. While it is possible that both cod and salmon
Table 37.3.1 Identified fish remains from Jarrow

Cartilaginous fish
(Elasmobranchii)
Ray family
(Rajidae)
Thornback Ray
(Raja clavata)
Herring
(Clupea harangus)
Salmon family
(Salmonidae)
Salmon
(Salmo salar)
Trout
(Salmo trutta)
Pike
(Esox lucius)
Common eel
(Anguilla anguilla)
Conger eel
(Conger conger)
Cod family
(Gadidae)
Cod
(Gadus morhua)
Haddock
(Melanogrammus aeglefinus)
Whiting
(Merlangius merlangus)
Saithe or Coley
(Pollachius virens)
Ling
(Molva cf molva)
Mackerel
(Scomber scombrus)
Gurnard family
(Triglidae)
Flatfish
(Pleuronectidae)
Flounder
(Platichthys flesus)
Plaice
(Pleuronectes platessa)
Unidentified fragments
1
1
9
39
31
42
12+1?
2
2
1
737
439
428
99
5+3?
91+1?
6
10
45
3
10
1920
were taken at sea, it is likely that salmon were caught

during their upstream migration to spawn.
Examination of the articulating face of the salmon vertebral centra did not show convincing regular annual
rings and attempts to determine the season of death of
the salmon were hastily abandoned. While cod can be
caught in estuaries and from the shore, they are traditionally caught at sea. Thus, from the earliest phase of
occupation of the site there is evidence that the occupants exploited both large marine fish and fishes likely
to have been caught in rivers.
Layers dated securely to the Late Saxon phase of
occupation yielded only four fish bones, one from a
small member of the salmon family, probably a trout,
?Salmo trutta, one from a cod and one from another
member of the cod family (Gadidae), a saithe (also
known as coley) Pollachius virens. The fish bones of
Late Saxon date, although very few in number, are
from a similar range of habitats, and were presumably
from fish caught using similar techniques as those of
the Saxon period.
As layers assigned to the medieval phases produced
very large numbers of fish bones, it is unlikely that local
soil conditions, scavengers, weathering and other
agents of decay, or methods of recovery account for the
paucity of fish remains. It is important to remember
that bones of small and medium-sized fishes (eg
herring, eel and mackerel) are under-represented in the
deposits because of the method of recovery by hand
rather than sieving. The medieval fish bones are dominated by the larger, more easily recovered, bones of sea
fish such as cod and haddock. In trench 7502 a large
medieval midden was excavated to the east of the East
Range but no rubbish pits or dumps were identified for
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
577
Table 37.3.2 Fish remains from dated contexts at Jarrow by taxon and phase
Saxon
Cartilaginous fish
Ray family
Thornback Ray
Herring
Salmon family
Salmon
Trout
Pike
Common Eel
Conger eel
Cod family
Cod
Haddock
Whiting
Saithe or Coley
Ling
Mackerel
Gurnard family
Flatfish
Flounder
Plaice
Unidentified fragments
Total
(Elasmobranchii)
(Rajidae)
(Raja clavata)
(Clupea harangus)
(Salmonidae)
(Salmo salar)
(Salmo trutta)
(Esox lucius)
(Anguilla anguilla)
(Conger conger)
(Gadidae)
(Gadus morhua)
(Melanogrammus aeglefinus)
(Merlangius merlangus)
(Pollachius virens)
(Molva cf molva)
(Scomber scombrus)
(Triglidae)
(Pleuronectidae)
(Platichthys flesus)
(Pleuronectes platessa)
L Sax
Med 1
Med 2
Med
1
1
5
4
1
1?
1
5
12
21
7
1
3
2
6
28
8
2
1
2
243
80
79
9
2?
16
6
3
11
3
10
25
7
1
203
186
70
31
4
63+1?
17
34
471
5
9
2
3
679
32
80
967
1304
Note: Some bones are omitted from this table because layers were not accurately dated
the Anglo-Saxon period. We must consider the possibilities that few fish remains were deposited in Saxon
and Late Saxon times, that the area was kept clean of
refuse, that fish were of relatively little significance, or
that only a few people occupied the site.
The fish fauna is composed of a greater variety of
species in the first medieval phase of occupation
(Medieval 1; Fig 37.3.2). Here, the assemblage is
dominated by bones of marine fishes, mainly cod, but
also includes haddock, Melanogrammes aeglefinus, ling,
Molva cf Molva, and gurnards, Triglidae. Only a single
salmon family, salmonid, bone was present.
Bones assigned to period Medieval 2 (Fig 37.3.3)
are from a greater variety of marine fish and include
thornback ray, Raja clavata, herring, Clupea harengus,
whiting, Merlanguis merlangus, mackerel, Scomber scombrus and flat fishes, Pleuronectidae, in addition to
marine species already mentioned. It is interesting to
note that only herring head bones were recovered. All
but one of the herring bones were found together in
trench 6902 (RO, context 3271) and represent many
of the major head bones of a single fish. A single lower
jawbone (dentary) was recovered from trench 7008
(AFF, context 3407). These areas are in the South and
East Ranges. A second feature of the Medieval 2
assemblage is a very large number (44, 29 left, 13
right, 2 unknown) of haddock cleithra with small numbers of other elements. The cleithra were not from very
large fish (estimated total length of the whole fish is
between 350 and 400mm). While haddock bones are
small and the pattern of element distribution may
simply be a function of methods of recovery, such a

large number of relatively small bones, associated with
several other bones located just behind the head (post
temporals, supracleithra and post cleithra) is most
unusual. While it is unwise to place too much weight
on this element distribution, it is possible that it results
from the importation of large numbers of decapitated
preserved haddock such as smoked haddock, perhaps
similar to Arbroath smokies.
A small number of bones are particularly interesting and require comment. A large cod quadrate from
context 3063 (Medieval 2), which is from the ground
surface outside the hall, showed some unusual features. As well as being from a very large fish, the surface that articulates with the articular bone (forming
the hinge joint in the lower jaw) bore an area that was
clearly polished (Fig 37.3.4). Closer inspection of this
area showed that the polished surface also contained
minute parallel grooves. These features, polishing
(eburnation) and grooving on an articulating surface
are two of the classic characteristic of osteoarthritis. To
date no other case of this condition has been found in
archaeological specimens and no record has been
found in the ichthyological literature.
Two contexts, 3047 in the East Range and 1642, an
outhouse or pantry, both produced assemblages of
large gadid bones dominated by fin rays from a midline
fin associated with a small number of caudual vertebral
centra from the extreme tail. These finds are interpreted as the tails of large fishes, chopped off and discarded.
578
Fig 37.3.1 Distribution of fish bones Anglo-Saxon and Late Saxon. A Jones, AMacM
Some of the bones of large gadid fishes have cut
marks that reveal something of the history of the animals once caught. It is difficult to determine the definite cause of these marks. Most are likely to have been
caused during filleting. The cut marks on the cleithrum, supraceleithrum, and post-temporal and branchiostegal bones (the most commonly recovered
elements with cut marks) are considered to be the
result of filleting as they are consistent with marks
which result from modern filleting techniques.
Table 37.3.2 shows that the majority of bones were
recovered from medieval phases. Most of the bones recovered from this phase were head bones of cod, haddock
and ling. The elements most commonly represented in
all the phases were those of the neurocranium, branchiocranium, appendicular skeleton and vertebral
column of cod and ling. This pattern of element distribution is consistent with the importation of fresh fish.
The freshwater species from Medieval 2 layers
include pike, Esox lucius, while trout and salmon
remains are also present. The bones assigned simply
medieval include conger eel, Conger conger and flounder, Platichthys flesus and plaice, Pleuronectes platessa.
The number of elements recovered according to
species for each phase and the whole site are listed in full
in archive. The post-medieval phase gave similar results
to the various medieval phases, although the extremely
large numbers of haddock bones is noteworthy.
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
579
Fig 37.3.2 Distribution of fish bones Medieval 1. A Jones, AMacM
Conclusion
The assemblage of fish remains from Jarrow is remarkable for several reasons. Firstly, although no sieving
was carried out during the excavation, the standard of
recovery of fish remains was very high. Bones of herring, eel and a host of small gadid bones were carefully hand collected. Sieving of sediment samples from
urban sites (Jones 1983; 1984) has shown that
medieval deposits contain a large number of bones of
small fishes in addition to the remains of large marine
species. The relatively low numbers of bones of smaller
marine species and freshwater species in this assemblage from Jarrow is probably related to the recovery
method. However, the remains of large species collected
from this site do provide some fascinating insights into

fish exploitation, particularly during the later medieval
period.
The second remarkable feature of the assemblage is
the clear patterning seen in the distribution of bones in
different periods. While it must be acknowledged that
the earlier periods generally produced small assemblages of well-dated bones, it is striking that bones of
the salmon family (Salmonidae) dominated the Saxon
phase. Most of the bones were of large specimens,
probably large salmon. This suggests that the first
occupants of the site were exploiting the River Tyne.
Later periods show increased diversity of marine fishes, indicating that the demand for fish was now too
580
Fig 37.3.3 Distribution of fish bones Medieval 2. A Jones, AMacM

great to be met by the river alone and that a large number of marine fishes were imported to the site.
Large gadid fishes have been an important food
source for many centuries. Evidence of their use in
northern Britain can be traced to the Mesolithic (Coles
1971). Large gadid species, including cod and haddock, have been recorded in medieval layers at
Southgate, Hartlepool (Locker 1983), and bones of
cod, haddock and ling were recovered from the
medieval dock at Queen Street, Newcastle (Nicholson
1988). The fish remains from the excavations at High
Street, Perth (Jones forthcoming) indicate that gadid
species made a significant contribution to the northern
medieval diet.
In the assemblage from Jarrow the layers were dominated by bones of cod, with large numbers of haddock
bones, and ling remains were also well represented in
most phases. This result is reflected in recent work
from the Alms Lane site, Norwich (Jones and Scott
1985), where an extensive sieving campaign recovered
a host of small and medium-sized fish as well as the
bones of large gadid species. The detailed investigation
showed little change in the assemblages of fish remains
from the 12th to the 18th century; this suggests that
the fish supply to the city was managed successfully for
many centuries.
Medieval deposits are known to contain a large
number of bones of small fishes in addition to the
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
Fig 37.3.4 Cod, Gadus morhua, quadrate showing eburnation on articular surface. This condition is thought to
indicate osteo-arthritis. The bone was recovered from context 3036 and is from a layer dated Medieval 2. Photo: R
Hunter, Department of Biology, University of York
remains of large marine species that comprise the
Jarrow assemblage. It is clear that this assemblage represents only a fraction of the fish remains that were
present in the deposits at the time of excavation,
although the results here discussed provide some interesting information and provide brief, but fascinating,
glimpses of fish exploitation at the site.
37.4 Comparison of the documentary and archaeological evidence

for the medieval period at Jarrow
by Sue Stallibrass
The reports presented above were written almost
entirely on the basis of the archaeological evidence,
making it directly comparable with other faunal
reports. However, the monastery at Jarrow is somewhat unusual in having many documentary records
that refer to it and to its economy, most of them dating
to the medieval period. The monastic records do not,
of course, make reference to the later Anglo-Saxon
period when the site was not associated with a religious
institution.
The Anglo-Saxon monastery at Jarrow in the late
7th to 9th centuries AD owned lands that would have
provided resources for the monks and the lay workers,
but there are few references to how the community
supported themselves and their visitors. Cramp discusses the evidence in Vol 1, Ch 23.
In contrast, an exceptionally complete documentary archive of annual inventories, accounts, etc survives from Durham Cathedral Priory, the mother
church for the medieval cells. These are now housed by
the Dean and Chapter of Durham Cathedral and form
the subject of a detailed review by Piper (1986). Pipers
review provides a wealth of evidence concerning the
581
livestock economy of the site, and his work is quarried

extensively for the following section, which compares
the documentary evidence (as described by Piper) with
the archaeological evidence described above. The current author has made no attempt to consult the original archive documents (which she is unable to read)
and fully acknowledges her debt to Pipers work.
In the Anglo-Saxon period, the site was a
monastery inhabited by several monks, presumably
helped by lay workers. In contrast, the medieval
Durham cells generally housed only two monks, and
the majority of the inhabitants would have been lay
people. We might expect, therefore, that the AngloSaxon collection should include aspects reflecting a
mainly (although not exclusively) monastic life, whereas the bulk of the medieval evidence should reflect the
predominant lay persons lifestyles. Although the
Anglo-Saxon collection does have a greater emphasis
(than the medieval collections) on fish, bird and shellfish remains, its monastic origins are not clear when
the material is treated as a single assemblage. Only
when discrete features and buildings are considered
can the monastic and lay occupations be distinguished
by the lack of mammalian bones in certain areas. Even
this evidence is tenuous, but it does gain support when
it is considered together with non-faunal evidence such
as the distributions of artefact types and the presence
of ecclesiastical structures. The presence of occasional
remains of high status game species such as deer and
hare throughout the sites occupation takes on a different perspective when the documentary references to
the onerous task of entertaining royalty or their agents
are considered. Perhaps these items were not gifts at
all, but expensive purchases obtained specifically for
hospitality purposes. The presence of a few bones of
red deer in the Later Saxon collection (contexts 96 in
trench 6302, and 2021 and 2022 in trench 7305) poses
the question of whether or not people at the site continued to have high-status contacts after the monastery
had ceased to function.
The medieval inventories and annual accounts
show clearly how the parish was an essential part of the
economy of the cells. The medieval parish reached
from the North Sea coast in the east, inland to
Gateshead in the west, and included lands to the north
of the River Tyne. People in the parish contributed
annual tithes to Jarrow and other churches controlled
by Durham, including the cathedral itself. In addition,
when someone died, they contributed mortuaries to
their church, usually their second-best animal,
although richer people might also bequeath items such
as a horse. Items that were given to the Jarrow community could either be added to their own stock or
holdings, or be sold for a cash profit. Tithes mentioned
in the documents include livestock, wool, salt and fishing equipment.
From AD 15001 onwards, there are references in
the annual accounts to tithes from four to eight saltworkings. The salt would have provided a marketable
582
resource in its own right, but it would also have been

very useful in the fishing economy for preserving fish
for storage and marketing. It could also, of course,
have been used for preserving other meats, such as
pork, beef and mutton.
The fishing industry based at South Shields was
very profitable, and often formed the largest item in
the cells cash income, reaching a peak in the late
14th century. Between AD 1408 and AD 147980 there
are four references to boats being bought, but it is not
clear from the accounts whether these were for fishing
or for transport, or for both. Given the location of the
site at Jarrow, beside the Slake where a small stream
meets the estuary of the Tyne close to the sea, transport by water would have been relatively easy for both
economic and social purposes. There are references to
monks using boats to move between the cells at Jarrow
and Monkwearmouth.
The banks of the Tyne had been utilised for fishing
from yares since at least the 12th century. Yares are
structures that extend from the bank out into the river,
and nets are suspended from them to catch fish as they
swim up or down the estuary with the tides. They are
particularly useful for catching migratory fish such as
salmon and eels, both of which have seasonal patterns
of migration. Flatfish are likely to be in these waters
throughout much of the year, but it is highly unlikely
that deep-sea fish such as those of the cod family
would come inside the estuary. In the annual account
for AD 13478 there is a reference to the purchase of a
salmon net, and the yares provided a regular source of
income until they fell out of use in the AD 1530s. One
account mentions salmon and scrap, suggesting that
salmon were the target species.
Noddle (archive, 1984) noted that three contexts
(one Saxon and two medieval) contained worked fragments indicating that some artefacts were made out of
bone at the site. She considered all of the pieces to be
associated with the manufacture of bone needles.
There are no mentions of artefact manufacture in
Pipers documentary review. Could these needles have
been made ad hoc and used to make or mend fishing
nets? Other instances of bone working are presented by
Riddler in Chapter 31.5.
In the archaeological collections, bones from
salmon and other salmonids (such as trout) are
extremely scarce, and ordinary eels were not identified
at all. These bones are very small (as are those from
herrings) and the excavators could easily have missed
them. Very small bones are difficult to recover without
the use of fine mesh sieves of 1mm2mm diameter,
and the technique of sieving, which had not yet
become established when the site was excavated,
would in any case have been ineffective on account of
the clay subsoil. It is impossible to estimate, from
either the documentary or the archaeological evidence,
whether or not the importance of salmonids changed
between the Saxon and medieval occupations of the
monastery, but the documentary evidence suggests
that they were far more important to the economy than

the archaeological evidence would indicate. The bones
of deep-sea fish are also, probably, underestimated in
all periods, but their exponential increase in the
medieval collections is probably a true reflection of the
increasing importance of deep-sea fishing, with its concomitant changes in technology.
Interestingly, Piper makes no mention of any reference to shellfish in any of the medieval documents.
While it is very likely that the Anglo-Saxon and
medieval inhabitants of Jarrow (whether lay or monastic) gathered most of the shellfish locally within a few
kilometres of the site, the sudden rise in frequency of
oyster shells in the medieval collections does suggest
that there was a more organised method of procurement for oysters, possibly from a market supply, yet
there are no mentions of any purchases in Pipers
review. Perhaps the lack of references indicates that
these were obtained locally, by hand, but it may be that
the amounts paid for them were considered negligible
and subsumed within ordinary kitchen expenses.
The monks had rights to some of their own land,
besides that of the parish, and they and their community undertook mixed farming of pasture and arable in
order to support themselves. In AD 1351, there was an
almost even mixture of pulses and cereals in the arable
fields. Out of 188 acres of land, 80 were under beans
and peas, 72 were under wheat, 28 under oats and 8
under barley. Some of the crops may have been grown
for the livestock to consume, to supplement the pasture. During the later 14th century, the area under
arable was increased, but this then contracted again in
the early 15th century. These changes were mirrored
by the holdings of plough oxen. In AD 132633 there
were 20 plough oxen, which had increased to 30 (for
three ploughs) by AD 13703, but by AD 1408 there
were only 16 plough oxen (as there were at the end of
the 15th century, in AD 1491). Piper regards the
expansion of arable cultivation in the 14th century as
an unsuccessful attempt to create a cash profit, and
views the 15th century as a return to self-sufficient levels using less labour-intensive pastoral husbandry,
when records show that the cattle herd had increased.
In AD 1432, when the cell was re-occupied, there is
a record of animals being bought and sold within the
year, and the 15th century shows that there were regular profits from cattle being bought in and sold on for
a higher price. This economic system is the same as
that of store cattle today, which are bought to be fattened up before being sold on for slaughter. Jarrow is
particularly well placed for this, being surrounded by
lowland pastures that would have been profitable during the winter months, when upland pastures would
have provided sparse fodder and exposed weather conditions. Such a system would leave no trace archaeologically at the site. While there, the cattle would
consume grass and deposit manure, but their mortal
remains would be gone from the site when they were
sold.
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
Cattle are recorded in every inventory that mentions livestock. In the 14th century, each record contains a majority of plough oxen. Cows and steers were
kept mainly to provide more oxen, but the community
frequently had to buy some in. Cattle themselves were
rarely sold, although their hides were sold after the animals had died natural deaths. This changed radically in
the 15th century (when the area of arable land had
contracted) when only half of the cattle were oxen. In
AD 1491, the annual account lists 72 cattle. Twentyone of these were breeding stock (10 cows and one
bull), 16 were working stock (16 oxen) and 35 were
replacement stock (10 two-year-olds, 11 steers and 14
calves). Several accounts mention that only 10 oxen
were kept. Occasionally, excess home-raised stock was
sold, but it seems that most of them were used and
consumed on the site.
Archaeologically, owing to the effects of various
taphonomic processes, it is not possible to estimate
accurately the total numbers of animals that were actually utilised at a site, and so the faunal collections cannot be tested for an increase in the absolute numbers of
cattle between the 14th and 15th centuries. There are,
however, some variables that can be considered with
regard to the uses of the slaughtered animals. The sexual dimorphism of cattle bones can be used to suggest
whether or not there were more females or males, which
can be used to test the documentary references to a
change from predominantly castrated males (oxen) plus
some breeding stock (mainly cows) to one in which oxen
were of less importance. The pooled medieval measurements do show a slight preponderance of larger bones,
suggesting that more than half of the animals represented were probably males (presumably most of them being
oxen rather than entire bulls). In addition, it was noted
above that many of the cattle bones show alterations
consistent with age-related changes and/or heavy work.
This fits the documentary evidence for the exploitation
and home consumption of old oxen and breeding cattle.
But was there a change between the 14th and 15th centuries? In her records of the kitchen midden material,
Noddle (1987) separated out the bones by century
(13th, 14th, 15th and 16th centuries). These allocations
may be overly ambitious with regard to accuracy but
might be of use to show general trends. Unfortunately,
the kitchen midden material produced so few measurable bones from 14th century deposits that a comparison with those from the 15th century is not possible
(even if it were valid). With regard to the beef that was
consumed, the persistent presence of Immature-aged
bones deriving from animals that died at the prime age
for meat fits in well with the documentary evidence. If
few home-produced cattle were sold on, there should
have been excess stock available for slaughter for meat.
There is, or are, specific documentary references to the
sale of cattle hides, which concurs with the archaeological evidence for hides being removed off site. There is
neither documentary nor archaeological evidence for
hides or skins being brought to Jarrow.
583
For a span of 60 years in the later 15th and early

16th centuries, there was a regular income from dairy
produce, but the records do not mention whether this
was from cattle or from sheep and goats (or any combination of the three). The archaeological ageing data
for cattle, sheep and goats suggest that all three species
may have contributed milk and dairy produce.
Sheep provide many resources, including milk,
manure, meat, and offspring. The wool that was sometimes recorded as being sold for profit could have come
from tithes and/or from the home flock. Certainly, the
ageing data for the sheep demonstrates that many were
kept on into maturity and could have provided several
annual clips of wool before they died. Probably, the
fleeces came from a mixture of home-produced and
tithe animals, although the relative proportions may
have changed throughout the years.
In the 14th century, numbers of sheep in the home
flock fluctuated very widely, ranging between 409 and
zero. The records for the early AD 1370s are particularly
unstable. In AD 1370, the community had 76 sheep, and
they bought 200 more the next year but, in the year after
that, they sold 160 mature sheep and by AD 1373 they
had none left. One hundred sheep were bought the following year (AD 13745) but, by AD 1379, there were
none again. Even the tithe lambs were sold in AD
13789. These inconsistencies coincide with the expansion of arable land, and hint at a very unstable, possibly
over-ambitious time in the economy. By the 15th
century, the numbers of sheep held were kept at a more
consistent, high level, alongside the larger herds of cattle.
Accounts for AD 141213 and 14323 both mention that tithe lambs and calves were added directly to
the cells stocks. Wool from both tithe and home flocks
was sold in AD 1440, and profits from the sales of sheep
rose significantly in the later 15th century, partly due
to increases in the numbers of tithe animals supplied.
In AD 14323 and 14334, the community received 38
and 35 tithe lambs. By AD 14978 this number had
risen to 61, and it reached a peak in AD 15001 with
110 tithe sheep being received. The records of profits
from sheep sales usually only refer to the money raised
rather the number of animals sold, but one reference
that gives both figures indicates that a sale of 60 sheep
in a year was not unusual.
As with the cattle, it is not possible to estimate the
actual numbers of sheep that were kept or used at an
archaeological site. In the archaeological collections
from Jarrow, the relative proportions of sheep/goats and
cattle remained almost identical (in terms of Minimum
Numbers of Individuals) in the Medieval 1 and
Medieval 2 periods. Piper uses the documentary evidence to suggest that the 15th century saw an increase
in the numbers of both cattle and sheep kept on the
cells lands. The archaeological evidence cannot be used
to suggest whether the numbers of cattle and sheep/goat
did rise, or whether they stayed the same (they may, in
fact, have fallen) but it does suggest that the relative
numbers of the two species remained quite consistent.
584
Pigs are constantly mentioned in the inventories,

but few were ever sold. During the 14th century, the
average number of pigs recorded is 33 adults, but this
number did fluctuate. In AD 13502 there were only
eight or nine adults but, in AD 1382, there were 71
adults and 12 piglets. It is hard to envisage how or
where this number of pigs was kept on site, unless it
refers to the numbers of pigs being acquired and
passed on throughout a twelve-month period (for
example, if a tithe or mortuary had provided a large
number for a short period of time). By the 15th
century, there was an average of 25 adults in the communitys holdings. Again, it is hard to conceive where
all of these animals were kept, unless some were
farmed out to holdings outside of the site itself. Even
if the pigs were not permanently housed in sties, they
would have needed to be shut in at night. In AD 1370
the account states that 11 of the pigs were reserved for
the larder, confirming the pigs role as a major supplier of home-grown meat. The ageing evidence in the
archaeological collection strongly supports the presence of breeding pigs at the site, most of which were
slaughtered at an early age for their meat.
Documents also refer to flocks of geese and hens
being kept. This suggests that the geese were domestic
rather than wild, which helps to elucidate the archaeological evidence (since the bones of wild greylag and
domestic geese are similar in size and shape and difficult to distinguish).
There were usually two horses to transport the
monks and, sometimes, two or three cart-horses as well.
The measurements of the horse bones recovered from
the site suggest that these were from smallish animals,
which could have been multipurpose, but it is unlikely
that any of the archaeological remains come from animals that would have been referred to as cart-horses.
The agricultural workers mentioned in the
accounts of AD 1328 included a pigman, three ploughmen and three boys to lead the ploughs.
The farm buildings included a cow-byre, which was
first mentioned in AD 1338. After this date, general references to the farmyard are replaced by specific mentions of a piggery, a dairy and a smithy. There is also a
14th-century reference to the sheepfold, and a late
15th-century mention of the Ewehouse and a Cothouse
(which usually is synonymous with a sheepcote).
There are no references to a dovecote, which
appears to confirm the archaeological evidence that
domestic pigeons were not raised for meat at the site.
Three storerooms in the residential buildings included a larder for meat and fish. This suggests that some of
the meat might have been preserved in some way for storage. The most likely methods are salting, drying or
smoking. There are no references to a separate smokehouse, but it is possible to dry or smoke meat by hanging
it from hooks in the ceiling close to a domestic fire. This
method should be able to cope with sufficient quantities
for home consumption. Similarly, meat could have been
salted in any cool room, perhaps the larder itself.
The two sources of evidence the documents and

the archaeological remains are highly complementary, and neither provides a complete picture of the relevance of animals to the people living at Jarrow in the
medieval period. The documents emphasise the economic importance of domestic livestock, whereas the
archaeological material relates to the animals themselves that either died or were consumed at the site.
Both sources mention aspects that are completely
invisible in the other, or add detail that could not be
obtained by other means. Interestingly, they never contradict each other.
The documentary evidence is particularly important
for the exceptionally precise time control that it provides. Even fluctuations between one year and the next
are sometimes discernible. Archaeological faunal evidence can never hope to achieve this level of precision,
and will always be subject to a smoothing effect that
blurs details into a general picture for a relatively broad
time span. In contrast, the documentary evidence
almost completely misses out on the spatial information
that archaeological material can provide, together with
evidence for how the animals were treated, both when
alive and when dead. While the documents refer to the
value of the animals, the bones themselves demonstrate
what the animals actually looked like, how old they
were and what their health was like.
The documents are essential for information about
the archaeologically invisible livestock that passed
through the site (eg the store cattle that were fattened
up and sold on), and for the information that many animals were supplied through tithes. Normally, an
archaeological assemblage from a medieval site is
assumed to be from a community that was basically
self-sufficient, with some resources perhaps being purchased through a market economy. But tithes bear similarities with tributes and taxes, sources that are more
commonly associated with high status sites such as castles than apparently self-sufficient farming communities
such as Jarrow. The documents illustrate the complexities of the economy, and are also useful for describing
the relative dependence on arable and pasture land and
the absolute numbers of livestock that were involved.
In contrast, the archaeological remains are essential
for an understanding of how the revenue and products
from the farmlands were complemented by the
exploitation of various wild resources and habitats.
These are all completely invisible in the documents,
which make no reference to the shellfish and birds
from the sea-shore, nor to the other wild birds and
mammals. The sources of the woodland and parkland
deer, the hare, rabbit and badger, and the woodland
and game birds all remain a mystery, but it is only
through the archaeological evidence that we know that
they were utilised at all.
We are very fortunate that the study of the animals
at Jarrow in the medieval period can be pursued
through two lines of enquiry. Neither is alone sufficient, but both are necessary.
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
585
Appendix 37.1 Bone measurements
This appendix contains all of Noddles reported measurements for animal bones from Jarrow and
Wearmouth. All measurements are to the nearest
whole millimetre.
The measurements taken are usually the standard
ones described and defined in von den Driesch (1976);
where this is the case, von den Drieschs measurement
code is stated in the table. Sometimes, the measurements that Noddle took were not the ones most commonly used. This is particularly the case for the distal
humerus (where Noddle recorded the distal breadth of
the trochlea (BT) rather than the full distal breadth
(Bd)) and for the metapodials. Since the condyles of the
distal metapodials can be distorted through pathological alterations (and Noddle noted several examples at
Jarrow), Noddle preferred to measure the bone across
the fusion line, where distortion is less likely to occur.
With two exceptions, Noddle did not record more
than one measurement for any incomplete bone. This
means that shape indices are not available. The exceptions are the neck shape (length:breadth ratio) of sheep
scapulae and the length and breadth dimensions of cattle astragali. In both cases, the actual measurements
were not reported, only the shape index or the calculated weight.
As noted in the main text of the faunal report,
Noddle measured the bones before the phasing was
refined, using the labels Saxon, medieval and postmedieval (the latter not considered in this analysis). In
addition, for the material excavated in 1975 and 1976
from the kitchen midden area, she divided the contexts
up by century (ie 13th, 14th, 15th and 16th centuries).

Because the measurements were not recorded by individual bone but by period group, it is not now possible
to extrapolate context numbers and, therefore, the
refined phasing for any of the measured bones.
Noddles dating, therefore, has had to remain uncorrected. For the purposes of this report, her measurements have been grouped simply as Saxon and
Medieval, with no attempt to separate out material
from different centuries. Inevitably, a few measurements may have been included that should have been
left out (eg post-medieval material, or bones from contexts whose dating was insecure), and a few measurements may have been included in the incorrect period
(eg medieval rather than Saxon, or vice versa). Given
the nature of the refinements to the phasing, it is very
unlikely that the overall distributions of measurements
are seriously flawed, but no individual measurement
should be assumed to be accurately dated.
The following tables present the measurements in a
manner intended to provide every individual record
(for use in any future statistical tests that might be
required by other specialists) in a crudely diagrammatic format that gives a visual impression of their distribution, with the exception of samples smaller than ten
records, which are simply listed. Measurements from
whole bones are included in the distribution tables for
the relevant individual measurements (eg proximal
breadth or distal breadth). Numbers and ranges are
given for each measurement, and the average is provided where N equals 10 or more.
586
Cattle lower third molar: length (mm)

Jarrow Saxon: N = 27; range: 3239mm; average: 35mm
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
3
32
33
34
35
36
33
33
35
35
33
38
Wearmouth Saxon: N = 1; measurement: 34mm

Jarrow medieval: N = 96; range: 3142mm; average: 35.5mm
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
33
34
35
36
37
38
33
34
35
36
37
38
33
34
35
36
37
38
33
34
35
36
37
38
33
34
35
36
33
35
36
35
36
35
36
35
35
38
38
38
38
38
38
35
35
35
35
35
40
Wearmouth medieval: N = 13; range: 3239mm; average: 35.2mm

32
~
34
35
36
37
~
39
32
34
35
36
37
35
36
Cattle scapula: neck width (SLC) (mm)

NB: may include immature examples
Cattle humerus: distal breadth across trochlea

(BT) (mm)
Jarrow Saxon: N = 2; range: 4754mm
Jarrow Saxon: N = 1; measurement: 63mm
47
Wearmouth Saxon: N = 0
54
Wearmouth Saxon; N = 0
Jarrow medieval: N = 6; range: 6374mm
63
64
65
~
73
74
46
~
52
~
54
~
56
57
58
~
62
Wearmouth medieval: N = 0
73
Wearmouth medieval: N = 2; range: 6476mm

64
76
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
587
Cattle radius: proximal breadth (Bp) (mm)
Cattle metacarpal: proximal breadth (Bp) (mm)
Jarrow Saxon: N = 0
NB. may include immature examples
Wearmouth Saxon: N = 1; range: 54mm
63
~
67
~
69
70
71
72
73
74
~
78
79
80
81
~
83
~
87
~
89
71
71
78
79

68
85
Cattle radius: distal breadth (Bd) (mm)

57
58
67
67
70
72
74
77
77

62
65
39
~
43
~
47
~
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
47
49
50
52
52
55
56
55
55
55
59
60
61
62
63
64
59
60
61
62
63
64
59
60
59
60
62
62
62
62
62
64
Wearmouth medieval: N = 11; range: 4758mm; average:

52.5mm
47
48
~
51
52
53
~
55
~
57
58
48
51
58
588
Cattle metacarpal: distal breadth across fusion

line (mm)
Cattle metatarsal: proximal breadth (Bp) (mm)
Jarrow Saxon: N = 0
42
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
~
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
47
48
49
50
51
52
47
48
49
50
51
52
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
54
55
56
57
58
60
61
62
47
47
49
50
51
52
49
50
49
50
49
50
52
55
57
58
58
58
58
60
61
62
60
61
62
60
61
60
61
58
58
61
64

51
53
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
~
55
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
42
43
42
43
42
42
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
47
48
49
50
51
47
48
49
50
51
48
49
50
51
48
49
50
48
48
48
53
53
53
53
50

47
Cattle tibia: distal breadth (Bd) (mm)
48
50
Jarrow Saxon: N = 0
Cattle metatarsal: distal breadth across fusion

line (mm)
48
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
~
62
63
64
65
66
~
68
54
55
56
57
54
54
56
57
57
60
60
62
63
62
54
54
62
65
66
53
57
52

53
49
60
62
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
44
45
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
49
50
49
49
54
55
56
57
58
54
55
56
57
58
54
55
54
55
57
58
57
57
60
61

47
51
52
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
589
Cattle first phalanx: length (mm)

50
51
52
52
52
53
54
55
59
Wearmouth Saxon: N = 1: measurement: 51mm
Cattle first phalanx: length (mm)

50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
52
52
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
54
54
54
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
57
57
57
59
60
61
62
63
64
59
60
61
62
63
64
59
60
61
62
64
57
60
60
62
62
62
64
64
64
64
64

48
~
50
~
57
~
59
60
~
62
~
64
57
57
57
60
60
60
62
62
60
64
Cattle horncore
Jarrow medieval: N = 1
Greatest basal diameter (mm)
Least basal diameter (mm)
54
43
Ratio
1.26
Cattle astragali: estimated body weights (kg)

Noddle recorded measurements for cattle astragali which she converted into estimated body weights using her (Noddle 1973)
method based on modern animals. Her reports do not present the original measurements, only her calculated body weights,
which are presented below (in kilogrammes).
Jarrow Saxon: N = 2; range: 176236kg
176kg; 236kg
Jarrow medieval: N = 32; range: 160250kg; average: 202.7kg
160
172
181
190
200
~
220
231
244
250
167 168 168 168

174 177 177 177
190 193 196
202 203 206 208
220 222
231 232 232 233
245
250
590
Cattle whole bone measurements (mm)

NB. Where relevant, these measurements have been included in the lists of measurements presented above.
Estimated withers heights have been calculated using Zalkins (1960) factors for metapodials from animals of unknown sex, and
Matolcsis (1970) factor for the radius.
Jarrow Saxon metatarsal
Proximal breadth
(Bp)
42
48
Mid-shaft diameter
(MSD)
24
27
Distal breadth
across fusion line
48
52
Length (L)
Wearmouth Saxon metacarpal

Proximal breadth
Mid-shaft diameter
(Bp)
(MSD)
54
30
Distal breadth
across fusion line
50
Length (L)
Distal breadth
(Bd)
74
Length (L)
Jarrow medieval metacarpal

Proximal breadth
Mid-shaft diameter
(Bp)
(MSD)
49
30
59
32
55
35
62
36
Distal breadth
across fusion line
50
52
60
Length (L)
Jarrow medieval metatarsal

Proximal breadth
Mid-shaft diameter
(Bp)
(MSD)
39
22
45
27
40
24
48
28
49
29
53
30
53
36
Distal breadth
across fusion line
42
55
56
56
58
Length (L)
Jarrow medieval radius

Proximal breadth
(Bp)
81
Mid-shaft diameter
(MSD)
45
210
233
175
290
171
180
183
190
187
192
200
212
212
220
240
Sheep/goat lower third molar: length (mm)

19
20
21
21
23

19
20
21
22
23
24
19
20
21
22
23
24
19
20
21
22
23
24
20
21
22
23
24
20
21
22
23
24
20
21
22
23
20
21
22
23
20
21
22
23
20
21
22
23

20
21
22
22
20
21
22
23
20
20
20
20
20
22
23
22
23
22
23
22
22
22
Estimated withers height

(L 5.47) in metres
1.15m
1.28m
(L 6.12) in metres
1.07m
(L 4.30) in metres
1.25m
(L 6.12) in metres
1.05m
1.10m
1.12m
1.16m
(L 5.47) in metres
1.02m
1.05m
1.09m
1.16m
1.16m
1.20m
1.31m
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
591
Sheep/goat humerus: distal breadth across trochlea (BT) (mm)

Jarrow Anglo-Saxon: N = 2; range: 2429mm
24
29
Wearmouth Anglo-Saxon: N = 1; measurement: 29mm

25
26
27
28
29
30
31
25
26
27
28
29
30
25
26
27
28
29
30
25
26
27
28
26
27
28
30
30
26
27
28
26
27
28
26
27
28
26
27
28
26
27
28
26
27
28
26
26
26
26
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
NB 27 denotes a goat measurement

26
27
28
29
30
~
32
27
28
29
30
30
Sheep/goat radius: proximal breadth (Bd) (mm)
Sheep/goat metacarpal: proximal breadth (Bp) mm)

26 29
Wearmouth Anglo-Saxon: N = 0

25
~
27
~
29
30
31
32
29
30
31
32
29
30
31
32
29
30
31
32
29
30
31
32
30
31
32
30
31
32
30
31
32

29
30
30
31
31
31
Jarrow Anglo-Saxon: N = 0

19
~
21
22
23
24
21
22
23
24
21
21
21
21
21
24
24
24
24
24
24
24

20
20
21
32
Sheep/goat astragalus: maximum length GL (mm)

Sheep/goat radius: distal breadth (Bd) (mm)
24
25
25
31
31
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
26
27
28
29
26
27
28
29
26
27
28
29
26
28
26
27
29
25
26
27
28
29
30
25
25
27
28
29
30
27
28
29
27
28
29
27
28
29
27
28
29
27
28
27
28
28
28
Wearmouth medieval: N = 1; measurement: 30mm
28 28
592
Sheep/goat tibia: distal breadth (Bd) (mm)

Jarrow Anglo-Saxon: N = 1; measurement: 27mm
Jarrow medieval: N
20
21
22 22
23 23 23 23
24 24 24 24
25 25 25 25
26 26 26 26
27 27 27 27
28 28 28 28
~
30
= 97; range: 2230mm; average: 25.6mm
23
24
25
26
27
28
23
24
25
26
27
28
24
25
26
27
28
24
25
26
27
28
24
25
26
27
28
24
25
26
27
24
25
26
27
24
25
26
27
25
26
27
25
26
27
25
26
27
25
26
27
25
26
27
25
26
27
25
26
27
25
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
NB. 28 denotes a goat measurement

Wearmouth medieval: N = 2; Range: 2324mm
23 24
Sheep/goat metatarsal: proximal breadth (Bp) (mm)
Sheep/goat scapula: neck length:breadth ratio
Noddle recorded two measurements for sheep/goat scapulae

that she used to make an index of the shape of the neck of the
scapula. This index comprises the length of the shaft of the
neck (from the glenoid to the base of the spine) divided by
the minimum breadth of the neck (see Noddle 1983).
Noddle did not record the actual measurements in her
reports, only the ratios.
18
19
20
21
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
1.00
20
Jarrow medieval: N = 21
22
Sheep/goat first phalanx: greatest length (GL) (mm)

Jarrow Anglo-Saxon: N = 1 (goat); measurement: 27mm
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
34
36
37
36
37
0.90
0.93
0.94
0.95
0.97
1.00
1.02
1.05
1.06
1.07
1.08
1.09
1.10
~
1.18
0.94
0.95
1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
1.08
Wearmouth medieval: N = 1 sheep, 1 goat

1.07
1.58 goat
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
593
Sheep/goat whole bone measurements (mm)

NB. Where relevant, these measurements have been included in the lists of measurements presented above.
Estimated withers heights have been calculated using Teichert 1975
Jarrow Anglo-Saxon: radius
Proximal breadth
Mid-shaft diameter
(Bp)
(MSD)
29
26
Distal breadth
(Bd)
25
24
Length (L)
Jarrow medieval: humerus

Proximal breadth
Mid-shaft diameter
(Bp)
(MSD)
35
Distal breadth
across condyles
27
Length (L)
Distal breadth
(Bd)
26
26
27
28
29
Length (L)
Jarrow medieval: radius

Proximal breadth
(Bp)
30
28
30
30
30
34
30
32
Mid-shaft diameter
(MSD)
17
16
17
17
127
126
131
135
138
147
148
152
158
28
28
18
Jarrow medieval: metacarpal

Proximal breadth
Mid-shaft diameter
(Bp)
(MSD)
23
13
Jarrow medieval: tibia
Proximal breadth
(Bp)
127
128
Mid-shaft diameter
(MSD)
Distal breadth
across fusion line
25
Length (L)
Distal breadth
(Bd)
Length (L)
121
190
Jarrow medieval: metatarsal
Proximal breadth
Mid-shaft diameter
(Bp)
(MSD)
19
11
19
19
11
Distal breadth
across fusion line
22
Length (L)
113
120
122
23

(L 4.02)
515
511
(L 4.28)
544
(L 4.02)
507
527
543
555
591
595
611
635
(L 4.89)
592
(L 3.01)
572
(L 4.89)
513
545
554
Pig lower third molar: length (mm)

29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
~
40
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
38
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
30
30
30
30
32
33
34
35
32
33
34
35
32
33
34
35
32
32
34
35
34
35
Wearmouth medieval: N = 12; range: 2938mm; average:

33.5mm
29
~
~
31
32
33
34
~
36
37
38
32
33
34
33
594
Pig scapula: minimum breadth of neck (SLC) (mm)
Pig metacarpal: length (mm)
Wearmouth Anglo-Saxon: N = 1; measurement: 25mm

20
21
22
23
24
25
~
28
21
22
23
24

60
65
67
79
81
83

22
23
23
79
81
84
85
Pig tibia: distal breadth (Bd) (mm)


21
~
23
24
25

23
Pig humerus: distal breadth across trochlea

(BT) (mm)
30
31
32
33
34
35
30
31
32
33
31
32
32
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
~
35
28
29
30
32

31
Pig astragalus: greatest length (mm)

39
44
35

32
32
33
34
Pig radius: proximal breadth (Bp) (mm)

24
25
26
27
28
29
~
31
~
33
25
26
27
26
27
29
29
27

24
25
31
31
35
37
39
39
43
47
37: FAUNAL REMAINS
595
Due to the highly variable nature of the measurements for domestic fowl bones, the row layout for these measurements has been
grouped by ranges of 10mm rather than by integers of 1mm
Domestic fowl coracoid: greatest length (mm)

Domestic fowl carpo-metacarpus: greatest

length (mm)
58
60
66
39
42
52
61
Domestic fowl femur: greatest length (mm)
48
53
48
53
49
54
49
54
55
56
57
57
57
58
53
53
56
43
39
48
48
50
50
73
54
57
78
80
Domestic fowl humerus: greatest length (mm)

61
72
63
73
63
73
64
65
66
67
67
67
71
80
69
72
84
69
75
69
77
77
78

54
66
71
72
79
81
85
86
Domestic fowl tibiotarsus: greatest length (mm)
65
65
79
84
64
70
110
Domestic fowl radius: greatest length (mm)
55
59
60
76
Wearmouth medieval: N = 1; measurement: 75mm
82
88
92
95
99
100 108
110 110 119 119 119
121
132
Domestic fowl ulna: greatest length (mm)
111 117 131 133

63
69
Domestic fowl tarso-metatarsus: greatest length

(mm)
73
59
60
73
82
59
60
73
61
75
62
76
62
76
66
69
73
73
74
63
73
63
78

65
75
76
59
60
62
67
72
76 (male) 78 (male)
81 (male) 82 (male) 83
83
89 (male)
596
Goose scapula: greatest length (mm)
Horse
Scapula: minimum breadth of neck (SLC) (mm)
Jarrow medieval: N = 1; measurement: 73mm
Goose humerus: greatest length (mm)
Horse first phalanx: greatest length (mm)
Jarrow Saxon: N = 2; measurements: 76, 79mm
Goose carpo-metacarpus: greatest length (mm)
Cat
Radius: greatest length (mm)
88
92
92
93
93
Goose carpo-metacarpus: greatest length (mm)
Tibia: greatest length (mm)
80
Metatarsal: greatest length (mm)
83
84
96
Jarrow medieval: N = 2; measurements: 50, 50mm
Goose femur: greatest length (mm)

Red deer
Scapula: minimum breadth of neck (SLC) (mm)
Goose tibio-tarsus: greatest length (mm)
Jarrow Anglo-Saxon: N = 2; measurements: 80, 145mm
Radius: distal breadth (Bd) (mm)

Metacarpal: proximal breadth (Bp) (mm)
Dog
Shoulder heights have been calculated using Harcourts
(1974) factors.

Tibia: distal breadth (Bd) (mm)
Radius: greatest length (mm)
Jarrow Saxon: N = 1; measurement: 89mm; shoulder

height = 303mm
Metatarsal: proximal breadth (Bp) (mm)
Jarrow medieval: N = 1; measurement: 90mm; shoulder

height = 306mm
First phalanx: greatest length (mm)
Metacarpal: greatest length (mm)
Jarrow Saxon: N = 2; measurement: 46, 47mm
Fallow deer
23
Tibia: distal breadth (Bd) (mm)
57
58
58
71
78
90
Femur: greatest length (mm)
Jarrow Saxon: N = 1; measurement: 107mm; shoulder

height = 323mm
Second phalanx: greatest length (mm)

Tibia: greatest length (mm)

Jarrow medieval: N = 2; measurements 104, 115mm;
shoulder heights = 313, 345mm
Red deer or Fallow deer astragalus: greatest

length (mm)
Calcaneum: greatest length (mm)
APPENDIX C
597
Appendix C. Context catalogues
FB
Fe
FeN
FL
Gl
GlB
GlO
GlV
GlW
GS
HB
Jt
Le
M
Mo
MS
Nu
O
OS
P
P
Pb
Pl
Pot
PPl
Q
S
S
Sh
Sl
ST
SV
T
Tx
W
WB
WS
The contexts assigned to periods before the Later PostMedieval (mid-18th and 19th centuries) are held by
the Archaeology Data Service and can be found at
http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/resources.html?monastic_eh_2006. For convenience, the abbreviations used
in the catalogue and throughout the text are given
below. The complete context catalogues, in which the
Later Post-Medieval and Modern (20th century) contexts are listed, are held in archive. Some of these context numbers occur, however, on section drawings, on
the plans in Chapter 22, and in the finds catalogues.
Abbreviations
AB
AF
Ag
AS
Au
B
Ba
BB
Bk
C
CA
Cer
CF
Ch
Ci
Con
CP
Cr
CT
Db
DP
FA
animal bone
architectural fragment
silver
architectural sculpture
gold
bead
bangle
bird bone
brick
coal, coke
copper alloy
ceramic
coffin fittings (plate, handle)
charcoal
cinder, clinker
concrete
clay pipe
crucible
ceramic tile
daub
drain/sewer pipe
fuel ash
597
fish bone
iron
iron nail
flint
glass
bottle glass
glass object
vessel glass
window glass
geological sample
human bone
jet
leather
metal, unspecified
mortar
monumental sculpture
coin, token
organic
opus signinum
pebble (in context catalogue)
pin (in CA catalogue)
lead
plaster
pottery
painted plaster
quartz
stone (in context catalogue)
seal
shell
slate
stone roofing flag (limestone and sandstone)
stone vessel
tile
textile
wood
worked bone
worked stone
Appendix D. The burial catalogues
Introduction
recovered from the fill of grave (eg 69/16-2 is a second

individual from the fill of 69/16).
Status: whether the skeleton was not in situ (NIS), or no
data (ND).
Burial date: the likely date of the original burial.
Context date: date of the context (or grave) from which
the remains were recovered.
Comment: includes possible source (burial) of NIS
bones; quotation marks denote original on site descriptions.
The first part of the catalogues for each site presents

summary data on all in situ human burials from the
excavations. The second section is a listing of the not in
situ (NIS) or disturbed human remains and burials which
are too inadequately recorded for inclusion in the primary catalogue. ND has been used throughout to indicate
no data. Burials are listed by year of excavation and burial number. The catalogue is arranged as follows:
Burial number
Context number
Trench
Body position: Supine, Prone, or Right Side (RS).
Grave features: eg presence of coffin, stone settings or
other features. These are more fully discussed in the text.
Alignment: given to the nearest 5 for those burials with
a sufficiently well preserved vertebral column, measuring the alignment of the spine between head and pelvis,
clockwise from grid N to the skull, thus WE = 270.
Note that legs may be at a different angle from the
body. A general indication of orientation (WE, WSW,
WNW) is given for a number of other more fragmentary burials.
Completeness: a simple scale based on percentage bands
indicates how much of a burial survived. ND indicates
burials which lay partly below a baulk, or were inadequately recorded, for which completeness could not be
estimated.
Age: as per bone report, plus broad adult or child
attributions for as many other burials as possible.
Sex: attributions are given only for those burials listed
in the bone report, although all children are listed as
U/SA.
Pathology: see list of codings below and Chapter 36
Appendix 36.1 for details.
Id: the initials of the specialist (CW = Calvin Wells; SA
= Sue Anderson) thus indicating which burials are to
be found in the bone catalogue.
Finds: codes indicate material present in grave fills (see
Appendix C for list of abbreviations). Square brackets
[ ] denote material deemed intrusive; curly bracket { }
indicate finds lost or not retained, usually of recent date.
Code: date codings used in analysis; see text for explanation.
Preferred date of burial: broad phase to which burials are
assigned for analysis.
Comments: includes significant over/under relationships.
Abbreviations used in burial catalogues

ND
NIS
RS
P
No data
Not in situ
right side
Prone
M
F
U/A
U/SA
Male
Female
Unsexed adult
Unsexed subadult
Pathology coding used in Jarrow burial

catalogue
1 Congenital anomalies
Spina bifida & detached neural arches
Anomalous articulation of L5/sacrum
Fused neural arches
Cervical rib
Incomplete foramina transversa
Sternal perforation
Deformity of L mandibular condyle
Congenital fusion of vertebrae
Squatting facets
Wedging of vertebrae
Epicondylar process of humerus
6-piece sacrum
2 Fractures
3 Dislocations
4 Trauma & wounds
5 Exostosis or neoplasms (& osteomata)
6 Osteoarthritis
7 Osteophytosis & synostosis of vertebrae
8 Schmorls nodes
9 Infections/lesions
Periostitis/osteitis
Ankylosing hyperostosis
Sinusitis
Osteomyelitis
Leprosy
Tuberculosis
10 Cribra Orbitalia & anaemia
11 Osteochondritis Dissecans & anterior epiphyseal
dysplasia
12 Teeth (incl caries, abscesses & anomalies)
13 Miscellaneous pathology
14 Rickets & other vitamin deficiency
Other data included in the NIS/ND listings:

Burial number: fragmentary skeletons were added to
the same number sequence as the in situ burials. The
suffixes -2, -3 etc are used to denote additional remains
598
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6403
6403
6403
Right
Right
Right
ND
Right
ND
Right
Supine
Supine
Supine
Right
Right
Supine
Supine
ND
Right
Right
1683
2313
1704
2315
1696
2316
2321
1589
1692
2323
2324
1700
2327
2330
1373
1484
1485
62/09
62/12
62/15
62/16
62/17
62/18
62/23
62/25
62/26
62/28
62/29
62/30
62/35
62/38
64/07
64/14
64/15
265
265
align
Stones on left side
Headstone?
Stone by L shoulder
Stones above & behind head
Stones on head, pelvis &

R shoulder
Pillow stone?
Stones by right side
Coffin stain
275
250
270
275
265
280
275
265
270
270
265
265
265
280
270
270
270
270
270
270
275
275
270
275
Stones by right side, slab outline 270
Stones by left side
275
Stone below pelvis
Stones on pelvis & legs

Head on stone
Feet on stone
Right
Right
Supine
Supine
ND
ND
Supine
Right
Right
Supine
Right
Right
Right
Right
ND
ND
Supine
Right
Supine
Supine
Right
Right
Supine
Right
Right?
Right
Right
Right
Supine
1755
1825
2171
2172
1817
1821
1824
691
2345
1174
2342
897
2352
2339
2338
349
2357
2360
2336
694
896
1161
693
2309
2310
1647
1927
1928
1681
59/01
59/02
59/03
59/04
60/01
60/02
60/03
61/06
61/07
61/10
61/17
61/38
61/43
61/45
61/46
61/48
61/54
61/57
61/59
61/60
61/69
61/76
61/79
62/01
62/02
62/03
62/04
62/05
62/07
5901
5902
5903
5903
6002
6002
6002
6104
6102
6105
6103
6101
6102
6103
6103
6105
6102
6102
6103
6104
6101
6105
6104
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
position grave form
Burial context trench

no.
75100%
5075%
5075%
025%
2550%
75100%
75100%
75100%
5075%
2550%
5075%
5075%
5075%
025%
2550%
75100%
75100%
2550%
025%
2550%
025%
025%
025%
5075%
5075%
75100%
5075%
5075%
75100%
75100%
75100%
5075%
025%
025%
2550%
5075%
5075%
75100%
2550%
2550%
5075%
5075%
5075%
5075%
75100%
75100%
Adult?
c20
Adult
45
Adult
3
c21
Adult?
Infant
c4
Child
Child
Adult?
Adult?
2122
1012
2025
Adult
17
Adult?
Adult
25
20
Adult
4060
45+
30
2535
Adult
2530
4060
ND
Adult
25
012
2535
Adult
ND
Adult
30+
012
c5
2022
40
4570
30
completeness age
Wearmouth: Catalogue of In Situ burials
M
M
U
U/SA
U
U/SA
F
ND
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U
U
M
U
F
U
M
M
U
ND
F
M
M
M
M
M?
U
M
M
U
M
F
U/SA
M
M
ND
U
U
U/SA
U/SA
F
M
M
M
sex
Y
Y
Y
Y
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
No data
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
No data
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
CW?
Cowper
CW
Cowper
CW
Cowper
Cowper
Scott/Gibson
Scott/Gibson
Scott/Gibson
Scott/Gibson
Cowper
Cowper
CW
SA
Cowper
SA
Cowper
CW
CW?
CW?
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
SA
Cowper
path id
phase
Fe,Pb,Gl,AF,Bk,Sh,D L Sax
Saxon
Mo,Pl
Saxon
Saxon?
Mo,Pl,Sh,Fe,Gl
Saxon
Saxon?
Saxon
Saxon?
Fe,Pb,Gl
Saxon?
Saxon?
Saxon?
Fe,Bk
Saxon?
Saxon?
Saxon?
Pl
Saxon
Saxon
T,OS,Pl
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
OS,Pl,Bk,S,FTRT,Fe Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Fe,Mo
Saxon
Pot
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Pb,Gl,Sh
L Sax
Saxon
L Sax
L Sax
Gl
Saxon
L Sax
L Sax
Fe,Sh
Saxon
finds
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
plan
Above 64/15
Below 64/14
Below 62/9
Below 62/7
Cuts 62/24 & 62/34, 62/8?

Cuts 62/11?
Cut by 62/17
Cuts 62/10
Above 62/35
Above 62/38
Disturbed
Cut by 61/61
Cut by structure C
Part of Triple Burial
Cuts Triple Burial?
Below 61/17?
Buried with or part of 61/44
Below Structure C
Cut by wall 2 1153
Cut by hearth 1812

Cut by hearth 1813 & 1819
Above 61/12
Cut by Wall 4
Cut by wall 3
Cut by wall 3
comment
APPENDIX D
599
66/19 2362
66/20 861
66/21 860
66/22 865
66/23 1904
66/24 1903
66/25 863
66/2621916
66/27 1924
66/28 864
66/29 873
66/30 1909
66/31 1750
66/32 1752
66/33 1910
66/34 1911
66/35 1925
66/36 876
66/37 1911
66/38 1791
66/39 1560
66/40 1912
66/41 866
66/42 867
66/43 1914
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6603
6603
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6603
6601
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
270
270
275
Stones by sides & coffin nail
265
270
265
270
265
265
265
270
275
265
270
265
270
255
265
265
Coffin nails
ND
Right?
Right
Right
ND
Coffin nails
ND
ND
ND
Left
Supine
ND
Coffin fitting & nails
ND
Right
Coffin nails
ND
ND
ND
Right
ND
ND
ND
Supine
ND
ND
ND
ND
Right
858
66/18
align
270
270
Coffin nails
270
Headstone & stone beneath head 270
Stone behind shoulder
270
Coffin nails
Right
Left
Right
Prone?
Right
Prone
Right
ND
ND
ND
Right
ND
ND
ND
Right?
Right?
Supine
ND
Right?
ND
Right
1322
1323
1497
1502
1448
1498
1518
1782
1783
1785
1786
1921
1921
856
1748
1749
1787
103
851
857
859
64/16
64/17
64/19
64/20
64/21
64/22
64/30
66/02
66/03
66/05
66/06
66/07
66/08
66/09
66/10
66/11
66/12
66/13
66/15
66/16
66/17
6402
6402
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6603
6603
6603
6603
6602
6602
6602
6603
6603
6603
6602
6602
6602
6602
position grave form

no.
025%
5075%
2550%
2550%
025%
025%
025%
025%
025%
2550%
2550%
025%
5075%
025%
025%
025%
2550%
025%
025%
025%
025%
025%
025%
025%
025%
2550%
2550%
75100%
2550%
75100%
5075%
5075%
025%
ND
025%
025%
5075%
025%
ND
ND
2550%
5075%
75100%
2550%
2550%
025%
5075%
4060
2023
2123
Adult
23
Adult
Adult
1214
910
c3
Adult
Adult
5065
c9
c7
23 mths
ND
Infant
c9 mths
15
Adult
Adult
2430
Adult
c12
4060
25
12
c2
3545
Adult?
c6
3050
67
18
1 month
c 12
810 wks
Neonate
46 wks
2530
Adult
5570
2022 mths
4060
Adult
2535
completeness age
F
M
F
F
U/SA
M
M
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
M
F?
M
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
ND
U/SA
U/SA
U
M?
U
M
F
U/SA
M
U/SA
U/SA
M
F
U/SA
F
U/SA
U
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
F?
F
M
U/SA
F
M?
M
sex
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
Cowper
Cowper
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
path id
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
L Sax
Saxon?
Saxon
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
Saxon?
Saxon
Saxon?
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
phase
Saxon?
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Fe
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Fe,Fl,AF
Saxon
Saxon
Pl,Fe,Bk,Sh,T,Fl
Saxon
Gl
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
OS,Bk,Pl,AF,CB,LT,F L Sax
Saxon
Fl
Saxon
Saxon
Pb
Saxon
Bk,Pl,Fe
Pl
Fe,Gl,ST,Bk,Mo
Fe
Fe,Mo,Bk
FeN,Sh,Pl
finds
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
plan
Cut
Cut
Cut
Cut
by
by
by
by
Wall
Wall
Wall
Wall
4
4
3
3 & hearth 1874
Cut by Wall 21780
Below wall 3
Cut by Wall 3 & 66/17

Cut by Wall 3
Cut by Wall 2
Below 66/14, cut by Wall 3?

Cut by Wall 4
Cut by 66/49? & Wall 3
Above Wall 4
Double grave with 66/21?

Double grave with 66/20?
Cut by wall 3, below 66/9
Below 66/02, above 66/12

Above 66/18 & 66/46
Above 66/18 & 66/46
Above 66/22
Cut by Wall 2 1780
Cut by Wall 2 1780
Below Wall 2, 66/2 & 66/6
Cut by 66/15
Cut by Wall 4
Cut by Wall 4
Cut by Wall 3, above 66/29 &
66/46
Cut by Wall 3, below 66/7 &
8, above 66/46
Cuts 64/23?, 64/25?

Cuts mortar mixer 1490
Cuts mortar mixer 1490
Cut by pit 1377
Above 66/6 & 66/12
Same as 66/1
comment
600
1926
1920
1913
2306
2364
868
1573
1571
1572
1574
1751
1575
1618
1623
1527
1528
1584
1585
2064
2077
2076
2079
2079
2148
2084
2154
2149
2094
2107
2095
2096
2152
2098
2165
1031
1038
1032
1046
1049
1050
782
948
949
1051
1052
1053
66/44
66/46
66/47
66/48
66/49
66/54
66/55
66/57
66/58
66/59
66/60
66/61
66/62
66/63
66/64
66/65
66/66
66/67
67/01
67/02
67/03
67/04
67/05
67/06
67/07
67/08
67/09
67/10
67/12
67/14
67/15
67/16
67/19
67/20
69/01
69/02
69/03
69/05
69/06
69/07
69/08
69/09
69/10
69/11
69/12
69/13
6901
6904
6903
6903
6901
6901
6901
6901
6702
6701
6701
6701
6701
6702
6701
6702
6901
6901
6901
6901
6701
6701
6701
6702
6701
6702
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6701
6701
6602
6602
6602
6602
6601
6601
6601
6601
6603
6601
6602
6602
Right
Right
Right
Right?
Right
Right?
ND
Prone
Supine
ND
Supine?
Right
Right
Right
Supine
Supine
ND
Supine?
Supine
Right
Right
ND
ND
Right
Right
Prone
Right?
Right
Right
Right
Prone
Right
Right
Right
ND
ND
ND
ND
Right
Right
Right
Right
Right
Right
ND
Supine
Coffin & nails
Coffin nail and shroud pin?

Stones along right side
Coffin shape
Coffin?
Coffin nails and stones by
right side
Shrouded & coffin?
Two stones by right side of head
Coffin nail
Headstone, footstone, stones
on pelvis & feet
Two stones by left leg and

coffin nail
Stones on lower ribs
Headstone?
Head on stone
Stone by legs and arms

Stones by legs
Shroud pin and coffin? wood
Coffin nail
270
280
270
270
280
275
255
270
270
270
260
260
265
265
265
270
280
270
275
270
285
270
265
265
275
265
270
2550%
2550%
5075%
5075%
5075%
2550%
2550%
75100%
025%
5075%
5075%
75100%
5075%
2550%
025%
2550%
025%
75100%
75100%
2550%
025%
025%
75100%
5075%
75100%
2550%
5075%
025%
2550%
75100%
5075%
2550%
2550
025%
025%
025%
025%
75100%
5075%
5075%
75100%
2550%
75100%
025%
5075%
F?
M
M
F
M?
F
U/SA
M?
U/SA
ND
M
ND
M
F?
F
U/SA
ND
U
M
M
U/SA
M
F
M
ND
F
c 12
c 12
4060
1011
c 12 mths
Adult
Adult
1415
U/SA
U/SA
M
U/SA
U/SA
U
M
3040
M
M AgedOld F?
1825
M
3555
M
4060
F
2024
F
2535
M
30s
M
Young adult U
2530
M
18 mths2yrs U/SA
3555
F
Adult?
2030
3040
18
1521
2535
2
15
Infant
Adult
4050
ND
3040
45+
Young? adult
Child
ND
Adult
4060
Adult
18 mths
2428
2124
3545
ND
4060
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
SA
SA
CW
CW
CW
SA
SA
SA
CW
SA
CW
SA
SA
SA
CW
SA
SA
SA
SA
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
Fe,Mo,Fl,Gl
Pot*,RT
Pb,CA,Fe,Gl
Pl,LT,C
OS,Pl,Mo,ST
OS,Pl
Fe,Pb,Fl,Mo
Sh,Mo,GS,Gl,Pb
FeN,Pl
L Sax
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
L Sax
Saxon
L Sax
M/L Sax
M Sax
M Sax
M/L Sax
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Pl,OS,Gl,WS,AF,CB,F L Sax
Saxon
FeN,GL
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
FeN
Saxon
OS,Pl,CB
M/L Sax
Pl,Bk,DB,Fe,AF
L Sax
Pl,OS,S,CB, AB,CA,MoL Sax
Fe,OS,Pl,Mo AF,Bk,W L Sax
Saxon
Pl,CA,AF,WS
L Sax
Saxon
Saxon
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
Above Sk 69/15 & 17.

Intrusive PM pot
Above 69/17
Cut by Wall F761?
Cut by Wall VI 919
Cut by Wall VI 919
Cut by Wall F 1062
Cuts 69/13 and ?69/16
Cut by Sks69/12 & 16
Above 69/20
Below 67/16
Above 67/20
Cut by trench 6004
Below drain 2045
Cut by drain; PM disturbance

Cut by drain; PM disturbance
Below EW wall 1603

Not lifted
Cuts cobble path 1561

Cut by wall 2
Cuts cobble path 1561, below
1603 EW wall
Cut by Wall 3
Cut by Wall 3, below 66/17,
18, 8 & 7
Cut by wall 3
Cut by wall 3
Cut by wall 3
Cut by wall 4
APPENDIX D
601
790
792
794
795
796
629
627
628
662
665
662
658
659
667
668
669
802
664
184
187
186
188
189
190
191
507
3707
3007
71/02
71/04
71/06
71/08
71/09
71/11
71/12
71/13
71/18
71/19
71/20
71/21
71/22
71/24
71/25
71/26
72/01
72/02
74/01
74/02
74/03
74/04
74/05
74/06
74/07
74/08
86/01
86/03
7201
7201
7402
7402
7402
7402
7402
7402
7402
7401
8608
8601
7101
7101
7101
7101
7101
7101
7101
7101
7101
7101
7105
7105
7105
7105
7105
7101
7001
7105
ND
Supine
Right
Stone marker
Supine Stone marker
Right
Stone marker, stones behind
shoulder
ND
Coffin. Brick vault
ND
Coffin
Right
Right
Coffin wood
Supine
Right
Right
ND
Supine Stones over feet?
ND
Coffin nail
Supine Coffin. Stone under neck
ND
Metal bound coffin. Vault?
Right
Supine
Right
Right
Right
Coffin nail
Stones behind left leg
Coffin nails & wood

Coffin nail & wood
523
789
70/02
71/01
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine
Right
ND
ND
ND
ND
Prone? Feet on or below stones
ND
Right
Right
ND
Coffin. Slab, ashlar blocks
& brick vault
ND
Cut
Supine Coffin nail
1054
1055
1056
1057
1058
1059
1060
1061
522
69/14
69/15
69/16
69/17
69/18
69/19
69/20
69/21
70/01
6901
6901
6901
6901
6901
6901
6901
6901
7001
position grave form

no.
270
275
270
270
270
265
270
270
265
270
315
320
245
270
265
290
align
ND
ND
75100%
75100%
75100%
5075%
5075%
025%
75100%
2550%
75100%
025%
ND
75100%
5075%
75100%
5075%
2550%
75100%
75100%
2550%
025%
75100%
75100%
75100%
75100%
5075%
025%
025%
5075%
025%
025%
025%
2550%
5075%
2550%
2550%
025%
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
M
ND
U/SA
U
M
U
F?
M?
U
M
ND
ND
sex
U/SA
M
U/SA
Unknown
1
1925
45+
1112
18 mths
3545
Newborn
56
Child
4
13
ND
U/SA
F
F
U/SA
U/SA
M
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
Middle aged F
3550
F
c2
U/SA
c7
U/SA
4060
M
3 mths
2535
22.5yrs
Young adult U
Mid 20s30s U
Infant
Infant
Infant
Infant
Infant
1623
ND
Infant
Adult
Adult
Adult
Adult
Adult
Adult
3545
ND
ND
completeness age
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
SA
SA
SA
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
path id
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
P Med
P Med
P Med
P Med
Saxon
Saxon
Med?
P Med
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
L Sax
phase
Pot,Fe,GW,GlB,Pl,M Med?
Med?
L Sax
W
L Sax
Fe
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
L Sax
Saxon
FeN
Saxon
GlW
Med
Med?
Fl,C
Fl,Bk,Sh
Pl
Pl
Mo
Pl,Mo,OS,Sh,L
Pl,Mo
Pot,AT,Sh,GlB
Fe,W,GL,RT
Fe,BG,W
Gl
Fe
Pl,Mo,OS
Fe,Sh,Gl,RT,S CP
Pot
finds
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
plan
Sk71/19
F160 stone tomb
F160 stone tomb
F160 stone tomb
In church
In church
In north aisle
In north aisle
Iron fragment in chest
Below
Below
Below
Below
Cut by Wall 637. Cuts into E

wall of Building B?
wall of Building B?
wall of Building B?
Sk 69/20 lies on pelvis
Above 69/22 poss inserted
later into grave?
On pelvis of 69/18; also
71/20-2 ND
In chancel
Infant burial grd E of church,
post-Ref graveyard
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
In chancel
Cut by 69/18
Cut by 69/19
Cuts 69/13, cut by 69/12?
Cuts 69/14
Cuts 69/14
Cuts 69/15
Below 69/5
comment
602
APPENDIX D
603
Wearmouth: Catalogue of NIS and ND human remains

Burial
no.
context trench
status
age
sex
61/01
61/02
61/03
61/04
61/05
61/08
61/09
61/11
61/12
61/13
61/132
61/14
61/15
61/16
61/18
61/19
61/20
61/211
61/212
61/22
61/231
1988
1152
1117
2344
699
1155
2343
1123
1144
697
2346
2346
345
345
894
895
1118
1119
815
815
2347
346
6004
6103
6101
6103
6104
6103
6103
6101
6102
6104
6102
6102
6105
6105
6101
6101
6101
6101
6104
6104
6102
6105
NIS
NIS
ND
NIS
ND
ND
ND
ND
NIS
ND
NIS
NIS
ND
ND
ND
NIS?
NIS
NIS
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
Under 18
Young adult
Adult
36 mths
3545+
ND
Old?
Adult
ND
25+
Infant
Under 10
Adult
Adolescent
ND
Under 20
25+
3545
child
18
512
ND
M
U
U
U
U
M
M?
U
ND
M
U
U
U
U
ND
M
U
U
U
U
U
61/232
61/233
61/24
61/25
61/26
61/27
61/28
61/29
61/292
61/30
61/31
61/32
61/33
61/34
61/35
61/37
61/372
61/391
61/392
61/401
61/402
61/41
61/42
61/44
61/47
61/472
61/49
61/50
61/51
61/52
61/53
61/55
61/56
61/58
61/61
61/62
61/63
61/64
61/642
61/651
61/652
61/66
61/662
61/67
61/68
61/701
346
346
2341
2348
2006
2349
2016
2017
2017
347
2010
2012
2350
816
816
2340
2340
817
817
348
348
818
2351
2353
898
898
2013
2354
2337
2355
2356
2358
2359
2361
819
848
3503
899
899
1127
1127
2335
2335
2334
2334
893
6105
6105
6103
6102
6106
6102
6106
6106
6106
6105
6106
6106
6102
6104
6104
6103
6103
6104
6104
6105
6105
6104
6102
6102
6101
6101
6106
6102
6103
6102
6102
6102
6102
6102
6104
6104
6105
6101
6101
6101
6101
6103
6103
6103
6103
6107
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
NIS
NIS
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
3545
c 2530
23
ND
Adult
Adult
2535
Adult
34 mths
25
Young adult
3545
ND
23
Adult
Adult
2430 mths
Young adult
Newborn
2535
Child
25
25+
ND
Adult
78
1 year
c 30
28
25+
ND
35
40
Youth
ND
ND
Adult
Adult
Newborn
1520
NB6m
3545
Baby
Adult
4
1725
U
F
U
ND
ND
F
F
F?
U
M
F
F
ND
U
U
M
U
M
U
U
U
M
U
ND
U
U
U
M
M
U
U
M
U
M
ND
ND
F
U
U
U
U
M
U
F
U
M
path
id
Cowper
Cowper?
Cowper?
SA
SA
Cowper
SA
SA
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
ND
Cowper
Cowper
SA
SA
Cowper
Cowper/
CW/SA
SA
SA
SA
ND
Cowper?
Cowper
CW
CW
CW
Cowper
Cowper/SA
SA
ND
Cowper/SA
Cowper
Cowper
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
Cowper
CW?
ND
SA
SA
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
CW
Cowper
CW/Cowper
CW
Cowper
ND
ND
Cowper?
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
Cowper
Cowper
SA
prob burial context

date
date
comments
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Med
Saxon?
Med?
Med
Saxon
L Sax
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
L Sax
L Sax
Saxon
Saxon
poss = 60/4; gold thread attached
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon?
Saxon
Saxon?
Saxon?
Saxon?
Saxon
Saxon?
Saxon?
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon?
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon?
Saxon
Med
Saxon
Saxon?
Saxon?
Saxon?
Saxon
Saxon?
Saxon?
Med
Med
Med
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon?
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
P Med?
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon?
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Coffin nails associated?
Saxon coin assoc?
Poss reburial? Saxon coin & horse burial
Nail assoc.
Shell with hole assoc
604
Burial
no.
context trench
status
age
61/702
61/71
61/712
61/72
61/73
61/74
61/75
61/77
61/781
61/782
61/80
61/802
61/81
61/812
62/06
62/08
62/10
62/11
62/14
62/162
62/19
62/20
62/21
62/22
62/24
62/27
62/31
62/32
62/33
62/34
62/36
62/37
64/01
64/02
64/03
64/04
64/05
64/052
64/06
64/062
64/063
64/08
64/09
64/10
64/11
64/12
64/13
64/162
64/163
64/164
64/18
64/202
64/203
64/212
64/23
64/24
64/25
64/26
64/262
64/27
64/28
64/29
66/01
66/012
66/013
66/04
66/112
66/122
66/132
66/141
66/142
893
1154
1154
1175
2014
2333
2332
1161
1134
1134
2331
2331
2008
2008
1638
1678
2311
2312
2314
2315
2317
2318
2319
2320
2322
1695
2325
1697
1723
2326
2328
2329
1066
1066
1065
1067
1063
1063
1064
1064
1064
1371
1068
1068
1724
1724
2372
1322
1321
1321
1325
1502
1502
1448
1511
1488
1459
1512
1512
1458
1515
1466
1778
1778
1778
1793
1749
1787
103
1898
1898
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
NIS
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
NIS
NIS
ND
ND
ND
NIS
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
2535
F
Adult
ND
Child
ND
25+
U
ND
ND
ND
U
Adult
ND
12
U
1720
M
Adult
U
45+
M
45+
F
Adult
M
Under 12 U
ND
ND
18
M
Child
U
45
U
34
U
Under 20 U
ND
U
4
U
Child
U
34
U
Adult
U
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
Adult
U
ND
ND
22
M
25
F
56
U
Infant
U
2135
M
1216
U
12
U
25
M
45
F
2122
M
1819
M
22
F
22
M
Middle aged M
6
U
22
F
25
M
50
M
5060
M
Adult
M
c 3 mths
U
Adult?
F
3560
M
ND
ND
ND
ND
Adult
M?
Adult
U
Adult
M
Adult
M?
3560
F?
Adult
M?
Adult
M?
Adult
F
c 16
U
34
U
Newborn
U
1214 mths U
2225
M
1012
U
6107
6103
6103
6105
6106
6103
6103
6103
6101
6101
6103
6103
6106
6106
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6201
6202
6201
6201
6201
6401
6401
6401
6401
6401
6401
6401
6401
6401
6403
6401
6401
6401
6401
6402
6402
6401
6401
6401
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6403
6603
6603
6603
6603
6603
6603
6602
6602
6602
sex
path
Y
Y
Y
id
prob burial context

date
date
SA
ND
ND
Cowper?
ND
Cowper
ND
Cowper?
SA
SA
SA
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon?
Saxon?
Saxon?
Saxon?
Saxon?
Saxon?
Saxon?
Saxon?
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon?
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Cowper
Cowper
ND
Cowper
Cowper?
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
Cowper
ND
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
Cowper
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
ND
ND
CW
CW
CW
CW?
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon?
Saxon?
Med?
Med?
Saxon?
Saxon?
Saxon?
Saxon?
Med
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Med?
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
comments
Roman coin nearby
Poss also 2 unsexed adults. Coffin nails
Reburial? disturbed by 64/20
APPENDIX D
66/252 863
66/261 1916
66/263 1916
66/272 1924
66/292 873
66/293 873
66/322 1752
66/412 866
66/45
2363
66/472 1913
66/473 1913
66/50
2365
66/52
2366
66/53
2367
66/542 868
66/561 841
66/562 841
66/563 841
66/681 1784
66/682 1784
66/683 1784
66/691 1890
66/692 1890
66/693 1890
66/694 1890
66/695 1890
66/70
1923
66/702 1923
66/703 1923
66/704 1923
66/711 1891
66/712 1891
66/713 1891
66/714 1891
66/715 1891
66/716 1891
66/717 1891
66/721 1915
66/722 1915
66/723 1915
66/724 1915
66/725 1915
66/731 1915
66/732 1915
66/733 1915
66/733 1915
66/734 1915
66/741 1900
66/742 1900
66/743 1900
66/744 1900
66/751 1891
66/752 1891
66/753 1891
66/754 1891
66/755 1891
66/756 1891
66/757 1891
66/758 1891
66/759 1891
66/7510 1891
66/761 1897
66/762 1897
66/763 1897
66/764 1897
66/771 1883
66/772 1883
66/773 1883
66/774 1883
66/781 1915
66/782 1915
66/784 1915
66/791 1902
66/792 1902
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6603
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6604
6604
6604
6603
6603
6603
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
NIS?
NIS?
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
NIS
NIS
ND
ND
ND
NIS?
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
ND
ND
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS?
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS?
NIS?
NIS?
NIS?
ND
ND
ND
NIS
NIS
68
U
4060
M
23 mths
U
68 mths
U
67
U
46 weeks U
Adult
U
Young child U
ND
ND
Y? adult
F?
Adult
M
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
Adult
U
Adult
M
Adult
U
34
U
1819
F?
Infant
U
Adult
M?
Adult
M
Adult
F
Adult
F
c6
U
36 mths
U
Adult
M
Adult
U
c 12
U
c 18 mths U
Adult
M
Adult
M
Adult
F
Adult
F?
89
U
56
U
Newborn
U
Adult
M
Adult
M
Adult
M
c8
U
34
U
Adult
M
Adult
M
c5
U
812 weeks U
23
U
4560
M
Adult
F
23
U
c 3 mths
U
Adult
M
Adult
M
Adult
M
Adult
M
Adult
F
Adult
F
Adult
F
c 18 months U
45 months U
46 weeks U
Adult
M
Adult
F
Adult
U
Newborn
U
Adult
F
Adult
M
68 weeks U
Newborn
U
3050
M
1922
F?
Newborn
U
2535?
F
Adult
M
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
ND
CW
CW
ND
ND
ND
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
605
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Med
Med
Coffin
Coffin
Coffin
Coffin
Coffin
Coffin
Coffin
nails
nails
nails
nails
nails
nails
nails
Disturbed Saxon cemetery
Coffin
Coffin
Coffin
Coffin
nails
nails
nails
nails
Coffin plate
Coffin plate
606
Burial
no.
context trench
status
age
66/793
66/794
66/80
66/802
66/803
66/811
66/812
66/813
66/814
66/821
66/822
66/831
66/832
66/833
66/841
66/842
66/843
66/844
67/052
67/102
67/11
67/122
67/123
67/13
67/152
67/17
67/18
67/192
67/193
67/21
69/04
69/202
70/03
71/03
71/05
71/07
71/10
71/14
71/151
71/152
71/17
71/202
71/23
74/052
86/02
86/022
86/023
86/032
86/04
86/05
1902
1902
1738
1738
1738
852
852
852
852
71
71
852
852
852
1922
1922
1922
1922
2079
2094
2090
2107
2107
2108
2096
2153
2099
2098
2098
2164
1041
1060
524
791
793
713
642
646
433
433
649
662
666
189
3104
3104
3104
3007
3409
3608
NIS
NIS
ND
ND
ND
NIS?
NIS?
NIS?
NIS?
NIS
NIS
NIS?
NIS?
NIS?
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
NIS?
NIS?
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
NIS
NIS
ND
ND
ND
NIS?
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
ND
ND
c 34
U
48 weeks U
Adult
F?
c 18 mths U
612 weeks U
Adult
M?
Adult
M?
Adult
F?
Newborn? U
4060
F
c 1112
U
3555
F
Adult
M?
68
U
Adult
M?
1924
F?
c 810
U
26 weeks U
Baby
U
c7
U
3545
M?
Adult
U
Adult
U
ND
ND
45 mths
U
YoungMA M
YoungMA M
Child
U
Baby
U
c 78
U
89
U
Adult
F?
ND
ND
Infant
U
Infant
U
Infant
U
Child
U
2535
U
c2
U
c 6m
U
c 6 mths
U
46mths
U
Adult
M
Adult
U
Middle aged M
c8
U
c2
U
Newborn
U
ND
ND
Infant
U
6602
6602
6603
6603
6603
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6602
6600
6600
6600
6600
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
6702
6701
6701
6701
6702
6901
6901
7001
7105
7105
7105
7101
7101
7104
7104
7101
7101
7101
7402
8602
8602
8602
8601
8605
8607
sex
path
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
id
prob burial context

date
date
comments
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
ND
CW
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
CW
ND
ND
ND
ND
CW
SA
CW
CW
SA
CW
CW
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
ND
ND
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
ND
ND
ND
ND
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Med?
P Med
P Med
P Med
Saxon?
Saxon?
Saxon?
Saxon?
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
P Med
P Med
P Med
Med?
Med?
Med?
Coffin plate
Coffin plate
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Modern
Modern
Med
Med
Med
ND
ND
ND
ND
P Med?
Saxon
P Med
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Med?
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon
Med?
P Med
P Med
P Med
P Med
Saxon?
Med
Med
Saxon
Saxon
Saxon?
Saxon
P Med?
P Med
P Med
Med?
Med?
Med?
Coffin
Coffin
Coffin
Coffin
plate
plate
plate
plate
Excav with 76/5
In chancel
E of church
E of church
E of church
see 71/18 & 20
In
In
In
In
In
In
church
church
church
church
church
church
5439
5609
5440
5637
5638
5639
299
5614
5640
5641
5642
5924
5925 6601 Supine
5926 6601 Supine
65/32
65/33
65/34
65/36
66/02
66/03
66/04
6506
6502
6502
6502
6601
6501
6506
6501
6502
6502
6502
6507
ND
ND
Supine
ND
Supine?
Supine
RS
Supine
Supine
Supine
ND
ND
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine
ND
ND
ND
Supine
Supine
ND
Supine
Supine
65/23
65/24
65/25
65/26
65/27
65/30
65/31
6501
6501
6501
6501
6505
6508
6501
6501
6501
6501
6511
6511
5428
5429
5430
5431
5505
5466
5433
5434
5437
5438
5345
5344
grave features
possible footstone?
possible footstone?
Poss stones near head?
Supine
Uncertain poss RS?
Uncertain poss RS?
Supine
ND
ND
ND
RS
ND
ND
Uncertain poss RS?
ND
RS?
ND
Supine
65/08
65/09
65/10
65/11
65/12
65/14
65/15
65/16
65/19
65/20
65/21
65/22
6301
6301
6301
6301
6301
6302
6301
6301
6301
6301
6301
6301
6301
6505
6501
4831
4832
4836
4834
4835
116
4838
4846
4840
4841
4842
4843
4844
5500
5425
63/01
63/02
63/03
63/05
63/06
63/07
63/08
63/09
63/10
63/12
63/13
63/14
63/15
65/01
65/05
Burial context trench position

no.
WE
265
270
WE?
270
270
WE
270
270
WE?
WE?
ND
13
Adult
Adult
Adult
c6
2530
ND
Child
4050
1920
34
3545
2535
2535
4050
4050
Child
Child
3545
Child
Child
5060
Adult
2550% Adult
75100% Adult
025%
ND
75100%
ND
ND
75100%
5075%
ND
75100%
75100%
75100%
ND
75100%
75100%
ND
ND
ND
75100%
ND
270
75100%
WE
75100%
WE
ND
255
75100%
WSW ND
270
275
WE?
270
WE
WE
Adult?
Adult?
Adult?
ND
ND
Adult?
Adult?
ND
Adult?
ND
Adult?
Adult?
Adult?
3550
c 910
complete- age
ness
2550%
025%
025%
WE? ND
WE? ND
WSW ND
WE
ND
265
2550%
WE? 2550%
WE? ND
WE? ND
WE
2550%
WE
5075%
WE? 025%
275
75100%
WE?
align
Jarrow: catalogue of In Situ burials
ND
ND
ND
M?
F
U/A
ND
U/SA
M
ND
U/SA
M
M
U/SA
M
F
F
M
M
U/SA
U/SA
M
U/SA
U/SA
F
M?
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
M
U/SA
sex
CW
SA
id
1,6,7,8
1,2,5,6,7
1,2,6,7,11,12
CW
CW
SA
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
1,2,4,5,6,7,12 CW
12
CW
CW
1,2,6
CW
1,2?,6,7
CW
7,12
path
B3
B3
B3
D
A3
A1
D
B4
D
D
B3
B3
A1
A1
A1
A3
A3
B3
A3
A1
A1
A3
A3
A1
A1
A3
B3
WS
B1
A1
OS
B1
Mo,Fe,AB,GS,Ch,CT,Pot B3
OS Pl C Sh AB Pot
B3
B3
cuts Med 1 pit 53 and

hearth area
below 65/5
cuts 65/10
cut by buttress 11
cut by 65/8
cut by buttress 11
unc 76/2
below tumble
below 65/4 (NIS)
below layer 8
below layer 8
below layer 8
*intrusive from sewer trench?

above 65/23
cuts hearth area
?cuts 63/3, above 63/15

?cut by 63/2
Comment
SaxMed
Sax?
SaxMed
cut by buttress 11
LS/EMMed on opus floor
LS/EMMed on opus floor
Med
cuts opus floor
Sax
presumed in situ, but poss a
reburial
Sax
LS/EMMed cuts opus
Med
[= 66/89] cuts opus
Med
[= 66/79] cuts opus
Med
presum IS, skull only, above
66/42, unc 66/75
SaxMed
cuts clay bank, ?cut by 66/53
& 66/42
LS/EMMed in drain area, cuts wall
debris, above 66/67?
Med
Med
Med
SaxMed
Sax?
Sax
SaxMed
LMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
Med
Med
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax?
Sax?
Med
Sax?
Sax
Sax
Sax?
Sax?
Sax
Sax
Sax?
Med
code preferred
burial date
D
A3
D
B1
B1
AB,OS,Sh,Pl,Bk,Pot,HB B3
A2
HB
Mo,Sh,Pb,FeN
OS
FeN,Sh,Bk,Pot,HB
GlW,Pb,FeN,T,OS
GlW
[DP*]
Sh,Pb,FeN,GlW,W,
CT,Pot
OS,Sh,FeN,T,Pot,HB
Pot
Pot GlW HB
Sh
Mo,Pl,T,Pb,Sh
Pl,Sh
OS
FeN,OS
finds
APPENDIX D
607
5947 6601 Supine

5899 6601 Supine
5901 6601 Supine
66/44
66/45
66/47
270
275
Supine
Supine
270
270
270
270
270
265
Supine
5943 6601 Supine

5945 6601 Supine
5970 6601 ND
275
Supine
Supine
66/39
66/42
66/43
275
Supine
body slightly bent at hip
270
260
Supine
Supine
265
270
270
260
270
Supine
Supine
poss stones round head?
285
561
6601 Supine
5930 6601 Supine
5941 6601 Supine
66/31 5963 6601

bank, above 66/74
66/32 5969 6601
66/33 5964 6601
31
66/34 5951 6601
above N wall of A
66/35 5942 6601
66/36 562
6601
66/28
66/29
66/30
Child
Adult
Adult
Child
Adult
Child
Adolescent
Child
Child
Adult
75100% Adult
75100%
75100%
2550%
5075%
5075%
75100%
75100%
2550%
5075%
025%
75100% Adult
complete- age
ness
Adult
Child
ND
ND
ND
U/SA
ND
U/SA
U/SA
ND
U/SA
ND
ND
U/SA
ND
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
ND
ND
sex
ND
Adult
U/SA
ND
ND
ND
75100% Adult
75100% Adult
75100% Adult
ND
ND
ND
75100% Adolescent ND
75100% Child
U/SA
2550% Adult
ND
5075% Adult
ND
75100% Adolescent ND
75100% Child
025%
025%
5075% Adult
75100% Adult
ND
2550% Young adult? ND
5075% Adult
ND
75100% Adult
75100% Adult
ND
025%
75100% Adult
poss double burial with 66/16 270

75100% Child
WSW 75100% Child
Supine
Supine
Supine
270
Supine
270
align
270
270
270
270
260
270
poss double burial with 66/20 265
270
bone movement
270
grave features
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine
5928 6601 ND
66/06
66/07 5929 6601

66/08 5887 6601
66/09 5888 6601
66/13 5892 6601
66/14 5962 6601
66/15 5822 6601
66/16 5823 6601
66/17 5893 6601
66/18 5894 6601
bank? above 66/55
66/19 5935 6601
jn of drains
66/20 5824 6601
66/21 5895 6601
5921
66/23 5936 6601
A
66/24 5937 6601
66/25 5825 6601
A
66/26 5896 6601
66/27 5826 6601
5927 6601 Supine
66/05

no.
path
id
B3
B4
B3
B4
B1
B3
B4
B1
B1
B3
B3
B3
B1
B3
B3
B1
B3
B1
B1
B1
B3
B1
B3
ST Sh Pl Pot
GS,Pl,ST,C,Sh,Pot,
Ch,Bk,WS,HB
AB Pot
B4
B3
B2
D
AB (jaw),Sh,ST,
B3
[CP*,GlW*],Pot
Bk,Pot,FeN,OS,Pl,Sh,HB B3
ST OS Pot
B3
D
HB
Pl,OS,Sh,Pot
AB (jaw)
AB,ST,CT,OS,Pl,Pot
Comment
cuts opus floor

cuts opus floor, above xwall
cuts clay bank

cut by 66/27, cuts S wall of
below 66/30
*intrusive PM glass and CP
from pit 37?; above S wall of A
Med
cuts opus floor
Med
below 66/2, above 66/44
SaxMed
legs only, cut by pipe trench
508, above 66/85?
Med
above N drain, below 66/42
LS/EMMed cuts opus floor, same V as
66/97
LMed
cuts clay bank, above 66/60
SaxMed
Med
LS/EMMed in clay bank, above 66/5,
Med
in clay bank, lower legs only
LS/EMMed above opus floor, cut by pit
cuts clay bank, above 66/60

above 66/25, cuts S wall of A
& opus floor
LMed
cuts opus floor
LS/EMMed above opus floor, unc 66/73
Med
below 66/71, above 66/35,
poss above 66/56
Med
on line of N drain, ?cuts clay
Med
LMed
Med
LMed
LS/EMMed below 66/19, above N wall of
Med
LMed
LS/EMMed above 66/23, unc 66/6, above
LS/EMMed [=66/50] above N wall of A,

below 66/34, unc 66/6
LS/EMMed above N wall of A, unc 66/5
66/19 66/23
LS/EMMed above N wall of A
Med
cuts opus floor
Med
cuts opus floor, cut by 66/13
Med
cuts opus floor, cuts 66/9
LS/EMMed cuts opus floor, ?cut by pit 31
Med
above S wall of A
Med
cuts opus floor
LS/EMMed cuts opus floor
Med
above N wall of A, cuts clay
code preferred
burial date
B4
B1
Pl,Pot,CT,AB,Sh,Shale? B3
GlW,AB,Pot,HB
AB,Sh,Pl,Fe,ST,Pot
HB
Pot,AB
OS,AB,Sh,Pot
Pot,Fe,OS,C,Ch
Pot,T,C
Pl,CT,Po,AB
Pb,ST,Pot,AB,Sh
OS,Pl,Q,Pb,Pot
HB
Pl,GlW,Sh,Pot,Fe,HB
OS,Pl,ST,AB,Pot
ST,Pl,CT,WS?,AB,C,Pot
Fe
finds
608
5971 6601 Supine

5853 6601 Supine
5948 6601 Supine

5904 6601 Supine
5955 6601 Supine
5956 6601 Supine
5972 6601 Supine
5966 6601 Supine

5905 6601 Supine
5973 6601 Supine
5974 6601 Supine
6219 6601 Supine

5908 6601 Supine
5906 6601 Supine

5909 6601 Supine
5967
5967
5976
5944
5932
316
5968
5996 6601 ND
5977 6601 ND
5931 6601 Supine

5978 6601 Supine
5979 6601 Supine
5946 6601 Supine
5946 6601 Supine
5907 6601 ND
5839 6601 Supine?
66/51
66/52
66/53
66/55
66/56
66/57
66/58
66/59
66/60
66/62
66/63
66/64
66/65
66/66
66/67
66/68
66/69
66/70
66/71
66/72
66/73
66/74
66/75
66/76
66/77
66/78
66/80
66/81
66/82
66/83
66/84
Supine
ND
ND
Supine
Supine
Supine
RS
5995 6601 Supine
66/49
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6901 6601 Supine
66/48
in same grave as 66/81?
in same grave as 66/82?
legs face down wrong

way round
stones from drain? head

squashed in grave
stone? (or part of drain?)

1 stone by head?
stones by head
bone movement
WE?
275
270
265
270
WE
270
270
WE
265
270
WE
255
270
WE
270
270
ND
ND
ND
ND
U/SA
ND
ND
ND
ND
U/SA
ND
ND
ND
ND
U/SA
Child
ND
Adult
Adult
Adult
Child
Adult
Adult
Adult
ND
ND
Adult
Child
75100% Child
75100% Child
75100% Infant
75100% Adult
75100% Child
ND
ND
75100%
ND
ND
75100%
75100%
75100%
75100%
75100% Adult
75100% Child
ND
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
ND
U/SA
U/SA
ND
ND
ND
ND
U/SA
ND
ND
M
ND
U/SA
75100% Young adult ND

ND
Adult
ND
ND
ND
75100% Child
75100% Adult
Adult
75100% Adult
2550% Adult
5075% Child
75100% Adult
ND
Adult
75100% Adult
75100% ND
75100% Child
WSW ND
may be in same grave as 66/109280
270
270
270
275
270
260
270
D
B3
B1
B3
D1a
D1a
B3
B3
D1a
B1
D1a
B3
B3
B3
D1a
D
D
D
B3
B3
B3
D1a
FeN,Pb,Pot
B2
OS,Pl,Mo,Pot,AB,Sh, B3
WS?,ST
OS,Pl,Mo,Pot,AB,Sh, B3
WS?,ST
T,Mo,Pot,Sh,OS,Pl,AB B3
(see 66/78)
Pot
OS,Pl,T,Pot,C,WS?
HB
ST Sh
FeN,OS
FeN,Fe,Pl,OS,Sh
OS,Pl,T,FeN
HB
Pot,OS,Pl,Sh,ST,T
OS,ST,Pot,AB,Sh,Pl
ST,OS,Sh,Pl,FeN,AB
WS?,Pl,FeN,AB(jaw),Sh D
D
GlW,OS,Sh
HB
Pl,Pot
Sl,Pot,Sh,CT
ST
OS,Sh
D
T,Pot,AB,Sh,Pl,Pb,Fe,HB B3
OS
D
Pl,Pot,Pb,Fe,AB,Sh,ST,T B3
OS,Pl,Pot
above N drain, cuts clay &

tumble, above 66/74
above 66/56?, in clay bank
Not on plan
Not on plan, above internal
wall & drain
LS/EMMed S of building A
Med
Med
in clay bank?
in clay bank, above N wall of
A, cuts 66/103
SaxMed
in clay bank; ?cuts 66/3
Med
above N drain, below 66/18,
in clay bank
SaxMed
in clay bank, poss below
66/30, below 66/49?
LS/EMMed above opus floor; prob in
same grave as 66/109
LS/EMMed cut by pipe tr 508, above
66/95, above NS drain
Med
cuts tumble, above NS drain
Med
below 66/47 & 66/26, cut by
pit 371, above 66/66
LS/EMMed above NS drain, unc 66/63,
above 66/106?
LS/EMMed above NS drain, unc 66/62,
above 66/106?
LS/EMMed cuts opus floor
Med
unc 66/2, above 66/75, in
clay bank
SaxMed
below 66/60 & 66/47
SaxMed
between drain & wall; skull
only on plan; below 66/4?
SaxMed
N of drain
SaxMed
SaxMed
Med
cuts 66/30
Med
Not on plan
Med
cuts opus floor, unc 66/29
SaxMed
below 66/31 & 66/48, ?cuts
N and NS drains
Med
unc 66/2, below 66/65
LS/EMMed disturbed/reburied? not on
plan, cuts NS drain
Med
above N drain
Med
Finds from 66/78 & 66/80
together, cuts NS drain, cuts
66/80
LS/EMMed Finds as above, cuts NS
drain, cut by 66/78
Med
cuts opus floor
SaxMed
Med
SaxMed
Med
APPENDIX D
609
WNW? 75100% Adult
stone packed?
legs veer to N
66/106 5981 6601 RS
66/107 5870 6601 Supine

66/108 5871 6601 Supine
715
714
716
717
718
235
67/05
67/06
67/07
67/08
67/09
67/10
6701 Supine
6701 Supine
6701 Supine
6701 Supine
6701 Supine
6701 Supine
6701 Supine
6701 Supine
275
285
280
270
270
270
275
275
713
712
75100% ND
75100% 3944
75100% Adult
2550% 2428
75100% Adult
75100% 2527
75100% 4555
75100% 19
1314
67/03
67/04
6701 Supine
025%
711
67/02
275
75100% 4555
6701 Supine
710
67/01
Infant
ND
75100% ND
75100% ND
75100% Adult
66/109 5956 6601 ND
270
270
270
66/105 5869 6601 Supine
75100% ND
Adult
Adult
270
2550
75100
75100% Adult
66/104 5868 6601 Supine
flat slab over skull? or fortuitous? 260
75100% Adult
75100% Adult
WE
5865 6601 Supine
66/99
270
270
Adult
Infant
Adult
ND
Infant
75100% Infant
75100% Adult
025%
ND
75100%
2550%
75100%
complete- age
ness
66/103 5874 6601 Supine
5902 6601 RS
5863 6601 Supine
66/95
66/97
245
270
270
270
WSW
WE?
270
align
270
5859 6601 Supine

5860 6601 Supine
66/92
66/93
grave features
66/100 5994 6601 Uncertain poss RS?
5858 6601 Supine
Supine
Supine
ND
Supine
66/91
6601
6601
6601
6601
5980
5827
5957
5857
66/85
66/86
66/88
66/90

no.
ND
F
M
F
M
U/SA
U/SA
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
U/SA
ND
ND
U/SA
ND
ND
U/SA
sex
2,11
1,12
1,7
1,6,12
2,6
path
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
id
Comment
B3
SaxMed
Med
SaxMed
in clay bank, below 66/52, cut

by 67/4
cuts opus floor
SaxMed
below 66/43?
Med
[=67/54]
LS/EMMed above opus floor
LS/EMMed above N wall of A, cuts
66/91, above 66/97
B1 Med
above N wall of A, cut by
66/90 & 66/97
B1 LS/EMMed above N wall of A, unc 6/99
D
SaxMed
in clay bank, directly above
66/105, below 66/101 (NIS)
D1a LS/EMMed ?cuts NS drain, below 66/58
B2 LS/EMMed ?cuts 66/91, below 66/90,
above N wall of A, in clay
bank, same V as 66/45
B1 LS/EMMed above N wall of A, unc 66/92,
in clay bank
D1a LS/EMMed ?cuts N drain
D
B3
B1
B2
code preferred
burial date
in clay bank, unc drain,

directly below 66/93
OS Pl AB Q
D1a LS/EMMed cuts NS drain, below 66/43
66/62 66/63, not on plan
OS,Pot
B3 Med
cuts opus floor
WS,Pl,OS,Pot,ST,AB, B4 LMed
cuts opus floor
Sh,T
B1 LS/EMMed prob in same grave as 66/57,
above opus, not on plan
Sh,Pot,AB,FeN,Pb,HB B3 Med
[= tr 6601 cxt 5841] cuts
flags 766
D
SaxMed
cuts clay bank, cut by 67/8,
67/5
AB,Sh,OS,Pb,Pl,GlW D
SaxMed
cuts m-f clay
AB,ST,Sh,Pot,Bk,Fe, B3 Med
[=66/102] *intrusive? cuts
Pl,[CP*],HB
66/103 & clay bank, on line
of N drain, below wall 254
Pl,ST,AB,Sh,Ch,Pot,HB B3 Med
cuts clay bank, cuts 67/2
67/7, unc 67/28
Pot,Pl,T,AB,ST,GS,Ch, B4 LMed
[=66/87]. cuts opus floor
Fe,Sh
AB,Sh,Pot
B3 Med
cuts clay bank, cut by 67/5,
unc 67/28 & 67/19
AB(jaw),ST,OS,Pot
B3 Med
cuts 67/2? cuts clay bank
OS,Pl,AB,Sh,Fe,Po,HB B3 Med
cuts opus
Sh,AB,FeN,Pot,C,Pl,T B4 LMed
above 67/27?, cuts opus,
below wall 254
OS,Pl,Pot,AB,Sh,ST,
Bk,GlW
Pl,Sh,S
OS,Pl,Pb,Sh,AB,Bk
(some from drain?)
see above
OS,Pl,WS?,Fe
Pl,OS,Pb,Pot,ST.Sh
med finds 5872 = sk

90-91-92-98-99 area
FeN,Pot,AB
finds
610
6701 Supine
6701 RS
6791 Supine
720
722
721
732
723
729
728
727
726
730
735
731
734
733
736
737
739
738
742
741
740
745
747
744
743
745
752
67/13
67/14
67/16
67/17
67/18
67/19
67/20
67/21
67/22
67/23
67/24
67/25
67/26
67/27
67/28
bank
67/29
67/30
67/31
67/32
67/33
67/34
67/35
67/36
67/37
67/38
67/39
67/40
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine
6701 ND
6701 Supine
6701 Supine
6701 Supine
6701 Supine
6701 Supine
6701 Supine
6701 Supine
6701 Supine
6701 Supine
6701 Supine
6701 Supine
6701 ND
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701 Supine
6701 ND
6701 ND
6701 Supine
6701 Supine
6701 ND
6701 Supine
719
67/12
6701 Supine
725
67/11
buried above 67/35?
67/39 buried above?
possible footstone?
bone movt
bone movement
2 skulls beside lower L leg
ND
c 12
75100%
75100%
7510%
75100%
75100%
75100% 3045
75100% 4855
2550% 2527?
75100% 612m
75100% 5060
75100% 2427
75100% 3050
75100% 2.53
75100% c 12
75100% Adult
ND
4550
89
810
79
5570
75100% 5060
025%
025%
WE?
275
280
280
ND
Adult
75100% 56m
75100% 1617
75100% 16
WNW 75100% 1617
280
270
280
295
270
285
280
290
280
Adult
75100% c 7
75100% 911
025%
75100% 3545
75100% 5060
WNW 025%
280
280
270
270
285
275
275
270
275
?flags above foot end of grave 285
M?
U/SA
M
F?
M
F
U/SA
M
F
F?
U/SA
U/SA
F?
ND
F
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
M
ND
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
F?
1,11
1,2,6,7
1,4,5,9,12
1,6?,7,9, 2, 3
1, 9
14?
12
6,8,12
6,10,11
1,10
11
2,6,7
10
10
1,9?,12
11
11
2,6
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
SA
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
B1
B3
AB,Sh,Pl,Pot,FeN
B1
B1
B2
B1
B1
B4
D
B3
B3
AB,T,Pot
B3
HB
B4
OS,ST,Pl,T,AB,Sh, Pot B1
Pl,Sh,Pot
OS,Pl,Sh,AB,FeN,Pot, B4
Bk/T
B1
Pot,CT
Sh,OS
Pl,T,Pot,AB,Sh,HB
AB,Sh,GlW,Pot
Sh,Pl
OS,WS,Pl,AB,Sh,Pot,Pb B4
AB,Sh
Sh,AB
B3
B3
B3
B1
B4
OS,Mo,CT,Ch,Sh,AB B1
Sh,AB,Pot
D
AB,Sh,Q,Bk,Pl,Pot,Fe B3
OS
AB,Sh,Pl,Pot[*],FeN,HB B4
WS?,OS,AB,Sh,Pl,Pot B3
CW
Sh,Pot,HB
CW
HB
CW
AB,Sh
CW, SA
CW
OS,Sh,AB,Pot
CW
CW
CW
CW
SA
CW
CW
S of building A
cuts N wall of A, cuts 67/34,
below 67/19
LS/EMMed cuts opus, unc 67/27
LMed
below wall 755, unc 67/13,
cuts W wall of A r/t
Med
?cut by 67/47 & 67/51
LS/EMMed cut by 67/30, above N wall
of A, below 67/19, unc 67/50
LMed
cuts opus, cut by 67/39,
below wall 254
LS/EMMed above N wall of A, above
67/42?, below wall 755, top
half not drawn
Med
cuts W wall of A r/t, below
67/24
Med
LMed
cuts 67/35
LS/EMMed below 67/24, cuts opus floor
SaxMed
Med
cuts opus & W wall of A,

?cuts 67/25
LMed
* inc intrusive; below wall
254, cuts clay bank, above
67/50
LS/EMMed cuts opus & W wall of A, unc
67/32
SaxMed
cuts clay bank
Med
cuts clay bank, below wall
254, above N wall of A
Med
lower legs in situ only dist
skull on plan, ?cut by 67/20
& 21, over 67/26
LS/EMMed cuts W drain, above W wall
of A
LMed
below wall 755, over N wall
of A & 67/30, cuts 67/34,
unc 67/7
Med
?cuts 67/17, below wall 755
Med
?cuts 67/17
LS/EMMed above S wall of A
D
SaxMed cut by ?
Med
cuts opus floor, above 67/37,
67/40 & 67/41
LS/EMMed ?cuts W wall of A & W
drain, ?cut by 67/11, unc
67/44
LS/EMMed below 67/21 & 67/17, cuts
W wall of A r/t
LMed
?below 67/10, cuts opus, unc
67/31
SaxMed
unc 67/5 & 67/7, cuts clay
Med
APPENDIX D
611
3337 6905 RS
3001 6901 collapsed
RS
3387 6904 ND
3035 6901 ND
3052 6901 ND
3384 6904 RS
3146 6901 collapsed
3147 6901 ND
4228 7005 collapsed
4883 7001 ND
4887
4889
4233
4234
4235
4239
4240
3852
3857
4245
69/15
69/16
70/06
70/07
70/08
70/09
70/10
70/11
70/12
70/14
70/15
70/16
69/17
69/18
69/19
69/20
69/21
69/23
70/03
70/04
751
4656
3195
3247
3235
3236
3246
3250
3245
3249
3273
3251
3377
3303
3037
7001
7001
7005
7005
7005
7005
7005
7003
7003
7005
6701
6801
6903
6903
6905
6903
6903
6903
6903
6903
6903
6903
6905
6905
6901
coffin; flag by shoulder
coffin (wood smear);

stone at head end?
poss RS?
shroud pin?
poss flag above head
grave features
Supine
coffin?
ND
Uncertain poss RS?
Supine
ND
ND
Uncertain
Supine
Uncertain poss RS?
ND
RS
bone movt?
RS
Supine
Supine
Uncertain
ND
ND
ND
ND
RS?
Uncertain
ND
ND
RS
RS
Supine?
RS
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine?
ND
Supine
Supine
67/51
68/01
69/01
69/02
69/03
69/04
69/05
69/06
69/07
69/08
69/09
69/10
69/11
69/12
69/14
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
750
749
707
706
753
709
708
67/43
67/44
67/45
67/47
67/48
67/49
67/50
6701 Supine
6701 Supine
746
748
67/41
67/42

no.
270
WE
260
280
WE
Adult
ND
Child?
Adult
34
ND
ND
Adult
Adult
c 9mths
c 46mths
Adult
Adult
79
4550
Adult
2628
2022
ND
Adult
Adult
4247
ND
ND
5075%
75100%
5075%
75100%
75100%
75100%
2550%
ND
F?
U/SA
U/SA
M
Adult
U/SA
U/SA
M
F
F
ND
U/SA
U/A
U/SA
ND
ND
M
U/A
U/SA
U/SA
M?
M
U/SA
M
M
F
F
ND
F?
M
F
U/SA
U/SA
sex
Middle aged F
ND
ND
1112
U/SA
Adult
M
4m
U/SA
5+
U/SA
4
U/SA
4050
M
Adult
M?
Newborn
U/SA
2535
Newborn
Child
4055
2550%
1011
810
ND
75100% 5575
75100% 3545
ND
75100%
025%
025%
025%
025%
ND
5075%
025%
025%
025%
75100%
2550%
75100%
75100%
75100%
75100%
5075%
ND
ND
75100%
75100%
75100% 22.5
75100% 34
complete- age
ness
025%
WSW ND
WE
ND
265
75100%
WNW
WSW ND
285
75100%
ND
ND
270
270
260
WE
WE?
265
WE
WE?
WNW
WE
WNW
WSW
300
280
315
WNW
WE
260
275
285
285
align
2,6,7,11
6
11
6,7
1,6
ND
1,2,12,13
6, 7
1,2?,6,9
1,7
11
6,9,11,12,13
1
1,6,9,11
1
1
path
finds
B1
D
code preferred
burial date
Comment
LS/EMMed below 67/24, cuts opus

SaxMed
below 67/36?, unc F253?,
alignt suggests Med
CW
CT,Ch,Sh,[Pot*],HB B3 Med
*intrusive; cuts 67/46
CW
AB,Fe,Pl Pot
B3 Med
unc 67/25, below wall 755
CW
ST,Sh
D
SaxMed
below 755; alignt suggests Med
Pl
D
SaxMed
unc 67/51, ?cuts 67/33
SA
Pot
B3 Med
CW
T,AB,Sh
B1 LS/EMMed above SW corner of A
AB,OS,Pl,Bk,Sh,HB
B1 LS/EMMed above N wall of A, below
67/12 & 67/28, unc 67/34
CW
CA pin
B2 Med
unc 67/47, cuts 67/33?
C3 PMLPM?
W
A3 Sax?
SA
A3 Sax?
CW
Fl,S
A4 Sax?
W?
A1 Sax
cut by 4463 (column setting)
A3 Sax?
CW
A3 Sax?
CW
A1 Sax
cut by ER W wall
CW
Mo,Bk,Pl
A3 Sax?
CW
Sh,Mo,Fe,W?
A3 Sax?
above 69/10
CW
C,Mo,W,HB
A3 Sax?
below 69/9
CW
A1 Sax
cut by ER wall
CW
A1 Sax
cut by ER wall
CW
Pot,GlO,Sl,W,Mo,HB A1 Sax
C67 Bead; C89 crucible;
below tumble
CW
Ch,Sh
A1 Sax
cut by ER wall
CW
HB
A1 Sax
below tumble; squeezed
between wall & drain?
SA
HB
A1 Sax
CW
Mo
A1 Sax
below tumble
SA
Pb
A1 Sax
below tumble
CW
A1 Sax
below Med 1 oven
SA
Pl HB
A1 Sax
cut by cloister wall; not on plan
CW,SA HB
A1 Sax
[= 69/13] below tumble
CW
Pl
A3 Sax?
above 70/10 & 70/9
Pl
B4
LMed
cuts 70/53, unc 70/187, above
70/54 70/34 70/176
SA
ST,{FeN},Pot
C1 PMed
above 70/63 70/55 70/20
C1 PMed
CW
Pb,FeN
A2 Sax
cut by med 2 cloister wall
CW
W,GlW
A3 Sax?
below 70/3, 70/10
CW
Mo
A3 Sax?
SA
CT,Mo
A3 Sax?
?above 70/59
CW
A2 Sax
cut by Med 2 cloister wall
CW,SA
A3 Sax?
CW
Pl
A3 Sax?
head to R
SA
A3 Sax?
CW
CW
id
612
3876
3877
4918
3617
3618
4248
4920
3888
3890
4249
4250
4263
4921
4922
4923 7001 Supine
4924 7001 Supine
4925 7001 Supine

4926 7001 Supine
3889 7003 Supine
4253 7005 Uncertain coffin. Possible stone

at head end?
4927 7001 Supine
4928 7001 ND
4252 7005 ND
4929 7001 ND
70/38
70/39
70/40
70/43
70/44
70/45
70/46
70/47
70/48
70/49
70/50
70/51
70/52
70/53
70/54
70/55
70/56
70/57
70/58
70/59
70/60
70/61
70/62
70/63
4916 7001 Supine?

4917 7001 Supine
4247 7005 ND
70/35
70/36
70/37
7003
7005
7005
7005
7001
7001
7003
7003
7001
7004
7004
7005
7001
7003
RS
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine
collapsed
RS
RS
ND
Supine
ND
upper fill 4262
Supine
Supine
poss twin with 70/31?
poss twin to 70/35?
4907
4909
4912
4913
4914
4915
70/26
70/28
70/31
70/32
70/33
70/34
Supine
Supine
Supine?
Supine?
Supine
ND
3874 7003 ND
3873 7003 Uncertain poss RS?
4246 7005 RS?
poss collapsed RS
70/23
70/24
70/25
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
3612 7004 Supine

3858 7003 ND
4901 7001 Supine
70/18
70/19
70/20
Stones 3619 may be related
4902 7001 Supine
70/17
5065
4555
4060
c2
78
c3
22.5
ND
45+
Adult
78
67
Adult
5060
Adult
Adult
Adult
1314
34
1012
75100% 100
75100% Child
75100%
025%
2550%
ND
75100%
75100%
2550%
025%
ND
ND
2550%
025%
75100%
75100%
2550% 4060
75100% c 6
2550% Adult
2550%
5075%
2550%
2550%
025%
025%
2550% 46
75100% 4350
5075% ND
75100% Child
025%
Baby
75100% Child
75100% 1012
WE?
255
270
75100%
025%
ND
ND
67
5070
2226
ND
75100% 3545
260
5075% 1214
WSW? 025%
Adult
025%
Adult
265
255
WE
WNW
270
WE?
250
245
WE
270
WSW
WE
WNW
265
260
270
280
255
270
270
280
WSW
WE
WNW
WE
WE
WE
250
WE
250
U/SA
M
F
ND
M?
M?
F?
F
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
ND
F
F?
U/SA
U/SA
U/A
M
F?
F?
F
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
F
U/SA
M?
F
M?
F
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
M?
ND
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
ST,Sh,Pb?,Pot,HB
Mo,Pot,HB
Mo
Pot
Pot,OS
FeN,Sh,Pot,HB
HB
Pb,HB
Mo
Mo
Mo,Sh,Pb,Pot,Pl
1
12
9
SA
CW
CW
HB
Mo,OS,HB
ST,Pl
ST,Bk,Mo,Sh,Pot
CW
Mo,OS,HB
CW
Mo,Pot
CW,SA Mo,AB,Sh,Pb,FeN,
GlW,T,P
SA
W
Pot,HB
ST,Mo,AB,CT
Mo,OS,Pot,FeN,HB
SA
CW
CW
CW
CW
Mo,P
CW
CW
FeN,ST,P,HB
SA
SA,CW FeN,OS
CW
SA
CW
Mo,GlW,Pot
CW
CW
6,13
B3
B3
D
B3
B3
B3
A3
A3
A2
A3
A3
D
B3
B3
D
A2
B3
A3
B3
B3
A3
B3
B3
A3
A2
A1
A3
B3
B3
A3
A3
B3
A3
A3
A3
B3
A3
CW
{Pot},CA buckle,OS,HBB3
CW,SA
B3
SA
W
A2
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
10,12
10,12
6,7,12
9,13
6,9,12
9,12
1,6,7,8,12
Med
SaxMed
Sax
Med
Sax?
Med
Med
Sax?
Med
Med
Sax?
Sax
Sax
Sax?
Med
Med
Sax?
Sax?
Med
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Med
Sax?
Med
Med
Sax
Med
Med
SaxMed
Med
Med
Med
Sax?
Sax?
Sax
Sax?
Sax?
SaxMed
Med
unc 70/55, below 70/6
cuts 70/36 & 70/99

cuts 70/111?, cut by 70/60
below 70/11
above 70/133
below 70/4? cuts 70/33, unc
70/34, above 70/133 70/152
70/176
below 70/4? 70/34?, above
70/176
cuts 70/57 & 70/20, unc
70/63, below 70/6
cut by 70/55
above 70/77 [= 70/127]
cut by Med 2 cloister wall

cut by ER wall
above 70/123
cuts 70/28, above 70/134

[= 70/74 & 70/141]
cut by Med 2 cloister wall;

above 70/37
cut by 70/32
cut by 70/36 70/40
cut by 70/35 & 70/148
cuts 70/26
cut by 70/53, above 70/152
unc 70/53, above 70/54?,
below 70/4
cuts 70/31, cut by 70/148
cuts 70/28 70/99, below 70/60
cut by Med 2 cloister wall;
below 70/25
below 70/19, unc 70/23
above 70/38
cut by 70/55, below 70/6,
above 70/190
above 70/64, unc 70/38
cuts 70/56, unc 70/86, cut by

70/83, above 70/96
APPENDIX D
613
4173 7006 ND
4939 7001 Supine
4941 7001 ND
4943 7001 Supine

4944 7001 Supine
4946 7001 Supine
70/91
70/92
70/93
70/95
70/96
70/98
stone block at head end;

upper fill mound
stones over legs in fill;

tight in narrow cut
Stones above head?
75100% 1112
2550% Child
75100% 4553
5075% 1718
285
260
270
1011
ND
ND
75100% c 9
ND
Adult
5075% 5060
025%
1214
75100% 5070
75100% 7
75100% Adult
75100% 15
5075% 2022
025%
025%
2430m
WNW 2550% 2530
275
270
4172 7006 Supine
70/90
1824mths
ND
Adult
Adult
3040
4060
c6
1920
Adult
Adult
Adult
5060
Adult
68m
c4
75100% 5575
ND
025%
025%
2550%
5075%
ND
2550%
75100%
2550%
025%
2550%
2550%
025%
ND
75100%
complete- age
ness
WSW 75100% 12m

250
75100% c 6
270
5075% 13
270
70/103 4254 7005 ND

70/104 3633 7004 RS
70/105 3634 7004 Supine
3905 7003 ND
4937 7001 Supine
4938 7001 Supine
70/87
70/88
70/89
stone above R shoulder,

stone by skull
coffin
270
4936 7001 Supine
70/86
270
70/102 4949 7001 Supine
4935 7001 ND
70/85
head displaced
265
265
4934 7001 Supine
70/84
250
250
270
WE
WE
270
280
WE
WNW
WE
WSW
WE
align
70/99 4940 7001 Supine?

70/100 4947 7001 Supine
70/101 4948 7001 Supine
4933 7001 Supine
grave features
ND
ND
Supine
Uncertain Prob prone or collapsed RS
ND
stones above head?
Supine
ND
Supine
RS?
ND
Supine
Supine
ND
ND
Supine
70/83
7003
7004
7003
7006
7006
7005
7004
7001
7004
7003
7003
7003
7003
7001
7001
3891
3623
3892
4170
4171
4242
3626
4930
3629
3900
3901
3902
3903
4931
4932
70/64
70/65
70/68
70/69
70/70
70/71
70/72
70/73
70/75
70/76
70/77
70/78
70/79
70/81
70/82

no.
ND
U/SA
U/A
U/SA
M
U/SA
F
M
U/SA
U/SA
M
M?
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
ND
M?
U/SA
ND
M
M?
F?
F
U/SA
M?
F?
M
M
F
M?
U/SA
U/SA
sex
6,7,8,12
2,4?,5,6
2, 5
1
9
10
10
7
12
12
1,8
6,7,10,11
5,9,14
6,7?
6
12
12
1,9
path
SA
CW
CW
CW
CW
SA
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
SA
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
id
B3
B3
B3
A2
D
A1
A3
B3
D
B3
B3
ST
Mo,HB
Pl,Mo
Mo,OS,Bk,Pot
Bk,Mo,Pl,Sh,HB
A3
A3
A3
D
B3
B3
{Mo,Pb?,Pot},HB,FeN B3
OS,P,Q,HB
{Pot},OS
Mo,T,Pot
Mo,Shale
Mo,HB
Bk,Pb,GlW
Sh,{Pot},HB
HB
Pot,FeN,Mo
FeN Mo
Mo,OS,Sh,FeN,Pot
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
SaxMed
SaxMed
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Sax
SaxMed
Sax
Sax?
Med
SaxMed
Med
SaxMed
Med
Med
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax
Sax
Sax?
Sax?
Med
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
SaxMed
Med
code preferred
burial date
A3
A3
FeN,Mo,HB
A3
A2
A2
A3
Pb
A3
Pl,Sh,Pot
B3
A3
A3
A3
FeN,HB
A3
A3
Mo,C?
D
GS,Pot,Mo,OS,Pl,Sh, B3
Fe,HB
Pl,OS,Pot,HB
B3
finds
cut by 70/36, cuts 70/114?

cuts 70/93, unc 70/101
cuts 70/102, unc 70/93
70/100, above 70/164
cut by 70/93 & 70/101, unc
70/115
virtually decomposed
immediately above 70/120
above 70/98
cuts 70/85 & 70/92, cut by
70/84
cut by M1 and M2 walls;
below 70/110; legs not drawn
cut by Med 2 wall
cut by 70/89, below 70/85,
above 70/149
cut by 70/100, unc 70/101,
cuts 70/102
cuts 70/82 70/237
cut by 70/83, below 70/17 &
70/56, above 70/167
below 70/84 70/86 & 70/88
cuts 70/17 70/96 70/107

70/113, above 70/130
[=70/97]. cuts 70/89, above
70/98, below wall
cut by 70/89 & 70/143, above
70/149 & 70/92
cuts 70/188, above 70/98
cuts 70/124, cut by 70/95
below 70/58
cuts 70/112 & 70/117
cut by Med 2 wall

cut by Med 2 wall
below 70/23
Comment
614
275
270
260
75100% 67
WSW 5075% 5065
270
ND
2535
70/134 4969 7001 Supine
70/136 4971 7001 Supine

70/137 4974 7001 Supine
70/139 4976 7001 Supine
?stones round head end of grave 275

270
275
270
bone movement
poss earth mound 4905?
?stones above R shoulder
70/151 4982 7001 Supine
70/152 4987 7001 RS

70/153 4988 7001 Supine
70/122?
70/154 4989 7001 Supine
ND
ND
Uncertain coffin
RS
Supine
Supine
Supine
75100% 1819
75100% 1213
75100% Adult
75100% 4247
Adult
Adult
4045
2426
Old
2224
2426
ND
ND
285
2550%
WNW 2550%
285
5075%
WNW 5075%
265
75100%
7004
7005
7006
7003
7001
7001
7001
70/144
70/145
70/146
70/147
70/148
70/149
70/150
3638
4265
4175
3913
4979
4980
4981
WSW 025%
4248
WNW ND
2124
290
75100% 5060
5075% 3944
75100% Newborn
ND
Adult
75100% 4055
70/140 3912 7003 Uncertain

70/142 4977 7001 Supine?
70/143 4978 7001 Supine
vertical slab near head
270
70/131 4967 7001 Supine

70/132 4264 7005 ND
70/133 4968 7001 Supine
75100% 5565
75100% 4855
280
270
Adult
c2
1623
3040
Adult
Adult
1718
Adult
Adult
ND
70/128 3911 7003 RS

70/130 4966 7001 Supine
025%
ND
ND
025%
025%
75100%
ND
WE
2550%
WE? 025%
WNW 2550%
280
WE
WE
7004
7005
7001
7001
7001
ND
Supine
Supine
Uncertain feet crossed poss RS?
Supine
Supine
ND
Supine
Supine
Supine
3636
4277
4961
4963
4964
70/120
70/121
70/122
70/123
70/124
7001
7001
7001
7003
7001
WNW ND
Adult
2550% Child
70/112 4956 7001 Supine

70/113 4954 7001 ND
4955
4957
4959
3908
4960
270
75100% 4060
270
025%
1216m
WSW 025%
Adult
70/109 3907 7003 Supine?

(or poss coll RS?)
70/110 4174 7006 Uncertain
70/111 4953 7001 Supine
70/114
70/115
70/117
70/118
70/119
WSW ND
22.5
290
2550% 5570
70/106 4950 7001 Supine

70/107 4951 7001 Supine
U/SA
M
M?
M?
F?
M
F
F
F
M
M
M
U/SA
F
M
U/SA
M?
M
F
F
F?
U/SA
F
M
F
F?
M
F?
M?
ND
F
U/SA
F
U/SA
M?
U/SA
M
13
11
2,6,12
12
7
6,7,9
3,6,7,12
1
2,6,9,13
9,13
1,7
6,12
1,2,6,7,12
6,7,10,12
1,7
6,7,13
7,8
2,5,6,7
9,1
6,7,8?
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
SA
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
SA
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
SA
SA
SA
SA
CW
SA
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
A3
A3
D
B3
B3
A3
A3
A1
A2
B3
D
B3
A2
D
B3
B3
B3
B3
B2
B3
A3
B3
A2
B3
A3
A3
B3
B3
B3
D
B3
B2
A3
B3
Mo,Pl,OS,FeN,{Pot}
ST,Pl,Mo
Pl,Mo,OS,FeN,AB
B3
D
D
W,Ch
Pb
Mo,OS,Pl,Pot,HB
Pl,Mo,OS
Mo,PPl,Pl,OS,Pot,
{CA},HB
ST,Mo,OS,Sh,Pot,HB B3
Mo,OS,FeN
ST,T,C,Mo,OS,FeN,
Sh,Pot,HB
Mo
Mo,{Pot}
Mo,FeN,Pot,HB
ST,Bk/T,Pl,Mo,OS,
Sh,GlW,Pot,HB
Mo,Pl,HB
Pb,P
ST,T,Pl,Mo,OS
HB
Mo,{Pot}
Mo,Pb,Pot,HB
Pot,Mo
FeN,Pl,OS,{Pot}
Mo
AB,Mo,Sh,Pb,Ch
Mo,Pb,CA,Pot
Mo,HB
OS,Pb,C,P
AB,Mo,Pot
Pl,Pot,HB,GlO (bead) B2
B3
P
FA
Mo,AB,Sh
AB,OS,Pl,HB
Ch,Mo,Bk,Pot,HB
above 70/90
cut by 70/61? 70/162?
cuts 70/113, above 70/153?

above 70/142 70/119?, cut
by 70/83, below 70/113
Med
SaxMed
SaxMed
Med
Sax?
Sax?
Sax
Sax
Med
SaxMed
Med
below 70/133 & 70/124
cuts 70/35 & 70/31

below 70/139 & 70/123,
above 70/171
below 70/131?, cuts 70/175
70/166?
below 70/53 & 70/33
below 70/106? 70/237
Not on plan; below 70/132

cut by Med 1 wall
LS/EMMed cut by 70/73 & 70/117

Med
cut by 70/106 &70/83, above
70/107
SaxMed
cut by 70/99?
Med
unc 70/102, above 70/179
LS/EMMed cut by 70/73, cuts 70/112
Sax?
Med
cut by 70/1007 70/130,
above 70/142
Sax?
immediately below 70/104
Sax?
Med
cut by ??, above 70/153?
Med
cut by 70/139, above 70/150
LS/EMMed cut by 70/82 70/133, above
70/154
Sax
cut by well; above 70/140
Med
cuts 70/119 & 70/142, below
70/83
Med
above 70/151?
Sax?
not on plan; above 70/145
Med
above 70/154, below 70/52 &
70/53, cuts 70/124
LS/EMMed cut by 70/136, below 70/40,
above 70/157
Med
cuts 70/134
Med
cut by 70/143
Med
below 70/235, cuts 70/123,
above 70/150
Sax
cut by well; below 70/128
SaxMed
Med
cuts 70/137 & 70/85
Sax?
Sax?
SaxMed
Med
Med
APPENDIX D
615
270
270
WNW
265
270
WE
WSW
WNW
WNW
WE
275
270
270
270
WE?
WNW
270
3449 7102 Supine
coffin
?wood below head
coffin?
bone movement
tight
possibly RS? Coffin
WE
270
270
WE
270
stone behind skull. Poss coffin 275
coffin?
WE
270
270
71/01
RS?
Supine
Supine?
ND
Supine
Supine?
ND
Prone
Supine
ND
Uncertain
Supine
Supine
Supine
RS
Supine
ND
Supine?
ND
ND
ND
Supine
ND
ND
Supine
RS
ND
ND
ND
Supine
Supine
270
7006
7001
7006
7001
7001
7006
7006
7001
7001
7006
7006
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7006
7006
7006
7006
7002
7001
7001
7001
7001
7006
7006
7006
7006
7001
70/199 5029 7001 ND

70/235 4963 7001 Supine?
70/237 6232 7001 Supine?
4177
4998
4178
5000
5001
4180
4181
5007
5008
4182
4183
5009
5010
5016
5017
5018
5019
4184
4185
4186
4187
4369
5023
5024
5022
5025
4189
4190
4191
4165
5028
Adult
c 13
Adult
68wks
Adult
5070
ND
1718
Adult
1618
Adult
Adult
3035
4560
Adult
5060
4060
ND
c 9mths
ND
ND
2325
24
Child
c6
Adult
ND
Adult
ND
4555
ND
75100% ND
ND
3545
2550% c 7
025%
ND
2550%
75100%
75100%
ND
75100
75100%
ND
75100%
ND
ND
75100%
2550%
75100%
75100%
75100%
75100%
2550%
75100%
ND
ND
ND
5075%
ND
025%
5075%
2550%
ND
ND
ND
5075%
025%
ND
WE
70/163
70/164
70/165
70/166
70/167
70/169
70/170
70/171
70/172
70/173
70/174
70/175
70/176
70/177
70/178
70/179
70/180
70/181
70/182
70/183
70/184
70/185
70/187
70/188
70/189
70/190
70/191
70/192
70/193
70/195
70/196
75100% 2123
270
Adult
75100% 12
280
70/160 4995 7001 collapsed

RS
70/161 4996 7001 RS
2 stones L & R of shoulder/
head on edge of cut
70/162 4997 7001 Supine
ND
75100% 67
025%
upper fill/earth mound 4984; 270

stone over R shoulder
70/157 4992 7001 Supine
75100% Adult
complete- age
ness
70/158 4176 7006 ND
Earth mound/upper fill 4906 270
70/155 4990 7001 Supine
align
grave features

no.
ND
M
U/SA
ND
M
M?
U/A
U/SA
F
F?
ND
M?
M
U/SA
U/A
M
M
M
M
M?
M
ND
U/SA
ND
ND
M?
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
M
ND
U/A
ND
M
ND
M?
F?
ND
U/SA
sex
12
1,5,12
1,12
11
SA
SA
CW
SA
CW
CW
CW,
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
11
6,7
1,5,9
6,8
1,11
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
id
11
11
1,11
path
B3
A2
Sh,W,Pl,CF,GlW,CT,
Tx,Pot
C2
D
B3
D
A1
D
A2
D
OS
D
Pl,C,Ch
A2
FeN,Mo,Ch
A2
ST,OS,Mo,Pl,Sh,HB D
Mo,OS,ST,Pot
B3
A3
W
A2
Mo,OS,Sh,Pot
B3
Mo,Pl,OS
D
Mo,OS,Pl
D
Pl
D
ST,Mo,OS,Sh,FeN,W? D
Mo
D
A2
Ch
A3
A2
A2
SA
D
D
Pl,{W}
D
Pl,OS
D
A1
A1
A3
Pb
A1
D
Pl,Mo,OS,AB,Sh,W,
GlW,Pb,Pot,HB
GlW,Pb
Mo,Pl,OS,Sh
Mo,Pb,Sh,W?
T,Mo,OS,Sh
Mo,Ch,Pb
Comment
LPM
SaxMed
Med
SaxMed
Sax
SaxMed
Sax
SaxMed
SaxMed
Sax
Sax
SaxMed
Med
Sax?
Sax
Med
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
Sax
Sax?
Sax
Sax
A3
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
Sax
Sax
Sax?
Sax
SaxLS/EM
Med
SaxMed
SaxMed
Sax
above 70/139 70/123

cut by 70/95, unc 70/122,
above 70/153
unc 71/16, above wall 4642
cut by M1 wall
below 70/86, cut by buttress
5004
below M2 floor; unc 70/181

below M2 floor
Sax?
below 70/4?
cut by 70/86
unc 70/194, cuts 70/180
below 70/20
below/cut by M1 wall
not on plan; cut by M1 wall
presumed in situ
below M2 floor
cut by 70/151
below 70/34 70/63 & 70/54
below 70/162
unc 70/194
below 70/115
cut by 70/189
unc 70/183; below M2 floor
cut by ER wall
below 70/101
below M2 floor
cut by 70/151?
below 70/96
below M2 floor
below M2 floor
below 70/150
cuts 70/111?, above 70/177
feet only; not on plan; below

M2 wall
below 70/149
LS/EMMed below 70/134
SaxMed
code preferred
burial date
ST,Bk,Mo,Pl,FeN,Sh, D
CF (clench nails),HB
Mo,Pl,AB?,W?,{Pot?} B2
finds
616
3505 7101 Supine?
3506 7101 ND
3447 7102 ND
3439 7102 ND
3438 7102 Supine
3507 7101 ND
3508 7101 ND
3443 7102 Supine
3444 7102 Supine
3445 7102 ND
3434 7102 ND
3455 7102 ND
3452 7102 ND
3460 7102 Supine
3463
3461
3459
3465
3466
3464 7102 ND
3471 7102 ND
3468 7102 Supine
3467
3479
3480
3481
1797
1777
1798
1764
1766
1774
1456
1460
71/07
71/08
71/09
71/10
71/11
71/12
71/13
71/14
71/15
71/16
71/17
71/18
71/19
71/20
71/21
71/22
71/23
71/24
71/25
71/26
71/27
71/28
71/29
71/30
71/32
71/33
71/34
71/35
71/36
71/37
71/38
71/39
71/41
71/42
7105
7105
7105
7105
7106
7106
7102
7102
7102
7102
7105
7105
7102
7102
7102
7102
7102
Supine
Supine
Supine
ND
Supine
collapsed
RS
Prone
RS
RS
RS
ND
ND
Supine
ND
Supine
Supine
Supine
ND
Supine?
ND
Supine?
3501
3502
3503
3504
71/03
71/04
71/05
71/06
7101
7101
7101
7101
3500 7101 ND
71/02
coffin?
coffin
coffin
stone by head
coffin
coffin
coffin?
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin?
coffin
coffin
coffin?
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffins
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
ND
ND
Child
ND
ND
ND
Child
ND
Child
ND
ND
Child?
ND
Infant
75100% Child?
5075% ND
ND
025%
ND
ND
ND
75100% Child
75100%
ND
ND
ND
ND
270
280
265
270
WE
280
270
270
WE
270
WE
270
WE
270
270
WE
WE
Adult?
Subadult?
Child?
Child
Child
Adult?
75100%
75100%
75100%
75100%
ND
ND
75100%
ND
ND
ND
75100%
75100%
4348
4060
4350
45+
ND
ND
ND
ND
1415
ND
78
2730
ND
ND
5075% Child?
ND
ND
5075%
ND
5075%
75100%
5075%
75100% Child
025%
WSW 75100% Child

ND
ND
WE
270
275
270
WE
x
x
x
x
M
F
M
M
ND
ND
ND
ND
F?
ND
U/SA
M
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
U/SA
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
4,5,6,11,12
3,6,7,13
12
CW
CW
CW
SA
CW
CW
CW
C2
B4
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
C2
FeN,Pb
Mo
W?
S,FeN,GlO (bead)
AB,Pb,T,GlW,Ci,S
CA,W,CF
{CF,Sh,Pl,GlW}
AB,Sh,W,Pl,Mo
Le,FeN,Pot
{FeN,S,Bk,Pot}
W
CF
CF,FeN,CP,Pot
{CF,FeN,GlW},Pl,Pot
FeN,CF,Pot
ST,Pl,W,FeN
FeN,W,CT
A4
A4
A4
A4
A1
A1
C2
C2
D
C2
A4
A4
C1
C2
B4
C2
C2
C2
C2
E
C2
S,W,CF,CT,Pot
C1
S,W,ST,C,Pl,CF,FeN, C2
CT,Bk
AB,Sh,Mo,FeN,Pot
B4
S,W,Fe,FeN,Pl,GlW,
Bk,Pot
Sh,W,CF,FeN,Fe,Pot,CTC2
CF,FeN,W,Sl,S,Pl,
GlW,CT,CP,Pot
St,W,CF,GlW,Pot
{Ci,Sh,W,Pl,CF,Fe,
GlW},Pb,Pot
{ST,AB,Sh,Pl},Pot
CF,W
Sl,AB,W,CF,FeN,FA,
Fe,GlW,GlV,Tx,Pot
W,CF
ST,Sh,W,Pl,G,W,CP
W,Pot
W,CF,Fe,Pot
S,Sh,W,Mo,CF,FeN,
Fe,CP,Pot
unc 71/1, above line of wall

4642
above 71/19, 71/14
presumed in situ; below
71/11; more than 1 body?
below 71/14; cut by 71/17,
above wall 3484
above unexcavated burials
3482; above 71/29
cut by 71/17; above 71/19

unc 71/22
above 71/18
area of unexcavated graves
above 71/15, unc 71/22
2 bodies?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax
Sax
below floor level

cut by Norman Wall 4667;
below 1452; shadow
LPM
LPM
cuts 71/27, unc 71/15 71/9
LPM
cut by 71/24
LPM
cuts 71/23 71/25?
SaxMedPMcut by 71/24? unc buttress
3487, unc mortar spread
PMLPM
LPM
cut by 71/22
LMed
above buttress 3487, above
71/32, cuts mortar spread
LPM
below 71/20
LPM
unc 71/10
SaxMed
below 71/28
LPM
above Wall 3484?
Sax?
Sax?
LPM
LMed
PMLPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LMedPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
APPENDIX D
617
2218
2231
2217
2224
2214 7501 Supine

2228 7501 Supine
2225 7501 ND
2219
2220
2222
2229
2250
2241 7501 Supine
1184 7502 Supine
1210 7502 RS
1205 7502 Supine
2243 7501 Supine

2234 7501 Supine
2246 7501 ND
2251
1187
1186
2235
2258
2230
2255
2256
2257
2259
2253
2252
75/01
75/02
75/03
75/04
75/05
75/06
75/07
75/08
75/09
75/10
75/11
75/12
75/13
75/14
75/15
75/16
75/17
75/18
75/19
75/20
75/21
75/22
75/23
75/24
75/25
75/26
75/27
75/28
75/29
75/30
75/31
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7502
7502
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
coffin; slot for headstone?

coffin
coffin
stones under R shoulder

poss coffin?
coffin
coffin?
coffin
coffin
coffin
Supine
ND
Supine
Supine?
Supine
Supine
Supine?
Supine
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
ND
coffin
RS
Uncertain stone on S edge of grave
Supine
coffin
ND
ND
Supine?
Supine
Supine
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
vault; coffin
vault
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
collapsed
RS
Supine?
Supine
Supine
Supine
4511
4534
4553
4557
4558
4564
4567
4588
2138
72/01
72/02
72/03
72/04
72/05
72/06
72/07
72/08
73/01
7201
7201
7203
7209
7209
7204
7205
7206
7304
grave features

no.
SN
WE?
SN
WE
SN
SN
EW
WE
265
WE
WE
NS
WE
EW
265
WE
SN
WE
SN
WE
270
NS
SN
SN
EW
SN
WE
EW
Perinatal
Newborn
Newborn
Newborn
Baby
Baby
Perinatal
Baby
Foetal
Child
Baby
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
M
sex
75100%
ND
5075%
025%
2550%
75100%
2550%
75100%
ND
75100%
5075%
75100%
Baby
Baby
Baby
Child
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
2535
Baby
Baby
75100% Baby
75100% Baby
ND
Baby
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
F
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
ND
1618
F?
2550% Young adult? F?
2550% 68
025%
025%
025%
025%
75100%
5075%
ND
75100% Newborn
2550% Baby
75100%
75100%
75100%
75100%
ND
ND
ND
Child?
Child?
ND
ND
ND
2528
complete- age
ness
ND
ND
WE
ND
ND
ND
WNW ND
ND
WE
ND
270
75100%
align
8,12
path
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
CW
id
C2
C2
E
E
E
E
E
E
A4
{GlW,W,Fe}
{C,W,FeN,T,GlW},Pot
{Mo,W}
Mo
{Pl,Mo,Fe,GlW}
{ST,W,FeN,Fe}
{Mo,GlW,W}
{W M GlW Pot CA}
{W,FeN,Fe,T,GlW}
{FeN,GlW,Pot,W}
{AB,Sh,W,Ci,CA,
GlW,GlV}
{W,M,GlW,CA}
S,P
PPl?
{W,GlW,FeN}
FeN,W
HB
C1
C2
C3
E
C1
C3
C1
C2
C1
A4
A4
C1
C2
C2
C1
A4
A1
A1
{S,C,Sh,W,Mo,CP,
C2
GlW,Pot,FeN,CA pin}
{Fe,Mo,Sh,GlW}
C1
{W,FeN,Fe}
C3
{W,FeN}
C3
{W,FeN}
C2
{P,W,Mo,FeN,Fe,
C1
GlW,Pot}
{C,W,FeN,Pl,Mo,Fe,T}C2
Comment
cuts 75/19
partly disturbed
cut by 75/14? cut by ER east

wall
unc 75/13
above 75/30, 75/26, 75/52
cut by 75/20
cuts 75/12, above 75/86?,

unc 75/17
cuts 75/16?; cut by ER east
wall
cuts 75/10
cuts 75/6, cut by 75/23
cut by 75/8
cuts 75/24, above 75/75
cut by 75/13, unc 75/86
cut by 75/9, 75/23, above

75/88
cut by 75/25
above 75/33, 75/88

cuts 75/28
cuts 75/6, 75/9; above 75/93,

75/100
PMLPM
cut by 75/11
LPM
cuts 75/7
PMLPM? cut by 75/18
SaxMedPMcut by 75/31, 75/17
PMLPM
cut by 75/4
PMLPM?
PMLPM
cut by 75/18 and by ?
LPM
cuts 75/27, cut by 75/13
PMLPM
Sax?
Sax?
PMLPM
LPM
LPM
PMLPM
Sax?
Sax
Sax
LPM
PMLPM
PMLPM?
PMLPM?
LPM
PMLPM?
LPM
LPM
PMLPM?
LPM
PMLPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
SaxMedPMbelow N wall of 1782 church
SaxMedPMpre 1866
SaxMedPMpre 1866
SaxMedPMpre 1866
SaxMedPM
SaxMedPMcut by PM pit 4581
Sax?
code preferred
burial date
{Bk/T,GlW,W}
C2
{W pins}
C1
{W,FeN,Pot}
C2
{Pl,GlW,GlV,W,FeN, C2
CF,Pot,CA}
{ST,AB,FeN,CT,GlW,W} C2
C3
finds
618
2315
2288
2268
2287
2263
2261
2262
2269
2267
2290
4665
2299
2279
2273
2271
2292
2291
2291
2301
2300
2276
2278
2298
2286
2293
2296
2289
2284
2280
2295
2283
2281
2282
2324
2327
2294
6217
2314
2313
2310
75/42
75/43
75/44
75/45
75/46
75/47
75/48
75/49
75/50
75/51
75/52
75/53
75/54
75/55
75/56
75/58
75/59
75/60
75/61
75/62
75/63
75/64
75/66
75/67
75/68
75/69
75/70
75/71
75/72
75/73
75/74
75/75
75/76
75/77
75/78
75/80
75/81
75/82
75/83
75/84
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
Supine
ND
ND
ND
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine
ND
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine?
Supine
ND
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine?
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine?
Supine
Supine
ND
Supine
Supine
Supine
ND
Supine?
Supine
Supine
Supine
ND
Supine?
Supine
Supine
2304
2266
2264
2265
75/36
75/37
75/38
75/41
7501
7501
7501
7501
2254 7501 Supine

2320 7501 ND
1219 7502 Supine?
75/32
75/33
75/34
coffin
coffin
coffin?
coffin
coffin
coffin?
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin?
coffin
coffin
coffin
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
75100%
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
WE
ND
WE
ND
WE/EW?ND
EW
ND
WE
ND
WE
ND
WE
WE
WE
WE
SN
SN
270
WE
WE
SN
WE
WE
WE
WE
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
2535
Baby
Baby
Baby
Newborn
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
03m
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
Baby
75100% Baby
ND
Adult?
75100% Adult?
WE
ND
WE
ND
EW
ND
WSW ND
WNW ND
WE
ND
WE
ND
WSW ND
WE
ND
WE
ND
WE/EW? ND
SN
ND
WE
ND
WE
ND
SN
ND
ND
WE
ND
WE
ND
WE
ND
WE
WE?
WNW
WE
265
WE
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
F
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
ND
ND
1,8,12
10
SA
SA
SA
C3
C3
C3
C2
{W,GlW}
{GlW,M,W}
{W,FeN,GlW,Sh}
{FeN,W,Sh}
{Q,Fe,Pot}
C3
C2
C3
C3
C1
C1
C3
C3
C1
C2
{W,FeN,Mo,Pl,GlW,Pot}
{Pl}
C3
{GlW,Pot,CA}
C2
{Pot,Pl,W}
C2
C3
Pot,HB
B2
{Sh,Fe,C}
{Mo,Pl,FeN,W,Gl}
Pot,CP
{Pot,FeN,GlB,Pl,CP,W}
{HB}
C2
{GlV,CT,HB}
C2
{W,CP}
C2
{AB,GlV,Sl,CT,Pot,W} C2
{GlW,Pot,Fe,FeN}
C2
{CF,W}
C2
{Pot}
C2
{Pot,Bk}
C2
{GlW,Fl,W,Pot}
C2
C3
{Sh,Pl,C,Pot,W}
C2
{GlW,Pot,CP}
C2
{Fe,GlW,W}
C2
{W,CT,CP}
C1
C3
{W,FeN}
C1
{W,GlW,Pl,Tx}
C2
{FeN,Pot,Pl,Mo,CT} C2
C,GlB
{CT,WB,CP}
C1
{FeN,W,Mo}
C2
{Pl}
C2
{FA,CT,W}
C3
{Tx?}
C3
{Mo,W,Fe}
{Bk,CT,Fe,W}
{Pot,GlW,W}
above 75/72, 75, 88

below 75/18
below 75/3
above 75/77; cut by 75/63
above 75/83, 75/85
cut by 75/41?
cuts 75/66, 75/87
cuts pipe trench
cuts 75/69, 62; above 75/92,
77, 96
cuts 75/55; cut by 75/64
cuts 75/63, above 75/95
cut by 75/59
Double burial with 75/102;
cuts 2297
cuts 75/40, 35, 58?; cut by

75/44
LPM cut by 75/47; cuts 75/80?
cuts pipe trench
cuts 75/40, 41
cuts 75/49
cut by 75/48
cuts 75/42
cuts 75/46
cut by 75/45, above 75/93
C2 LPM above 75/33

Not fully excavated
*C16 pot intrusive? burial is
disturbed
cuts 75/37
cut by 75/36
PMLPM?
PMLPM? cut by 75/61; above 75/92
PMLPM
above 75/88
LPM
cuts 75/54
C2
LPM above 75/88; cuts 75/75
PMLPM?
LPM
LPM
cut by 75/72
PMLPM? cut by 75/80
LS/EMMed below 75/55, 75/61, 75/82;
above 75/96
PMLPM? cuts 75/79
LPM
cut by 75/42?, cuts 75/76
PMLPM?
PMLPM? above 75/77
PMLPM
below 75/56
PMLPM
PMLPM
LPM
LPM
PMLPM?
PMLPM?
C2
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
PMLPM?
LPM
LPM
LPM
PMLPM
PMLPM?
PMLPM
LPM
LPM
PMLPM?
PMLPM?
PMLPM?
LPM
{Sh,W,Mo,Fe,FeN,FA?,GlW,Pot}
Pl,Mo,AB,Sh
D
SaxMed
Pot*
A4 Sax?
APPENDIX D
619
2311
2325
2309
4669
2333
2332
2326
2323
2330
75/89
75/90
75/91
75/92
75/93
75/94
75/95
75/96
75/98
2342 7801 ND
2892 7801 ND
2893 7801 ND
2894 7801 ND
78/05
78/06
78/07
78/08
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin?
coffin
4670
2925
2917
2927
2199
2343
2353
2338
75/105
76/01
76/02
76/03
78/01
78/02
78/03
78/04
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
Supine
ND
ND
coffin?
75/104 2317 7501 Supine
7501
7605
7605
7605
7801
7801
7801
7801
coffin
coffin
75/102 2285 7501 Supine

75/103 2312 7501 Supine
pillow stone
stone edging
Supine
Supine
RS
Supine
Supine
ND
ND
ND
Supine
75/99 2354 7501 ND

75/100 2329 7501 Supine
75/101 1212 7502 ND
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
coffin
coffin
coffin
coffin
Supine
Supine
Supine
Supine
2308
2321
2331
2318
75/85
75/86
75/87
75/88
7501
7501
7501
7501
grave features

no.
ND
ND
ND
75100%
x
x
x
c8
2535
3545
2535
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
Baby
c 6mths
Child
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
c 6mths
Baby
Baby
ND
Adult?
75100% 2535
ND
c 16?
75100%
75100%
75100%
ND
WE/EW? ND
ND
WE?
ND
WE?
ND
x
ND
x
75100%
x
ND
x
ND
EW
WE
WE
260
WNW
275
275
270
WE
Baby
Adult?
c 3m
Baby
3545
Baby
Baby
Baby
2535
complete- age
ness
ND
ND
WE/EW? ND
WE/EW? ND
270
75100%
WE
WE
WE
WE
270
align
ND
ND
ND
ND
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
ND
F
U/SA
U/SA
M
F
F
U/SA
ND
U/SA
U/SA
F
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/A
sex
10?
8
7,12
2,12
8,12
path
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
id
C2
C3
C2
D
D
A4
D
B2
D
D
C1
D
C3
C3
D
C3
C2
C1
D
below 75/56
below 75/13?, cuts 75/12?
Comment
LPM
LPM
LPM
LPM
Not excavated
Not excavated
Not excavated
above 75/93; below 75/6,

75/51, 75/70
PMLPM
SaxMed
Unexcavated
PMLPM? below 75/54; above 75/94
PMLPM? above 75/94
Sax or Med below 75/88, 75/49; above
75/100
Sax or Med below 75/92
LS/EMMed above 75/98, below 75/64
Sax or Med below 75/77, cuts 75/100?
Sax or Med Not planned or photographed; below 75/95
SaxMed
Not excavated
SaxMed
below 75/93, cut by 75/96?
Sax?
cut by pit 1499; may be
more than 1 individual
PMLPM
Double burial with 75/67
LPM
above & in same grave as
75/104
LPM
below & in same grave as
75/103
PMLPM?
Sax?
Sax?
unc 65/12
Sax?
LPM
LPM
cut by other graves to W
LPM
Not excavated
LPM
PMLPM?
LPM
PMLPM
SaxMed
code preferred
burial date
C3
A3
A3
A3
C2
C2
C2
{W,Mo,CT,FeN,CA, C2
CP,Pb,W,GlW,Pl,Sh},Pot
Pot,Fe,W,GlV,
C2
{Pl,AB,Sh}
C2
C2
C2
Pb
Pb,Bk
Pb,{Mo,CA}
W,FeN,CF,T,Pot}
{W,CF,GlW,Pot}
{FeN}
{Pot,Fe,GlW,CT}
Mo,FeN,Bk
FeN
Pl,Mo,ST
Pot
S
Mo
{FA,Mo,Fe}
{CA,FeN,W,GlW}
{FeN,W}
{FeN,W,GlW,Tx}
Pot,CP,{W}
FeN,W,Mo?
finds
620
APPENDIX D
621
Jarrow: Catalogue of NIS and ND human remains

Burial
no.
context trench
status
age
sex
63/04
63/11
63/16
63/17
63/18
63/19
63/20
63/21
63/22
63/23
63/24
65/02
65/031
65/032
65/04
65/06
65/07
65/102
65/13
65/162
65/17
65/18
65/28
65/29
65/302
65/35
65/37
65/38
65/39
65/40
65/41
65/42
65/43
65/44
65/45
65/46
65/47
66/01
66/012
66/072
66/10
66/11
66/12
66/272
66/282
66/37
66/38
66/392
66/40
66/41
66/46
66/54
66/61
66/652
66/712
66/732
66/752
66/94
66/96
66/98
66/101
66/110
66/111
67/012
67/042
67/052
67/092
67/093
67/122
4837
6218
4845
4859
4860
4861
4862
4847
4854
4866
5501
5502
5502
5424
5426
5427
5430
5432
5434
5435
5436
298
298
5639
5618
5701
5428
5428
5428
10
61
5342
5476
5610
5681
5689
5923
5923
5929
5889
5890
5891
5826
561
5897
5898
5943
5952
5953
5900
5903
5854
5908
5944
316
5996
5861
5862
5864
5866
5840
5842
710
712
715
718
718
719
ND
ND
ND
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
ND
NIS
NIS?
ND
NIS
NIS?
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS?
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
ND
NIS
ND
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
ND
NIS
NIS
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
NIS
NIS
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
Child
ND
ND
ND
c 2yrs
3040
ND
ND
ND
Child
c 7yrs
ND
Adult
Young adult
c 5yrs
ND
ND
Adult
ND
ND
ND
Adult
Juvenile
ND
Adult
Adult
ND
ND
ND
ND
Adult
Child
Adult
Child
ND
ND
Child
ND
Adult
Child
ND
Adult
Adult
Young adult
ND
Adult
Child
Adult
Child
Adult
ND
Adult
Adult?
Adult?
Adult
ND
911
Juvenile
Adult
Adult
1819
Adult
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
U/SA
CW
F
CW
F
CW
ND
ND
ND
U/SA
CW
ND
F?
CW
M
CW
U/SA
CW
ND
ND
F
CW
ND
ND
M?
CW
F
CW
U/SA
CW
ND
ND
SA
ND
SA
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
U/SA
ND
U/SA
ND
ND
U/SA
ND
ND
U/SA
ND
ND
U/A
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
U/SA
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
U/SA
CW
U/SA
U/A
CW
F?
2,11 CW
M?
CW
M
CW
6301
6302
6301
6301
6301
6301
6301
6301
6301
6301
6505
6505
6505
6501
6501
6501
6501
6501
6501
6501
6501
6507
6507
6502
6506
6504
6501
6501
6501
6501
6511
6511
6508
6506
6504
6504
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6601
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
path
id
prob burial
date
context
date
Sax?
Med?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Med?
Med?
Med?
Med?
Med?
Med?
Med?
SaxMed
SaxLS/EM
SaxLS/EM
LS/EMMed?
Sax?
Sax?
Med?
Med?
Med?
Med?
Med?
Med?
SaxLS/EM
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Med?
Med?
LS/EMMed
LS/EMMed
LS/EMMed
LS/EMMed
LMed
LMed
Med?
LS/EMMed
LS/EMMed
LS/EMMed
LS/EMMed
LS/EMMed
LS/EMMed
Med?
LS/EMMed
Med
LS/EMMed
LS/EMMed
LS/EMMed
LS/EMMed
LS/EMMed
LS/EMMed
LS/EMMed
LS/EMMed
Med?
Med?
Med?
Med?
Med?
Med?
Sax
Med?
Sax?
ND
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
ND
PM
ND
Sax/PM?
Sax?
Sax?
PMLPM
Med
MedPM
Med
MedPM
LMed
LMed
SaxMed
u/s
u/s
Med
Sax?
Sax?
Med?
Med?
Med?
MedPM
Med
LMed
LS/EM
Sax?
Med 2
LPM
EPM
EPM
LS/EMMed
LS/EMMed
LS/EMMed
Med?
LMed
LMed
ND
Med?
Med
Med
Med
Med?
Med
PM
LS/EMMed
Med
Med
LS/EMMed
Med?
Med
LS/EMMed
Med
ND
ND
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
LMed
comments
poss= cut on plan 5

in trial trench
skull; cf 70/118?
timber slot/grave, poss duplicates 63/4

grave area E end
a late reburial?
in 65/8
in 65/10
part of layer 10?
in 65/10; poss = 65/17
in 65/16; poss = 65/162
in 65/23
in 65/30
poss = grave cut on plan
in or near 65/8
poss part of 65/16 or 17

prob part of 65/22 (from upper fill)
poss part of 65/31?
poss duplicates 65/29
reburied bones?
reburied bones?
in 66/7
in 66/8
not on plan, no photo
legs only; prob = another eg 66/52?
prob = 66/25
second skull in 66/28
jumbled mass of bones reburial?
unc to 66/34
skull; in fill of 66/39
skull
legs only; prob = another eg 66/65 or 75?
skull in fill of 66/45
In fill of 66/55
PM reburial
in 66/65; prob part of 66/75
prob part of 66/30
poss part of 66/29?
prob = 66/02
in fill of 65/34
above wall of A
cf 66/103?; above 66/93, 66/52
pelvis; may duplicate another
in 67/1
in
in
in
in
67/5
67/9
67/9
67/12
622
Burial
no.
context trench
status
age
67/123
67/15
67/202
67/212
67/322
67/323
67/392
67/432
67/433
67/46
67/502
67/52
67/53
69/102
69/142
69/162
69/172
69/212
69/221
69/222
69/232
69/24
69/25
69/26
69/27
69/28
69/29
69/30
69/31
69/32
69/33
69/34
69/35
69/36
69/37
69/38
69/39
69/40
69/41
69/42
69/43
69/44
70/01
70/02
70/131
70/132
70/211
70/212
70/212
70/22
70/232
70/242
70/243
70/262
70/27
70/282
70/283
70/29
70/30
70/342
70/352
70/392
70/393
70/394
70/421
70/422
70/532
70/552
70/553
70/562
70/602
719
724
728
727
742
742
745
750
750
530
708
852
242
3251
3037
3001
3387
3146
3418
3418
3147
3084
3084
3116
3116
3116
3214
3129
3129
3113
3168
4468
3421
3421
3129
3129
3289
3149
3149
3149
3149
3203
4875
4878
4229
4229
4900
3847
4900
4169
3874
3873
3873
4907
4908
4909
4909
4910
4911
4915
4916
3877
3877
3877
4261
4261
4922
4924
4924
4925
4927
NIS
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
NIS
NIS?
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS?
ND
NIS
ND
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
NIS
ND
F
ND
ND
910yrs
U/SA
910yrs
U/SA
Adult
U/A
Newborn
U/SA
Adult
U/A
56yrs
U/SA
2530yrs
F?
Adult
M?
5
ND
ND
1620yrs
M
Adult
F?
Newborn
U/SA
89yrs
U/SA
23yrs
U/SA
c5
U/SA
Child
U/SA
Adult
U/A
Juvenile
U/SA
Subadult
U/SA
Adult
U/A
c 6mths
U/SA
Adult
M
Child
U/SA
Child
U/SA
ND
ND
Adult
ND
<12mths
ND
Child
U/SA
Adult
M?
Adult
U/A
Adult
U/A
Child
U/SA
Adult
U/A
Child
U/SA
Adult
U/A
89
U/SA
Adult
F?
Adult
U/A
Child
U/SA
ND
ND
Child
ND
ND
ND
c2
U/SA
Adult
U/A
Middle aged M
6, 7
ND
ND
Adult
F?
ND
ND
ND
U/SA
22.5yrs
U/SA
23yrs
U/SA
2024mths U/SA
Adult
M
912yrs
U/SA
c 2yrs
U/SA
ND
ND
Adult
M?
2yrs
U/SA
ND
ND
810yrs
U/SA
Adult
F?
Adult
M?
ND
ND
ND
ND
56yrs
U/SA
1516yrs
U/SA
c 2yrs
U/SA
56yrs +
U/SA
Adult
U/A
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
6701
6903
6901
6901
6904
6901
6901
6901
6901
6901
6901
6901
6901
6901
6902
6901
6901
6901
6901
6905
6901
6901
6901
6901
6902
6901
6901
6901
6901
6905
7001
7001
7005
7005
7001
7003
7001
7006
7003
7003
7003
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7003
7003
7003
7005
7005
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
sex
path
id
prob burial
date
context
date
comments
CW
Med?
LS/EMMed
Med?
Med?
Med?
Med?
LMed?
Med?
Med?
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
Sax?
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax?
Sax?
Sax
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Med?
Med?
Sax?
Sax?
Med?
Sax?
Med?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Med?
Med?
Med?
Med?
Med?
Med?
Med?
Med?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Med?
Med?
Med?
Med?
SaxMed
LMed
Med?
Med
Med
LMed
LMed
LMed
Med?
Med?
Med?
LS/EMMed?
SaxMed
SaxMed
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax
Sax?
Sax?
Sax
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Sax?
Sax?
LS/EM
Med
SaxMed 1
ND
ND
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax
Sax
Sax
SaxMed
LPM
PMLPM
Sax?
Sax?
LM/EPM
Med1b
LM/EPM
Med
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Med
Med?
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
LS/EM
LS/EM
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
in 67/12
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
SA
CW
CW
CW
CW
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
SA
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
SA
SA
may duplicate 67/17?

may duplicate 67/17?
prob = 67/35
poss duplicates 67/46?
reburial? dist by 67/43. cf 67/433?
maxilla
in clay N of A
in clay W of A
prob = 69/9; in 69/10
presum different from 66/23
from disturbed surface of natural

reburial?
may be part of 70/07; reburial?
area of disturbed bones

area of disturbed bones
in cloister wall r/t
prob = 70/32
poss = 70/603
frag mandible
)
) area of dist burials?
)poss = 70/68?
cf 70/63?
cf 70/20
ought to be feet of 70/56
cf 70/61?
APPENDIX D
623
70/603 4927
70/612 4928
70/661 3624
7001
7001
7004
NIS
NIS
ND
Child
68yrs
Adult
U/SA
U/SA
F?
SA
CW
CW
SaxMed
SaxMed
Sax?
Med
SaxMed
Sax?
70/662 3624
70/67
3620
70/682 3892
70/782 3902
70/80
3630
70/822 4932
70/823 4932
70/832 4933
70/833 4933
70/834 4933
70/835 4933
70/882 4937
70/892 4938
70/922 4939
70/94
4942
70/952 4943
70/953 4943
70/97
4945
70/982 4946
70/983 4946
70/1012 4948
70/1013 4948
70/1014 4948
70/1022 4949
70/1023 4949
70/1024 4949
70/1062 4950
70/1072 4951
70/108 4952
70/1122 4956
70/116 4958
70/1172 4959
70/1222 4961
70/1223 4961
70/1224 4961
70/1232 4964
70/125 4279
70/126 4945
70/1282 3911
70/1283 3911
70/1342 4969
70/1343 4969
70/135 4970
70/1372 4974
70/1373 4974
70/1374 4974
70/138 4975
70/1392 4976
70/1432 4978
70/1482 4979
70/1502 4981
70/1512 4982
70/1513 4982
70/1514 4982
70/1552 4990
70/156 4991
70/1591 4993
70/1592 4993
70/1622 4997
70/1623 4997
70/1712 5007
70/186 4188
70/194 5026
70/1942 5026
70/197 4166
70/198 4167
70/200 4192
70/202 4886
70/203 4898
70/204 4972
7004
7004
7003
7003
7004
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7005
7001
7003
7003
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7001
7006
7001
7001
7006
7006
7006
7001
7001
7001
NIS
ND
NIS
NIS
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
ND
NIS
ND
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
811yrs
U/SA
ND
ND
ND
ND
c 16yrs
U/SA
ND
ND
2535yrs
F
Adult
U/A
Adult
M?
1112yrs
U/SA
23yrs
U/SA
45
U/SA
12yrs
U/SA
Adult
U/A
56yrs
U/SA
ND
ND
Adult
F?
45yrs
U/SA
Adult
M
c 1011
U/SA
c 5yrs
U/SA
Adult
M
Subadult
U/SA
4yrs
U/SA
Adolescent U/SA
Child
U/SA
Adult
U/A
7yrs
U/SA
35yrs
U/SA
2629yrs
M
1819yrs
F?
4560yrs
M?
Adult?
U/A
612mths U/SA
Adult
M?
Adult
M?
Adult
U/A
ND
ND
ND
ND
12mths
U/SA
Adult
U/A
912mths U/SA
Adult
F
ND
ND
Adult
M
Adult
U/A
23yrs
U/SA
Adult
M?
Adult
F?
c 2yrs
U/SA
Adult
M
Adult
M
c 6yrs
U/SA
Adult
M
23yrs
U/SA
4060yrs
F?
ND
ND
Adult
F?
1218mths U/SA
23yrs
U/SA
Adult
U/A
Child
U/SA
ND
ND
Middle aged M
Adult
U/A
c 2yrs
U/SA
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
CW
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
SaxMed
SaxMed
Med?
Med?
Med?
Med?
SaxMed
SaxMed?
SaxMed
SaxMed?
SaxMed
SaxMed
Med
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
Med?
Med?
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
Sax?
SaxMed
Sax?
Sax?
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
Sax?
SaxMed
SaxMed
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxMed
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med?
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Sax
Med
Sax?
Sax?
SaxMed
SaxMed
Med?
Med
Med
Med
Med?
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
Med
SaxMed
Med?
Med
Med
Med
Med
SaxMed
SaxLS/EM
SaxMed
SaxMed
SaxLS/EM
SaxLS/EM
SaxLS/EM
LMed?
LMed
Med
CW
CW
11,12 CW
6
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
SA
CW
12
12
7
6,7
2,7
11
CW
CW
CW
CW
SA
SA
SA
SA
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
SA
CW
CW
SA
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
SA
SA
CW
cf 70/99
cf 70/36?
prob = 70/124; in fill of 70/95

cf 70/124? in fill of 70/95
cf 70/96 or 70/107
poss = 70/17
prob = 70/124 or 70/237

displaced skull of 70/84
may = 70/102
cf 70/113?
cf 70/113?
cf 70/123?
reburied in pit?
cf 70/112?
1 leg bone
skull
cf 70/140?
skull
poss = 70/143
poss duplicates previous
prob part of 70/150
prob = 70/175
skull frags
bones reburied above 70/162?
cf 70/111
disturbed by 4012?
L humerus, prob from 70/178
below pier 4014
below pier 4014
disturbed by pier 4014?
624
Burial
no.
context trench
70/205 4973
70/206 4986
70/207 5020
70/208 5027
70/209 4392
70/210 6009
70/211 3814
70/213 3854
70/214 3862
70/215 3863
70/216 3865
70/217 3909
70/218 3848
70/220 3900
70/221 4221
70/222 4221
70/223 4236
70/224 4260
70/225 4260
70/226 4285
70/227 4285
70/228 4285
70/229 4285
70/230 4011
70/231 4011
70/232 3588
70/233 3611
70/234 3622
70/236 4298
71/40
1461
71/431 1786
71/432 1786
71/433 1786
72/09
4518
72/10
4527
72/11
4530
72/12
4565
72/13
4569
72/14
4604
75/12 2218
75/32 2217
75/33 2217
75/142 1184
75/35
4664
75/39
2303
75/40
2334
75/472 2261
75/57
2274
75/662 2298
75/772 2324
75/773 2324
75/774 2324
75/79
2335
75/912 2309
75/97
2328
75/1042 2317
75/106 2307
75/107 2226
75/108 2322
75/109 4671
76/04
4756
76/05
2926
76/06
973
76/07
975
76/08
983
76/09
986
76/10
987
7001
7001
7001
7001
7002
7003
7003
7003
7003
7003
7003
7003
7003
7003
7005
7005
7005
7005
7005
7005
7005
7005
7005
7006
7006
7004
7004
7004
7005
7106
7105
7105
7105
7201
7202
7201
7204
7205
7207
7501
7501
7501
7502
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7501
7604
7605
7604
7604
7604
7604
7604
status
age
sex
path
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS?
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
NIS?
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
ND
ND
NIS
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
NIS?
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
NIS
ND
ND
ND
ND
Newborn
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
34mths
Child
Adult
c 6mths
Child
Adult
Adult
Child
Adult
c 10
23
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
23yrs
2535
Adult
Juvenile
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
foetal
Newborn
Foetal
Adult
Adult?
Infant
Adult?
Adult?
Adult?
Adult
ND
ND
c 18mths
Adult?
c 6mths
Adult?
<3mths
ND
ND
ND
Adult?
3545yrs
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
U/SA
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
U/SA
U/SA
Male
U/SA
U/SA
U/A
U/A
U/SA
U/A
U/SA
U/SA
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
U/SA
M?
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
U/SA
U/SA
U/SA
U/A
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
U/SA
ND
U/SA
ND
U/SA
ND
ND
ND
ND
M
12,9
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
id
CW
CW
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
CW
CW
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
prob burial
date
context
date
comments
SaxMed
SaxLS/EM
SaxMed
SaxMed
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Unc
Unc
Unc
Unc
Unc
SaxMed?
PMLPM
PMLPM
PMLPM
Sax?
SaxMed
LPM
SaxMed?
SaxMed?
SaxMed?
Unc
SaxMed
SaxMed
PM/LPM
SaxMed?
PMLPM
SaxMed?
PM/LPM
Unc
Unc
Unc
SaxMed?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
Sax?
SaxMed
LS/EM?
Med
Med
Sax?
Modern
Med
Med
in well pit
LPM
Med
Med
Sax?
Sax
surface of natural
Sax?
LPM
LPM
SaxLS/EM possibly in situ?
LPM
LPM
Sax
Sax
Sax
may duplicate 70/226
Sax
may duplicate 70/227
SaxLS/EM above 70/182
SaxLS/EM
Med
SaxLSax
LS/EM
Sax?
recorded on section only
LS/EM
disturbed by W Range wall 4667?
Sax?
surface of natural
Sax?
Sax?
PM
PM
PM
PM
PM
LS/EMMed? not on plan
LPM
ulna
LPM
LPM
Sax?
in 75/14; poss = 75/16
Unc
cut by 75/41
LPM
possibly a reburial
Unc
cut by 75/41
LPM
Unc
cut by 75/41
PMLPM
scapula
LS/EMMed skull in 75/77
LS/EMMed skull in 75/77
LS/EMMed prob = 75/82, above 75/77
Unc
below 75/78
PMLPM
pair of humeri in 75/91
LPM
LPM
prob = 75/103
PMLPM
LPM
LPM
Unc
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
Med 1
LS/EM
LS/EM
LS/EM
Appendix E. Units of measurement

by Fred Bettess
It is most desirable that the excavators of
ancient buildings should publish precise metrological data taken directly from the actual
remains (Hope-Taylor 1977, 361).
It was considered that standing structures, rather

than robbed wall trenches or foundations were the best
source of data for an investigation of the unit of measurement in use at the time of the original construction. As the only standing structure available, the
chancel of the present church (East Church) was measured. The points to which measurements were taken
are shown for the south elevation on Figure E1A, the
north elevation on Figure E1B, and the plan on Figure
E1C.
It can be seen that some of the measurements are
redundant, because their values can be calculated from
the other measurements that were taken. In any such
inter-related group of measurements, they cannot all
be used as evidence because at least one of them is not
independent. The choice of which data to discard is
left to the analysis stage of the investigation: in the
field, all the measurements were taken in order to provide a check against errors. When taking the measurements, any feature that was obviously not Anglo-Saxon
was ignored, but uncertain cases were included so that
they could be evaluated later.
In the course of the evaluation an interesting feature emerged concerning the south wall of the chancel
which had not been noted elsewhere: when viewed
from the south, the whole wall is concave in plan. It is
not immediately obvious, but first came to light while
doing an accurate external survey of the whole building. At all points along its length the wall is vertical,
leaning neither out nor in. The north wall is straight
and the amount of curvature on the south wall can be
judged by the three internal widths shown in Figure
E1C. There is no sign of cracking or any other indication of distress that might be associated with movement, and it is difficult to imagine any movement of
the required magnitude that would not show up on the
other walls. Therefore the impression given is that the
wall has always been like that.
Several units of length measurement had been proposed for Northumbrian buildings before the experiment described below was made to investigate a
possible unit of measurement used at Jarrow (see HopeTaylor 1977, 125, 361 note 70). In particular, it has
been suggested that the so-called Northern system of
measurement based on the rod of 15 Saxon or
Northern feet (5.03m) fitted both the church and
excavated buildings at Jarrow (Huggins et al 1982, 59).
However, the assumptions behind these measurements
were not always explicit and data collection did not
always conform to the guide lines I have suggested as
valuable to follow (see below). A study of measurements based on the chancel at Jarrow was undertaken
and a computerised assessment of the Anglo-Saxon
foot was published in Bettess 1991. Those interested
will find therein details of the validation and implementation of the method and comments on the work of K
D OConnor, D G Kendall, H and K Nielsen, B
Kjlbye-Biddle, P Huggins and K and W J Rodwell in
this field. The account below does not differ from the
conclusions advanced there but the account of how this
applied to the Jarrow site is more explicitly presented.
In undertaking this study the following assumptions
were made: 1) in this period some form of graduated
measuring device existed and craftsmen had the skills
to use it; 2) the production methods were consistent
with the accuracy of the measuring device; 3) there was
a rationale to the choice of dimensions which is discoverable; 4) over the intervening period of time the
surviving structure or object had remained dimensionally stable; 5) the structure or object had retained welldefined features to serve as measuring points; 6) an
accurate modern measuring device is used with a
sound measuring technique.
Data collection adhered to the following guidelines: 1) measurements should be made on the prototype, if possible, since working from site drawings
introduces one stage of possible errors and published
drawings a chain of possible errors; 2) the parts of the
structure chosen for measurement should be original
and not part of any alterations and additions; 3) measurements should be to points whose definition
equates to the accuracy of the measuring technique; 4)
the units used for measurement should be a completely different system from that which might have been
used in the original work; 5) the measuring equipment
used should be accurate and in pristine condition; 6) a
large number of measurements should be taken.
Measurement method
All measurements except those relating to the size and
spacing of the Anglo-Saxon windows on the south elevation were taken at or near ground level. The measurement technique will be described with reference to
the south elevation. A steel tape in good condition was
used and a stone low down on the south-east corner
which still retained a well-defined edge was chosen as
a starting point. The zero of the tape was held at this
point in such a way that it coincided, as closely as
could be judged (within 56mm) with the plane of the
eastern end of the building, the tape was then pulled
taut, so that it was horizontal, and measurements were
made to various features along the wall. Since each
625
626
Fig E1 Chancel at Jarrow indicating points of measurement. A. North face. B. South face. C. Plan. FB
APPENDIX E
measurement was the running distance along the wall

from the eastern end, errors were confined to each particular point.
This method was used on all walls, internal and
external, with the exception of the three round-headed
windows on the south elevation. For these the following method was adopted. A base line was marked out,
parallel to and 15m away from the wall face. The ends
of this base were marked by pegs with nails in the top.
The distance between the two nails was measured once
in each direction, giving values of 12.065 and
12.061m. The average of 12.063m was accepted as the
distance. The ground was level so no correction for
slope was necessary. From each end of the baseline
angles were taken to the points marked on Figure E1C,
using the base line as the reference direction in each
case. It was then a straightforward trigonometrical calculation to establish the horizontal distances between
the points. For these points the distances are given
point to point, as by the nature of the method there can
be no accumulation of error.
Selection of data
The two measurements of 8.71 and 10.23m to the
straight joints on the south wall were rejected, as the
features are not part of the original structure (Taylor
and Taylor 1965, 342). The width measurements were
problematic because of the curve in the south wall
mentioned above. But, whatever the reason for this
curve, it seems highly unlikely that it would affect the
choice of width of the eastern end of the building, so
the external width of 6.160m was accepted as part of
the data. The external lengths of the north and south
walls differ by 30mm, so the mean of 13.365m was
taken as the external length of the building. The wall
thickness was established from the differences between
the external and internal widths at the east end, and
the external and internal lengths of the north and
south walls. These gave values of 0.645, 0.635 and
0.635m respectively. The mean of these three is 0.638
so a value of 0.64 was accepted. The width of the door
on the north wall at 0.69m and its distance from the
east end of 6.30m were included in the data. On the
interior side of the east wall there are two straight
joints, which apparently were also intended to be symmetrically placed about the longitudinal axis and are
3.295m apart. This dimension was included in the
data. Measuring along the outside of the south wall, at
11.07m from the east end lies the western side of a
blocked doorway. This was accepted as original data.
Working from east to west the first of the roundheaded windows in the south wall is 3.37m from the
east end. This window is 0.44m wide and is followed
by a space of 2.80m. The second window is 0.33m
wide followed by a space of 2.79m. The third window
is 0.33m wide. The two spaces of 2.80m and 2.79m,
and the two windows of 0.33m suggest a deliberate
regularity. If both these pairs of values are included
627
then this gives twice the weight to them as compared

with other measurements, for what is really a single
decision in each case. Because of this only one from
each pair was accepted, so the measurements included
were 3.37, 0.44, 2.80 and 0.33m.
The list of the selected data was as follows: 13.365,
6.16, 3.295, 0.69, 6.30, 11.07, 0.64, 3.37, 0.44, 2.80
and 0.33m. All the other measurements can be
expressed in terms of specific combinations chosen
from this list; this means that they are not independent
and therefore cannot provide any additional evidence
about the unit of measurement originally used.
Method of analysis
The method used was based upon the principle of least
squares. A number of trial values for possible values of
the original unit of measurement were chosen, starting
at 250mm and going to 360mm in steps of 1mm. All
known, or suggested, values for the length of a foot
from Roman to modern times fall within this range
with ample clearance at both ends.
Each trial value in turn is divided into each of the
selected measurements. The result of each division is a
whole number plus a fraction. It is assumed that when
given a free choice in deciding sizes the original
builders would select numbers which were convenient
to them, and being based upon a foot and inch system
the natural choices would be whole numbers of feet or
whole numbers of feet plus 3, 6 or 9 inches. Thus if
250mm happens to be the length of the original unit,
then the fractions arising from the divisions mentioned
above will lie close to 0.0, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75 or 1.0m.
For each division the difference between the resulting
fraction and the nearest of these fractions is found and
it is called the residual. There is then a set of residuals
equal to the number of selected measurements, associated with each trial value. The problem lies in deciding
which set of residuals, and hence which trial value
gives the best fit. This is solved by the well-known statistical test for Least Squares. In a given set of residuals each one is squared and the sum of the squares is
found. That set which yields the smallest value for the
sum of the squares is most likely to indicate the desired
value of the unit of measurement.
While it is possible to work with the sum of the
squares of the residuals, as described above, it is better
to use a quantity called the Variance, which may be
defined as:
Variance =
Sum of the squares of the residuals

The number of the measurements
A computer programme has been developed which

will analyse the selected measurements, and any
desired range and intervals of trials and produce a list
of trial values with the corresponding values of the
variance. This programme was validated from a wellconstructed building built in 1900 (Bettess 1991,
478).
628
Fig E2 Graph of variance of measurements. FB
Table E1 Values of variance for the trial values of the measurement unit for Jarrow chancel
Length of
unit (mm)
Variance *10000
Length of
unit (mm)
Variance *10000
Length of
unit (mm)
Variance *10000
Length of
unit (mm)
31
53
44
36
27
35
45
39
52
30
37
67
42
57
71
38
67
64
53
65
55
59
80
47
33
47
56
42
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
65
47
14
38
49
54
57
68
24
31
64
52
72
74
59
44
47
64
74
48
75
54
44
48
68
68
43
44
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
56
38
43
53
73
41
31
51
42
49
46
78
63
46
38
53
58
55
59
92
64
63
26
52
35
52
45
64
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
357
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
Variance *10000
71
61
34
38
30
45
46
46
66
53
57
44
38
33
40
35
56
42
40
55
32
46
39
36
46
48
60
Conclusion
The results are given in Table E1, and plotted as a
graph in Figure E2. It is clear that a value of 280mm
gives the lowest value of the Variance, with no other
value offering a serious challenge. It is highly probable,
therefore that the unit of measurement used at Jarrow
in the initial construction was very close to 280mm in

length. This may be compared with the figure of
11.05in. or 281mm quoted for Yeavering (HopeTaylor 1977, 125), although that figure is not supported by any strict analytical evidence (Bettess 1991, 50).
Appendix F. Analysis of wood, pollen and other botanical

remains
Although a considerable number of soil samples was
taken from both sites, the heavy clay soils proved inimicable to pollen preservation and samples from, for
example, the medieval cultivation terraces at Jarrow
yielded no pollen evidence. Two contexts at
Wearmouth did, however, yield evidence which threw
light on different periods of site abandonment: the silts
from the bottom of the pit 1377 (Vol 1, Fig 10.7); and
disused latrine pit 142.
Potentilla palustris is a species of fens and marshes,

while the rushes are typical of wet meadows. None of
these species is edible and it would seem unlikely that
the pit was used as a latrine or rubbish dump for waste
food. Neither are there any rat or mouse bones, which
are often associated with food waste. The scraps of
wool cloth, however, indicate that it was a dump of
some kind. One would expect these plants to grow in
any damp hollow such as this, particularly after its
abandonment.
Although this feature was, when in use, a latrine
(see Vol 1) during the medieval period, the deposits
within it seem to be part of the site clearance. [RC]
Wearmouth
Fills of pit 1377
by J Turner and V Hewetson
Jarrow
The fills of this deep pit yielded some identifiable wood

samples from context 1468 of holly (Ilex aquifolium)
and a conifer (MK 64 AAS) and from context 1464 of
elder (Sambucus nigra) MK 64 AAO.
The following pollen grains were found in the silt
fill of context 1474:
by A Donaldson
In context 411 four bags of charcoal and wood were
analysed, yielding Quercus (oak), Salix (willow) and
Pinus sylvestris (Scots Pine).
In contexts 356, 357, 365 and 367, which overlay
the floor of Building A, five bags of constructional
charcoal from the Anglo-Saxon building included
Quercus (oak) and Fraxinus (ash). Some uncarbonised,
non-constructional wood was identified as Salix (willow).
A possible latrine pit (5883) and Anglo-Saxon floor
level were also examined but did not contain any
botanical remains.
A sample from a medieval drain (2384) contained
Quercus charcoal, fish bones and a snail shell.
A medieval pit (3688) contained Quercus and
Corylus (hazel) charcoal.
A soil sample from context 982, a silt deposit over
the revetment wall of Workshop 2, riverside buildings
phase 4, contained abundant elderberry seeds which
were distributed throughout. These seeds have lignified walls and are more resistant to decay than most
seeds. The deposit might represent the accumulated
berries fallen from a tree which became naturally
incorporated into the soil by earthworm activity.
Alternatively, the fruit may represent a food/drink
resource or the deposit may even have been faecal.
Elderberry seeds are resistant to decay, whereas delicate seeds, cereal bran etc may not have been preserved: such preservation is typical of relatively
well-drained sites, such as Hartlepool and Newcastle (J
Huntley, pers comm).
Many other soil samples were also examined but
contained no botanical remains.
Tree pollen 16 grains (birch 15, alder 1)

Shrub pollen 48 grains (hazel 40, willow 8)
Herb pollen 41 grains (grasses 14, sedges 1, heather
3, Compositae 2, mugwort 4,
plantain 15, Cruciferae 2)
Spores
23
(horsetails 5, bracken 18)
The absence of oak, ash and elm wood and pollen
is interesting and indicates that there was not an adequate source of natural woodland near the site at the
time. The high proportion of shrub and herb pollen
and the range of types of found in the group fit in with
the idea that there was a considerable amount of waste
ground around the site.
Pit 142, disused latrine pit

by A Donaldson
Sieved material from pit 142 yielded the following
botanical material:
Potentilla palustris (L) Scop Marsh cinquefoil 1 fruit
Juncus bufonius L
Toad rush
1 seed
J effusus L/J conglomeratus L rushes
9 seeds
J articulatus L/acutiflorus Enrh ex Hoffm
1 seed
Pieces of monocot epidermis, probably Juncus spp,
carbonised organic material and unidentifiable insect
material.
629
Appendix G. Absolute dating
Introduction
using the Oxcal computer program of C Bronk

Ramsey (Proc 15th Internatl 14C Conference, Radiocarbon
37 (2), 42530).
The samples were all charcoal, the first two from a
deposit lying in a hollow on the floor of Building A
(Fig 16.13) and thought to be from structural timber,
the third from charred oak filling hearth 994 in the
phase 4 of the workshops/riverside buildings (Fig
16.80).
The first date from Building A falls broadly within
the later prehistoric to Roman period, and could perhaps be taken to imply the reuse of Roman timber as
well as stone and tile in the Anglo-Saxon buildings.
The second date from the same deposit falls in the later
Roman to early medieval bracket and suggests the use
of seasoned timber in the construction of the buildings,
which probably occurred in the period AD 685700.
Although these two samples were kept for a long time
before submission to the laboratory (taken 1966, submitted 1974), this is unlikely to have affected the
results and any potential contamination would have
made the results too young rather than too old (A
Bayliss, pers comm). The final date, from hearth 994,
falls within the later Saxon period and is consistent
with the use of this hearth in the period pre-dating the
Norman reoccupation of the site. In effect, the radiocarbon dates simply provide a terminus post quem for
their respective contexts.
An archaeomagnetic date was determined for
hearth 994 by Dr Mark Noel, then at the University of
Newcastle, in 1978. The result was kindly recalibrated
by Paul Linford of English Heritage in 2003. The
mean direction of thermoremanent magnetisation calculated from 12 of the 15 samples collected after partial AF demagnetisation, was:
by Rosemary Cramp
It is today obvious that many problems might have
been solved on both sites, not least in relation to the
chronology of the cemeteries and the later preConquest occupation, if more use could have been
made of dating techniques which are now a standard
part of any excavation programme. At Wearmouth the
meagre excavation funds and the total lack of postexcavation funding (except for the Fletcher funds for
employment for a time of a research assistant), meant
that no absolute dating techniques were employed for
any samples from that site. Some radiometric dating
was undertaken at Jarrow (see below) but in the 1960s,
and even the 1970s, it was not considered as standard
practice for early medieval sites. One can see why this
was so if one considers the degree of precision necessary for any useful clarification for the semi-historic
periods. Other techniques that were tried, such as
archaeomagnetic dating and pre-dose thermoluminescence techniques, were still in the experimental stages.
It is also true that no samples were retrieved under the
same rigorous conditions as today, and for radiocarbon
dating not enough samples were taken.
Radiocarbon dates
Three samples of charcoal were submitted, through
the Ancient Monuments Laboratory, to the Harwell
laboratory for conventional radiocarbon dating. The
full results are set out in Table G1. The dates are quoted in conventional years BP (before AD 1950) using the
half life of 5568 years with errors expressed at the 1
sigma level of confidence. The dates were calibrated
Table G1 Radiocarbon dates from Jarrow

Lab no.
context
material
date uncal
BP
Cal date: 1 sigma
HAR-960 JA 66 ZP #1: charcoal

from hollow in
opus signinum
floor of Building A, thought
to be remains of
structural timber
204080
BP
170 cal
HAR-961 JA 66 ZP #2, charcoal

as above
154070
BP
cal
HAR-2910 fill of hearth Quercus charcoal

[50]
from mature
?JA 78 GP
timbers
context 1020?
110080
BP
cal AD 820840 (0.02) cal AD 6901050 (0.99)

submitted 1978.
cal AD 8601020 (0.98) cal AD 10901120 (0.01) Archaeo mag date
gave result of
120010 BP
AD
630
BC50
cal
430600
AD
cal date: 2 sigma
comments
360300 cal BC (0.05)

250 cal BC120 cal AD
(0.95)
NB. the sample was

kept for a long time
before submission (in
1974). Could imply
use of Roman timber
as well as stone/tile
cal
submitted Nov 1974.

Building probably
constructed c 685700
AD, and confirms use
of seasoned timber
AD
380650
APPENDIX G
Declination = 15.4, Inclination = 63.7,
95 = 1.2
This direction was corrected for the location of the

site (Longitude 1.5W, Latitude 55N) and compared
with the UK Archaeomagnetic Calibration Curve of
Clark et al (1988) to infer a date for the last firing of
the hearth:
AD
11701210 at the 95% confidence level
However, comparison with the radiocarbon dating

indicates that this date is impossibly late and it appears
likely that the hearth has moved since it was last fired,
perhaps tilting by about 6 to the south.
Fission track dating

A sample of amber glass (JA 73 UZ 444, context 2018)
from the floor of the Anglo-Saxon Building D, was
submitted through the Ancient Monuments
Laboratory (Lab no. 743020) to Dr H A Khan of the
Department of Physics, Birmingham University. The
last date when the glass was above annealing temperature was provided as AD 980170, expressed more
realistically between 810 and 1150. This would be the
date at which the building was burnt down and the
half-melted glass exploded onto the floor, rather than
the date of manufacture. This pre-dates the Norman
occupation of the site but does not help much in determining the date of the destruction of Building D.
Luminescence dating of pottery

from Jarrow
631
precision, including sherds JA21-2, -3, -4, burnt daub

from Building D using the quartz inclusion technique
(JA46) and tile from Building D (232-1) using the
optically stimulated luminescence technique (Aitken
1985; 1998). A separate technical specification for
sample 232-1 is given below.
The luminescence age is determined using the Age
Equation (Aitken 1985):
Palaeodose (Gy) ,
Luminescence Age (years =
Dose rate (Gy/year)
where Gy denotes the unit of absorbed dose, the gray.
The luminescence age (and hence the date) is given in
calendrical years and does not require a method of calibration. However, the methodology developed and
practised at the Durham Laboratory has included testing in which checks against independent dating evidence are performed using either dates produced by
other scientific methods for associated material or by
testing diagnostic wares. As discussed further below,
TL dates are presented in the recommended format
(Bailiff 1986) with two measures of statistical uncertainty given at the 68% level of confidence (LoC):
Laboratory reference
Dur81TLpdJA-2
Luminescence date
AD 140030; 50
The first uncertainty term is calculated by assessing

random sources of error and is used when comparing
individual luminescence dates; the second uncertainty
term is calculated by assessing both random and systematic sources of error and is used when comparing
luminescence dates with independent dating evidence.
In keeping with previous practice, the uncertainties are
given at the 68% level of confidence.
by Ian Bailiff
A programme of testing was established in the latter
years of the excavation with the aim of exploring
methodologically the potential of the use of thermoluminescence for dating medieval pottery from Jarrow
and archaeologically an improved chronological framework for regional medieval coarse wares.
Thermoluminescence (TL) dating measurements
were performed using the pre-dose technique (Bailiff
1991) with the majority of samples in view of its superior sensitivity over other techniques available at the
time the work was undertaken (19781981). It is
worth noting that the pre-dose technique had been
originally developed for the authentication of ceramic
works of art (Fleming 1973), and the testing of ceramics from Jarrow represented the first time that it had
been applied to the dating of medieval ceramics from
Britain. In the course of the project new aspects of the
technique were revealed and these were later incorporated into an extensively revised experimental procedure, as reviewed in Bailiff (1991). The key elements
of the revised technique were incorporated in the testing performed with the samples discussed here. At
later stages further samples were tested with lower
Laboratory measurements
The sherds selected for testing had been previously
washed and examined to allow the form and fabric
type to be recorded; from each sufficient material was
cut to provide material for testing and the remainder
archived. The section removed for laboratory testing
was crushed and sieved using standard geological separation techniques to obtain crystalline grains in the
size range 90150 m. Luminescence measurements,
performed using either the pre-dose or quartz inclusion TL techniques or the OSL technique were performed with aliquots of grains of typically 12mg each.
The yield of the crystalline material within this grain
size range is typically less than 5% by weight of the
uncrushed ceramic, hence the need for several grams
of ceramic when preparing samples.
For the pre-dose technique used with the Jarrow
samples the dose-rate is primarily delivered by beta
and gamma radiation due to radionuclides in the
ceramic and surrounding soil respectively (Bailiff and
Watson 1985). The techniques of beta TL dosimetry
(Bailiff 1982a) and thick source alpha counting
(Aitken 1985) were used to determine the dose rate
632
within each ceramic sample. Samples of soil representative of key contexts, obtained in areas of the site
where excavation was still in progress, were tested
using the above techniques to determine the (gamma)
dose-rate. Additionally the annual dose in soil due to
gamma radiation was measured directly by depositing
TL dosemeter probes at various locations on the site
for periods of up to one year. Since the dose rate is
affected by moisture the average moisture content during the burial period was estimated on the basis of
water content and uptake measurements performed
with sherds and soils from the site.
Results and discussion

The 32 luminescence dating results for the Jarrow
sherds are summarised in Table G2, together with their
context number and dating on the basis of fabric type.
Of the 43 sherds tested, 31 yielded dates, but three were
omitted from the final listing since an evaluation of the
fabric was not available (see Ch 33.2). In the absence
of the availability of multiple samples from sealed
coeval deposits, averaging of dates was not performed.
Sample JA39 proved to be instrumental in further

development of the pre-dose technique (Bailiff 1991)
and, on the basis of a later technical study (Bailiff
1982a) it was found to exhibit a previously unknown
mechanism associated with the pre-dose effect, giving
rise to a significant underestimate of the palaeodose.
Hence the luminescence date for this sample should be
discounted. Reference is made in the comments column of Table G2 to high initial sensitivity (denoted
technically as high So) in the case of samples JA2, 24,
34 and 35. The pre-dose technique is based on a
change in TL sensitivity that is proportional to the
palaeodose, and this is activated in the laboratory by
thermal activation to high temperatures (c 500C). The
mechanism is reset during firing of the pottery, giving
rise to a negligible sensitivity that is assumed to be
maintained throughout the burial period. However, a
non-negligible initial sensitivity was detected in 7 samples (JA2, 24, 34, 35, 38, 40 and 41) and required further investigation. A more detailed examination of the
context notes indicated that in three of these cases
(JA38, 40 and 41) there was evidence of burning, which
could have partially activated the sensitivity change.
Table G2 Luminescence dates from Jarrow

Lab no.
context
finds code
pottery type
date (AD)
JA/TL/2
JA/TL/4
JA/TL/5
JA/TL/7
JA/TL/8
JA/TL/9
JA/TL/11
JA/TL/14
JA/TL/21
JA/TL/21/2
JA/TL/21/3
JA/TL/21/4
JA/TL/22
JA/TL/23
JA/TL/24
JA/TL/26
JA/TL/27
JA/TL/28
JA/TL/29
JA/TL/30
JA/TL/33
JA/TL/34
JA/TL/35
JA/TL/36
JA/TL/37
JA/TL/38
JA/TL/39
JA/TL/40
JA/TL/41
2372
2372
2372
981
981
981
981
981
589
1113
4079
2372
2018
2144
2144
2144
3323
3680
3680
179
786
3282
3207
3323
2807
2810
2807
2845
2840
75 EY
75 EY 397
75 EY
76 FE
76 FE
76 FE
76 FE
76 FE
78 HZ
75 GX
70 NU
75 EY
73 UZ
73 RQ 4
73 RQ 5
73 RQ 30
69 SE
70 AGG
70 AGH
65 GP
69 OJ
69 RO
69 NS
69 PZ
78 HG 5
78 EX 2
78 HG 11
78 KX
78 KO 3
D1 (10751200)
D2? (11001250)
D4 (11501250)
D4 (11501250)
C/D
C1 (11501200)
D12 (10751200)
C1? (11501200)
D2 (11001250)
D8 (10751200)
D6 (650900)
D3 (11001200)
D8 (10751200)
C1 (11501200)
D1 (10751200)
E10 (10751300)
E11b (12001350)
D7? (10751200)
E11a (12001350)
E11c? (12501400)
E11c (12501400)
E11a/b (12001350)
E11a/b (12001350)
E11b/c (12001400)
E11c? (12501400)
E11a/b? (12001350)
C1 (11501200)
D12 (10751200)
D1 (10751200)
1400
1390
1250
1290
1280
1040
1230
1010
1550
1030
780
1310
1380
1000
1200
1410
1510
1455
1440
1500
1290
1350
1550
1455
1490
1620
1635
1400
1580
JA/TL/42
JA/TL/43
2852
2804
78 KM
78 DN
E10 (10751300)
?
1225
1205
1650
random error
years 68% LoC
overall error
years 68% LoC
comments
30
50
40
40
40
50
40
55
25
high So
23
55
45
30
25
30
30
25
40
40
25
30
25
20
20
30
20
50
60
65
60
60
80
65
85
40
150
240
135
55
85
70
50
40
45
50
40
60
60
40
45
45
30
30
50
35
40
40
20
70
70
30
high So
high So
high So
high So; burnt

discounted
high So; burnt
high So; date
of burning
date of firing
APPENDIX G
633
Fig G1 Graph of luminescence dates plotted against fabric dates. I K Bailiff

The results of further tests indicate that the degree of
heating was sufficient to cause such activation in the
case of JA41, but not for JA38 and JA40. Assuming
that a single burning event took place, both the date of
manufacture and the date of burning are suggested for
JA41. The tests performed with samples JA-24 and 35
indicate that if any activation had occurred during the
burial period it was not substantial, whereas for samples JA2 and34 the cause of the high initial sensitivity
could not be identified.
The lower precision dates obtained for the ceramic
tile of AD 320190 (sample 232-1, see below) and
burnt daub of AD 680250 (JA46) suggest manufacture in the Roman and Anglo Saxon periods respectively, although they both have date ranges that span
the late Roman/Anglo Saxon periods at the 95% level
of confidence.
Fabric chronology (see Chapter 33.2)

Given the exploratory nature of this project in technical terms and its inception in the closing stages of the
excavation, there are aspects of the integration of
excavation, post-excavation analysis and laboratory
testing that in retrospect were not fully optimised. For
example, at the time of submission the importance of
the context for the chronology of the site, as well as the
importance of the fabric type were considered, but in
the light of the very recent dates provided by some
sherds which had been recovered from contexts where
burning had taken place, it would have been sensible
to avoid contexts where there was the possibility of
secondary heating. Nonetheless, a notable feature of

the pre-dose technique is the possibility to recover both
the dates of manufacture and of secondary heating
which, as discussed above, is not possible using the
other TL techniques. In the case of sample JA-41, the
luminescence dates for manufacture and secondary
burning are AD 122540; 70 and AD 158035; 20
respectively.
The relationship between the luminescence and
assigned fabric dates is shown in Figure G1; the line
plotted on the graph represents a line of concordance
between the two methods of dating. As discussed
above, it should be noted that following previous practice the luminescence age ranges are given at the 68%
level of confidence. In the case of the sample of
Whitby-type ware JA-21/3 (fabric D6), for example,
the luminescence and fabric date ranges (albeit large in
this case) overlap the line and are therefore in agreement. Those luminescence date ranges lying to the left
of the line are earlier than the assigned fabric date
range and those lying to the right are later than the fabric date range. As can be seen in the graph the majority of the results lie to the right of the line of
concordance, and in some cases such as JA-21 (AD
155040; fabric D2) and JA-40 (AD 140050; fabric
D12) are considered to be significantly younger than
the date ranges assigned on the basis of fabric type (AD
11001250 and AD 10751200 respectively). In the
absence of an undetected systematic underestimate of
the palaeodose in either case, the lack of agreement
with the fabric date ranges remains a matter of concern. However, it should be noted in Fig G1 that the
634
Fig G2 Histogram of central values of luminescence dates (without differentiation on the basis of fabric type). I K Bailiff
date ranges for the majority of the samples, when
ranked by the central value of the age, provide an
acceptable relative fabric chronology. An overall feature of the results is that for a high proportion of the
fabric types the luminescence dates suggest a persistence in production that extends beyond the range
assigned by fabric analysis. Also of note are the dates
for fabric C1 (AD 104080, JA9 and AD 111080,
JA23) that are consistent with the early post-Conquest
date for their contexts but are significantly earlier than
the date range assigned by fabric analysis (AD
11501200). This anomaly is also apparent when
the central values of the TL dates are plotted as a
histogram (Fig G2), since it shows significant gaps
in the period from c AD 8001050 and from about
AD 11001200 (see archaeological commentary
below).
Ceramic tile and daub
The results of thermoluminescence tests with quartz
inclusions proved to be unsatisfactory, but optically
stimulated luminescence provided a more satisfactory
outcome. The date produced at the 68% level of confidence is:
Context material
2016
ceramic tile
(JA 73 UF)
date
320130;
190 AD
lab ref
Dur99Slqi 232-1
Since the date range at the 95% level of confidence

is 60 BCAD 700, it is likely that the tile was manufactured in the Roman period, but the possibility that it
was made in the Anglo-Saxon period cannot be
excluded.
Sample no. JA46 gave a high-temperature survey
result of AD 680250, which would be consistent with
the Anglo-Saxon date for the building.
Archaeological commentary
by Rosemary Cramp
At the time when the pottery was submitted for dating,
most of the fabrics were unparalleled from well-dated
contexts elsewhere. Since then more comparative material has become available, although there are still significant problems in the dating of pottery in north-east
England. The fabrics chosen were considered at the
time to range in date between the late Saxon period and
the 14th century. As noted in the scientific report
above, it would have been useful to have chosen pottery
which had not been in contact with burning on site, but
even knowing the effect that this produced it would
have sometimes been difficult to avoid such contexts.
As is noted in the pottery report (Ch 33.2), the middle to late pre-Conquest period is considered as virtually aceramic and this is born out by the TL programme.
That programme did, however, identify an earlier dating
for the C1 type of pottery, and this is consistent with the
luminescence date of AD 1080180 provided by a sample of the clay lining of the Dog Bank pottery kiln
(OBrien et al 1988, 31). This would also be in accord
with the archaeological stratigraphy. The luminescence
programme then recorded a gap in the 12th century,
which is not borne out by the pottery dating. This happens to be a period when there is a gap in the historical
sources and there remains a possibility that for part of
the time there was very little activity on the site. The fabric dates for the bulk of the pottery submitted are tightly clustered from the beginning of the 12th to the end of
the 14th century, while the TL dates span a much wider
range (see Figs G1 and G2). Some of the younger dates
can be explained by secondary burning but others, such
as for sample JA-26 and JA-27 (Table G2), are not so
easily explained. This has been an interesting and useful
exercise, and discoveries in the future may demonstrate
that types that have been identified under one label here
can be subdivided or have a longer period of use.
Appendix H. The excavation archives
The principal elements of the excavation archives for

Wearmouth and Jarrow are as follows:
Wells, C and Birkett, D Catalogue of human skeletal

remains from Wearmouth
Aspinall, A [1970] Notes on NAA analysis of AngloSaxon glass
Bailiff, I K Preliminary report on TL dating of pottery
from St Pauls monastery, Jarrow
Bayley, J [1984] Notes on crucibles etc from Jarrow.
Bramwell, D [nd] Listing of bird bone identifications.
Cox, A [1981] EDXRF plots and data (Anglo-Saxon
glass)
Edwards, L The clay pipes from Jarrow
Edwards, L The clay pipes from Jarrow Slake
Edwards, L The clay pipes from Wearmouth
Emery, N Structural survey of cottage in Jarrow cloister
Firby, M Detailed records of Anglo-Saxon window
glass
Henderson, J The chemical analysis of glassy residues in
crucibles from Jarrow
Jones, A K J and Hutchinson, A R [1989] Fish remains
from the excavations at Jarrow
Hunter, J Report on excavations in Jarrow church,
19723
Newton, R [1977] Notes on microscopic examination
of Anglo-Saxon glass.
Noddle, B [1981] Animal bones from Jarrow: first report
Noddle, B [1984] Report on the mammalian bones from
Jarrow 1975 and 1976
Noddle, B [1987] Animal bones from Jarrow: third report
(AM Lab report 80/87)
OConnor, T [1986] Bird and small mammal bones from
Jarrow
OConnor, T [1987] Bird and other bones from Jarrow
Padgham, C [1980] Spectrophotometric analysis and
colour measurements of Anglo-Saxon glass (notes,
data and plots)
Ross, S [1990] Pins from Jarrow Slake
Tite, M and Freestone, I [1986] Report on the composition of glass from San Vincenzo and its relationship with
glass from Northumbria
Tite, M [1985] Preliminary report on the scientific examination of ceramic crucibles from Jarrow
Wells, C Report on human remains from Monkwearmouth
Wells, C [1967] Interim notes and summary of human
burials from Jarrow 1965
Wells, C Jarrow Abbey the human remains
Wells, C, Anderson, S and Birkett, D The human
remains (Jarrow)
Wells, C, Anderson, S and Birkett, D The human
remains (Monkwearmouth).
York glaziers [1993] Letter and illustration concerning
reconstruction of figure window, Jarrow
1. Primary record
Site notebooks
Feature books
Plans and sections
Site photographs and transparencies
Finds
Site Finds Registers
Finds Index Cards
Skeleton notebooks
Skeleton index cards
Surveying notes
2. Post-excavation records
Post-excavation context and finds assemblage records
Complete context catalogue
Trench-by-trench stratigraphic analysis and notes
Numbering keys: correlation of old and new numbering
Interpretative notes
Computerised finds listings, by material
Finds catalogues
Finds drawings
Finds photographs and negatives
Pottery record sheets
Pottery databases
Pottery fabric records
Skeleton and detailed burial records
Burial catalogues
3. Post-excavation research
Early graphic records (plans, prints, maps, photos)
Documentary and historic sources
Specialist finds reports and analyses (see below)
Specialist reports in archive

Best, LR [1935] Letter dated 24/3/1935, recording
early dig at Jarrow
Anderson, S [1987] A catalogue of the human burials
from Jarrow skeletons not examined by C Wells
Anderson, S [1992] Monkwearmouth catalogue of skeletons
Anderson, S [1992] The human skeletal remains from
Monkwearmouth and Jarrow (compiled from information collected by Calvin Wells, Sue Anderson and
David Birkett)
635
Notes
Chapter 27
Chapter 36
1. Wilfrid had at a time earlier than this glazed the

windows of St Peters cathedral at York (Colgrave
1927, 345), but Wilfrid and Benedicts initial building
campaigns seem to have been strictly segregated,
although there are similarities in the sculptural decoration of Jarrow and Hexham (see sculpture section).
Aldhelm c 690 described the clear sunlight which
shone through the windows of a church in Wessex
(Ehwald 1919, 1718; Lapidge and Rosier 1985, 49),
and at another church in Northumbria built in the
early 8th century and described in De Abbatibus
(Campbell 1967, 51), the sunlight is likewise described
as diffused through the windows. These references
have been discussed in Cramp 1975c, 93, and Dodwell
1982, 634. Such descriptions from Anglo-Saxon
England are in marked contrast to the accounts of
coloured window glass from the continent (Lafond
1966, 223). Perhaps it was the additional skill in creating colours that Benedict wished to acquire.
1. The analysis of the human bone was undertaken

before the detailed stratigraphic analysis of the Jarrow
burials had been completed. A few burials have subsequently been reassigned. The main difference between
the two reports is the treatment of the 84 unphasable
Saxon or medieval graves (coded D). Lowther excluded these graves from her numerical analysis, whereas
Anderson treated the 45 that were submitted to her for
analysis as medieval. The phasing of specific individuals has been amended in the text and amendments are
indicated in the catalogue of human remains.
2. These consist of twelve burials (coded B1 by
Lowther) incorporated with the medieval group in the
cemetery analysis.
3. The latter total excludes four burials that were
phased as medieval after the analysis had been completed.
636
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Index
Note: Figures in italics refer to illustrations.
Ade of Bernham 258
Aghtamar 164
agricultural workers 584
Ailcy Hill 291, 297, 298, 300
Alan, Canon of Inchaffray 256
Alcock, Leslie 464
Alcuin 268
Aldwin 36, 204, 382, 412
Alston Moor 145
amber 2568, 257
amphisbaena carving, Wearmouth 212,
213
animals and animal bones 546
age distribution 547, 548, 550, 560,
562, 563, 564, 565
age stages 554, 5545
amphibian 557
Anglo-Saxon 5469, 551, 5601, 576,
581
badger 549, 563
beaver 566
bird 551, 553, 567, 568, 570
distribution by period 556, 557
duck 550, 563, 564, 565, 567
fowl 5467, 550, 552, 561, 563, 564,
565, 572, 595
goose 547, 557, 561, 563, 565, 567,
575, 584, 596
pigeon 547, 564, 565, 567
species 574
unassigned 5735
wild 550, 561, 563, 564, 565, 567
body parts 568
cat 550, 561, 566, 567, 568, 569, 570,
596
cattle
inventory 583
Jarrow 554, 559, 560, 5601, 562,
563, 564, 566, 567, 568, 575
measurements 5701, 583, 58690
pathology and abnormalities 5689,
569, 570
Wearmouth 5467, 548, 550, 551,
552
crustacea 549, 550, 555, 558
deer 550, 561, 563, 564, 566, 567, 568,
570, 5723, 581, 596
documentary evidence 5814
dog 550, 561, 566, 567, 572, 596
ferret 549, 551
fish 547, 549, 552, 556, 561, 563, 564,
565, 566, 567, 575, 57581, 578,
579, 580, 581, 582
hare 550, 566, 568
horse 550, 561, 566, 567, 568, 569,
572, 584, 596
Jarrow 5525, 562
Anglo-Saxon 5601, 576, 581
distribution by period 556
documentary evidence 5814
fish 57581, 578, 579, 580, 581
Late Saxon 5634, 576
Later Saxon/early medieval 564
measurements 5703
medieval 5658, 5778, 5801
Norman 5645
569
species 5557, 558, 55960
summary 575
unassigned birds 5735
livestock 550, 551, 552, 565
measurements 555, 5703, 583, 58596
meatweight 555, 561
medieval 54951, 5658, 5778, 5801
midden deposits 568, 56870, 571, 583
molluscs 548, 549, 550, 552, 555, 556,
558, 559, 560, 563, 564, 565, 566,
567, 568, 582
Noddles database 5534
569
period groups 553
pigs
inventory 584
Jarrow 554, 559, 560, 561, 562, 564,
566, 567, 568, 575
measurements 572, 5934
metapodial 268, 279, 280
pathology and abnormalities 569, 570
Wearmouth 5467, 548, 550, 551,
552
polecat 551
proportions of food species 559, 560
rabbit 549, 551, 552, 566, 567
rat 549, 551, 552, 5656, 568
sheep/goat
Jarrow 554, 5567, 559, 560, 562,
564, 566, 567, 568, 575
measurements 5712, 5903
pathology and abnormalities 569, 570
resources 583
Wearmouth 5467, 548, 550, 551
species 547, 550, 5557, 558, 55960,
576
summary 5512, 575
Wearmouth
Anglo-Saxon 5469
medieval 54951
summary 5512
weasel 549
wild boar 551
antler objects 268
combs 270, 271, 272, 2723
craft implements 274, 275, 276
miscellaneous 279, 281
rings 273
waste material 2689, 269
Apollonia, Israel 152, 153, 154
arable crops 582
Ardwall Isle cemetery 4634
Armagh 265
arrowheads 289, 290
Austin Friars, Leicester 248
bag rings 268, 273
Ballinderry 238
Bamburgh 219
bangles, glass 258, 258, 265
Barhobble 258
Barker, H 185
Barking 78, 79, 247, 315
663
Barnes, I Lynus 145

Barton-upon-Humber 192
Battle Abbey 323
Bayley, Justine 79
Baynards Castle, London 256
beads 239, 25961, 260, 265, 266
beakers 31415, 316, 317, 317, 318,
3212
Bede 37, 56, 139, 21617, 320
Bedes World Museum 70, 71, 80, 552
Bedfordbury, London 314
bells 250, 250
Benedict Biscop 33, 56, 78, 320, 333
Bet Eliezer, Israel 1501, 151, 152, 152
Bettess, Gladys 327
Beverley 78, 79
Bewcastle 166, 203
Billingham 166
binding strip, iron 286, 2867
Birka 270, 314
Birsay 275
Blackfriars 484, 486
Blythe Priory 354
bone objects 268, 2735, 274
combs 271, 272, 273
craft implements 274, 275
household objects 274, 277
miscellaneous 279
needle cases 274, 276
needles 582
recreational 27880, 279
spoons 274, 277
styli 278, 279
textile manufacture 274, 276
book clasps 230, 2478, 248
botanical remains, analysis 629
Bothal, Northumberland 195
Botolphs 269
bowls, wooden 307
Branch Wall, the 12
Brand, J 1
Brandon 78, 79, 236, 272, 337
bricks 29, 36
Brill, Robert 56, 62, 65, 78, 147, 148
British Museum Research Laboratory 56
Brixworth 78
brooches 230, 230, 272
Bruce, J C 1
Bruce-Mitford, R L S 15
Brugge 394
Bryn Athyn, Pennsylvania 147
buckles
copper alloy and silver 230, 231, 2313,
232
iron 289, 290
ring 232, 233
burials
4835 5
Anglo-Saxon 291
catalogue 598624
coffin 302
female 229
grave fill 258
juvenile 484
shroud 240
Buston Crannog 240
664
buttons 230, 244, 2445

Byland Abbey 34
Byzantine mosaic 141
Cambois burial 270, 272
cames: see window leads
Canterbury 236, 270, 275
CARE, Imperial College, University of
London 148
Carlisle 219
carved stone, medieval: see also sculpture
Aldwinian period assemblage 204
bases 204, 2067, 208, 212, 213
capitals 204, 206, 207, 212, 213
columns 207, 209, 210
horse head corbel 205, 205, 206
Jarrow 20412, 205, 2079, 211
later medieval 2067, 207, 208, 209,
210, 211, 212
other fragments 212
Romanesque 2045, 206
shafts 204
spiraliform grooving 204
Wearmouth 212, 213
windows 206, 210, 211, 212, 213
casket mounts 2456, 246
Castle Dyke 239
Castle Hill, Dunbar 261
cemeteries, Wearmouth 22
Ceolfrith 333
ceramic tiles 35, 54
dating 34, 634
Jarrow 35, 356
origins 34
production groups
Group I (CT16) 33, 34
Group II (CT17) 33
Group III (CT18-22) 334, 34
Group IV (CT23-26) 34
Group V (CT27) 34
Group VI (CT28) 34
Group VII (CT29-31) 34
roof 545
chains 250, 250, 286, 287
chairs 1645, 277
Chartes 147
Cheddar 239
Chenery, Simon 338
Cherry Hinton 270
Chessel Down 239
Chester-le-Street 167, 168, 200, 203
Christ Church, Canterbury 204
Church Bank, Jarrow 352
clasps 230
cleats 302
clench bolts 281, 2834, 284, 301
coal 479
Codex Amiatinus 15
coffin fittings, iron 291, 294: see also iron
objects
conclusion 3013
distribution 292
examination techniques 2913
hoops 302
nail holes 293, 2967, 298
nails 291, 292, 293, 2956, 301, 302
dimensions 293, 295
plates 291, 302
dimensions 293, 301
distribution 292
Group 1a 293, 297, 2978
Group 1b 293, 2989, 299

Group 2a 293, 299300
Group 2b 293, 3001
thickness 293
recorded data 2923
coffins
classification 291
construction 302
strengthening 300, 302
wood thickness 296, 297, 302
coins
8th Century 224
17th Century 225
Aethelred I 221, 2223
Aethelred II 219, 222, 223, 224
Alchred 219
Aldfrith 219
Alexander III 2245
Anglo-Saxon 224
Charles I of Scotland 225, 227, 228
Charles II of Scotland 227, 228
dies 219, 220, 222
Eadberht 219, 221, 222
Eanbald 221, 2223
Eanbald II 222, 223
Eanred 219, 220, 221, 222, 223
ecclesiastical 219
Edward the Confessor 224, 226, 227
Edward III 225, 227, 228
Edward IV 225
George I 226
Henry II 224, 226, 227
Henry III 227, 2278
Henry VII 224, 225
James VI/I 227, 228
Jarrow 218, 21819, 219, 221, 2224,
224, 2268, 227
joint issue 2223
Norman 224
Northumbrian 21924, 221
Osberht 219
Reduulf 219
Roman 218, 21819
sceattas 219, 2223, 224, 226, 227
Southern and later 2248, 225, 227
Southumbrian 224
stycas 219, 220, 2234
Wearmouth 218, 218, 219, 220, 224,
225, 2256
weight 228
column bases 204, 2067, 208, 212, 213
columns 207, 209, 210
combs 267, 268, 2703, 271
Community of St Cuthbert 200
compass-drawn ornamentation 15
contexts 597
copper alloy and silver objects 230: see
also bells; book clasps; brooches;
buckles; buttons; chain; hooked tags;
keys; locks; lace tags; mounts and
studs; nails; needles; personal possessions, miscellaneous; pins; rings;
strap-ends; styli; thimbles; tools;
vessels
amorphous fragments 255
other objects 253, 253
sheet fragments 255
Corbridge 1
Cork 256
Corning Museum of Glass 126
Corvey 60
Cox, Alwyn 56
Cramp 78
Cramp, Prof Rosemary 126, 142
Cronyn, Janey 2
crosses 194, 195, 198, 199, 199200, 200,
201, 202, 203
crucibles 78, 470, 474
analysis 4769
dish 471, 4746, 475, 477, 4778, 478
iron-poor clay fabric 4712, 4746
iron-rich clay fabric 4723, 476
distribution 471
glass-melting 4701, 473
glazing 472, 473, 477, 478, 4789
jar type 474, 4767, 477, 478
metalworking 470, 4734, 478, 479
notches 472
residues 473, 474, 476
tuyre 473
cucurbit 323
Cumbria 291
Cuthbert, Abbot 78
Cuthbert, St 217
Dacre 78, 79, 259, 291, 297, 300
Daines, Lucy 191
Daniels, Samantha 2
dating 630
fabric chronology 633, 6334
fission track 631
luminescence 6313, 633, 634
radiocarbon 6301
daub 1921, 20, 634
De Abbatibus 37
Derbyshire 146
Dere Street 1
dice 279, 280
diet 489, 549, 550, 552, 575
Dinas Powys 464
discoidal counter 268
distilling equipment 323
domestic utensils 251, 252
Dover 239, 276
dragons 212, 213
dress accessories 267, 26970, 271
Dublin 237, 238
Dunmisk 265
Dunstan, St 79
Durham 348, 351, 352, 392, 407
Durham Cathedral 15, 217
Durham University conservation laboratory
78
Eadberht, Bishop of Lindisfarne 37
Earls Barton 192
East Range 204, 408, 416, 419
Ebchester 168
Ecgberht, Bishop of Lindisfarne 37
Edlingham 203
effigies 214, 215
Egypt 152
elderberry seeds 480
Ellingham 256
enamel 243
Escomb 78, 165
Evesham 204, 382
Evison, Vera 63
Farfa Abbey 50, 79, 141
farm buildings 584
665
INDEX
Fetter Lane, London 173

Firby, Margaret 56, 60, 62, 66
fishing industry 582
Flanders 394
flasks 322
flint
ballast 461, 462
Filpoke Beacon assemblage 450
Jarrow 461, 4614, 462, 463
catalogue 4649
contexts 4613
post-prehistoric use 4634
Wearmouth 447
blades 4502, 451, 452
core rejuvenation flakes 4489, 449
cores 4489, 449
cortex classification 448
lithic material 454, 45461
microliths 450, 450
raw materials 448
scrapers 44950, 450
serrated blades and flakes 450
utilised flakes 452, 452
waste material 452, 4524, 455
working methods 4478
Flixborough 49, 78, 79, 267, 270, 314
flutes 279, 280
Fohr 270
fossil beads 261
Frisia 267
Frost, F 56
Fulda Cathedral 171
funerary and monumental sculpture 162,
1668, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198,
199200, 200, 201, 202, 203
inscriptions 193, 195, 196, 197, 199
medieval 214, 21517
furnishings 277
Fustat, Egypt 138
Fyson, D R 215
Galfrid de Burden 215
games 268, 2789
gaming pieces 267, 27880, 279
Garranes 265
Garton Slack, Yorkshire 297, 300
Gisborough 484
glass: see vessel glass; window glass
glass, plant ash 148
glass furnaces 79, 140
glass making centres 1523
glass manufacture 567, 60, 62, 645,
78, 7880, 13940, 1412, 147, 151,
155, 259, 261, 2636, 316, 322,
4701, 473, 480, 480
glass trade 1515
Glastonbury 78, 79, 470
Gloucester 473
gold foil thread 229, 22930
graffito 279, 281
grave covers and markers 1667, 193,
195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 215,
21517, 216
graves, Anglo-Saxon 291
Gravesend 276
Great Malvern 160
Great Paxton 204
Greatham 164
Greifswald, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
258
Guthlac 240
Hadrians Wall 12, 218, 325

Haithabu 272
Hallgarth Square, Wearmouth 424
Hamwic 78, 268, 269, 272, 273, 274,
275, 315, 337, 385
handles 286, 286
Harden, Donald 60, 62
harps 281
Hart 164, 336, 338, 354, 381
Hartlepool 166, 193, 272, 275, 336, 343,
381, 392
Hartley Wood 62
hasp 287, 288
Hayshaw Moor 147
hearths 36
Heddon-on-the-Wall 173
Helgo 259
Herat 134
Herebericht slab, the 166, 197
Herebericht the priest 193
Hereford 273
Hexham 166, 167, 179, 193, 203, 219,
220
Heysham 1415
Hiberno-Saxon design 267, 275
Higgitt, John 167
Hilton family 215
hinges 282, 283, 297, 2978, 302
Hodges, Charles 215
hooked tags 230, 2335, 234
hooks 281, 282
horn objects 274, 277
horse equipment 28991, 290
horseshoes 28990
Hugh of Le Puiset, Bishop of Durham
216, 217
Hughes, M J 148
human skeletal remains
adult 483, 4845, 501
age distribution 483, 484, 485, 501
burial catalogue 598624
catalogue 50339
circulatory disturbances 4945
comparative material 481
condition 482
congenital anomalies 491, 4912, 501
cranial indices 486, 540, 541
cribra orbitalia 494, 502
Cushings syndrome 493
degenerative disease 4923, 502
demographic analysis 4825
dental analysis 487
abscesses 489
anomalies 490
ante-mortem tooth loss 4878, 488,
501
calculus (tartar) 490
caries 488, 4889, 501
hypoplasia 490
unerupted teeth 48990, 501
dental survival 488
dwarfism 500, 502
fractures 497, 4979, 498, 499, 501, 502
infectious disease 495, 4956, 496, 502
JA 65/16 491, 498, 499, 520
JA 65/24 498, 520
JA 65/30 491, 491, 521
JA 67/1 490, 499, 521
JA 67/3 491, 492, 521
JA 67/5 491, 521
JA 67/11 498, 522
JA 67/16 491, 492, 499500, 522

JA 67/19 499, 522
JA 67/20 495, 522
JA 67/22 491, 492, 523
JA 67/26 490, 523
JA 67/28 500, 523
JA 67/29 491, 491, 492, 500, 523
JA 67/32 490, 496, 498, 5234
JA 67/40 491, 492, 524
JA 67/43 495, 499, 524
JA 67/49 493, 5245
JA 69/10 496, 525
JA 69/15 490, 498, 500, 501, 525
JA 69/16 490, 499, 525
JA 70/9 490, 526
JA 70/15 490, 527
JA 70/26 496, 527
JA 70/31 487, 527
JA 70/35 487, 5278
JA 70/60 490, 529
JA 70/68 491, 529
JA 70/71 490, 529
JA 70/73 490, 529
JA 70/82 496, 500, 500, 530
JA 70/90 490, 530
JA 70/95 490, 492, 531
JA 70/102 498, 531
JA 70/109 491, 5312
JA 70/112 499, 532
JA 70/123 499, 499, 532
JA 70/128 491, 532
JA 70/130 493, 532
JA 70/133 490, 495, 533
JA 70/134 491, 533
JA 70/136 496, 500, 533
JA 70/140 498, 533
JA 70/143 496, 496, 498, 5334
JA 70/148 496, 496, 534
JA 70/150 491, 534
JA 70/150-2 490, 534
JA 70/151 492, 498, 498, 534
JA 70/152 500, 534
JA 70/171 495, 535
JA 70/176 490, 535
JA 70/190 491, 494, 536
JA 70/195 499, 499, 536
JA 71/35 490, 537
JA 71/36 491, 537
JA 71/38 495, 537
JA 71/39 498, 537
JA 75/21 490, 538
JA 75/77 490, 538
Jarrow 481
adult 484
age distribution 483, 485
catalogue 51939
congenital anomalies 491, 4912
cranial indices 541
dental anomalies 490
fractures 4979, 498
infectious disease 4956
juvenile 484
miscellaneous lesions 499500
number examined 482
osteoarthritis 4923
phasing 4812
juvenile 481, 482, 484, 494, 501
age distribution 483, 484
congenital anomalies 491
dental analysis 489
666

miscellaneous lesions 499500, 500
lead content 36
miscellaneous lesions 499500, 500,
501, 502
MK 60/4 229
MK 61/43 495, 504
MK 64/18 491, 505
MK 66/6 490, 506
MK 66/12 492, 492, 506
MK 66/16 494, 507
MK 66/18 491, 499, 507
MK 66/30 495, 508
MK 66/31 494, 497, 497, 508
MK 66/39 494, 509
MK 66/41 494, 509
MK 66/59 495, 510
MK 66/61 491, 510
MK 66/66 494, 510
MK 66/71-6 491, 511
MK 66/77-2 490, 512
MK 66/83-2 490, 512
MK 66/84 497, 51213
MK 67/15 490, 514
MK 67/16 490, 514
MK 67/17 490, 514
MK 69/2 497, 51415
MK 69/5 491, 515
MK 69/20 497, 516
MK 71/20-2 491, 516
MK 71/26 495, 516
neoplasms (tumours) 4967, 502
non-metric traits 4867, 501
numbers of 482, 501
osteoarthritis 492, 4923
osteochondritic lesions 4945
phasing 4812
porotic hyperostosis 494
post-cranial measurements 5425
post-medieval 481, 4812
sex ratio 481, 4845, 501
spinal pathology 492, 493, 4934
stature 4856, 501
summary 5012
Wearmouth 229, 481
adult 484
age distribution 483, 485, 501
catalogue 50319
congenital anomalies 491
cranial indices 540
dental anomalies 490
fractures 497, 497
juvenile 484
miscellaneous lesions 499
number examined 482
osteoarthritis 492
phasing 481
post-cranial measurements 5425
wounds 498
Hunter, John 56, 62
Huntley, Dr Brian 142
Huy 332
Hypoge des Dunes, Poitiers 173, 185,
191
implements, iron 287, 288
inscriptions 165, 1667, 167, 193, 195,
196, 197, 199, 245, 256, 258
Inskip, G 37
Insular traditions 15
Ipswich 236, 268, 269, 274, 275, 276, 315
iron objects 281: see also coffin fittings,
iron; nails
arrowhead and spearhead 289, 290
binding strip 286, 2867
buckles 289, 290
chains 286, 287
cleats 302
clench bolts and roves 281, 2834, 284,
301
ferrule 289
handles 286, 286
hasp 287, 288
hinges 282, 283, 297, 2978, 302
hooks and staples 2813, 282
horse equipment 28991, 290
implements 287, 288
keys and locks 287, 288
knives 288, 289
rings 286, 287
strap fragments 282, 283
structural 281
Islamic glass 138
Italy, glass manufacture 1412
ivory 274, 275
Jarlshof 238
Jarrow
aggregate analysis 2, 4, 4
Anglo Saxon 54
roof flags 22, 22, 23, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28
Jarrow Building A
dating 630
flints 463
flooring 54
imbrices 30
lead fittings 42
melted lead 36
mortar 2
opus signinum 19
plaster 7, 10
pottery 326, 331, 343, 407
robbed walls 5
sculpture 165, 166, 176, 179, 180
vessel glass 313
window glass 656, 70, 78
Jarrow Building B
flints 463
flooring 54
interior 54
lead fittings 42
lead slivers 38, 49
melted lead 36, 38, 49
mortar 2
opus signinum 19
painted design 16
plaster 7, 10, 11, 1112
pottery 331, 407
Room Bii 19
south wall 5
vessel glass 313
Jarrow Building D
compass-drawn ornamentation 15
dating 631
daub 19, 20, 21
figural window 679, 71, 71, 72, 80
flints 463
flooring 54
foundations 1, 162
helmgyt stone 167
interior 54
lead fittings 42
lead melting hearth 36
lead slivers 38
melted lead 49
millefiori 2645
mortar 2
north wall 19, 162
painted design 17
plaster 5, 7, 10, 1214, 13, 14
pottery 336, 345, 407
rectangular window 70, 72
reused Roman stone 1
roof flags 27
roof tiles 32
sculpture 203
square window 70, 72
stone tools 437
window glass 63, 65, 67, 78
window lead 49
workshop area 37
workshop residues 47980
Jarrow monastic buildings 54, 55
Jarrow slab, the 21517, 216
Jarrow Slake
Area V 408, 409, 411
balusters 185
ceramic tiles 33
medieval window glass 159
pins 240
pottery 327, 354, 392, 408, 409, 411,
412, 425, 426
workshop residues 480
Jedburgh Abbey 342
jet 259, 261, 447, 447
Joel, Emil 145
Jouarre mausoleum, France 162
jugs 322
Jukes, John 62
kelp 138
keys 249, 24950, 287, 288
Kitzinger, E. 173
Knight, Dr Barry 501
knight, effigy of 214, 215
knives 230, 277, 288, 289
Kreutsch, Dr F 37
lace tags 235, 2356
Lagore 258, 265
lamps
glass 320
pottery 360, 361
stone 432, 433, 434, 435
Lanchester 168
land use 582
Lankhills cemetery 236, 239
Lasko, Peter 216
Lastingham 165, 172, 195
lathe turning 185, 191
lead 367: see also lead fittings; lead
objects; window leads
analysis 37
Anglo-Saxon 37, 38
casting 49
content in glass 65, 134, 147
distribution at Jarrow 42, 54, 55
distribution at Wearmouth 41, 54
isotope analysis 145, 1457, 146
INDEX
melted lumps 36, 38, 40, 42, 49

plate and sheet 378, 389, 39, 401
Roman 37, 147
roofing 37, 38, 43, 55
slivers 37, 38, 38, 39, 49
strips 37, 38, 3940, 41
structural 378
lead fittings 412
distribution at Jarrow 45
distribution at Wearmouth 44
fragmentary 48
function 434
manufacture and form 423
numbers of 43
roof 43, 44, 46, 47
type I 446, 46
type II 42, 44, 467
type III 42, 44,, 47 47
type IV 44, 478, 48
type V 44
washers 41, 44, 48, 489
lead melting hearths 36, 37
lead mining 37, 1457
lead objects 303, 304, 3056, 306: see also
lead fittings
Leazes Bowl 417
Ledsham 166
leprosy 495, 495
Lincoln 272, 473
Lindisfarne 37, 166, 193, 336
Lindisfarne Gospels 15
literacy 230, 2478, 248, 278, 279
Lives of St Cuthbert (Bede) 37
locks 249, 24950, 287, 288
London 268, 272, 273
Loquard 270
Lotharingia 204
Low Ford, South Hylton 461
lutes 281
Lycurgus cup 138
lyres 281
nails 43
coffin 291, 292, 293, 2956, 301, 302
copper alloy and silver 253, 253
dimensions 285, 293, 295
heads 285
horseshoe 28990
iron 281, 2846, 285
plated 2856
roof flags 27
types 2846
natron glass 13940, 147, 152, 152, 154
Natural History Museum 148
needle cases 268, 274, 276
needles 246, 247, 582
Netherton, Hants. 247
New Fresh Wharf, London 325
Newcastle upon Tyne
Orchard Street excavation 160
pottery 331, 336, 337, 338, 343, 345,
354, 355, 359, 363, 369, 370, 378,
381, 386, 392, 394, 395, 397, 398,
399, 401, 402, 403, 407, 41213,
423
Newton, Roy 60
North Elmham 272, 484, 487
North Sea littoral 267
Northallerton 167, 199
Northampton 273, 322
Norton 484, 486, 487
Norwich 273, 275
Notre Dame de Bondeville 60, 79
Nouaill, France 185, 191
MacNeil, Susan 139

madder 3401
masons 204
Mayen 332
measurements, units of 6258
Meigle, Perthshire 165
Melsonby 177
Mendip Hills 146
Meonstoke 15, 192
Merovingian sites 2
Mesolithic resource exploitation 455, 455
metalworking 470, 4734, 478, 47980
Middle Saxon objects 267, 273
millefiori 259, 263, 2637, 265, 266, 479,
480
Mills, Susan 327
monk, effigy of 214, 215
Monkwearmouth Hall 5, 6
Monkwearmouth Hallgarth Square 5, 6
Monkwearmouth Jacobean Hall 6
mortar 2, 27
Mote of Mark, Scotland 314
moulds 49, 444
mounts and studs
copper alloy and silver 2424, 243
millefiori 266, 266
polychrome 2613, 262
musical instruments 279, 2801
Mustair 80
Paderborn 49, 50, 60, 78, 80, 316, 337

personal possessions, miscellaneous
2457, 246
Philippi Basilica 50
Pilkingtons 62
pins
coil-headed 237, 239
crutch-headed 237, 2379
facet-headed 2367, 237
glass-headed 237, 239
rivet-headed 237, 23940: see also rivets;
tacks
stick 230, 2369, 237
stirrup rings 238
wire 2402, 241
pit 142 629
pit 317 629
pit 970 416
pit 976 416
pit 1499 416
plant remains, in daub 201, 21
plaster 2
analysis 2, 4, 78
Anglo-Saxon 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9
ornamentation 10, 1415
painted 3, 5
polychrome 6, 68, 7
analysis 78
oak (Quercus sp) 30910

Old Don Bridge 203
Old Malton Priory 256
Old Windsor 78
olive jars 4001
opus quadratum construction 1
opus signinum 1819, 53, 54
ovens 36
667
decoration 7, 815, 9, 11, 13, 14,

1415
pigments 8
red 10, 15, 18
red stripe 3, 810, 9
Types 4, 46
Poitiers 162, 173, 185, 191
pollen 629
porphyry verde 437, 446, 447
potters stamp, Samian 325
pottery
amounts 327
Anglo-Saxon 405, 407, 428
catalogue 3278
categories 3278
chronological framework 3278, 405,
406, 408, 4223
Colchester colour-coated beaker 325
dating 328, 6314
East Yorkshire grey ware 325
form types, chronology 4223
glazing 333, 335, 349, 353, 359, 361,
362, 363, 377, 378, 400, 423
graph codes 407
imported 392404, 405, 408, 414, 419
Jarrow, Anglo-Saxon and medieval 327
Jarrow Slake, Anglo-Saxon and medieval
327
medieval 1a 428
imported 408
local 4078
regional 408
site distribution 408, 409, 410, 411,
412, 41213, 413
medieval 1b 428
imported 414
local 41314
regional 414
site distribution 41417, 416, 417,
418, 419
medieval 2 428
imported 419
local 417
regional 417, 419
site distribution 419, 420, 421, 422
medieval fabric types: see below
medieval phases 405
methodology 327
native Roman 3267, 328
petrological analysis 42931
phase 405
post-medieval 327
provenance 405
recording 327
Roman 3257, 326, 328, 425
Samian ware 325, 3256, 326
sherd groupings 408
site distribution
Anglo-Saxon 407
medieval 408, 409, 410, 411, 412,
41213, 413, 414, 41417, 416,
417, 418, 419, 419, 420, 421,
422
Stamford Type ware 354
Tweed Valley Redwares 342
types, alphabetical/numerical order
32831
UM Unclassified Medieval 328
use of flint 461
BB2 Black-Burnished ware 325
C1-3 Dog Bank Kiln 328
668
C1 Newcastle Dog Bank-type ware

3458, 346, 404, 407, 408, 412,
415, 423, 425, 428
C2 Shell Tempered Gritty ware 348,
348, 407, 412, 423
C3 Newcastle Dog Bank-type ware,
finer version 348, 3489, 407, 423
C7 Handmade Gritty ware 3445
C8 Splash Glazed Reduced ware 345
D1 Permian Yellow Sand ware 328,
3367, 337, 404, 407, 415
D2 North-east Grey ware 3434, 344,
404, 408, 415, 428, 429, 431
D3 Fine Sandy Grey wares 3923, 393,
408, 419, 422, 428, 429, 431
D4 Northern Gritty White ware 351,
3512, 408
D5 Very Fine Sandy Grey ware 3812,
382, 408, 413, 428
D6 Whitby-type ware 331, 331, 405,
407, 429, 431
D7 Durham White ware 328, 337, 407,
415, 428
D8 Hard Sandy Grey ware 3379, 338,
404, 407, 408, 412, 415, 422, 423,
425, 428
D9 Shelly Sandy ware 425, 428, 429,
431
D11 Quite Gritty Oxidised ware 339,
33940, 407, 408, 412, 415, 423,
425, 428, 431
D12 Handmade Reduced ware with oxidised surfaces 338, 3401, 341,
404, 407, 408, 412, 415, 422, 423,
425, 428
D13 Hard gritty ware 342, 342, 408,
412, 415
D14 Very Hard Slightly Gritty ware
3425, 408, 412, 415
D15 Hard Slightly Gritty ware 3412,
407, 408, 412, 415, 423, 428
D16 North Yorkshire Silty Buff ware
363, 3901, 391, 414, 416
D20 Northern Glazed White ware 390,
390
D21 Hard Tweedale-type ware 384, 408
D22 Fine White ware 384, 385
D23 Gritty Micaceous ware 345
D24 Worcester-type ware 382, 382,
408, 413
E1 Moderately gritty ware 352, 352,
407, 416, 428
E3 Newcastle Dog Bank-type ware,
glazed version 349, 349, 407, 423
E5 Hard Finely Gritted Splashed ware
353, 353, 407, 423
E5a Hard Finely Gritted Splashed ware
variant 3534, 354
E6 Coarse Oxidised Gritty ware
34950, 350, 407
E8 Coarse Oxidised ware variant 350,
3501, 408, 423
E10 Oxidised Gritty ware 328, 3547,
355, 405, 407, 413, 415, 416, 419,
4223, 423
E11 Buff ware 328, 351, 352, 358, 414,
415, 416
E11a Tyneside Buff White ware
35860, 359, 404, 413, 423, 428
E11b Tyneside Buff White ware 360,
3601, 413, 423, 428
E11c Hard Fired Tyneside Buff White

ware 3612, 362, 413, 423
E11d Oven-fired Tyneside Buff White
ware 3623, 364, 3658, 405, 414,
416, 417, 419, 423
E11e Oxidised Tyneside Buff White
ware 368, 3689, 405, 413, 417,
419, 423
E11f Tyneside Buff White ware 379
E12 Reduced Green Glazed wares 369
E12a Early Gritty Green Glazed
ware/RGG types 1, 2 1 and 3 369,
36970, 405, 407, 412, 413, 414,
415, 419, 423, 428
E12b Later Green Glazed ware/RGG
Types 4 and 5 370, 3724, 417,
419, 423, 425, 428
E12c Green Glazed ware, roof furniture
380, 3801
E13 Oxidised Green Glazed ware 374,
375, 376, 417, 419, 423
E13a Oxidised Green Glazed ware, finer
variant 3767, 377
E18 Sandy Green Glazed ware/ RGG
type 6 3778, 378, 417, 419, 423
E19 Local Red ware 379, 379, 419
E25 Buff Type variant 3578, 358
E26 miscellaneous industrial vessels
381, 381
F1 Scarborough/North Yorkshire-type
ware 328, 414, 415, 416, 423, 425
Phase I fabric 385, 3856, 3867, 388
Phase II fabric 385, 3856, 3879,
388
F4 Tudor Green ware 391, 419, 428
F10 Tees Valley ware 38990, 414
F11 Kelso-type ware 351, 383, 383,
408, 423
F11a Kelso-type ware, variant 383,
3834, 384
F12 Cistercian ware 392, 417, 423, 425
F14 Tweed Valley Fine Grey ware 383,
384, 384, 408
G1 Early Fine Red ware 3325, 334,
403, 405, 407, 422, 428
G4 Rhenish ware 332, 332, 405
G5 Tating ware 3356, 336, 405, 407,
422, 428
G9 White Gritty ware 385, 385
G11 Low Countries Highly Decorated
Ware 3934, 394, 414, 416, 419
G12 Low Countries Red ware 379,
3945, 396, 3978, 419, 423, 425
G13 Low Countries Grey Ware 393,
408, 419, 431
G14 Italian Archaic Maiolica 398, 398,
414
G15 Siegburg stoneware 401, 419
G16 Langerwehe ware 401, 401-2, 419
G16/17 Langerwehe/Raeren stoneware
402, 402, 419
G17 Raeren stoneware 402, 4023, 419
G19 Martincamp stoneware 4034, 419
G20a Rouen-type ware 398, 408, 414
G20b Saintonge Mottled Green Glaze
ware 3989, 399, 419
G20c Beauvais ware 399, 419
G20d French import 399400, 400
H1 Westerwald Blue ware 425
H3a Nasrid pottery, Vedrio Verde 400,
419
H3b Seville-type olive jar 4001, 419,

423
H10 Beauvais Grs 399, 419
J9 Anglo-Dutch tin glaze ware 425
J10 local glazed red-ware 425
Wearmouth
analysis types 32831
Anglo-Saxon and medieval 327, 428
comparison with Jarrow 425, 426, 427,
428
distribution analysis 4245
medieval 1a 428
medieval 1b/2 428
Roman 425
type analysis 425
C1 Newcastle Dog Bank-type ware
348, 425, 428
C3 Newcastle Dog Bank-type ware,
finer version 349
D2 North-east Grey ware 428
D3 Fine Sandy Grey wares 392, 428
D5 Very Fine Sandy Grey ware 428
D7 Durham White ware 428
D8 Hard Sandy Grey ware 3389, 425
D9 Shelly Sandy ware 3823, 383,
425, 428
D11 Quite Gritty Oxidised ware 340,
425, 428
D12 Handmade Reduced ware with
oxidised surfaces 341, 341, 425,
428
D15 Hard Slightly Gritty ware 428
D16 North Yorkshire Silty Buff ware
391
D19 Harder Oxidised Version of North
Yorkshire Silty Buff ware 391
D20 Northern Glazed White ware 390
D22 Fine White ware 384
E1 Moderately gritty ware 428
E10 Oxidised Gritty ware 357
E11a Tyneside Buff White ware 360,
428
E11b Tyneside Buff White ware 361,
428
E11d Oven-fired Tyneside Buff White
ware 363, 3678
E12a Early Gritty Green Glazed
ware/RGG types 1, 2 1 and 3
369, 428
E12b Later Green Glazed ware/RGG
Types 4 and 5 371, 3734, 425,
428
E12c Green Glazed ware, roof furniture 381
E13 Oxidised Green Glazed ware 376
E17 Later Reduced Green Glazed
ware 3789, 379
E19 Local Red ware 379
E25 Buff Type variant 358
F1 Scarborough/North Yorkshire-type
ware 389, 425
F4 Tudor Green ware 391, 391, 428
F12 Cistercian ware 392, 392, 425
G1 Early Fine Red ware 428
G5 Tating ware 428
G12 Low Countries Red ware 396,
3978, 425
G16 Langerwehe stoneware 402
G17 Raeren stoneware 403
G20b Saintonge Mottled Green Glaze
ware 399
INDEX
G20d French import 400

H1 Westerwald Blue ware 425
J9 Anglo-Dutch tin glaze ware 425
J10 local glazed red-ware 425
Prudhoe 336
Prudhoe Castle 348
purse frames 246, 2467
Ralph de Gaugy 256
raw materials 47980
recreation 268, 27880, 279
Reculver, Kent 19
relics 217
Repton 78, 79, 192
Rhine/Maas delta 394, 401
Ribe, Denmark 316
Riby 267
rickets 500, 500, 502
Rievaulx Abbey 34
rings
finger 230, 245, 245
iron 286, 287
miscellaneous/domestic 252, 252
whalebone 2678, 2735, 274
Ripon 166, 179, 195, 291
Rising, Dr Brandt 126
Risingham 1
rivets 253, 253
Romans
altars 168, 169
bangles 258
bridges 1
coins 218, 21819
glass 134, 138, 13940, 141, 14851
inscriptions 199
lathe turning 185
lead 37, 147
opus signinum 18
painted walls 15
pins 236, 239
pottery 3257, 326, 328, 425
reused stone 12
roof tiles 29, 2933, 30, 31, 32
trumpet brooch 230
vessel glass 151, 313, 31314, 315
roof furniture, pottery 37981, 380
roof tiles
bessalis 31
ceramic 545
fabric 29
imbrices 301, 31, 31, 32, 33, 54
Jarrow 29, 2933, 30, 32
origins 313
pottery 37981, 380
tegulae 29, 2930, 30, 31, 33, 54
roofs
fittings 43, 44, 46, 47, 54
lead 37, 38, 43, 55
stone flags 215, 22, 24, 33
holes 27, 28
Jarrow 22, 23, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28
limestone 21, 22, 22, 23, 25, 27, 54,
55
sandstone 21, 22, 23, 278, 55
Wearmouth 223, 24, 25, 25, 27
thatched 55
Rouen 39, 49, 50, 60, 645, 7980
Roundway Down coffin 302
roves 2834, 284
runes 443, 444
Ruthwell 166
Ryder, Peter 215
salt 5812
San Clemente, Rome 140
San Vincenzo al Volturno 50, 56, 60,
645, 78, 80, 141
Sandtun 275
Sardis, Western Anatolia 333
sculpture 162: see also carved stone,
medieval
animal heads 1645, 166, 171, 172,
179, 181
balusters 164, 165, 166, 185, 1869,
191
columns 1767, 1778, 191
crosses 167, 173, 175
cut circle 166, 179, 180
finish 162
funerary and monumental 162, 1668,
193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198,
199200, 200, 201, 202, 203, 214,
21517
furnishings 1645
Herebericht slab, the 166, 197
human figure 164, 166, 167, 173, 174,
175, 176, 179, 181, 183
Jarrow
AS25 166
AS27 166, 1767, 1778
AS27-32 165
AS28-30 179
AS31 179
AS32 166, 179, 180
AS33 166, 179, 182
AS34 165, 166, 179, 181
AS35-6 165, 179
AS37 165, 166, 167, 179, 181
AS38 165, 166, 167, 179, 181, 183
AS39-45 182, 183
AS46 183
AS47 183
AS48-50 183, 184
AS51 183, 184, 185
balusters 164, 165, 166, 185, 187, 189
cross-bearing slab 165
distribution 165
eucharistic significance 1678
form 1656
funerary and monumental sculpture
1668
MS2 167
MS13 167, 196, 197
MS14 166, 167, 196, 197
MS15 165, 197, 198
MS15-16 165
MS16 166, 197, 198
MS17 167, 197, 198, 199
MS17-18 165
MS18 165, 168, 198, 199, 200
MS19 167, 198, 199
MS20 167, 198, 199, 200
MS21 165, 167, 199200, 200
MS22 167, 200, 201
MS23 202, 203
MS24 201, 203
MS25 167, 202, 203
MS26 166, 167, 202, 203
MS27 167, 202, 203
ornament 1656
strip work 166
669
wall panels 165

window heads 183, 184, 185
lions 171
painted 162, 167, 168, 185, 191
patterns 165
plant scrolls 166, 1678, 177, 1778,
215, 216, 216
polychrome 54
serpentine creatures 172, 173, 183
stone source 162
strip work 168, 169, 190, 1912
tooling 162, 163, 171
wall panels 165, 173, 174
Wearmouth
architectural sculpture 162, 1645
AS1 168, 169
AS2 168
AS3 168, 169, 170
AS4 168, 169, 170
AS5 168, 169
AS6 168, 169
AS7 168, 170, 171
AS8 170, 171
AS9 170, 171
AS10 164, 165, 171
AS11 164, 171, 172
AS12 164, 167, 171, 173, 174
AS13 165, 172, 173
AS14 173, 175
AS15 173, 174, 176
AS16 167, 175, 176
AS17 167, 175, 176
AS18-26 176
balusters 164, 165, 166, 185, 186,
1889, 191
decoration 166, 168, 171
devotional significance 167
distribution 164
funerary and monumental 1668, 193,
194
furnishings 1645
MS1 167, 193, 194
MS2 165, 166, 193, 194, 197
MS3 167, 193, 194
MS4 167, 193, 194, 195
MS5 194, 195
MS6 167, 195
MS7 194, 195
MS8 167, 195, 196
MS9 194, 195
MS10 195, 196, 197
MS11 167, 196
MS12 167, 196
MS22 167
MS27 167
ornament 166
stone source 162
strip work 164, 165, 1912
tooling 163, 171
seals 2568, 257
seaweed 1389, 142, 1423
Sedgeford 236
Sry-ls Mzires 64
Sewerby 259
Shakenoak 239, 275
Simonburn 166
Sion 79
Skinner, J 1, 2
slag 479
soda DBTs 1402, 147
Sous-le-Scex 79
670
South Range 204

South Shields 168, 218, 261, 325, 582
Southampton 236, 315
spatula 246, 246
spearheads 289, 290
spina bifida occulta 491
spindlewhorls 274, 276, 312, 312
spoons 267, 274, 277
St Augustines Abbey, Canterbury 19,
2389, 248
St Cuthberts beads 261
St Emmerams Church, Regensburg 171
St Helens, Kelloe 173
St Johns Church, Perth 256
chancel 625, 626, 6278, 628
Jarrow slab, the 21517, 216
sculpture 165
walls 162
St Peters Church, Wearmouth
grave cover 167
medieval funerary sculpture 214, 215
plaster 2, 3
porch 2, 5, 162, 164, 175, 176, 185
sculptural decoration 162
tower 162
stamps 267, 274, 275
staples 2813, 282, 302
stone objects: see also carved stone,
medieval; flint
hammerstone 437, 438
hones and whetstones 437, 438, 439,
440
jet 259, 261, 447, 447
mica 446, 447
millstones and grinding stones 43940,
441, 442, 4423, 443
other 437, 4434, 444, 445
palettes and polished stone 4446, 446
porphyry 446, 447
rubbers and smoothers 437, 4379, 438
sling stones 437, 438
tools 437, 443, 444
utilised pebbles 445, 446
vessels and containers
medieval 4345, 435, 436, 437
WS32 439, 441
stone, recycling 12, 162, 165, 168, 216
strainer 307, 30710
strap-ends 230, 2335, 234
strap fragments 282, 283
stucco 164
Stump Cross, Chesterford 245
styli 230, 247, 248, 278, 279, 287, 288,
303, 304, 305
Sunderland 461
Sutton Hoo 265, 266, 298
sweet chestnut (Castanea sp) 30910
Symeon of Durham 55
Tabula 27880
tacks 253, 253
Taylor, Harold 37
Teesdale 145
tessera 259
textiles 268, 310, 31012, 311, 312
manufacture objects 274, 276
Thetford 78, 273
thimbles 230, 246, 247

Thomas, Charles 4634
Thwing 267
Tidfirth stone, the 167
tiles, ceramic: see ceramic tiles
tools 230, 2489, 249, 274, 276, 437,
443, 444
Torcello 147
Torino 171
Toulouse 471
Tr Ulvin, Norway 315
trench 3388 36
trench 5901 424
trench 5902 424
trench 5903 424
trench 6002 424
trench 6003 424
trench 6004 424
trench 6105 424
trench 6107 424
trench 6201 424
trench 6403 424
trench 6404 424
trench 6405 424
trench 7001 19
trench 7008 36
trench 7103 470
trench 7106 36
trench 7304 479
trench 7305 419
trench 7502 377, 390, 419, 420, 421, 576
trench 7505 409, 410, 416
trench 7604 377, 390, 416, 419, 479
trench 7801 412
trench 7802 419
trench 7803 419
trench 7805 479
Trewhiddle hoard, the 236
tuberculosis 496
tuning pegs 279, 2801
tweezers 230, 246, 246
Tynemouth 338
Tynemouth Priory 352
Udal 238
Ulbricht 269
Uley 78
Urban, Archdeacon of Llandaff 256
urinals 3223, 324, 357, 375, 376
Utrecht kiln site 394
Utrecht Psalter 15
Verhaeghe, Frans 394
vessel glass 567, 78
7th to 9th Century 31416, 320
featureless sherds 319, 319
Jarrow 314, 315, 316, 31719, 318,
319, 3201
other 31921
Wearmouth 314, 316, 31617, 317,
320
13th to 16th Century 3214, 324
analysis 132, 134, 314
blue 135
Carolingian 315
colours 316
decoration 31415, 316
distribution 265
lead content 147
manufacture 79
Merovingian 315
red swirl 315

reticella trails 315, 316
Roman 151, 313, 31314, 315
vessels, copper alloy and silver 2502, 251
Vieux 79
Vince, Alan 326
Visemarest, France 314
Vitruvius 18
Wadi Natrun 152, 152, 153, 154
Walberberg 332
Walcher, Bishop of Durham 204
Wallis, J 1, 2
Wallsend 12, 325
Walton 270
Ward Perkins, John 2467
Warden 173
washers 41, 44, 48, 489
Waterbeach 273
wattling 20, 21
Weardale 145
Wearmouth
aggregate analysis 4, 4
Anglo Saxon 534
Wearmouth Building B
aggregate analysis 2, 4, 4
entrance 22
flooring 53
opus signinum 19
plaster 3, 5, 5, 5, 7
sculpture 164
window glass 65
Wearmouth Building C 53
Wearmouth Building D 53
Wearmouth monastic buildings
Anglo-Saxon painted plaster 9
appearance 534, 545
cloister 164
structure 1377 164
Wall 2 22, 65
Wall 3 65
Wall 3a 22
Wall 3b 22
Wall 4 5
Wall F 5, 65
Wall H 5, 65
Wall K 65
Wall VI 5, 65
Wall VIII 5
West Range 22
weights, lead 304, 305, 306, 306
Well 2 419
well shafts, infill 7
Wells 78
Wells, Calvin 481
West Stow 239
whalebone 2678, 269, 269, 2735, 274
Wharram Percy 267, 270, 331, 336, 356,
389
Whether Hill, Northumberland 326
Whitby 78, 164, 165, 167, 203, 219, 236,
246, 247, 272
Whitehouse, David 49, 126
Whithorn 38, 44, 63, 78, 79, 219, 291,
297, 300, 302
Wiesbaden 315
Wilfrid of York, Bishop 37
Williams, Dr J G 148
Winchester 79, 7980, 273, 277, 322
Winchombe 382
INDEX
window, carved stone 206, 210, 211,

212, 213
window glass
analysis 56, 62, 65, 77, 78, 126
basic formulation 1389
coloured 65
comparison with Roman compositions
151, 151
composition 126, 127, 128, 134,
1389, 147, 148, 152, 153, 153
iron content 148, 153, 153
Jarrow glass 129, 130, 134, 1356,
139
lead 134
lead isotope 145, 1457, 146
low-lime 127, 128, 129, 132, 134, 136
mean-compositions 134
methodology 126, 129
miscellaneous glasses 129, 132, 133
results 129
trace elements 132, 134, 154
transition metals 1501, 151, 154
Wearmouth glass 129, 131, 134, 139
bubbles 143
Carolingian 60
catalogue 80125
characteristics 60, 62
colour chemistry
amber glasses 136
blue glasses 1345
dichroic glass 136, 137, 138
ruby and red-streaked glasses 1356
colour range 625, 69, 74, 79
coloured 625, 79
amber quarries 75
analysis 65, 77
red 63, 67, 68, 76, 132
thickness 62
comparison with other sites 7880

continental 7980
cords 143
HIMT 148, 151, 152, 153, 153
historical background 567
Jarrow
Anglo-Saxon 56, 567, 61, 63, 63, 64,
657, 66, 67, 68, 70, 78
catalogue 87125
coloured 65
composition 127, 128, 132
figural window 679, 71, 71, 72, 80
origins 14755
reconstructions 679, 71, 72
red 63
sample descriptions 144
Jarrow glass 129, 130, 134, 1356, 139,
154
lead content 65, 134
lead isotope 145, 1457, 146
microscopic examination 143
origins 14751
painted decoration 7980
recycling 13940, 141, 14851, 154
setting 71, 778
shape 62, 73
summary conclusions 78
Wearmouth
Anglo-Saxon 56, 567, 57, 58, 59, 60,
63, 78
catalogue 817
coloured 65
composition 127, 128
distribution 65
red 63
wood framing 77
671
window glass, medieval 62, 155

analysis 126, 148
blue 1402
decorative elements 1589
painted design 156, 157, 15960
Jarrow 159, 159, 161
origins 155
recycling 155, 158
Wearmouth 155, 156, 157, 158, 158,
15861
window heads 183, 184, 185
window leads
analysis 37
grills 49, 50, 51, 778
medieval 503, 51, 52
outlining 80
wire manufacture 240
Witham hanging bowl, the 264
wood working, Germanic tradition of
164
wooden objects 307, 3079, 308, 309,
310
laboratory report 30910
Woodhorn 173
wool trade 583
Worcester 382
workshop residues 47980, 480
Wrekendyke, the 1
Wulfstan of York, Archbishop 238
Wythemail 464
York 37, 79, 147
personal possessions and domestic items
236, 2367, 256, 267, 268, 270,
272, 273, 285
pottery 336, 337, 343, 355, 383, 390
Table 36.17 Jarrow post-cranial measurements

males, Pre-NormanE Med
skel no.
code age
sex
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
M
M
M
M
M?
M?
M
M?
M?
M
M
M?
M?
M
M?
M
M
M
M
M
M
65/12
65/24
65/27
67/49
69/10
69/14
69/20
70/24
70/43
70/77
70/79
70/145
70/147
70/163
70/185
70/190
71/35
71/36
71/38
71/39
73/1
MU
AFH
AHB
PO
QJ
WR
XJ
OY
OZ
TL
TO
YE
XM
AAD
ADL
ANB
SG
UD
RM
SA
PD
4050
2530
4050
Adult
Adult
4550
4055
4350
Adult
Adult
Adult
Adult
2426
Adult
2325
Adult
2730
4348
4350
4565
2528
Mean
Number
Minimum
Maximum
Standard Deviation
FeL1 FeL1 FeL2 FeL2 FeHd FeHd FeE1 FeE1 FeD1 FeD1 FeD2 FeD2 FeMaxFeMaxFeMinFeMinTiL1 TiL1 TiL2 TiL2 TiL3 TiL3 TiE1 TiE1TiD1 TiD1 TiD2 TiD2 FiL1 FiL1 HuL1HuL1HuD1 HuD1 HuD2HuD2HuHd HuHd RaL1 RaL1 UlL1 UlL1 ClL1 ClL1 meric meric cnemic cnemic robust robust height
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R index L index R index L index R index L index R
432
468 461
471
445 445
478
441
447
430
52
48
51
44
52
86
81
85
73
81
28
27
34
35
28
29
26
28
21
27
36
35
33
36
36
34
376
37
34
360 358
389
374
33
43
33
23
23
32
31
28
335
33
27
39
33
32
21
25
22
20
24
22
249
323
337
341 348
51
341
322 332
52
44
52
251 250
246 269 270
51
46
142
165
242 259 260 135

155
21
82.3
75.9
77.9
82.3
76.9
82.7
58.1
80.4
72.4
77.1
64.9
58.5
68.2
72.8
75.6
59.1
66.6
79.1
54.7
88.3
75.7
56.6
87.5
79.8
78.5
79.2
79.3
77.2
80.3
79.2
77.9
79.7
82.3
80.1
66.2
63.6
58.5
66.7
65.2
75.1
68.9
62.7
67.8
1.736
1.642
1.730
1.735
1.678
1.760
1.692
1.678
1.638
47
375
421 415
428 431
507
48
46
55
55
51
430
47
486
452
10
421
507
26.3
445
7
415
486
21.6
50
9
44
55
3.7
47
55
57
51
46
48
49
50
9
46
57
3.5
80
89
81
88
28
24
29
29
28
26
82
6
73
89
5.2
83
3
81
88
3.3
27
13
21
29
2.5
28
24
30
28
27
26
25
24
26
12
23
30
2.0
36
30
36
36
36
30
34
13
30
36
2.2
39
35
30
38
36
34
31
32
36
34
12
30
38
2.3
39
34
37
32
404
38
37
36
30
30
27
28
30
1
30
27
1
28
21
35
35
26
37
36
22
30
28
20
254
21
24
24
401 398
36
36
24
24
379
6
360
401
12.9
36
12
32
43
3.0 2.2
36
10
32
39
3.2
24
12
20
30
2.8
387
3
358
404
20.4
30
28
24
24
10
21
30
371 369
363
362
326
314
358
339 347
8
7
314 323
371 369
18.2 15.9
23
22
21
22
23
1
22
1
21
1
22
1
3.1
228
242 240 258 258
277
300
157
278 301
163 161
289
157
239
261 260 148
243
138
270
293
53
52
52
49
46
52
53
279
49
8
44
53
2.3
51 253
6
6
46 228
53 279
19.1 13.5
254 270 268 153 152

7
9
5 6
4
240 243 258 135 138
278 301 293 163 165
19.9
13.1 9.0 11.7
86.7
78.0
13
58.1
86.7
6.6
77.8
12
66.2
82.3
4.0
1.731
67.2
68.2
1.609
1.652
1.636
1.844
1.821
1.819
1.638
1.672
1.782
67.1
12
54.7
88.3
8.5
67.7
10
56.6
87.5
8.3
1.710
19
1.609
1.844
0.069
65.6
Table 36.17 Jarrow post-cranial measurements (contd)

males, medieval
skel no.
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
JA
code
65/8
MX
65/11 NB
65/16 SE
65/17 SF
65/22 SG
65/30 AKE
67/1
GX
67/6
JQ
67/7
KD
67/10 KO
67/12-2 KY
67/19 MD
67/24 NE
67/32 NN
67/33 NL
67/38 OA
67/46 PH
67/52 OB
70/28 PB
70/92 SO
70/96 UL
70/98 XP
70/107 VO
70/108 VD
70/111 UO
70/123 WF
70/133 YX
70/137-2WW
70/139 YA
70/142 XX
70/143 XW
70/150-2ACI
70/151-3AFE
70/153 ZS
70/154 YU
70/161 AAK
70/162 AAP
70/175 ABT
70/176 ACG
70/177 AGX
70/194 AHI
70/199 AGE
75/95 LW
age
sex
FeL1 FeL1 FeL2 FeL2 FeHd FeHd FeE1 FeE1 FeD1 FeD1 FeD2 FeD2 FeMax FeMax FeMin FeMin TiL1 TiL1 TiL2 TiL2 TiL3 TiL3 TiE1 TiE1 TiD1 TiD1 TiD2 TiD2 FiL1 FiL1 HuL1 HuL1 HuD1 HuD1 HuD2 HuD2 HuHd HuHd RaL1 RaL1 UlL1 UlL1 ClL1 ClL1 meric meric cnemic cnemic robust robust height
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
3545
4050
3545
Young
Adult
1920
4555
Adult
2428
Adult
Adult
5060
5570
5060
4855
Adult
Adult
1620
4555
2530
2022
Adult
5570
2629
Adult
3040?
4055
Adult
2535
2124
5060
Adult
Adult
Adult
1819
2123
Adult
Adult
3035
4560
MA?
3545
2535
M
M
M
M
M?
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M?
M?
M
M?
M
M
M
M
M
M?
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M?
M
M
M
M
M
M
M?
463 461
Mean
Number
Minimum
Maximum
Standard Deviation
510 506
425
437
482 487
57
91
88
470
456 451
50
53
52
78
90
91
476 487
411
422 425
431 430
57
54
49
47
58
53
49
48
92
84
82
80
93
85
82
80
426 424
44
53
46
464
53
77
43
54
52
87
69
80
30
25
29
24
25
24
29
29
22
28
28
26
25
71
28
20
28
28
23
26
24
24
27
25
28
22
30
27
27
26
25
29
24
29
21
29
34
37
39
39
31
28
41
35
28
40
35
34
32
34
29
33
34
35
40
40
363 357
36
33
411 416 65/16

325
339 339
28
39
32
35
28
39
39
33
32
32
31
38
32
40
28
20
38
32
25
25
30
19
29
326 334
27
23
255
365 364
273
313 316
362 365
55
46
45
328
354 353
370
351
338
322
363
33
32
32
32
28
34
37
30
38
34
372
339
320
366
35
36
31
39
35
33
34
36
27
22
30
22
34
34
27
33
35
368
385
315
34
26
22
30
23
26
24
29
26
26
351
323 328
324
51
49
45
314
50
23
23
54
254
256
54
51
46
274
235 253 250
82.1
78.7
249
259
165 165
241 244
262 145 146
237 239
252 137 135
271
142
254
285
J
22
25
334
47
70.3
80.5
74.9
77.0
91.0
42
27
28
36
283 158 156
87.8
67.6
73.4
61.5
81.5
86.4
70.2
243
253
261
83.4
68.8
87.1
82.1
66.5
65.6
59.5
84.2
69.8
77.9
80.3
76.4
77.2
68.5
81.9
79.3
77.8
60.7
72.1
79.1
59.6
70.4
77.9
65.7
72.4
72.3
72.9
77.8
64.2
79.1
70.8
76.8
73.9
71.7
76.7
66.5
77.2
77.2
81.0
1.702
1.831
1.608
1.642
1.767
1.733
1.682
1.741
1.624
1.624
1.610
1.705
1.626
74.3
72.6
89.7
72.2
86.1
67.8
65.2
1.715
1.756
1.580
79.5
75.7
69.3
151
1.733
1.706
139
470
467
447
51
48
53
53
53
475
469
82
88
81
53
49
26
28
26
37
33
37
26
29
25
35
35
37
325 325
369
363 378
444
464 461
467 469
51
51
46
474 472
46
52
45
446
457
19
422
510
22.5
446
82
73
87
90
81
74
85
91
78
78
50
48
75
458 446 467 50

14
1
1 19
411
44
506
57
26.4
3.4
51
19
43
58
4.0
82
18
69
92
6.4
83
14
71
93
6.3
28
26
24
29
28
26
24
36
40
33
36
35
38
32
28
25
31
26
26
30
34
35
31
35
34
30
34
27
27
34
34
30
26
25
20
31
2.5
26
31
21
30
2.3
35
25
28
41
3.5
34
31
28
40
3.3
32
2
30
34
2.0
51
335
40
58
49
51
46
49
49
243 240 260 257 150 153
71.3
84.1
71.2
1.733
1.678
276 278 294 295 147 144

250
277
281 281
72.7
83.0
67.3
1.841
1.745
1.715
77.7
65.3
73.3
79.6
79.6
66.9
75.5
81.5
72.1
99.7
24
60.1
303
39
28
250
377 376
360 361
401 403
33
38
39
38
33
37
38
24
26
27
26
25
25
29
385 381
34
37
32
38
27
24
27
24
145
330
43
244 245
52
34
30
28
29
34
1
30
2
29
30
0.5
28
1
360
17
315
411
26.2
366
14
320
416
24.2
355
75
72
34
39
25
24
355
1
75
1
72
1
35
20
30
40
2.7
35
23
28
40
3.0
26
20
20
30
2.4
25
23
19
30
2.7
266
26
26
330
335
12
313
369
18.7
338
9
316
365
16.6
26
2
26
26
0.0
27
26
27
2
26
27
0.5
20
24
22
2
20
24
2.0
24
22
49
48
23
2
22
24
1.0
48
12
43
55
3.2
50
8
42
54
3.9
249
275 273 164 148
251 253 273
238
251
15
237
276
10.5
247
9
235
278
12.5
269
13
253
294
11.4
274
10
250
303
17.4
150
10
137
165
9.1
149
8
135
165
8.7
1.862
1.671
1.715
1.731
1.695
1.799
1.731
1.746
72.4
72.5
67.5
70.0
67.1
75.7
67.5
75.1
74.3
74.9
98.7
78.7
64.8
82.6
63.3
80.4
79.9
73.1
62.5
13.3
1.674
77.5
26
61.5
99.7
8.5
76.6
30
59.5
98.7
8.0
72.3
20
60.7
79.5
5.4
71.2
23
59.6
82.6
6.4
13.3
1
1.710
32
1.580
1.862
0.067

females, Pre-NormanE Med
skel no.
code age
sex
JA 65/3-1
JA 65/3-2
JA 67/13
JA 67/26
JA 67/34
JA 67/50
JA 70/51
JA 70/59
JA 70/78
JA 70/109
JA 70/127
JA 70/128
JA 70/43
=141
JA 71/37
JA 75/15
JA 75/21
JA 76/4
FeL1 FeL1 FeL2 FeL2 FeHd FeHd FeE1 FeE1 FeD1 FeD1 FeD2 FeD2 FeMaxFeMaxFeMinFeMinTiL1 TiL1 TiL2 TiL2 TiL3 TiL3 TiE1 TiE1TiD1 TiD1 TiD2 TiD2 FiL1 FiL1 HuL1HuL1HuD1 HuD1 HuD2HuD2HuHd HuHd RaL1 RaL1 UlL1 UlL1 ClL1 ClL1 meric meric cnemic cnemic robust robust height
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
HS
HS
KZ
ND
NK
PN
PX
WM
TK
WN
XH
VZ
XR
3040
Adult
2040
Adult
2327
4247
Adult
3545
5060
4060
Adult
5565
Adult
F
F
F?
F?
F
F
F?
F?
F
F
F?
F
F?
440
RJ
LT
HU
GM
4060
1621
2535
3545
F
F?
F
F
387 379
Mean
Number
Minimum
Maximum
Standard Dev
22
409
23
23
35
34
32
32
341 337 77
420 416
412 421
453
45
46
45
46
43
45
78
73
76
79
73
78
25
25
22
25
25
21
26
43
416
40
41
71
71
36
31
32
36
30
32
78
324 324
327 332
363
347 346
37
30
27
33
33
21
37
31
28
30
34
28
23
22
23
20
218
29
23
23
23
19
299 301
332
312
32
27
33
22
35
45
35
31
46
44
220
134 131
259 265
22
33
62.9
67.5
70.7
333
22
21
22
291
68.1
83.0
62.5
74.7
78.6
81.6
70.3
60.2
79.5
74.0
81.1
77.1
56.6
40
40
83.7
250
61.9
228 231 132
73.2
69.7
64.1
66.6
1.568
1.600
224
40
40
73
21
22
28
28
27
27
18
18
206
307
296
48
421
6
387
453
21.0
406
4
379
421
16.3
44
6
40
48
3.0
35
43
6
40
46
2.1
74
5
71
78
2.5
75
4
71
79
3.3
24
8
21
27
2.1
23
6
21
25
1.5
33
8
28
36
2.4
32
6
28
36
2.6
340
4
324
363
15.8
334
3
324
346
9.1
341 337 77
1
1 1
78
1
32
9
27
37
3.2
21
20
19
20
76.3
22
9
18
28
2.7
66.8
66.8
1.488
1.611
1.598
71.1
8
56.6
81.1
7.9
1.591
12
1.488
1.666
0.043
42
40
239
25
32
8
27
37
3.2
1.637
1.599
1.572
1.565
1.569
1.666
1.620
82.5
130
136
24
20
22
69.7
81.3
67.2
63.3
70.3
22 333
8
1
18
29
3.2
300
4
291
312
7.8
313 22
3
1
301
332
13.4
21
3
20
22
0.8
21
1
20
3
19
22
1.2
42
3
40
45
2.4
43
4
40
46
2.2
217
4
206
224
6.7
246
3
228
259
13.0
245
3
231
265
14.5
133
2
132
134
1.0
132
3
130
136
2.6
72.8
8
61.9
83.7
8.2
71.4
6
62.5
83.0
6.6
70.3
9
60.2
81.6
6.6

females, medieval
skel no.
code
JJA 65/9
MV
JA 65/10 MT
JA 65/21 SH
JA 65/34 AAK
JA 67/3
HY
JA 67/5
KC
JA 67/9
KS
JA 67/11 LW
JA 67/12 KY
JA 67/12-3 KY
JA 67/20 MC
JA 67/30 NJ
JA 67/35 OE
JA 67/44 PE
JA 67/45 PM
JA 67/48 PK
JA 70/6
HH
JA 70/26 PP
JA 70/31 PL
JA 70/35 PK
JA 70/40 PG
JA 70/82-2 ZV
JA 70/83 ABK
JA 70/102 AGV
JA 70/112 UN
JA 70/114 UZ
JA 70/117 VC
JA 70/122 WB
JA 70/124 VX
JA 70/130 US
JA 70/134 XU
JA 70/134-3XU
JA 70/137 WW
JA 70/148 XN
JA 70/149 XO
JA 70/150 ACI
JA 70/151 ABS
JA 75/77 LK
JA 75/88 KS
JA 75/93 MW
JA 75/96 LJ
JA 75/98 MA
JA 75/100 LZ
Mean
Number
Minimum
Maximum
Standard Dev
age
sex
2535 F
2535 F
4050 F
Adult F
4555 F
2527 F
3944 F
5065 F
3545 F
Adult F
4550 F
3050 F?
3045 F
2628 F
2022 F
YA
F?
MAOldF
5065 F
4060 F
4060 F
YA
F?
2535 F
5575 F
5060 F
Adult F
YMA F?
YMA F?
1623 F?
YA
F
4855 F
3944 F
Adult F
5065 F
Old
F
2224 F
2426 F
4247 F
2535 F
2535 F?
3545 F
3545 F
2535 F
2535 F
FeL1 FeL1 FeL2 FeL2 FeHd FeHd FeE1 FeE1 FeD1 FeD1 FeD2 FeD2 FeMax FeMax FeMin FeMin TiL1 TiL1 TiL2 TiL2 TiL3 TiL3 TiE1 TiE1 TiD1 TiD1 TiD2 TiD2 FiL1 FiL1 HuL1 HuL1 HuD1 HuD1 HuD2 HuD2 HuHd HuHd RaL1 RaL1 UlL1 UlL1 ClL1 ClL1 meric meric cnemic cnemic robust robust height
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
L
418 422
28
28
34
33
438 436
24
24
34
35
43
42
43
43
412 411
411 414
404
405
427 431
427 427
450
435 433
440 434
42
44
44
46
44
41
42
43
38
41
45
50
44
46
43
75
72
76
75
72
78
70
76
71
71
76
77
77
77
77
24
25
24
24
22
25
25
25
25
25
24
25
21
22
25
24
26
31
32
32
32
28
34
31
33
29
30
30
33
26
28
35
33
361 359
365 369
32
33
326
323
28
30
334
5
34
418
46
26
21
69
26
31
33
31
31
22
24
22
24
31
31
22
23
22
24
345 348
364
28
30
33
23
23
23
30
34
23
22
71
31
33
24
23
284
299 299
288 294
298 298
279
43
42
41
41
37
41
45
42
45
40
301 304
303 310
323 323
302
73
404
44
41
43
42
409
407
420
43
42
44
23
74
73
70
73
71
413
424 427
410
45
431 430
406 411
403 403
419
451 445 448 441
389
42
44
44
42
42
46
45
46
48
42
42
45
43
40
41
44
46
49
72
74
76
76
74
72
70
74
72
75
79
73
87
75
75
75
71
71
74
74
76
79
389
45
43
74
72
421
19
389
451
15.1
423
20
403
450
12.8
422
3
389
448
24.6
419
4
404
441
14.1
44
25
41
48
1.7
43
25
38
50
2.6
74
24
69
79
2.5
75
22
71
87
3.6
24
21
23
68.1
72.1
42
41
39
36
38
43
227
137 140
227 229 247 250 138 142
240
129
220
244
138 136
77.1
71.2
75.5
75.6
78.6
79.5
226 226
241 134 131
227 231 245
138 137
78.7
74.2
83.6
79.1
73.6
81.3
76.4
71.5
72.9
43
45
237
258 148 144
218 220 238 242 137 136
80.1
75.8
86.7
223
84.1
61.4
137
22
21
25
24
24
26
24
27
29
32
87.2
78.1
72.7
71.7
77.0
72.9
75.4
82.1
76.4
69.7
73.5
67.2
81.3
66.7
75.7
1.578
1.544
1.659
1.680
1.627
1.557
1.552
1.558
1.540
1.604
1.599
1.653
1.625
1.645
1.585
1.561
1.601
1.572
64.7
71.0
73.1
42
73.2
29
27
35
24
26
324
34
31
31
68
30
29
23
31
318
31
337
26
28
28
32
27
26
25
22
30
23
23
23
24
27
26
24
27
23
32
31
29
33
32
32
28
30
32
28
28
32
20
28
33
30
31
29
33
31
30
28
68
72
25
331 331
27
28
29
26
26
24
30
21
28
1.7
24
30
21
30
2.0
31
30
27
35
2.2
30
30
20
35
3.1
27
6
26
29
1.1
28
27
27
6
24
28
1.5
34
32
33
360 69
369 364 70
365
75
323
366
349 351 67
68
71
75
69
31
34
29
34
30
32
32
32
30
26
6
25
27
0.8
26
27
25
6
19
27
2.6
340
11
323
365
12.5
341
14
318
369
14.4
352
4
323
369
18.1
70
8
68
75
2.3
31
24
28
35
1.9
349
6
324
366
17.3
70
5
67
75
2.6
63.2
23
83.9
78.4
64.5
68.5
78.8
29
34
32
31
23
20
24
32
75.7
12.4 1.555
74.8
1.540
1.545
1.584
73.7
74.0
66.9
21
23
23
89.6
74.0
317 319
302 306
327
43
46
43
24
70.9
94.2
86.7
93.1
72.6
131
76.7
83.2
78.5
71.6
75.2
77.4
96.8
92.0
77.8
87.6
87.9
68.1
150.3
80.7
69.8
76.7
77.6
93.4
78.6
76.0
90.3
83.0
134
15
126
144
5.1
78.6
30
61.4
96.8
8.2
81.4
30
64.5
150.3
14.9
254 254 139 137

252
126
236
220
290
336 340
26
27
27
25
26
41
92.2
217 215 233 233 129 129
242 237 136 130
23
19
335 330
28
294
291 298
25
335 339
25
26
23
24
24
25
27
28
25
25
25
23
31
321
28
22
23
35
432 427 429 421
70.0
32
24
25
22
85.0
68.9
343
41
412
81.3
209 211
235 226
360
24
23
30
30
30
313
287
318 317
20
24
22
341 343
40 342
326 70
44
41
31
34
31
208 226
30
33
30
32
32
33
30
21
20
22
21
23
24
22
24
21
21
23
23
22
31
26
29
34
1.4
22
24
20
24
1.2
23 343 360 302 308 21

25
1
1 21 16
4
20
284 279 19
24
328 327 22
1.1
11.9 12.4 1.2
23
21
24
296 303
312 314
310
323
328
294
22
22
301
21
19
18
22
24
19
22
20
21
21
18
20
18
17
21
4
18
24
2.2
20
4
17
22
1.8
19
4
18
21
1.3
40
43
41
44
48
42
44
40
41
43
41
44
44
40
42
21
37
48
2.4
42
17
36
45
2.3
219
224
212
132 131
249 135 131
242 246
234
142
235
246
223
13
209
236
7.6
223
11
208
237
8.5
241
13
226
254
7.6
245
10
233
258
7.4
137
14
129
148
4.3
12.0
68.1
63.2
72.4
67.8
72.2
72.3
77.6
68.2
57.6
75.1
61.4
77.9
73.5
69.5
75.2
70.7
65.3
72.0
70.9
72.3
14.2
71.7
24
57.6
82.1
5.9
72.6
25
64.2
81.3
4.4
12.7
3
11.9
14.2
1.1
75.8
64.2
78.9
11.9
12.1 1.602
1.546
13.0
1.592
1.668
1.678
1.591
1.554
1.562
1.536
1.584
1.659
12.3 1.664
1.674
1.522
1.677
1.630
12.5
4
12.1
13.0
0.3
1.597
38
1.522
1.680
0.048
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Front cover
Early 19th-century watercolour of Jarrow site viewed from the south.
(Bodleian Library, University of Oxford, Gough maps 7, fol 14b)

WEARMOUTH AND JARROW MONASTIC SITES (1 of 2)

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WEARMOUTH AND JARROW

ENGLlSIl HER I TAGI!

WEARMOUTH AND JARROW

The author and English Heritage would like to

WEARMOUTH AND JARROW

29 The medieval carved stone

Samian ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

Industrial/craft processes: the evidence

Appendix C. Context catalogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597

People and environment

Complete glazed floor tiles from Jarrow 35

Note: Photographs are by RC, unless otherwise credited in the

Fig 26.2.1 Anglo-Saxon plaster from Wearmouth . . 3

Fig 27.1.11 Colour range of Anglo-Saxon

Fig 28.2.1 Anglo-Saxon architectural sculpture

Fig 29.2.1 Effigies of a monk and a knight

Fig 31.6.3 Iron nails of types AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

Fig 33.2.10 Hard Gritty ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fig 33.2.61 Examples of Newcastle Dog Bank-type

Wearmouth: scrapers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450

Arthritic changes to right

36.9 Dental survival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488

26.5.1 Dimensions of imbrices from Jarrow . . . . . . . . 30

Content and structure of Volume 2

finds code; trench)

This volume, which forms Part VI of the monograph,

The location of the finds

General abbreviations used in the

Part VI. The Material Remains

where it descends towards the river bank is built of

I traced the eastern rampart of this station [the

WEARMOUTH AND JARROW MONASTIC SITES

For more than a century the southern part of the

26.2 Mortar and plaster

Characterisation of the mortar and

author using a hand lens (10), and types identified

26: STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

WEARMOUTH AND JARROW MONASTIC SITES

surface for receiving paint or whitewash (Fig 26.2.3).

26: STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

Fig 26.2.3 White painted pink plaster (Type 3) from

Type 6b. Very hard white smooth matrix, with large

WEARMOUTH AND JARROW MONASTIC SITES

Medieval? and post-medieval. Associated with

Post-medieval (C16th17th). Associated with

Fig 26.2.4 Distribution of Anglo-Saxon painted wall plaster at Wearmouth. AMacM

26: STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

the painted plaster was recovered among the debris of

At Jarrow (Fig 26.2.5) some plaster adhered to the

Fig 26.2.5 Distribution of Anglo-Saxon painted wall plaster at Jarrow. AMacM

WEARMOUTH AND JARROW MONASTIC SITES

some rough percentage estimates of the composition of

same contexts could well have provided such panels

The decoration of the polychrome plasters

by Rosemary Cramp and Ardle Mac Mahon

Fragment of white painted plaster with a concave

26: STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

stripe. On the back of the fragment is a recess that

WEARMOUTH AND JARROW MONASTIC SITES

PPl 13 Fragment of white painted plaster with one broken

plaster was also discovered in disturbed contexts to

26: STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

Context: 3083 Med 1 JA 69 HW a 6901

WEARMOUTH AND JARROW MONASTIC SITES