Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Introduction
Stars are not scattered regularly in the space; they occur in clusters which are
called galaxies or nebulas. Milky Way, the earths galaxy contains about
100,000 million stars. Light takes about 4 years to reach earth, from the
nearest star, 8 minutes from the sun and 1 sec from the moon.
The Solar System
It consists of Sun and nine planets. It is formed by condensation of gases and
lesser particles. Planets revolve in elliptical orbits around sun. Temperature of
Sun at the surface is about 6000 C and at the core is about 20 million C. Sun is
about 300,000 times big as the earth.
Mercury It is Smallest and closest planet, only 36 million miles away from Sun.
A year is of just 88 days.
Venus- It is about 75 million miles (approx.) away from sun. Also, it is considered
to be the Earths twin because of similar size, mass, density.
Earth- It is about 93 million miles away from Sun and has a satellite, the moon,
which is about 2,98,900 miles away and takes 27 days to complete a revolution
around Earth while revolving eastwards (anti-clockwise).
Mars- It has dark patches and is expected to have some plants.
Jupiter- Biggest planet. Has circular light and dark band. Made up of gases like
hydrogen, helium and methane. Has 12 satellites and is about 485 million miles
away from Sun. Temperature is about -130 C.
Saturn- Second biggest planet. Has 3 rings and 9 satellites around it. Takes
29.5 years to complete a year.
Uranus- Faint bluish disc like when seen through a telescope. Around 50 times
bigger and 15 times heavier than Earth with 5 satellites revolving around it. Only
planet to revolve from east to west around sun (clock-wise direction).
Neptune Its discovery was the result of mathematical calculations of their
irregular gravitational effects on other planets. Similar to Uranus but having only 2
satellites.
Pluto- Its discovery was the result of mathematical calculations of their irregular
gravitational effects on other planets. Smaller than Earth. Distance from Sun is
2,766 million miles during perihelion (when it is closest from Sun) and 4,566
million miles during aphelion (when it is closest from Sun).
If axis were inclined at 90 degree to the ecliptic, all parts of globe would
experience equal length of day and night.
Northern hemisphere
During winter (December), the length of day decreases as we go northwards. At
the Arctic Circle (66.5 degree latitude), there remains darkness for the whole day
on 22nd December. The number of days with complete darkness increases as we
go northwards and there remains darkness for half a year at the North Pole.
During summer (June), the conditions are just reverse. At Arctic Circle, there
remains daylight for the whole day on 21st June. The number of days with
complete daylight increases as we move northwards. In summer the area above
Arctic Circle is called Land of the Mid-night Sun. At the North Pole, there is
six months of continuous daylight.
Southern hemisphere
Here, the conditions are just reverse. Winter/ mid-winter in Northern hemisphere
means summer/ mid-summer in southern hemisphere and vice versa.
The altitude of mid-day Sun
Because of the inclination (66.5 degree), the apparent altitude of mid-day sun
varies during a year.
Sun is vertically overhead at equator two times a year. Those periods are called
equinoxes, meaning equal day and night.
The times when sun is vertically overhead at the Tropic of cancer and Tropic of
Capricorn are called Summer Solstice and Winter Solstice respectively.
During Summer Solstice, the day is longest in Northern hemisphere and during
Winter Solstice the day is longest in southern hemisphere.
Tropics mark the limits, above which Sun is never vertically overhead. Regions
beyond tropics are marked by distinct seasons -summer, autumn, winter &
spring.
Within the tropics, as the altitude of Sun does not change much during a year,
the four seasons are indistinguishable. Length of day and night does not varies
much and is almost equal within tropics.
Beyond Arctic and Antarctic Circle, it is always cold as sun is never much high
in the sky.
It is the angular distance, measured in degrees, along the equator east or west
of the Prime or First Meridian. Lines of longitude are represented on the globe by a
semi-circles running from pole to pole passing through equator. It goes till 180
degree west and 180 degrees east as earth is a sphere.
In 1884, the meridian of longitude passing through Royal Astronomical
Observatory in Greenwich was internationally selected to be the reference line
of longitude, the Prime Meridian (Zero Meridian).
As the circles of latitude become smaller as we move towards the pole, the linear
distance of a degree varies from 69.1 miles at equator to 0 miles at poles. So, it is
not frequently used as a standard for distance calculation. (some facts are to be
added)
U.S.S.R. which extends through about 165 degrees of longitude is divided into 11
Standard Time Zones.
Both Canada and U.S.A. are divided into 5 Standard Time Zones- the Atlantic,
Eastern, Central, Mountain and Pacific Time Zones with difference of about 5
hours between the Local Time of Atlantic and Pacific Coasts.
changes by 1 day. On crossing this line from east to west, one day is lost and viceversa.
The normal 180 degree meridian passes through various islands and places.
This will create confusion of the day and time in these places. To prevent these
confusions, the International Date Line is curved from normal 180 degree at
some places like Bering Strait, Fiji, Tonga and other groups of island. Some of
these adopt Asiatic date and time and the others adopt American date and time.
Lithosphere (Crust)- Outermost part of the earth. It consists of two distinct partsContinental plate
Oceanic plate
Thickness- varies from 3-4 miles beneath oceans and to 30 miles under some
parts of continents.
Mantle (mesosphere)
1800 miles thick
Composed of rocks rich in olivine
It is divided into upper and lower mantle.
Aesthenosphere is highly viscous and mouldable part of upper mantle which
lies just below the lithosphere and is responsible for plates-tectonic
movements and isostatic adjustments.
Isostacy refers to a state of gravitational equilibrium between the
Aesthenosphere and the lithosphere such that the tectonic plates float at an
elevation depending upon their thickness and density.
Core (Barysphere) Composed mainly of Iron and Nickel (Nife). Believed to cause earths
magnetism.
Hydrosphere- Parts of earths crust immersed by oceans and sea (not lakes and
all?).
Atmosphere- An envelope of mass of gases about 15 miles above the earths
surface.
Igneous Rocks
Origin/ formation- Formed by solidification of molten rocks (lava) from
beneath the earths crust
Structure- Crystalline
Properties- Hard and resistant
Do not exist in strata (layers) nor they contain fossils
Applications- Road-making and polished as monuments and gravestones.
Classification based on origin/ formation1. Plutonic Rocks Origin/ formation- Solidify inside the earths crust (intrusive)
Structure- Slow solidification leads to formation of large crystals.
Examples- granite, diorite, gabbros
These are exposed to the surface by the process of denudation and erosion.
2. Volcanic Rocks Origin/ formation- Lava comes out to the earths surface as a result of
volcanic eruption and solidification occurs outside the earths surface
(extrusive)
Structure- Fast solidification process leads to formation of smaller crystals
Example- Basalt
Locations- Lava plateau in Antrim of Northern Ireland, Deccan plateau,
Columbia-Snake plateau of USA, columnar basalt of Giants Causeway in
Antrim
When lava pushes its way to the surface through clefts, it gets solidifies as
vertical dykes and horizontal sills.
Sedimentary Rocks
Origin/ formation Accumulation of sediments over long period of time, usually under water
Properties Non-crystalline in structure
Made up of several layers so are called stratified rocks. These strata may
vary in thickness from few inches to several feet
Can be course-grained/ fine grained, hard/ soft
May contain fossil of plants, animals, microorganisms etc
The sediments may be brought by wind, water, glacier or even animals.
Classification based on origin & composition1. Mechanically formedOrigin/ formation Materials/ fragments derived from other rocks are cemented together to
form this rock
ExamplesA. Sandstone Most common of this type
Composition Composed mostly of sand or quartz fragments derived from granite
Properties-
2. Organically formedOrigin/ formation From remains of living organisms compressed under high pressure
Types on the basis of compositionA. Calciferous type
Composition-
Examples Limestone
Chalk
B. Carboniferous typeComposition Formed from vegetative materials- swamps and forests which
are compressed under high pressure by the weight of sediments
Examples Lignite
Peat
Coal
Formation Formed from sea/ lakes having high salinity such as black sea
Metamorphic rocks
Origin/ formation Intense heat and pressure changes form of igneous or
sedimentary rocks to metamorphic or changed rocks
Earth movements cause drastic changes the properties of rocks
Examples of this conversion1. Sedimentary to metamorphic
Clay to Slate
Shale to Schist
Limestone to Marble
Sandstone to Quartzite
Coal to Graphite
The
The
The
The
Fold Mountains
Steps of formation1. Setting up of stress
2. Folding of Earths crust Initiation of such stresses produce compressive forces which
cause folding of the earths crust along line of weakness thus
forming fold mountains
Hunsruck
Vosages
Graben East African Rift Valley, 3000 miles long, stretching from East
Africa through the Red Sea to Syria
Volcanic Mountain
Also called as mountains of accumulation.
Steps of formation1. Molten materials are ejected out of fissures in earths crust. These
materials are
Molten lava
Liquid mud
Ashes
Cinders
Volcanic bombs
Dusts
2. After ejection, these materials fall around the vent and get
accumulated in successive layers forming characteristic volcanic
cone.
Mt.
Mt.
Mt.
Mt.
Catopaxi of Ecuador
Fuji of Japan
Mayon of Philippines
Merapi of Sumatra
Plateaux (Tablelands)
Features Elevated uplands
Have extensive level surface
Descends steeply to the surrounding lowland
Classification based on formation & physical appearance1. Tectonic plateauxFormation Formed as a result of isostatic arrangements/ earth movements
which cause uplift
Intermont Plateaux
Tectonic plateaux enclosed by Fold Mountains are called intermont
plateaux.
Features Among some the highest Plateaux
Among the most extensive plateaux
Examples Tibetan plateau between the Himalayas and the Kunlun range
Bolivian plateaux between two ranges of the Andes
B. Highlands in drier areas Vertical corrosion by rivers and abrasion by winds cause
erosion
Features Due to dissection, plateaus take form of steep-sided tabular
masses called mesas & buttes
These tabular masses are intersected by deep canyons
Common in arid and semi-arid regions
Examples Common in south-western America
Gold
Diamonds
Manganese
Copper
Chromium
Plains
Features
An area of lowland
This area can be level or undulating
Altitude above sea level seldom reaches few hundred meters
May have low hills giving it Rolling Topography (meaning to be
checked)
Generally densely populated
Significance Generally is fertile and intensely cultivated
When traversed by river, its economic importance increases
Examples of Plains traversed by river The Indo-Gangetic plain
The Mississippi plain (Great plain of USA) (to ascertain)
The Yang-Tze plain
c. Deltaic Plains
Features Very fertile and intensively cultivated
Intensively tilled
Densely populated
Examples with their significancea. The Nile Delta of Egypt
Cotton & Rice cultivation
b. The Ganges Delta Jute & Rice cultivation
c. Plain of North-China composed of alluvium deposited by Hwang-Ho
Support various crops
B. Plains formed by glaciers and ice-sheets as an agent of transportationOutwash Plain- (to be detailed in other chapter)
Formation Melting of glaciers or ice-sheets deposits a mantle of unsorted
fluvioglacial sand and gravels which form outwash plains
Features Generally barren lands
Examples Parts of Holland
Parts of northern Germany
Holland- Western part of Netherland
Till or drift plainsFormation Composed of boulder clay, a mixture of various sizes of boulders and
clay
Features May be fertile
Examples Mid-west USA
East-Anglia in England
Tidal plain
Marine swamps
D. Plains formed by winds as an agent of transportationFormation Winds pick up very fine Aeolian deposits known as loess (a kind
(fine) of Aeolian deposits) from interior of deserts or barren lands
These are deposited over hills, valleys or plains. These deposits fill the
depressions of undulating plain and forming loess plain
Features Generally very fertile
Example Pampas of Argentina
In case of deposition of loess over hills and valley loess plateaux are
formed, like that of present in north-western part of China
3. Erosional plainFormationAgents of denudation such as rivers, glaciers, wind, icebergs etc carve out
plains of denudation by the action of erosion. Even mountains are eroded
to form undulating plain in terms of millions of years.
A. Peneplains formed by erosive action of rivers on hills in humid
regionsFormation River flowing through valleys deepens the bed and widens the bank
by an action of erosion
Hills are both lowered and widened in due course of time forming
undulating plains called Peneplains
B. Ice-scoured plains formed by erosive actions of glaciers and icebergsFeatures Generally levelled
Often characterized with several lakes formed at the place where ice
scooped out holes once
Examples of ice scoured plains Northern Canada
Northern Europe
Finland has about 35, 000 such lakes covering 10% of its total land
area
Shapea. Resembles upstanding wall when they are more resistant than
surrounding rock strata
b. Resembles shallow trenches when they are less resistant than
surrounding rock strata
Examples Cleveland dyke of Yorkshire, England
Isles of Mull & Arran in Scotland
A narrow ridge of quartzite to the north of Kuala Lumpur (how
quartzite can form a dyke?)
Yorkshire
5. Phacoliths
Features-
Lens-shaped
Occupy top of anticline & bottom of syncline
Fed by conduit from beneath
Example Corndon hills in Shropshire, England
6. Batholiths
Probable mode of formation Large mass of magma metamorphosed the country rocks with
which it came into contact
These metamorphosed country rocks together with solidified
magma is believed to constitute batholiths
Features Usually composed of granite
Can be 100 of miles thick
After removal of the overlying rocks strata these are exposed as a
massive resistant upland.
Examples Main ranges of West Malaysia
Upland of Britannia, France
Wicklow Mountain of Ireland
2. Acid lavas
Features
Light coloured
High density
Contains silica
High melting point
High viscosity
Flow speed is very less
The rapid jellying (becoming thick) of lava in the vent obstructs the
flow of out-pouring lava leading to severe explosions, throwing out
several volcanic bombs or pyroclasts.
Volcanic bombs- Mass of molten rocks larger than 64 mm in
diameter. It may travel several hundred kilometres and acquire
aerodynamic shapes. A type of pyroclasts.
Pyroclastic flow- A pyroclastic flow is a fast moving current of
gases and molten rocks which reaches speed up to 700km/hr while
moving away from volcano.
Features of volcanic cones formed Steep-sided
Plug or spine
Formation Sometimes lava is so viscous that it solidifies and forms spine at
the crater
Example Mt. Pelee of Martinique
Features Some spines are very resistant that remain even after
surrounding materials are eroded
Example of resistant one Puy-de-dome, France
Types of volcanoes
1. Active volcanoesThose which erupt frequently or is known to have erupted recently.
2. Dormant volcanoesThose which are known to have erupted in past and may erupt in
future.
3. Extinct volcanoesThose which are not erupted in historic times but retain the features
of volcanoes
All volcanoes pass through these three stages but it is not
thoroughly sure when they are extinct.
Examples of volcanoes (thought to be extinct) which erupted Mt. Vesuvius, Naples
Mt. Krakatau
Extrusive landforms
Types of these depend upon the nature and composition of lava.
1. Lava plain
Formation Highly fluid basic lava, flowing long distances forms these
Example The Great lava plains of Snake Basin, USA
2. Basalt plateauFormation Highly fluid basic lava, flowing long distances forms these
Example-
Lava pit of
Halemaumau (Kilauea caldera)
4. Ash & Cinders coneFormation Lava low in fluidity leads to its formation
Features
Steep-slope
Large central craters
Small in extent
Generally occurs in groups
Height is generally less than 1000 feet
5. Lava tongues
Formation When viscous lava flows over shield-shaped mountains gentle
slope in tongues like flows
Formation When lava flow is confined within valleys, it solidifies and dams
the river valley
7. Lava bridges
Associated with obstructions caused by lava.
8. Lava tunnel
Associated with obstructions caused by lava.
9. Composite volcanoesAlso known as strato-volcanoes.
Formation Several eruptions of lava, ashes and other materials occur from
main conduit bringing materials from to reservoir of magma
beneath
During each eruption a layer is added and subsequently height is
increased forming composite cone
Features Generally highest
Most common
Parasitic cone Fed by dykes or pipes originating from main conduit
Lava flows along the sides of parent cone after erupting from
parasitic cone
10. Crater
Formation Top portion of volcanic cone may blow off or collapse into the vent
forming it
11. Caldera
Formation Result of violent explosion that caused much of volcano to
subside to magma beneath
Features Greatly enlarged depression
My be several miles across
12. Caldera or crater lakesFormation Collection of water in these depressions lead the formation of
such lakes
Example Lake Toba, Sumatra
Volcanic dust or ashes are thrown so high in the sky that it travel
round the world several times before coming to rest, and falls as black
snow.
The coarser fragmental rocks that are spread in volcanic area are
called pyroclasts that include cinders or lapilli, volcanic bombs,
Pumice, Scoria.
Cinder/ scoria- A partly burnt substance (basaltic lava) that is not
converted into ash but is incapable of further combustion.
Lapilli- Rock fragments ejected out of volcano having diameter
between 2 to 64 mm.
Volcanic bomb- Rock fragments ejected out of volcano having
diameter greater 64 mm.
Pumice- Very light and porous rock which is formed when gas rich
molten lava solidifies quickly.
Some of the most disastrous volcanic eruptionsMt. VesuviusFeatures At the Bay of Naples
Height is about 4000 feet
Series of events and their effectsFirst event- (24 August A.D. 79)
White hot lava flowed from the parasitic cones
A large mass of gaseous magma was ejected high in the sky as
a result of explosion which finally fell to the ground as pyroclasts
& ashes
Effects The city of Pompeii located south-west of the volcano was
buried beneath the twenty feet of volcanic ashes which was
later cemented by torrential rain which followed the eruption
The city of Herculaneum, west to the volcano was covered with
the 50 feet thick layers of ashes & cinders washed down by
torrential rain from the sides of volcano
Second event- (December 1631)
Avalanche of height of about 1 foot and composed of pasty lava,
red hot volcano debris and highly energised gases
descended on Naples
Effects 15 towns were ruined and about 4000 people were killed
Mt. KrakatauFeatures-
The distribution of Volcanoes in the worldFeatures Generally located in the regions which are folded or faulted
Location is fairly clearly-defined
Around 500 active and over 1000 dormant and extinct
volcanoes are present
General distribution Along coastal mountain ranges, as offshore-islands
In midst of ocean
Few in interior of continents
Region wise location details with examples1. Circum-Pacific region (Pacific ring of fire)
This region includes about two-third of the worlds volcanoes. The
chain of volcanoes extends to about 2000 miles. Important
locations from start to finish (taking anticlockwise direction) of the
ring is given below Starting from Andes- Contains almost 40 active volcanoes
To Central America (particularly Guatemala, Costa Rica &
Nicaragua)
To Mexico
Then running up right to Alaska
From Alaska to the Aleutian Islands
To Kamchatka
2. Atlantic coast
Very few active volcanoes but many dormant and extinct
volcanoes are present.
a. Examples of Active Volcanoes Of Iceland
Of Azores
3. Volcanoes in Mediterranean regionMainly associated with Alpine folds though, surprisingly, the
Himalayas have no active volcanoes.
Examples
Mt. Vesuvius
Mt. Etna
Mt. Stromboli
Mt. Vulcano
Those of Aegean Island
Few in Asia Minor ( Mt. Ararat & Mt. Elbrus)
There are few volcanic cones in Madagascar, but active eruption was
not known so far.
In West Indian Islands Mt. Pelee in Matinique
In St. Vincent
The Lesser Antilles are mainly made up of volcanic island,
some of which bear sign of volcanic liveliness.
Hot springs or thermal springsFormation Water goes deep beneath the earths surface
It gets heated by internal forces and are ejected out of the
earths surface without any explosion
ExamplesThese are common and may be found anywhere on the earth. Majorly
in Iceland- Thousands of it are present
Japan & Hawaii- Centre of attraction for tourism
Significance Contains various minerals so can be of medicinal value
Heat is harnessed for various puposes (domestic, heat house)
Major after-effects Gigantic tidal waves, called Tsunami (by Japanese) are
produced
Passage of surface waves cause ground to twist and undulate
and fissures are opened. A wave of magnitude of quarter an
inch is suffircient to collapse the prdinary buildings
General after-effects
The distribution of earthquakesIts distribution coincides very closely with that of volcanoes. Though
no part of the world can be said completely immune to earthquakes.
1. Circum-Pacific areas-
There are three major chemical weathering processesA. SolutionAlmost all the rocks are subjected to this process to some extent.
Various minerals are dissolved in water. Carbon dioxide dissolved in
rain water act as a weak acid and expedites weathering processes.
Rate of weathering by this process depends upona. Mineral composition of rocksExamples to support this Limestone- It is majorly composed of calcium carbonate which
gets readily dissolved in water. As a result, joints and cracks are
widened and subsequently the whole system of caves and
passages are worn out
For others, rate is slow
b. Structure of rocksExamples to support this Presence of pore-spaces between the grains of sedimentary rocks
provide for lodging of water and gases which expedite the rate of
their weathering
c. Density of joints and cracksAs the density of joints and cracks in a rock increases, the rate of
weathering increases.
Examples to support this By analysing the granite in Malaysia, it is found that the
underlying layer of solid rock is covered with thick layer of
regolith but it contains some core-stones which would have
d. Local climateExamples to support this Weathering process occurs rapidly in the tropical regions which
are characterized by heavy rainfall and warm climate
Dry climate hinders the chemical weathering processes but
supports the physical or mechanical weathering processes
The fragments broken off from the rocks fall at the bottom of slope
forming screes or litters.
B. Repeated wetting and dryingProcess The outer layers of rocks absorb a certain amount of moisture
and expand when is wetted
These layers contract suddenly when is dried
This repeated expansion and contraction of outer layers cause
the outer layers to split off (exfoliation)
Various casesa. In tropical region- (Malaysia etc)
Short downpours saturate the rocks
Hot Sun dries them up
b. At coastal region Rocks are dried rapidly by sun and wind between the tides
c. In desert regions Rocks are dried rapidly after being wetted by brief desert rainstorms
This is almost as important as repeated temperature change in
causing weathering in these areas
C. Frost action- (temperate latitudes)
Process Rocks contain several cracks and joints, or pores, which are
occupied by the water, usually after shower
As the temperature falls during the night, this water freezes.
Freezing of water cause increase in its volume to about onetenth of its original volume. Water, thus, exerts a bursting
pressure of about 140 kg/ cm2 (2000 lb. to a square of inch)
D. Biotic factorsa. Plants Cracks and Crevices are developed in rocks due to chemical or
mechanical weathering processes
Plants may sprout in these cracks or crevices
As the plants grow, their roots penetrate deeper into the rocks,
along the joints or the plane of weakness, prising them apart
b. Humans Various humans activities such as mining, road making,
farming etc make them to excavate the rocks
These excavation activities contribute to the mechanical
weathering of rocks and make them more vulnerable to agents
of denudation
Mass MovementThe movement of weathered materials down the slope by the action of
gravitational force.
It can be gradual or sudden depending on these factors Gradient of slope
Weight of weathered materials
Provision of lubrication, for example by rain water
1. Soil CreepIt is the slow, gradual but more or less continuous movement of soil
down the hill slopes.
Rate of soil creep decreases when Slope is gentle
Soil is covered with grasses or other vegetations
Rate of soil creep increases when Soil is damp, so that water acts as a lubricant and individual soil
particles move over one another and the underlying rocks easily
When the hill is regularly trampled or treaded by animal
grazing which sets up vibrations which loosen soil and cause it
to move
Soil creep is not readily seen in action but its evidences are Anything rooted in the soil viz. trees, poles, fences etc tilt with
time
Soil accumulates at the foot of the hill or over any obstruction
such as wall that comes into its way of movement
2. Soil Flow (Solifluction)Process Sometimes soil gets completely saturated with water as if soil
particles are almost suspended in water
In this case soil behaves like liquid and soil-flow or mud-flow
occurs
Region wise process detailsA. Arid- region-
Mode of occurrences and factors causing ita. Vibrations set up by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions may
loosen the soil or rocks structures causing them to fall suddenly
b. Presence of very steep slope such as in mountain region, cliffs etc
facilitates its occurrence
c. Man-made steepening, e.g. for railway tracks etc, undercuts the
slope as well as set up vibrations which loosen the soil and rocks
d. Slumping occurs when impermeable strata like those composed
of clay is covered with permeable layers of weathered debris or
rocks. Water percolates through the permeable strata and is stopped at
the impermeable layer. Damp clay provides the very needed
lubrication and the whole upper strata slumps down
e. Water may collect on the bedding planes causing one layer to slide
over other, especially in tilted strata
f. Water may collect at the base of the regolith because it sinks
readily in the weathered materials and cause it to slide over the layers
of underlying rocks
g. Removal of natural vegetation cover for agricultural purpose or
housing allows more water to percolate into the soil, thus increasing
the chances of landslides
Removal of vegetation cover from the surface Cameron
Highlands leads to frequent minor landslides and slumps
Landslides lead to burying of villages, houses, people, railway tracks
etc and have disastrous effects.
Places generally affected by landslides South Wales, UK
British Columbia, Canada (administrative map of Canada to be
included)
Hong Kong, China
Cameron Highlands, West Malaysia- Village of Ringlet was
partially buried in 1961 and several houses were ruined/ effects
also in tea gardens
Hong Kong is one of the two Special Administrative Regions of
Peoples Republic of China, the other being Macau.
1. Climatea. In case of dry climate A large proportion of rain water may evaporate immediately to
dry atmosphere
b. In case of very humid climate Soil may already be having a lot of moisture intact in it
So, a large proportion of water is moved as run-off
c. In case of moderately humid climate Water is both moved as runoff and percolates down
SpringsIt is the natural outlet of groundwater onto the surface. It may seep
gradually from the rocks or gush out as fountain.
Rationale The groundwater reaches the surface at the point where water
table reaches the surface
b. Limestone or Chalk escarpment In this case generally an escarpment of permeable rock lie
between the layers of impermeable rocks
Water escapes out as spring from the foot of the scarp as scarpfoot spring
Water escapes out as spring from the base of dip-slope of
escarpment as dip-slope spring
c. In Karsts region Rivers suddenly disappear underground
They follow the passage worn by the process of chemical
weathering (solution)
Rivers re-emerges as spring when it reaches some impermeable
layer. This is called vauclusian spring or resurgence
Types of streamsa. Consequent streams- It (flow) is the direct result of original slope
or original topography of the surface. It is the initial stream that exists
as a consequence of slope.
Head ward erosion is the process by which a stream becomes longer and
more pronounced (wider). As rain falls, the river's head is eroded as the rain
erodes rock at the head. As more rain falls, the rock is eroded even more, and
the river cuts back at its origin. When it cuts, it erodes rock, and so the river's
length is extended.
The mechanism of Humid ErosionHumid erosion covers the matters of erosion caused running water,
rain-water, river etc.
Mass Movement is also affected by this.
River erosion and transportationBoth occur simultaneously. Various processes1. Corrasion or abrasion Caused by traction load
Involves mechanical grinding of bed and bank of the river
Two typesa. Lateral corrasion Caused by hurling of load against the sides of the river.
Widens V-shaped valley
b. Vertical corrasion Caused by rolling of load materials along the bed of river
2. Corrosion or Solution Various soluble or semi-soluble rocks are dissolved in the water
either fully or partly
Limestone is greatly dissolved in water forming solution
2. Rapids, Cataracts & WaterfallsThese can be present at any course of the rivers though it is generally
present in the upper course because changes in gradient here is more
abrupt and frequent.
RapidsFormation Bands of softer and harder rocks possess different resistances to
denudation
The outcrop of harder rocks cause water to jump or fall downsteam forming rapids
CataractsRapids of greater dimensions are called cataracts.
Examplea. Five cataracts are present along the way of Nile
Hinders smoother navigation along the river
WaterfallWhen water falls down from a height waterfall is formed.
Plunge-pool- The greater force of water plunging down creates
plunge-pool beneath.
Ways of formation-
Humans measures to prevent flooda. Artificial Embankments- These are created over the levee to
prevent the flood from occurring. Though it also leads to rise in the
height of rivers water and the bank may bursts if the pressure
becomes very high causing devastating flood.
b. Dredging of bed deepens the channel preventing excessive
sedimentation.
In due course of time, river break through the thin neck of the
loop, abandoning the ox-bow lake
River flows straight thereafter
Features Subsequent flooding may silt up the lake forming swamps
Gradually marshes are formed and in due course of time the lake
dries up
Active vertical and lateral corrasion during the upper and middle
course promotes the formation of deltas
Presence of larger lakes hinders in formation of deltas as a large
amount of sediments are deposited in the lake only
b. Features of the sea Depth of sea should be less in order to promote the formation of
delta. Deeper sea will lead to sinking of the sediments
Coast should be sheltered preferably tideless to promote the
formation of delta. Otherwise tides will sweep away the sediments
There should be no strong currents at the right angle of delta
to promote the formation of delta. Otherwise currents will sweep
away the sediments
Types of deltas with relevant examplesA. Birds foot delta Delta of Mississippi river- Several major branches of this delta, like
foot of the bird extends to Gulf of Mexico
B. Fan-shaped arcuate deltas- Have numerous distributaries
The Ganges, India
River Nile, Africa
River Mekong
River RejuvenationCause-
General Effects
Effects on the courses of rivera. Upper course Very little affected by rise of sea level
b. Middle course Features of depositions may get shifted to the middle course
c. Lower course It may occur partly in sea
The Human Aspects of RiversApplications/ Advantages1. Serve as Chief highways for commerce and transportationa. Yang-Tze Kiang Navigable up to 1000 miles from its mouth
b. Amazon (Worlds largest river) Navigable up to 2300 miles upstream till the foot of Andes
Though less extensively used
d. Mississippi
e. Mekong
f. Rhine
g. St. Lawrence, North America
h. Irrawaddy, Burma
i. Congo, Africa
j. Darling, Australia
k. Murray, Australia
l. Danube, Europe
Danube river
2. Generation of hydro-electric power In upper course rivers with steep gorges and waterfalls provide for
setting up hydro-electric power plants
These provide source of cheap-power to various industries thus
support their establishments
3. Construction of Dam Hold a large amount of flood water which prevents flood in lower
course
Channelize the held water for useful purposes
E.g.- Dams constructed in the Indus and Ganges plain
4. Irrigation purpose Main stream can be used to feed irrigation canals which helps
in proper irrigation of crops, thus improving yields
Very important source of water for irrigation particularly in areas
receiving low rainfall e.g. Egypt and Chao Phraya basin in
Thailand
5. Improving land communication in uplands Wind gaps created as a result of River Capture near the
watershed facilitate construction of upland roads and railways
6. Support agriculturea. Flood-Plains Flood-plain of large rivers with their thick mantle of silt form
very rich agricultural lands
b. Deltas These are equally fertile
Examplesi) The Ganges delta- Accounts for almost all the jute produced for
worlds consumption
ii) The Nile delta- Finest quality cotton and a variety of rice are
cultivated
7. Productive areas support ports-
Disadvantages1. Hindrance in navigation Presence of rapids and waterfalls interrupts regular navigation
through the rivers
Seasonal variation in volume and flow of water also interrupts it
Frequent changes in the paths of rivers also hinders in navigation
2. Problem in establishment of large ports-
3. Frequent floods River breaking out the levee causes flood destroying crops,
properties, etc
These floods may discourage people from cultivating crops like in
case of Orinoco river
Though floods caused by rivers may deposit silt rendering soil fertile.
Landforms of Glaciations
The Ice Age and Types of Ice MassesPleistocene period or ice-age (about 30, 000 years ago) scenario About 12 million square miles of Northern Hemisphere was
covered with ice sheets
Half of this was in North America, rest in Europe, Greenland and
the high mountains of Eurasia
Current ScenarioTwo major Ice sheets are present, in Greenland and Antarctica
Greenland with an area of about 720, 000 square miles
Antarctica with an area of about 5 million square miles
Glaciations are still evident on the highlands in various parts of
the world which are above snowline
Snowline varies from sea level in polar regions to 9000 feet in
the Alps and 17,000 feet at the equator (Mt. Kilimanjaro)
Snowline- The climatic snow line is the point above which snow and ice
cover the ground throughout the year.
Facts/ Things They are composed of compact sheets of ice hardened and
crystallised to depth over a mile
In Marie Byrd Land, Antarctica the thickness of Ice cap was
found to be 14,000 feet
Under weight of the ice cap, land sinks gradually
Basic thingsa. Ice cap- These are Ice mass that covers less than 50 000 km of
land area (usually covering a highland area).
From the central dome of ice cap, the ice creeps out in all the
directions to flow as glaciers
b. Ice sheet- Masses of ice covering more than 50 000 km are
termed an ice sheet.
c. Ice shelf- These are thick floating platform of ice formed when
glaciers or ice caps flows down to coastline and onto the sea
surface.
They terminate in precipitous cliffs. These are found only in
Antarctica, Canada and Greenland.
d. Ice Bergs- These are large piece of freshwater ice that is broken
from glacier or ice shelf and floats freely in an open water.
These assume tabular or irregular shape and only one-tenth mass
is visible above the surface.
These diminish in size when approaching warm water and eventually
melt completely, dropping the rocks debris that was frozen inside
them on the sea bed.
e. Nunataks- A nunatak is an exposed, often rocky element of a
ridge, mountain, or peak not covered with ice or snow within (or at
the edge of) an ice field or glacier.
f. Glaciers- These large masses of snow, re-crystallized ice and rock
debris that accumulate in great quantities and begin to flow outwards
and downwards under the pressure of their own weight.
Formation When the slope is gentle and the hollow is sheltered from the
direct sunlight and fast moving wind, snow accumulates rapidly
The surface snow melts during daytime but the molten ice
refreezes by nightfall
Repetition of this process continues till hard, granular mass of
ice is formed called neve (in French) or firn (in German)
Owing to the gravitational force, this mass of ice moves to valley
from the upland
This is the beginning of flow of glacier, that is river of snow
Flow of glaciers Though it is a solid mass of ice, it flows under the continual
pressure of accumulating ice mass above
The speed of flow is maximum at the middle of the glacier and is
less at the sides and back of it due to resistance offered to these
by the side spurs and floor friction of the surface
The stakes driven into the glacier in the straight line, width-towidth arches down with time as glacier flows downwards
It assumes tongue shape, broadest at the source and narrows as
it moves downhill
Velocity of flow
Weight of glacier
Slope of valley
Temperature of ice composing glacier
Geological structure of valley
Characteristic features1. Corrie (in Scotland)/ Cirque (French)/ CWM (in Wales)Formation Down-slope movement of glacier from the ice-covered peaks
and breaking (weathering by frost action) of upland slope leads
to formation of a depressions
Fern or neve are accumulated in these depressions
As ice moves, tensional crevasses called Bergschrund are
formed
Melt-water enters the crevasses causing freeze-thaw to occur
This causes plucking of rocks from the back-wall and steep
slope is formed
Abrasion causes the floor of depression to deepen forming a
horse-shoe shaped basin called corrie
Corrie Lake or tarn or Lochan A ridge is formed at the end of this basin
This ridge acts as a barrier and water is accumulated behind it
forming tarn
2. Artes (French word) and Pyramidal peaksFormation of Artes Sometimes two corries are cut back on the opposite sides of
mountain
It causes formation of a knife-edged ridge called Artes
Example Striding edge on Helvellyn in Westmorland
Formation of Pyramidal peaks or angular horns Sometimes three or more corries cut back together
It causes formation of pyramidal peak
Example Matterhorn of Switzerland
3. Burgschrund (German)/ Rimaye (French)Formation As the glacier tend to move out of the corrie, ac deep vertical
crack opens up near its head called Rimaye
This generally occurs in summer when sufficient snowfall is not
there
Sometimes several such cracks occur
It acts as a major obstacle for the climbers.
As glacier flows over the bend or precipitous slope, more Crevasses
are formed.
4. U-shaped glacial troughsFormation Ice is fed to the glacier from several corries just like tributaries
feed river
Glacier starts eroding the sides as well as the floor of the valley
Characteristic U-shaped valleys with wide, flat floor and very
steep sides are formed in due course of time
Truncated spurs formation Glacial flow grinds the projecting spurs and produce flat triangular
faces
Interlocking spurs are thus converted into truncated spurs
Ribbon lake / Trough Lake/ Finger LakeFormation After disappearance of ice from these long, narrow glacial
troughs, water may fill it
Thus Ribbon lakes are formed
5. Hanging valleyFormation Rate of erosion of main valley is much more than that of
tributary valley as the mass of ice in main valley is much higher
Because of this the floor of tributary valley becomes at much
higher level than the floor of main valley
As the ice melts the tributary valley seem to be hanging above
main valley and so is called hanging valley
Benefits Water may plunge down the hanging valley forming waterfall
This natural head of water can be used for generating hydroelectricity
6. Rock basinFormation Erosion and excavation caused by glaciers are of irregular pattern
Thus, several rock basins are formed in water lakes may form in
the trough
7. Rock stepsFormationa. Mode 1 When ice from a tributary valley is added to the main valley,
the weight of glacier increases
The heavier glacier cuts even deeper into the valley trough at
the point of convergence
Thus, rock steps are formed
b. Mode 2 Bedrocks may possess different degree of resistance to the
glacial erosion
Thus, it gets eroded to different depths at different places forming
rock steps
8. Morainesa. Lateral Moraines Rocks are shattered (weathered) by frost action, imbedded into
the glacier and are carried down the valley
They are dropped and deposited as lateral moraines
b. Medial moraines When two glaciers converges, the lateral moraines converge to
form medial moraine
These are dropped near the middle of the valley
c. Terminal or end moraines-
Landforms created1. Roche Moutonnee- (resembles sheep-skin wig once worn in France)
These are residual resistant Rock Hummock. These are eroded as
the glacier flow past these.
Upstream side is smoothened and a gentle slope is formed by the
action of abrasion
Downstream side is roughened and very steep slope is created by
the plucking action of glaciations
The surface is striated by the ice movement
2. Crag and tailsFormation Crag is a resistant rock with precipitous (extremely steep) slope
It prevents the softer rocks at leeward side from being completely
eroded by the on-coming glacier
Thus the softer side assumes tails shape, strewn with rocks debris
Example Castle Rock of Edinburg, Scotland (Castle is located on the Crag
and high Street on tail)
3. Boulder clay or glacial tillComposition Unsorted glacial deposits comprising of a range of eroded
materials
E.g. Boulders, angular fragments, sticky clay, rock flour
Features These do not accumulate to form mounds
These spread out in sheets forming drift or till plain
Degree of fertility of land depends greatly upon the
composition of materials deposited
The landform is rather monotonous and featureless
Examples Boulder clay plain of East Anglia and North mid-west part of
USA form rich arable (fertile) land
6. EskersFeatures
7. Terminal morainesFeatures-
Even after 30, 000 years of ice age, the effects of glaciations are
still evident
The most striking impact is on temperate region of Europe and
North America
Effects of glaciations can be seen on high mountains of Alps,
Himalayas, Rockies and Andes even now
Glacial influence on humans economic activities can be both
favourable and unfavourable based on Intensity of glaciations
Relief of region
Whether effects are Erosional or depositional in nature
Advantages/ benefitsa. Glacial drift (Wander from a direct course) in valleys, Alps etc which
(valleys etc) were not affected by glaciers (land not rendered
unfertile by glacial action) have good pastures during summer. Cattle
are driven up to valley to graze on the grass and are brought down the
valley during winter. Such form of animal-migration type of farming is
called Transhumance
Transhumance is the seasonal movement of people with their livestock between fixed
summer and winter pastures. In montane regions (vertical transhumance) it implies
movement between higher pastures in summer and lower valleys in winter.
b. Formation of fertile lands Boulder clay plain of East Anglia and mid-west of USA
Loess plain of Europe and Central USA with high percentage of
humus is also very fertile
When lakes are eliminated, the old glacial lake beds with rich
alluvial deposits support many crops
c. Forms Waterways Lakes formed as a result of former glaciations forms excellent
waterways
E.g. Great Lakes of USA
d. Forms Route-ways-
Five distinct types of desertsErosion of uplands, transportation and deposition of worn off materials
by wind and water have given rise to the five distinct types of desertsa. Hamada or Rocky desert Consists of large stretches of bare rocks, swept clear of sand and
dust by the wind
The exposed rocks are smoothed and polished
Are bare and sterile
Examples Hamada el Homra, in Libya of Sahara Desert- covers an area of
about 20,000 sq. miles.
b. Serir (Libya & Egypt) or Reg (rest of Africa) or Stony Desert Consists of extensive sheets of angular stones and gravels
which the winds could not sweep away
Much more accessible than the Sandy Deserts are large herds of
Camels are kept here
c. Erg or Koum (Turkestan) or Sandy Desert-
The mechanism of Arid ErosionCombined effects of various modes, one reacting over another has lead
to formation of a large variety of deserts landforms.
Cause of Aridity
Various mechanisms of sub-aerial denudation acting1. Weathering (Mechanical and chemical) Solution mode
Temperature variation mode (exfoliation occurs)
Frost action (teeth or tools of wind erosion are formed)
Example of deflation hollows Qattara depression of Sahara Desert- lies 450 feet below the
sea level
b. Abrasion Sand blasting of the rock surfaces by the winds when they hurl
the sand being carried away by them against the rocks
Blasting cause the surface of rocks to be scratched, polished and
eroded
Impact of blasting is maximum at the base of the rocks as the
quantity of materials being carried by wind is maximum near the
base (that is why telegraph poles are protected by covering them
with metal for a foot or two)
c. Attrition Wind-borne particles collide with each other
As a result they wear each other away and are greatly reduced in
size
So gradually grains are reduced to millet seed sand
Landforms of Wind Erosion in Deserts1. Rock Pedestals and Mushroom rocksFormation Wind cause abrasion of softer layers of projecting rock masses
faster than the resistant layers
Irregular edges are formed on the alternating soft and hard layers
of rocks because of this process
Grooves and hollows are cut into the surfaces of rocks forming
fantastic and grotesque (odd) pillar called Rock Pedestals
Mushroom rocks These rock pedestals are further eroded near the bottom where
friction is greatest
This process of undercutting produces mushroom rocks (gour in
Sahara)
2. ZeugenThese are tabular masses of rock with soft rock lying beneath a surface
layer of harder rocks
Formation It is formed in the case when a layer of Mechanical weathering
open ups the joint of surface rocks
Wind abrasion then eats into the softer rock forming furrows
(groove)
Harder rocks are not much abraded and stand above the furrow
created as Zeugen (10 to 100 feet high) or may overhang too
A ridges and furrows shaped landscape is created
With time the Zeugens are lowered and furrows are widened by
the wind action
Harder rocks are not much eroded and overhangs (Project over)
above the corridors as steep-sided ridges called Yardangs
Examplesa. In Atacama Desert, Chile- Generally found there
b. In interior deserts of Central Asia- Well developed with height of
about 25-50 feet
4. Mesas (Spanish) and ButtesMesas- These are table shaped rock masses having a flat top and very
steep sides.
Formation Top layer of the mesas are made up of very hard rock which
inhibits denudation by both wind and water
It prevents the underlying layers from being eroded away as well
Thus a table-shaped rock mass, often separated by gorges or
Canyons are formed
Examples In Arizona- Canyon region
Table mountain of Cape Town, South Africa- On fault block
ButtesFormation Continuous denudation of mesas over ages reduces it to an
isolated hill with flat top called Buttes, often separated by deep
gorges or Canyons in arid regions
5. Inselberg- (German)
Features Isolated residual hill emerging abruptly from the plain ground
6. Ventifacts and DreikanterVentifactsThese are pebbles faceted (smooth surface created) by sand-blasting.
These are shaped and polished by the wind abrasion to shape
resembling Brazil Nuts.
Formation Angular rock fragments, mechanically weathered from
mountains and upstanding rocks, are moved by wind and are
smoothened on windward side
These pebbles with flat surface(s) are called Ventifacts
When wind changes its direction, another facet is created. These
are characterised by flat facets with edges
DreikanterA Ventifact with three wind-faceted surfaces is called Dreikanter.
These faceted pebbles form Desert Pavements, a smooth mosaic like
region covered with rock fragments and pebbles.
7. Deflation hollowsFormation-
a. Wind lifts and blow off unconsolidated materials from the surface
and depressions may be formed in this process
b. Faulting Minor-Faulting may create an initial shallow depression
Eddying action of on-coming wind erodes the weaker rocks until
water table is reached
Water seeps out forming Oases or swamps in deflation hollows
or depression
Examplesa. Faiyum Depression in Egypt- 130 feet below the sea level
b. Western USA Land was stripped of its natural vegetation cover for farming
Deflating action of winds blown off the unconsolidated materials
as sand-storm, laying waste crops and creating what today is
known Great Dust Bowl
In dust storm, winds may lift dusts 100 of feet high and carry them
thousands of miles away.
Landforms of Wind Depositions in DesertsThese are formed when winds deposits the materials being carried by
them. The distance to which the materials can be carried depends
greatly on their coarseness.
Fine dusts These are lighter and may be transported out of the deserts
limits and deposited somewhere else
Sometimes these travel as far as 2300 miles
Examples Dusts from Sahara Desert sometimes crosses the
Mediterranean and fall over Italy as blood rain or over glaciers
of Switzerland
Star dunes
Parabolic blow-out dunes
Attached or head dune
Tail dune
Lateral dune
Sword dune
Pyramidal dune
Wake dune
Smoking dune
Hairpin dune
Transverse dune
Advanced dune
Two most common dunesa. BarchansFormation Sometimes sands are accumulated over some obstacle, such as
a patch of grass or a heap of stones
These occur transversely to the wind, so frictional retardation is
minimum at the edges because of which horns thin out and are
lowered by the action of prevailing wind forming a crescent
shaped structure
Advancement Sands are driven up the windward side by the action of prevailing
wind till these reaches the crest
After reaching the crest, the sands slips down the leeward side
In this way, the dune advances
Rate of advancement varies from 25 feet per year for higher
dunes measuring up to 100 feet high to 50 feet per year for lower
dunes which may be a dozen feet high
Features Crescent or moon shaped which may occur individually or in
groups
Move steadily by the action of wind coming from the prevailing
direction
Windward side is convex with gentle slope while leeward side
(slip face) is concave with steep slope
The crest of the dune moves forward as more sands are
accumulated by the prevailing wind
Disadvantages of migration Migrating dunes may encroach on the oasis burying trees and
houses, thus are threat to humans
Long-rooted sand holding plants and trees are planted into these
dunes to prevent it from wandering and devastating fertile lands
These dunes take chaotic (unpredictable/ unorganised) shapes
under the action of winds which change directions. Sometimes
these coalesce to form irregular system of ridges. Ergs or
sandy deserts are thus very difficult to be crossed
Examples Prevalent in deserts of Turkestan and Sahara
b. Seifs or Longitudinal Dunes- (Arabic word meaning Sword)
Features Lie parallel to the direction of prevailing wind
Long, narrow serrated ridges of sand, often over a hundred mile
long
May attain height of over 200 feet
The crest-line of the seifs rises and falls in alternate peaks and
saddles in regular succession
The dominant winds that blow straight along the corridor between
the line of dunes sweep clear the corridor of the sands
The eddies that are set up blow towards the sides of the
corridors, and, having low energy, drop the sands to form dunes
In this way, the prevailing winds increases length into the
tapering linear ridges
And cross winds increases the height and width of these dunes
Examples In Sahara deserts (South of Qattara depression)
In Thar Desert
In West Australian Desert
2. Loess-
The fine dusts blown out of the deserts limits and deposited over the
neighbouring lands are called Loess.
Features Yellow in colour, friable (easily broken into small fragments or
reduced to powder) and usually very fertile
These are Fine loam, rich in lime, coherent and highly porous. Its
surface remains dry as water that falls, sinks in immediately
Deep valleys may be cut into the thick mantle of loess deposited
by the streams giving it the features of badland topography
It is so soft that roads constructed over the mantle of loess soon
sinks in and very steep walls of it is formed
Examplesa. In loess plateau of Hwang Ho basin in north-west China These yellowish loess brought from the Gobi desert is termed as
Hwangtu (meaning the yellow earth)
Most extensive deposits of loess
Spread over an area of about 250, 000 square miles
Accumulated to a depth of 200 to 500 feet
b. In France Similar depositions occurred in its parts too
Term Loess comes from Alsace, France
c. In parts of Germany, France and Belgium Here, wind-borne particles come from the edges of ice sheets
Loess termed as Limon
d. In mid-west USA Wind-borne particles are derived from ice-sheets which covered
northern North America
Loess termed as Adobe
Landforms due to water action in desertsBasics In few deserts of the world, no rainfall occurs at all
The annual precipitation in most of the deserts is very less, 5 to
10 inches in a year
Effects of thunderstorms Thunderstorms do occur during which rain falls in torrential
(abundant) downpours, producing devastating effects
Several inches of rain falls during few hours, drowning people and
flooding mud houses in the Oases
Loose gravels, sands and fine dusts are swept down the sides of
the hills
Flow of rain water cuts deep into the hills forming deep Ravines
and gorges forming badland topography. Subsequent torrents
widens and deepens the gorges cut into the hills
Flowing rain water looks like liquid mud, owing to a large amount
of materials being carried by it
Materials being carried by the flowing rainwater is deposited at
foot of the hill or mouth of the valley forming alluvial fans or dry
delta
Several streams drop materials into these deltas
The water present in these deltas is soon lost through evaporation
caused by hot sun and downward percolation in the porous
ground, leaving mounds of debris
WadisFormation Vertical corrasion caused by the raging torrents during
cloudbursts deepens the channels and valley, forming Wadis
Features Remains dry most of the time
Chebka (Algeria)-
Formation Sometimes streams of water resulting from melting snow over the
mountains outside the desert region join the rivers stream,
resulting in the formation of exotic (characteristic of another place
) stream
These streams cut deep into the valley forming deep and steep
sided gorges, called Chebka in Algeria
Temporary lakesAlso called as Playas (USA), Salinas or Salars (Mexico) and Shotts
( northern Africa)
Formation In arid and semi-arid regions, the outflowing streams from the
uplands are both short and intermittent
These streams drain into some depression in the desert itself,
thus the drainage is completely internal
Temporary accumulation of water in these depressions leads to
formation of temporary lakes
Features These lakes have high concentration of salts because of high rate
of evaporation and percolation into ground in deserts
These forms glistering white floor after drying up
Features of the lake The base of depression consists of two features, the bajada and
the pediments
Bajada- It is depositional feature composed of alluvium deposited
by the intermittent streams
Pediments- It is an Erosional plain formed at the base surrounding
mountain scarps
Limestone & Chalk Sedimentary rocks derived from accumulation of shells and
corals in the sea
Mainly composed of Calcite or calcium carbonate. Sometimes
contains magnesium, and are called dolomite
Chalk is the purest form of limestone, white in colour, and is
very soft
These dissolve readily in rain-water, which, with carbon dioxide
of air, forms weak acid
Region with limestone features exhibit distinct features and are
called Karst features (named after Karst district of Yugoslavia,
where such topography is particularly developed)
Characteristics features of Karst regionsKarst regions have bleak (barren) landscape, broken by precipitous
slopes.
Rationale behind such characteristics There is general absence of surface drainage in these regions and
water goes underground
Streams originating over some other rocks travel a very small
distance over limestone and disappears underground
These streams cut through the joints and fissures while
penetrating downwards forming system of underground channels
As these streams reach the base and encounter the non-porous
rocks, these re-emerges onto the surface as springs or
resurrection
Formation of limestone pavements Limestone are well-jointed and through these joints rain-water
enters into the underlying rocks
Human aspects of Karst RegionVegetation and animal grazing These regions are generally barren and at the best have a thin
layer of top soil
The porosity of rocks and absence of surface drainage makes the
proliferation of vegetations difficult, though short grasses or turfs
may be present; some sheep grazing is possible
In tropical regions, these regions have luxuriant vegetation
because of the presence of excessive rain-water, owing to heavy
rainfall
Minerals-
Lakes
General Formed by accumulation of water in the hollows of the earth
surface
Varies greatly in their sizes, shapes, depth and mode of formation
Smaller one may be of the size of a pond or pool
Larger one are so big that they are termed as sea, e.g. the
Caspian Sea which is about 760 miles long, 3215 feet deep, with
an area of about 143,550 square miles, is bigger than whole of
the Malaysia
Various typesa. Temporary and permanent Rain-water may accumulate in the depressions of undulating land
for a short period of time forming temporary lakes
Lakes, deep enough, that the rate of evaporation is never enough
to evaporate all the water accumulated in it, form permanent
lakes
b. Fresh-water and SaltyFresh-water Many of the lakes are fed by rivers and out-flowing streams, and
form fresh-water lakes
Examples Lake Geneva, Switzerland
Lake Poyang, China
Great Lakes of USA
Life of Lakes Lakes are temporary features of the earths crust; they will
eventually be eliminated by the combined action of evaporation
and draining
In regions with unreliable rainfall, lakes dry up during the
summer
In deserts, the combined action of evaporation, percolation and
outflow cause lakes to dry up rapidly
Lakes dry up quickly in terms of geological time
The formation and origin of lakesLakes are formed as a result of various processes and events; its
formation can be affected by one or more factors.
Lakes formed by Earth movements-
1. Tectonic lakesFormation Warping, sagging, bending and fracturing of earths crust leads to
formation of tectonics depressions
Water accumulates in these depressions forming tectonic lakes
These lakes are very large and deep, in general.
Examples Lake Titicaca- occupying a huge depression in the intermont
plateau of Andes, 12500 feet above the sea level and is the
highest Lake of the world
Caspian Lake- occupies an area of about 143 550 Square miles
and is five times larger than its nearest rival, the lake Superior
2. Rift Valley LakeFormation Rift valleys are formed by the sinking of land been two parallel
faults, narrow, deep and elongated in character
Waste accumulates into it, forming Rift Valley lakes
The floor of these lakes are often below the sea level.
Examplesa. East African Rift Valley Runs through Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia and
extend along the Red Sea to Israel and Jordan
Covers a distance over 3000 miles
b. Lake Tanganyika World's deepest Lake
4700 feet deep
C. Malwai, Rudolf, Edward and Albert lakes
3. Rock hollow lakesFormation These are formed by ice-scouring when valley glaciers or ice
sheets scoop out hollows on the surface
Examples
4. Lakes due to Morainic damming of valleyFormation Valley glaciers deposit moraines across the valley
These moraines may act as a barrier and water may accumulate
behind these
Both Terminal and lateral moraines are capable of damming the
valley
Examples
5. Lakes due to deposition of glacial driftsFormation In glaciated Lowlands with a predominant drumlins landscape,
where drainage is poor, the intervening depressions may be water
logged
Thus, lakes are formed
Examples
Lakes formed by volcanic activities1. Crater or caldera lakesFormation During volcanic eruption, the top of cone may blow off forming a
hollow depression called crater
These crater may be enlarged by subsidence into caldera
These steep Cliff bounded hollows are roughly circular in shape
These are generally dry