Increasing Students Continuing Motivation in Music

Kaitlyn Laprise
Abstract
Music Educators know the powerful influence that students motivation can have on
students persistence, commitment, and continued involvement in music. Because of its
significance in our classrooms, educators must understand the methods which research has
proven to be most effective in increasing students continuing motivation in music. Through the
organizing lens of the Expectancy Value Theory, this article will examine several current
theories of motivation in terms of the various factors that contribute to students beliefs about
their expectancy for success, as well as the ways in which teachers can increase students beliefs
about the value of music education in their lives. Lastly, the article will provide implications of
this research and suggestions for how teachers can apply these theories to their music classrooms
in order to encourage their students lifelong, continuing motivation in music.
Key Words
Continuing Motivation, Expectancy Value Theory, Attribution Theory, Goal Theory,
Competition, Extrinsic Rewards

All teachers recognize the power of motivation as a driving force which inspires students
to work hard and take interest in a subject. Music educators especially note the importance of
students continuing motivation in musicdefined as motivation which inspires students to
return to tasks because of a continuing interest, not because of external pressures like grades or
requirementsin our classrooms, because it is what inspires our students to continue to register
for music courses, practice at home, or seek out musical opportunities after graduation.1 Because
motivation is such an important element in determining our students current and future
involvement in music, it is essential that educators know what researchers consider to be the
most and least effective methods for increasing students continuing motivation in music, and
that we use that knowledge to shape decisions in our teaching. It is through this exploration of
research-based theories of motivation that we, as educators, can better design our classrooms and
curricula to inspire our students to pursue musical experiences throughout the rest of their lives.

Expectancy Value Theory

Atkinsons Expectancy Value Theory of motivation provides a broad, theoretical lens
through which to organize all of the other theories of motivation that will be explored in this
article. Atkinsons theory, in its most basic form, says that One chooses to do or keep on doing
what one thinks they can do (expectancy) and what they value doing (value).2 This means that a
students motivation for a task is determined by a combination of a value component the
students beliefs about the importance and value of the taskand an expectancy component
the students beliefs about their ability to perform the task successfully.3 Atkinson, and later
Eccles, have said much in their research about increasing students perception of the value of a
subject or task, while several other theories of motivation have addressed further the issue of

how to increase students expectancy for success in a task. It is important to note that though
each of these separate theories gives a slightly different explanation for the various factors that
contribute to students feelings of self-efficacy, all of them agree that there is a strong correlation
between students efficacy beliefs and their motivation to attempt a task. Simply put, those who
have a high sense of competence in a performance area are not only more likely to continue
performing in that area, they are also more likely to initiate and maintain activities that enhance
their ability.4 As educators, increasing our students efficacy beliefs must, therefore, be a central
element in our teaching. As research in math and science motivation shows, Parents and
educators should devote time and effort to not just building childrens knowledge and skills
but also to developing childrens beliefs.5 The numerous studies in motivation can provide us
with an understanding of the ways in which we can influence our students perceptions of value
and self-efficacy in music.
According to Eccles and Atkinson, there are four factors which contribute to a persons
perceived value of a task. First, the attainment value of a task has to do with how the task
contributes to the students social needs like whether it will make his peers think he is talented or
if it will gain approval from his parents. Second, a task which has intrinsic value is a task which
the student engages in purely for their inherent interest in and enjoyment of the task. Third, a task
which has utility value helps the student meet his long-term goals, like practicing his instrument
so that he can play duets with an older sibling. The final factor that influences the value of a task
is the perceived cost of participation, which includes any perceived loss that might happen from
engaging in a particular task like the amount of time, energy, or effort a student will have to give
in order to be successful. In every decision, the perceived value of the task must be higher than
the perceived cost in order for a student to feel motivated.6 Because musical involvement often

comes with a long list of potential perceived costs for students like the amount of practicing time
or extra musical commitments after school, students value beliefs about music are extremely
important, and must be addressed in our classrooms.

Attribution Theory
In order to increase our students expectancy beliefs about their potential for success in
musical tasks, we look to several other theories of motivation. First, Weiners Attribution Theory,
which represents an important area in motivation research, says that the reasoning to which
students attribute their success or failure determines whether the outcome will positively or
negatively influence their efficacy beliefs.7 If a child experiences success at a task and attributes
it to internal, controllable factors like ability or hard work, that success can contribute to their
expectancy beliefs, and therefore to their motivation to pursue that task again; however, if the
child attributes that same success to external, unstable, or uncontrollable factors like luck or a
competitor having an off-day, it will not contribute positively to their expectancy for success in
future similar tasks. According to Weiners theory, It is not reality itself that determines
childrens expectancies, values, and achievement behavior, but rather the interpretation of that
reality.8 More recent research has shown that as students get older, they are more likely to make
attributions to ability as an unchangeable entity. Younger students, on the other hand, tend to
view effort, which is internal and controllable, as a bigger cause of their success.9 It is
reasonable to conjecture that changes in the way students reason about ability which make
perceived ability a more important factor in motivation may be operating in general music class
to steadily reduce the motivation of those who do not possess high (perceived) ability.10 These
findings suggest that educators need to help students continue to attribute their successes and

failures to internal, controllable factors like effort or their flexible, increasing ability level in
order for them to believe that their success in one task will make them more likely to experience
success in future, similar tasks.

Goal Theory
Further research on the fluidity or stability of ability can be found in goal theories of
motivation. More specifically, researchers have identified two types of goalstask-oriented and
performance-orientedand have attempted to describe the ways in which each contributes to
students efficacy beliefs. Performance goals focus on students relative ability and how it will be
judged by putting emphasis on exceeding normal standards, trying to be better than others, and
seeking public recognition.11 Experts go even further to identify two types of performance goals,
which are referred to either as approach and avoidance goals, or as achievement-oriented and
failure-threatened goals. The research on the differences between these two types of goals is
based originally in Skinners work in operant conditioning: people are more likely to repeat
rewarded actions and inhibit or postpone punished actions. For students who approach tasks from
the perspective of trying to avoid failure, motivation to commit effort to a task is often very low.
This is because they feel increasingly negative about failure when they put more effort into the
task, because trying hard and failing implies low ability. Failing at a task they didnt try at,
however, feels less negative because it says very little about their ability. We conclude that a
safe strategy emerges for failure-threatened students that is designed to reduce, at least
temporarily, the shame and humiliation that accompanies failure: Try, or at least appear to try, but
not too energetically, and with excuses always handy.12 This research suggests that students
lessening interest in music isnt necessarily because of a lack of interest, but rather is evidence of

an effort to maintain their self-esteem because over-emphasis on performance goals has taught
them to attach their self-worth to their ability level rather than to their effort, growth and
learning.13 This implies that the emphasis in ensemble classrooms that is put on concerts,
competitions, and grades as the sole indicator of students success will not only encourage
students to adopt these same performance goals, but also will ultimately discourage their future
involvement in music in the event that they ever perceive the potential of failure. This is not to
say that preparing for concerts shouldnt be an important element in music classrooms; however,
teachers need to emphasize for their students that the ultimate goal is their learning, not their
performances.
Recent research suggests that those youngsters who believe that ability is a repertoire of
skills that can be endlessly expanded through instruction and experience are more likely
to focus on the task at hand, display greater intrinsic involvement, and be less
preoccupied with learning as a test of their worth. In contrast, children who hold a view
of intelligence as a stable, immutable trait worry far more about personal inadequacies
and seek to reassure themselves through comparison with others.14

When teachers emphasize growth and learning, students are encouraged to develop much
healthier, task-oriented goals for themselves which, therefore, make them more likely to continue
in music.
Task goals, on the other hand, focus on increasing mastery, learning new skills, and
understanding new things.15 By defining success in these terms, students begin to view ability
and intelligence as things that they can develop with time, rather than as stagnant capacities.16
Students continued motivation is dependent on the idea that effort influences ability, because it
allows students to believe that they have the power to determine their own success. Some studies
have even shown that students perception of their ability can be influenced by their perception
of how much effort they needed to put in to be successful in comparison to their peers.17 If all

that we value is the end performance and comparison, then needing to exert more effort to
achieve the same success as a peer makes a student feel less capable. If, instead, we emphasize
the growth that each child has made in changing their own ability, there is less need for
comparison and both children can be successful. Eccles goes further to suggest, It is important
to point out the role effort has played in the development of all great performers, lest children
conclude that they have no ability because it is hard for them.18 Fortunately for educators,
studies show that classroom environment and teachers values influence the types of goals
students set for themselves, which change from classroom to classroom.19 When teachers
emphasize growth in learning over performance and grades, students feel empowered, see
increased potential for experiencing success, and, therefore, experience higher levels of
continuing motivation.

Competitive Environments
One of the most obvious manifestations of the over-emphasis on performance goals in
ensemble classrooms is the emphasis which is placed on competition. This is found not only in
the ways teachers do part assignments, choose section leaders, and assign solos, but also in the
yearly festivals and competitions that get so much attention in ensemble classrooms. Research
about the effects of competitive versus cooperative environments on students self-concepts says
that competitive environments often lead students to place value on performance-goals, give
much more negative evaluations of their own ability, and often view all students who dont win
as less deserving of rewards.19 If competition is only potentially positive for those students who
win, then the majority of the students involved in any competition actually experience a
reduction in continuing motivation because of their perceived failure. If, instead, we choose to

engage students in a cooperative musical environment, all of the students can experience success,
feel equally deserving of rewards as all of their peers, and, therefore, can experience an increase
in their continuing motivation. In addition to the fact that competitions do contribute negatively
to self-perception, it is also important to discuss the nature of winning as an extrinsic reward.

Effects of Extrinsic Rewards

Research about the impact of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation points to Deci and
Ryans Self-Determination Theory which cites autonomystudents need to make choices in
their learningas one of the three most basic human needs which contributes to intrinsic
motivation.21 Deci argues that intrinsic motivation will naturally decrease when people think that
their actions are determined by external rewards rather than because of their own intrinsic
decisions.22 Their research does, however, make a distinction between two different types of
extrinsic rewards: those which determine behavior, like working hard to get a good grade or to
win an award, and those which give information about students performance, like verbal praise.
Because of students need for autonomy of choice, any time they feel that their participation in an
activity is motivated solely by the promise of an extrinsic, tangible reward, their intrinsic
motivation decreases. Thus, if asked later to complete the same task without the promise of a
reward, they are much less likely to feel motivated to do so. In contrast, rewards like verbal
praise for completion of a task speak more to students intrinsic motivation because they give
information about the success of their work, which can increase efficacy beliefs.
If we want students to participate in and enjoy music over their lifetime, we may need to
be more creative with the manner in which we implement certain aspects of our ensemble
instruction so we can help maximize students internal reasons for participating; not just

foster reactions to the structure that exists within the school, which is a structure that will
be gone after the students leave the high school band.23

This research does not say that extrinsic rewards are not motivating; it does, however, argue that
they decrease intrinsic motivation, which is ultimately what leads to lifelong continuing
motivation in music. To support students needs for autonomy, teachers should aim to facilitate
rather than control their learning, help them feel competent and independent as learners, and give
students opportunities to make decisions based on their own values rather than for the purpose of
receiving a reward.24 By diminishing the amount of extrinsic rewards used in their classrooms,
teachers deepen the value of students intrinsic motivation in music.

Implications and Suggestions

The results of this research have profound implications for music educators about the
methods we should be using to motivate our students. Teachers should start by reducing the
emphasis on competition that is inherent in so many ensemble classrooms and, instead, promote
an environment in which students work cooperatively to help each other learn new skills,
understand new ideas, and grow as musicians. A simple way to do this is to rotate parts in
ensemble classrooms or allow students to take turns playing solos rather than ranking students
based on playing ability.25 Instead of taking students to competitive festivals every year, teachers
could bring in guest artists to work with their students or participate in non-competitive festivals
to still give them the opportunity to learn from and perform with other great musicians without
the pressure of competition. By placing more value on the process of learning rather than the
product of winning public recognition for being better than someone else, teachers help students
adopt task-oriented goals for their learning which empower them to work to increase their

musical intelligence. Teachers instill these ideals in their students by not emphasizing pressure
to students, not promoting high stakes situations or work avoidance goals, but by providing a
classroom climate that tolerates student risk taking and mistakes.26 These important goals are
reinforced not only in a teachers praise and classroom environment, but also in the way students
are assessed. Teachers need to make sure that they are assessing growth and improvement, not
stagnant ability. This means designing rubrics which place value on the effort and improvement
students have shown since previous assessments, while also providing information about how
each student can continue to improve. In this way, even graded assessments provide feedback
throughout the process of a childs development, rather than reflecting inflexible representations
of ability level.
Much of this research can also be used to influence the way teachers think about
choosing repertoire, assignments, and other tasks. For example, Banduras work emphasizes the
need for teachers to choose appropriately-leveled challenges for students which allow them to
have high self-efficacy beliefs without being completely certain about the expected outcome, so
that they feel both competent and challenged.27 Once students find success in these challenges,
teachers need to help students attribute their success to internal, controllable factors like effort,
increasing ability, and focus. Through teachers careful word choice in praise, students
appropriate attributions for success can increase their expectancy beliefs. The last element of this
research to consider when making decisions about content and activities is to find ways to give
students choices in their learning. Teachers can allow students to make interpretive decisions,
choose rehearsal order, or even make repertoire selections from a carefully chosen list of options.
Allowing students to make decisions like these help satisfy students need for autonomy, which
emphasizes their intrinsic motivation for being involved with music. Though these intrinsic

motivators are often more difficult to identify than those associated with extrinsic rewards, it is
these intrinsic factors which will remain motivating to students throughout their whole lives,
thereby making them ultimately more valuable to students musical experiences.
In terms of increasing students perceived value of music, the Expectancy - Value Theory
can provide guidance. To increase the attainment value of being involved with music, teachers
must connect music participation with students social needs. Teachers must work to build a
culture of parents, teachers, administrators, and other students who actively support what our
students are doing in music classrooms. Reaching out to the community can help students feel
that their work is valued both inside and outside of school. 28 Because surveys of ensemble
classrooms reveal that students value the relationships they develop while in ensembles, teachers
can make a conscious effort to develop these relationships through a safe environment, open
communication, and helping students make connections to their peers.29 The perceived utility
value of ensemble music-making is equally as important for students who will not go on to
pursue careers in music as it is for the future professional musicians in the ensemble. Teachers
need to help students make connections to real world applications and understand how their
learning will be useful for their musical future. Helping students establish long-term musical
goals like performing in a community ensemble, starting small ensembles with friends, or
becoming avid concert-goers can be done by bringing in adult musiciansboth professional and
non-professionalto work with students or using older students as mentors for younger students
in the program. These role models represent a possible future identity as well as providing
information on the path to this identity.30 This can also include making sure that students are
aware of extra opportunities like summer music camps, private lessons, or other local music
groups. The more students are encouraged to see relevance for music outside of their school

ensemble, the more likely they are to develop musical goals which give utility value to their
work in school. Lastly, educators often organize activities and trips for students which try to tap
in to their intrinsic value and enjoyment of their experience in our classes. We must consider
carefully, however, whether it is really the music they are enjoying, or are they actually just
having fun being with their friends? If they are not experiencing the joy of music itself, then
these experiences are not contributing to their continuing motivation in music, but rather to their
motivation for the extra-musical elements of our chosen activities. In order for our students to
find true intrinsic value in music, they have to be encouraged to find personal joy in music with
or without the special activities and trips we planned. This value beliefthat music itself is an
important and enjoyable part of our students livesis what will ultimately inspire them to
continue to be involved in music throughout the rest of their lives.
Music education should provide students with important musical experiences which
contribute to their quality of life and motivate them to continue to pursue music throughout their
lives. These studies have shown that by increasing students expectancy for success as well as
their perceived value of music, teachers can help students develop continued motivation in
music. Lets help our students be excited to learn about music, believe in their own personal
ability to grow, and help them see the relevance for music in their current and future lives. If we,
as music educators, hold our students continuing motivation in music as a central goal of their
learning, then it is essential that we are intentional in our choices about how to motivate our
students. We must give preference for those motivational methods which have been proven
effective by research, rather than relying on methods which tradition alone has deemed
important. Our decisions must influence the long-term continuing motivation of our students,
rather than just applying to experiences within our classroom. Research shows that students

motivation is not a fixed element of their personality; teachers decisions, values, reward
systems, and environments all shape students choices, persistence, and investment in music. We
must take responsibility for the amount of influence we have on our students motivation by
making choices in our teaching which contribute positively to our students continued interest in
making music throughout their lives.

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14. Ibid, 53.
15. Hallam, 150.
16. Maehr, et al. "Motivation and Achievement", 360.
17. Ritcher, 35.
18. Eccles, "Children's Motivation, 38.
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22. Ibid, 362.
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25. Ibid, 151.
26. Ibid, 150.
27. Hallam, 149.
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29. Legutki, 186-7.

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