JOURNAL BEARINGS

Introduction

Bearings are used for reducing friction between the two surfaces
and increase efficiency.
The properties of Engine bearing materials determine how a
bearing functions under conditions of alternating load,
intermittent metal-to-metal contact with the journal and in the
presence of impurities transported in the oil.
The structure and the characteristics of the materials used in a
high performance bearing are particularly important because of
the severe conditions under which it must operate, including high
loads and high rotation speeds.
Here are the main properties of materials for engine bearings:

Load capacity (fatigue strength) is the maximum value

of cycling stress a bearing can withstand without
developing Fatigue cracks after an infinite number of cycles.

Wear resistance is the ability of the bearing material to

maintain its dimensional stability (oil clearance) under
conditions of mixed lubrication regime and in the presence of
foreign particles carried by the lubricant.

Compatibility (seizure resistance) is the ability of the

bearing material to resist physical joining with the crankshaft
journal when it contacts the bearing surface.

Conformability is the ability of the bearing material to

accommodate geometry imperfections of the journal, housing
or bearing itself.

Embedability is the ability of the bearing material to absorb

small foreign particles transported in the lubricating oil.

Corrosion resistance is the ability of the bearing material

to resist chemical attack from the lubricant or substances that
may enter and contaminate the lubricant.

Cavitation resistance is the ability of the bearing material

to withstand impact stresses caused by collapsing cavitation
bubbles, which form as a result of sharp and localized drops of
pressure in the circulating lubricant.
Thus, in order to achieve durability and reliability from an engine
bearing, its materials should paradoxically combine contradictory
properties: high strength (load capacity, wear resistance,
cavitation resistance) with softness (compatibility, conformability,
embedability.)

Thick Shell Bearings:

This type of bearing has a steel back with the required stiffness:
1. To ensure against the distortion of the sliding surface
geometry.
2. To support the cast-on white metal in regions where the shell
lacks support.
These are lined with tin-base white metal upto about 12mm thk.
Various formulations and specifications exist bearing a close
relationship to babbits original composition which had 89.3% tin,
8.9% Antimony and 1.8% Cu. Addition of 1 to 1.5% Cadmium
raises the tensile strength.
The bearing life depends to a large extent on the strength of bond
between white metal and shell. A Cu layer is deposited in
between to ensure good bonding.

Thin Shell Bearings:

Thin shell bearings have a wall thickness between 2% to 2.5% of
the journal diameter. The steel back does not have sufficient
thickness to support the cast-on white metal alone. The bearing
must therefore be supported rigidly over its full length. This type
of bearing is manufactured with a circumferential overlength
(nip/crush) which, when the shells are mounted and tightened up,
will produce the required radial pressure between the shell and
the bearing housing.

During recent years there has been a swing from traditional thick
white metal bearings in order to improve their relatively poor
compressive strength at high operating temperatures. In modern
high power engines bearing loads are very high, tending to cause
fatigue failure of bearing metal.

Thin Shell Bering Construction:

Tri-metal Bearing Structure
The contradictory combination of strength and softness may be
achieved if the bearing material has a composite structure.
Engine bearings are composed of a steel back, onto which is
applied a relatively strong base (copper or aluminum) combined
with a solid lubricant in the form of either a thin overlay or small
particles distributed throughout the base material.
Bearing material having a thin overlay is called tri-metal, in
contrast to materials without any overlay bi-metal.
Typical tri-metal and bi-metal engine bearing construction is
shown in Fig. 1:

Microstructure of a typical tri-metal bearing is shown in Fig. 2:

Conventional tri-metal bearings are composed of the following

layers:
Steel back supporting the bearing structure and providing its
rigidity and press fit under severe conditions of increased
temperature and cycling loads.
Bearing Metal: Bearing metal is coated on the steel back. It is
applied
onto
the
steel
back
surface
by
either
casting or sintering.
Three different types of materials are used as bearing material,
namely: Tin based white metal, Copper-lead and Tin Aluminium
(AlSn40).
The bearing metal thickness is 0.5 to 3mm.
Intermediate layer, An intermediate layer may be used
between the overlay and main bearing metal to avoid diffusion.
This is particularly found where bearing loads are very such as
in the lower half of the cross head bearing. The layer is
galvanically applied. OR

Nickel diffusion barrier (nickel dam) is deposited between

the bearing metal and the overlay in order to prevent a
migration of tin from the overlay into the intermediate material
(copper). Diffusion of tin into copper decreases the tin content

in the overlay, causing a deterioration of corrosion resistance of

the lead-based overlay alloy. Nickel diffusion barrier thickness is
about 0.00004-0.00008.
Overlay which is commonly made of a leaded alloy
containing 10% tin and 2-3% copper. The overlayer is a soft
and ductile coating, its main objective is to ensure good
embedability and conformity between the bearing sliding
surface and pin surface geometry. The addition of tin increases
the corrosion resistance of the alloy. Copper improves its
fatigue strength (load capacity). Overlay thickness is typically
in the range of 0.0005-0.0008. (20 -40 micrometers).

Flashlayer, Tin (Sn): A flash layer is a 100% tin (Sn) layer

which is applied galvanically; the thickness of this layer is 2
micro to 5 micrometer. The coating of tin flash is applied all
over and functions primarily to prevent corrosion (oxidation) of
the bearing.
The tin flash also functions as a dry lubricant when new
bearings are installed and engine is barred.

Lead based overlays, as well as nickel barriers, are deposited

onto the intermediate layer by Electroplating.

Bearing Metals:
1) Tin Based White Metal:
Tin based white metal is alloy with minimum 88% tin (Sn), the
rest of the alloy composition is antimony (Sb), copper (Cu),
cadmium (Cd) and small amounts of other elements added to
improve fineness of the grain structure and homogeneity
during solidification process. This is important for the load
carrying and sliding properties of the alloy.
Lead content in this alloy is an impurity and reduces fatigue
strength with increase is lead content. 0.2%max.
2) Copper-lead alloy:

The intermediate layer of conventional tri-metal bearings is

composed of copper (the basic element), 22-25% lead and 23% tin. Lead in the form of separated particles distributed
throughout the copper matrix serves as a solid lubricant and
imparts anti-friction properties to the alloy. Tin forms tiny
intermetallic inclusions with copper atoms which strengthen
the material. It has higher load carrying capacity at higher
operating temperatures.
These consist of relatively thin steel shell, having a lining of
copper-lead 0.5mm to 3.0mm thick with a white metal overlay
from about 0.5mm to 3.0 mm.
The greater the thickness of overlay the better the
conformability and embedability, but this is achieved at the
expense of load carrying capacity.
3) Tin Aluminium (AlSn40):
Sn Al is a composition of aluminium and tin where the tin is
trapped in 3-dimensional mesh of aluminium.
The sliding properties of this composition are similar to tin
based white metal but the loading capacity of this material is
higher than tin based white metals for same working
temperature (almost same as copper-lead bearing).
Tin gives the good embedability and sliding properties and Al
mesh functions as an effective load absorber.

TYPES OF DEFECTS

A.

Wear

The relatively softer surface of the bearings rubs against the

harder surface to which they are providing the bearing surface.
Hence when two metals of different hardness rub together, the
one with the lesser hardness with wear more.

Under normal service conditions bearing wear is negligible. The

wear is accelerated by the fact that impurities and abrasive
particles can enter between these surfaces thus speeding up the
wear.
Bearing Wear rate: The reduction of shell thickness in the
loaded area of the bearing in a given time interval represents the
wear rate of the bearing. Average bearing wear rate based on
service experience is 0.01mm / 10000 hrs.

B.

Wiping Damage:

1)

Wiping of Overlayer:

It manifests itself by parts of the overlayer being smeared

out. Wiping of overlayer can take place when running-in a
new bearing, excessive load at start-up or run down, low
speed turning or barring.

2)

Wiping of White Metal:

This is due to metal contact between sliding surfaces which

causes increased fricitional heat, resulting in plastic
deformation (wiping).
Causes of Wiping:
1. Increased journal/pin surface roughness.
2. Inadequate lub oil supply
3. Operational overload
4. Loss of clearance
5. Misalignment

C. Corrosion:
Bearings are lubricated with lub oil from the engine systems and
this lub oil can turn acidic in due course of time with effect
of combustion products, temperature and so on. This acidic lub oil
can cause corrosion of the bearings especially the white metal
parts of the bearings.

D. Bearing Scratched by dirt in the Oil

Embeddability enabled a bearing to protect itself by allowing
particles to embed in the bearing. Then they will not gouge out
bearing material or scratch the rotating journal. The metal is
pushed up around the particle, reducing oil clearance in the area.
Usually the metal can flow outward enough to restore adequate
oil clearance. However, if the dirt particles are too large they do
not embed completely. They are carried with the rotating journal,
gouging out scratches in the bearing. Also, if the oil is very dirty,
the bearing becomes overloaded with particles. In either case,
bearing failure soon occurs.
E. Fatigue failure of bearing
Repeated application of loads on a bearing, fatigue the bearing
metal. It starts to crack and flake out. Craters, or pockets, form in
the bearing. As more and more of the metal is lost, the remainder
carries a greater load and fatigues at a faster rate. Then complete
bearing failure occurs.
F. Electrical Pitting
Electrical discharge through the oil film between the shaft and
bearing in electrical machinery or in fans and turbines may occur
due to faulty insulation or grounding, or due to the build-up of
static electricity. This electric discharge can occur at very low

voltages and may cause severe pitting of the bearing or shaft

surfaces, or both.

G. Overloading/Overheating
A bearing can get damaged due to local concentration of stress or
temperature and certain regions which in turn can be due to
several factors. This can lead to various types of defects such as
galling, scuffing, scoring and so forth.
Given below are a few pictures which show different types of
defects which have occurred due to wear, loss of lubrication etc.
This should give you an idea about the manner in which a
defective bearing appears from outside without using any
measuring tool.

Graphics of Bearing Defects

Shell Bearings

Thin shell bearings are used for most bearing applications in the main
engine. They consist of a steel backing strip coated with a layer of white
metal. Bearings may be bi-metal or tri-metal. typical materials are steelbabbitt, steel-bronze or steel-tin/aluminium ( tin-aluminium has slightly
greater load bearing capacity than white metal and maintains its fatigue
strength over a greater range of temperatures. The bearing metal thickness
is 0.5 to 3mm. An Overlay of 20 -40 micrometersmay be applied to improve
conformity . This is generally a ductile coating of lead and tin. In addition
new bearings may have a flashlayer of a few microns of tin to prevent
oxidation
An intermediate layer may be used between the overlay and main bearing
metal to avoid diffusion. This is particularly found where bearing loads are
very high such as in the lower half of the cross head bearing. The layer is
galvanically applied.
Compared with the traditional cast bearing they have a number of
advantages.
Shells are prefinished thus allowing for quicker and easier
replacement.
The bearings are made under strict controlled conditions giving
consistent high quality products
In many cases the top and bottom halves are interchangeable in an
emergency.
Thin layer of white metal cools quickly giving fine grain structure which
has high strength and fatigue resistance.

Shell bearings sometimes have a layer of copper or bronze between the steel
and the white metal in order to improve adhesion of the white metal. This
layer will also provide safe guard in the event that the white metal being
worm away.