PRE UNIVERSITY

CHEMISTRY
SEMESTER 1

CHAPTER 1 : MATTER

1.1

The Atom

1.1.1 Historical development of atomic theory

When atom was first discovered by John Dalton
(1808), he claim that atom are the simplest unit in a
substance.

Later, physicist J.J. Thomson (1897) found out that
atom are made up of even smaller particles with
negative charge electron, Daltons theory was being
rejected.

After that, subatom with a positive charge proton
was discovered by Rutherford in the center of the
atom.

At the same decade, Neils Bohr discover that
electrons surrounding nucleus similar as planet
surrounding the Sun, and electrons move about in a
rich electron region called orbital.

Few years later, Chadwick discovered that not only
proton exist in the center of an atom but also a noncharge subatom neutron.

Electron

Neutron

Nucleus
Proton

Particle

Symbol

Mass
(kg)

Relative
Mass

Charge
(C)

Relative
Charge

Proton

p or

1 H
1

1.67 x
10-27

1 a.m.u

+1.6 x
10-19

+1

Neutron

n or

1 n
0

1.67 x
10-27

1 a.m.u

Electron

e or

0 e
-1

9.11 x
10-31

_1_ amu
1834

-1.6 x
10-19

-1

The path of moving protons, electrons and neutrons is deflected by both

electric field and magnetic field

neutron

electron

electron

North
proton

Path of proton, electron and neutron

in an electrical field

proton

<

neutron

<

South

Path of proton, electron and neutron

in a magnetic field

1.1.2 Structure of atoms

In atom, proton & neutron are located at the centre of the
atom, which is also known as nucleus while electrons are
surrounding it. The mass of an atom are concentrated at the
center of the atom, as the mass of electron is very small.

In periodic table, the symbol of elements is usually written in
such way
nucleon number

charge

A
proton number

Z

n+

no. of same element

Ion is formed when electron is donated or received

Formed

Positive charged ion (cation)

Negative charged ion (anion)

Formed when an atom donate electrons

Formed when an atom receive electrons

+ 2 eDot and
cross
diagram
s

2+

+ eoxide ion, O2Ionic

equation

Na  Na+ + e-

O + 2 e-  O2-

No of e-

10

10

Particles

Number of protons

Number of neutrons

Number of electrons

Ne

10

10

10

16

O2-

10

35

17

18

18

2+

20

20

18

3+

24

28

21

351Sb

51

71

54

OH-

10

CO32-

30

30

32

+
1D3O

11

11

10

[168O-N-188O]-

23

25

24

20

10

17 Cl

40

20Ca

52

24Cr

122

1.2 Isotopes

Isotopes are atoms which have the same proton number but
different nucleon number
HYDROGEN & DEUTERIUM

In the previous table, ____________
are isotopes

Other examples of isotopes
Element

Isotopes
Protium,

Hydrogen

1H

Deuterium, D :
Tritium, T :

Oxygen

No of proton

1H

1H

Oxygen-16 :

16

8O

Oxygen-17 :

17

8O

Oxygen-18 :

18

8O

Chlorine 35 ;

35

17Cl

Chlorine 37 ;

37

17Cl

Chlorine

No of neutron

% of
abundance

1
1
1

0
1
2

99.0

8
8
8
17
17

8
9
10
18
20

98.9

0.99
0.01

1.00
0.01
75
25

Isotope

54Fe

56Fe

57Fe

58Fe

% composition

5.8

91.6

2.2

0.4

No. of protons

26

26

26

26

No. of neutron

28

30

31

32

The relative abundance (% composition) of the isotopes in the sample

of an element is not the same for all the isotopes present.
Same

Proton

number

No. of electron (neutral atom)

Electronic configuration

Chemical properties

Different

No.

of neutron in nucleus

Density

Mass

Rate of diffusion

If compounds are formed from different isotopes, the molecular

mass of that particular compound is the summation of all the
isotopic mass involved
Example

C16O

and

16+12+16
= 44

18+12+18
= 48

16+12+18
= 46

C18O

1H

2O

and

3H

1 + 16 + 1
= 18

3 + 16 + 3
= 22

2O

N35Cl3 and
N37Cl3

79Br79Br

and79Br81Br

79Br79Br

14 + 3(35)
= 119

158
79Br81Br

14+ 1(35)+ 2(37)

= 123

160
81Br81Br

14+ 3(37)
= 125

162

1.2.4 Uses of Radioisotopes

Widely used as tracers in biological processes. For example
tracing the uptake of phosphorus by plant using 32P

Carbon-14 is used in carbon dating, which is used to determine
the age of archeological artifacts

Gamma radiation from 60Co is used in radiotherapy to destroy
malignant tissues in cancer patients.

Energy released by nuclear fission is used to generate electricity
in nuclear plants.

To sterilise food or surgical instruments.

Used in leak management. Underground leakage, especially in
water or fuel pipeline leakage. Sudden increase in radioactivity
mean that theres a leakage.

1.3 Relative Mass

Mass of an atom is approximately equal to the sum of
the mass of all the sub-atomic particles present.
Example

In this method, the mass of the atom is compared to
the mass of another atom which is used as reference.
Initially, hydrogen was used as standard because it is
the lightest. Subsequently, the oxygen atom was used
to replace hydrogen as standard due to a few reason.

In 1961, carbon-12 was chosen as the standard for
comparing relative atomic masses because it is easily
available and its solid in room temp. It is known as 12C
scale. On this scale, an atom of 12C has the mass
exactly 12 atomic mass unit (a.m.u).

1.3.1 Relative Isotopic Mass (RIM)

The relative isotopic mass of an isotope is the mass of 1
atom of the isotope relative to 1/12 times the mass of one
atom of 12C.
RIM =
mass of 1 atom of the isotope
1/12 x mass of 1 atom of C-12

The relative isotopic mass of an isotope is approximately
equal to its nucleon number. For example,
Isotope
Relative isotopic mass
40Ca
40.080
19F
18.999
127I
126.910

Thus for most calculation involving atomic mass, the
nucleon number can be use as a substitute for the actual
RIM.

1.3.2 Relative Atomic Mass (RAM)

Most elements consist of a mixture of isotopes with
different abundance as mention in slide 7. Therefore, the
relative abundance of the abundance of the isotopes has
to be taken into consideration when calculating the
average mass of an atom of the element.

The relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element is defined as
the average mass of 1 atom of the element relative to
1/12 times the mass of 1 atom of 12C.
RAM = average mass of 1 atom of the element
1/12 x mass of 1 atom of C-12
Example : The element oxygen consist of 3 isotopes, 16O, 17O and
18O in the ratio of 98.9 : 0.10 : 1.00. Calculate RAM of oxygen.
RAM=(16 x 98.9) + (17 x 0.10) + (18 x 1.00) = 16.021
98.9 + 0.10 + 1.00

1.3.3 Relative Molecular Mass (RMM)

RMM of a molecular substance is the mass of 1 molecule of the
substance relative to 1/12 times the mass of 1 atom of 12C
RMM = average mass of 1 molecule of substance
1/12 x mass of 1 atom C-12

~ is equal to the sum of the relative mass of all the atoms shown in
the molecular formula.

For ionic compound the terms relative formula mass (RFM) is used
because it do not exist as discrete molecules but consist of an
infinite array of ions. RFM is defined as the mass of one formula
unit of the compound relative to 1/12 times the mass of 1 atom of
carbon-12.

1.4 Introduction to Mass Spectroscopy (MS)

Relative mass of atom can be determine by using
analytical instrument. One of the instrument that is
frequently used nowadays is MASS SPECTROSCOPY

Mass Spec can be used to determine :
 Relative isotopic mass
 Relative abundance of the isotopes
 Relative atomic mass
 Relative molecular mass
 Structural formula of compound

Figure on the next slide shows a simplified diagram of a
mass spec.

Mass Spectrometer

This machine is used to find out the relative atomic mass of an

element. There are 4 main stages in the process:
1. Ionisation - after a vapourised sample is put into the mass
spectrometer, it is ionised - electrons are removed - usually
one electron is removed but sometimes two. The positively
charged species then go into the accelerating chamber.
One electron is removed : A (g)  A+ (g) + e
2nd electron is removed : A+ (g)  A2+ (g) + e
If molecule involved e.g. : ABC
ABC

(ABC)+ + eor
A+ + (BC)+ + 2 e- / C+ + (AB)+ + 2 eor
A+ + B+ + C+ + 3 e
2. Acceleration - the ions are subjected to a negatively charged
electric plate in order to accelerate the ion

2. Acceleration - the ions are subjected to a negatively charged

electric plate in order to accelerate the ion.
3. Deflection - the heavy ions (ones with the larger atomic mass)
are deflected less than the the lighter ions. Therefore the ions
are separated according to their atomic masses and travel a
different path in the mass spectrometer (shown by the dotted
lines in the diagram below).
56Fe+
59Fe+

56Fe+

56Fe2+

4. Detection - only ions of a certain mass actually end up at this

point (the ones taking the green path). To make sure that all
of the ions are detected, you have to vary the strength of the
accelerating field. The detector records each species as a peak
on a trace.



Ratio of 79Br to 81Br is 50 : 50 or 1 : 1, so RAM of Br = 80

For peak m/e 158, it is due to the existence of (79Br79Br)+ ; so the
probability of peak P(79Br79Br) = (1/2)(1/2) =
For peak m/e 160, it is due to the existence of (79Br81Br)+ ; or, it may
also be (81Br79Br)+ , so the probability of peak is
P(79Br81Br) = (1/2)(1/2) + P(81Br79Br) = (1/2)(1/2) =
For peak m/e 162, it is due to the existence of (81Br81Br)+ ; so the
probability of peak P(81Br81Br) = (1/2)(1/2) =

RAM = 206(15) + 207(72) +

208(8) + 209(5)___
15 + 72 + 8 + 5
= 207.03

O+
N2O+
NO+
N+

NO2+
N2O2+

N2O3+
N2O4+

CH3+

CH2+

C2 H2 +
C2 H3 +

C3 H6 +
C3 H5 +

C4 H8 +

C2 H3 +
O+
CH3+

C2 H5
COH+

C3 H6 +
C2H3O+

C3H6O+

1.5
Mole

One mole of substance is the amount of substance that contains
the same number of particles as the number of atom in exactly 12
g of the C-12 isotope.

The number of particles in one mole of any substance is a constant
known as the Avogadro constant (L)
Avogadro Constant = 6.023 x 1023 mol-1

1 mole of any substance is the same as the relative atomic/
molecular/formula mass of that substance expressed in gram
e.g. : 3 mole of boron
= 3 x 6.023 x 1023 atoms of boron

1.5.1 Moles of Gases

In reactions involving gases, the volume of the gases that take
part in the reaction is usually more important than the mass of
the gases involved.

The relationship between the amount of gas (in moles) and the
volume of gas is given in Avogadros Law

Avogadros Law state that under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure, an equal volume of gases contains
equal number of moles where ;
volume

number of moles

For example, under room condition, 5 cm3 of Cl2 will contain the
same number of mole/molecules as5 cm3 NH3

At standard temperature and pressure, (s.t.p ; 273 K and 101
kPa), 1 mole of all gases will occupy a volume of 22.4 dm3 . This
volume is known as molar volume (Vm). Under room condition, 1
mole of gas occupies 24.4 dm3.

1.5.2 Moles and Solutions

The concentration of a solution is usually expressed as the mass
solute per 1.0 dm3 of solution (g dm-3) or mole of solute in 1.0
dm3 of solution (mol dm-3).

Concentration in unit mol dm-3 is also known as molarity, M.

The relationship between molarity and concentration is given by
expression :
Molarity (M) =
concentration (g dm-3)
relative molecular mass of solution (g mol-1)

The number of moles of solute present in a given volume of
solution (of molarity M) is
mole = molarity x volume = MV

1.6
Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula

Empirical Formula of a compound shows the simplest whole
number ratio for atom of all the different elements present in one
molecule of the compound

Molecular Formula of a compound shows the actual number of
atoms of different elements in one molecule of compound
Example

Compound

Molecular Formula

Empirical Formula

Ethene

C2H4

CH2

Phosphorous (V) oxide

P4O10

P2O5

Hydrogen peroxide

H2O2

HO

CH3COOH

CH2O

Ethanoic acid

1.

A saturated hydrocarbon (hydrocarbon which only have carbon and

hydrogen in it) contains 82.66% of carbon.
i. What is its empirical formula?
Element

Mass

82.66

17.34

Mol

82.66
12
= 6.89 mol

17.34
1
=17.34 mol

Ratio

6.89/6.89
=1

17.34/6.89
= 2.5

Empirical formula
C2 H5

ii. What is its molecular formula if given the relative molecular mass of
the hydrocarbon is 58.0
Empirical formula = C2H5
(C2H5)n = 58
(12(2) + 5(1))n = 58
n=2
Molecular formula = (C2H5)2
= C4H10

2. Ester is the main chemical substance applied in perfume. In an

analysis of determining the molecular formulae of the ester, it is
say that this ester contains 54.5% of carbon, 9.10% of hydrogen
and 36.4% of oxygen. Given the molecular mass of the ester is
88.0, determine the molecular formulae of this ester.
Element

Mass

54.5

9.10

36.4

Mol
Ratio

54.5
12
=4.542

9.10
1
=9.10

36.4
16
= 2.275

4.542 / 2.275
=2

9.10 / 2.275
=4

2.275 / 2.275
=1

Empirical formula = C2H4O

(C2H4O)n = 88
(12(2) + 4(1) + 16(1))n = 88
n=2
Molecular formula = (C2H4O)2
= C4H8O2

3 An organic acid has the following composition by mass: C, 40.0%; H,

6.7%; O, 53.3%. Its mass spectrum shows major peaks (including the
molecular ion) at the following m/e (mass) values: 15, 17, 43, 45, 60.
(a) Calculate the empirical formula of the acid, and use the mass spectrum
to suggest its molecular formula and its structural formula.
[3]
Empirical = CH2O
(CH2O)n = 60
Mass
40.0
6.7
53.3
(12(1) + 1(2) + 16(1))n =
40.0 / 12
6.7 / 1
53.3 / 16
60
Mol
= 3.33
= 6.7
= 3.33
n=2
3.33 / 3.33
6.7 / 3.33
3.33 / 3.33
Molecular = (CH2O)2
Ratio
=1
=2
=1
= C2H4O2species
(b)
By suggesting their molecular formulae, identify the various
Element

responsible for
m/e = 15
m/e = 17
m/e = 43
m/e = 45
m/e = 60

the peaks in the mass spectrum. [3]

 CH3+
 OH+
 CH3CO+
 COOH+
 CH3COOH+

1.6
Stoichiometry

The term Stoichiometric comes from a balanced chemical equation
where the amount of mole required for reactants to form a certain
amount of mole of products.

The moles of reactants required to form how many moles of products
are referred from the chemical equation
Example 1 : In the reaction of
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq)  NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Stoichiometrically : 1 mole of sodium hydroxide is required to form 1
mole of sodium chloride
1 mol NaOH 1 mol NaCl
Example 2 : In the reaction of
2 KOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq)  K2SO4 (aq) + 2 H2O (l)

Stoichiometrically : 2 mole of potassium hydroxide is required to form
1 mole of potassium sulphate
2 mol KOH 1 mol of K2SO4

Students are required to understand thus balanced the chemical
equation before knowing the stoichiometry between the reactants and
products.

1. The composition of an organic compound is 76.6 % C, 6.38 %

H and 17.02 % O. Its relative molecular mass is 94. What are
the empirical and molecular formulas of the compound?
Element

Mass

76.60

6.38

17.02

Mol

Ratio

76.60
12
= 6.38

6.38
1
= 6.38

17.02
16
= 1.06

6.38 / 1.06
=6

6.38 / 1.06
=6

1.06 / 1.06
=1

Empirical formula = C6H6O

(C6H6O)n = 94
[(12(6) + 1(6) + 16(1)]n = 94
n=1
Molecular formula = (C6H6O)1
= C6H6O

2.
(a)

What volume of oxygen (at STP) is required to burn exactly

100 cm3 methane, CH4?
CH4 + 2 O2  CO2 + 2 H2O
Since 1 CH4 = 2 O2
Volume of oxygen gas = 2 (100)
= 200 cm3
3

(b)

200 cm ethanol, C2H5OH?

(c)

C2H5OH + 3 O2  2 CO2 + 3 H2O

Since 1 C2H5OH = 3 O2
Volume of oxygen gas = 3 (200)
600
cm3
2.2 dm3 propanone, C= H
O?

(d)

C3H6O + 4 O2  3 CO2 + 3 H2O

Since 1 C3H6O = 4 O2
Volume of oxygen gas = 4 (2.2)
= 8.8 dm3
3

3.0 dm octane, C8H18?

C8H18 + 25/2 O2  8CO2 + 9H2O

Since 1 CH4 = 25 / 2 O2
Volume of oxygen gas = 25/2 (3.0)
= 37.5 dm3

3. When 1.25 g of a mixture of ethane C2H6 and propene, C3H6 was

burned in excess oxygen, 3.78 g of CO2 was obtained. What is the
percentage by mass of C2H6 in the mixture?
Since gas is mixture of C2H6 and C3H6
If the total mass of gas = 1.25 g
Then, lets assume mass of C2H6 = x ; while C3H6 = 1.25 x
The mole of each gas are
mol of C 2 H 6 =

x
30

mol of C 3 H 6 =

1 . 25 x
42

Given the mass of CO2 formed from mixture is 3.78 g

mol of CO2 = 3.78 / 44
;
mol = 0.0859 mol
The amount of CO2 released from each gas is known from equation
C2H6 + 7/2 O2  2 CO2 + 3 H2O (2 mol of CO2 is given by 1 C2H6)
C3H6 + 9/2 O2  3 CO2 + 3 H2O (3 mol of CO2 is given by 1 C3H6)
Hence the total mol of CO2,
x
1 . 25 x

2
+
3

30

42
x

% C2H6 = 0.711 / 1.25 x 100%

= 56.9 %

= 0 . 0859

= 0.711 g

4.

20.0 cm3 of a gaseous hydrocarbon X mixed with 150 cm3 of

oxygen and bum completely. When the mixture is cooled the
total volume of gas is 110 cm3. When the gaseous mixture is
passed through concentrated potassium hydroxide solution, 30.0
cm3 of gas remains. Determine the molecular formula of X.
Given the chemical equation of combustion for hydrocarbon
Initial
After

CxHy + (x + y/4) O2  x CO2 + y/2 H2O

20 cm3
150 cm3
0 cm3

30 cm3

80 cm3

The volume of O2 used for water = 150 110 = 40 cm3

According to Avogadros Law
Since 20 cm3 of CXHY formed 80 cm3 of CO2
So, the mol of CO2 = 80 / 20 = 4 ; Hence x = 4
As for H, since the 20 cm3 of CXHY react with 40 cm3 oxygen for water
So, mol of O for water = 40 / 20 = 2
Since y / 4 = 2 ; so y = 8
As a conclusion, the formula of hydrocarbon is C4H8

5 Q is more electropositive than Y. When 1.92 g of metal Q is added

to an aqueous solution containing Y2+ ions, 12.4 g of metal Y is
obtained. In this reaction, Q3+ ions are produced.

(a) Write an ionic equation to represent the reaction above.
2 Q + 3 Y2+  3 Y + 2 Q3+

(b) What is the relative atomic mass of Q if the relative atomic
mass of Y is 207?
Mol of Y = mass / RAM
Y = 12.42 / 207
Y = 0.060 mol
Since from equation 3 Y = 2 Q
Mol of Q = 0.060 x 2 / 3
Q = 0.040 mol
RAM of Q = 1.92 / 0.040
RAM of Q = 48

6. 1.0 dm3 sample of air containing carbon dioxide is passed

through aqueous calcium hydroxide. If 0.080 g of calcium
carbonate is formed, determine
(a) the number of moles of CO2 present.
The equation between CO2 and Ca(OH)2
CO2 + Ca(OH)2  CaCO3 + H2O
Since 1 mol of CO2 = 1 mol of CaCO3
= 0.080 g / [40 + 12 + 3 (16)]
= 8.0 x 10-4 mol

(b)

the percentage by volume of CO2 in the sample at STP.

Since mol of CO2 = 8.0 x 10-4 mol
So volume of CO2 in sample = 8.0 x 10-4 (22.4 dm3)
V = 0.018 dm3
% by V of CO2 = 0.018 dm3 / 1.0 dm3 x 100%
= 1.8 %

7. When 6.70 g of iron is burned in 3.64 g oxygen, Fe2O3 is formed.

[Ar O = 16; Fe = 55.8]
(a)
Write a balanced equation for the action.
4 Fe + 3 O2  2 Fe2O3
(b)
What mass of Fe2O3 will be produce
Mol of Fe = mass / RAM ; mol of Fe = 6.70 / 55.8
mol of Fe = 0.120 mol
Since 4 Fe = 2 Fe2O3
Mol of Fe2O3 = 0.120 / 2 = 0.060 mol
Mass of Fe2O3 = 0.060 x [2(55.8) + 3(16)]
= 9. 58 g

(c)

What mass of oxygen will be left over at the end of the

reaction?
From equation above, since 4 Fe = 3 O2
Mol of O2 = 0.120 x 3 / 4 = 0.090 mol
Mass of O2 = 0.090 x [2(16)]
= 2.88 g
Mass of O2 unreacted = 3.64 2.88
= 0.76 g

8. Calculate the concentration in mol dm-3 of the resulting solution

when 300 cm3 of 0.40 mol dm-3 Na2SO4 is mixed with 200 cm3 of
1.2 mol dm-3 Na2SO4. What are the molar concentration of Na+
and SO42- ions in the resulting solution?
When mixing both Na2SO4
Mol of Na2SO4 in A
MV
( 0 . 40 )( 300 )
mol =
; mol =
1000
1000

mol of Na2SO4 in B
MV
(1 . 2 )( 200 )
mol =
; mol =
1000
1000

mol = 0.12 mol

mol = 0.24 mol
Total mol = 0.12 + 0.24 = 0.36 mol
When mixed, total volume, V = 300 + 200
V = 500 cm3
Concentration after mixture
mol 1000
( 0 . 36 )( 1000 )
M =
; M =
V tot
500
M = 0.72 mol dm-3
Since Na2SO4  2 Na+ + SO42So, [Na+] = 2 (0.72) = 1.44 mol dm-3
[SO42-] = 1 (0.72) = 0.72 mol dm-3

9. Manganate (VII) ions react with oxalate ions according to the

reaction below: ;
2 MnO4- + 5 C2O42- + 16 H+  8 H2O + 2 Mn2+ + 10 CO2
What is the volume of 0.200 mol dm-3 KMnO4- required to
completely oxidize 28.5 cm3 of 0.500 mol dm-3 Na2C2O4?
[Ar
H = 1.0; C = 12.0; O = 16.0; K = 39.1]

( 0 . 200 )V a
M aV a a
2
=
;
=
M b V b b ( 0 . 500 )( 28 . 5 )
5
Va = 28.5 cm3

10. Brass is an alloy of copper, containiq 90.0% copper and 10.0 %

zinc by mass. When nitric acid, HNO3 is added to tin alloy, the
following reactions occur:
Cu + 4 H+ + 2 NO3-  Cu2+ + 2 NO2 + 2 H2O
4 Zn + 10 H+ + NO3-  4 Zn2+ + NH4+ + 3 H2O
(a) What volume of 2.00 M nitric acid is required to react
completely with 10.0 g of brass?
In 10.0 g of brass ; 9.0 g is Cu and 1.0 g Zn
Mol of Cu = 9.0 / 63.5 = 0.1417 mol
Mol of Zn = 1.0 / 65.4 = 0.0153 mol
Based on the mol of H+ in both equation ;
Total mol of HNO3 = 4 (0.1417) + 10/4 (0.0153)
= 0.605 mol
VHNO3 = mol x 1000 / M
= 0.605 x 1000 / 2.00
= 303 cm3

(b) What volume of NO2 gas will be produced at 25C and

x 105 Pa? [Ar Cu = 63.5: Zn = 65.4]

Since NO2 is only produced from reaction with Cu

So, mol of NO2 = 2 (0.1417)
= 0.2834 mol
Under room condition,
V = mol x Vm
= 0.2834 x 24.4 dm3
= 6.91 dm3

1.01