Personal development covers activities that improve awareness and identity, develop talents and potential, build human

capital and facilitate employability, enhance quality of life and contribute to the realization of dreams and aspirations. Not
limited to self-help, the concept involves formal and informal activities for developing others in roles such as teacher, guide,
counselor, manager, life coach or mentor. When personal development takes place in the context of institutions, it refers to
the methods, programs, tools, techniques, and assessment systems that support human development at the individual level
in organizations.[1]
Personal development may include the following activities:

improving self-awareness

improving self-knowledge

improving skills or learning new ones

building or renewing identity/self-esteem

developing strengths or talents

improving wealth[citation needed]

spiritual development

identifying or improving potential

building employability or (alternatively) human capital

enhancing lifestyle or the quality of life

improving health

fulfilling aspirations

initiating a life enterprise or (alternatively) personal autonomy

defining and executing personal development plans (PDPs)

improving social abilities

Personal development can also include developing other people. This may take place through rles such as those of a
teacher or mentor, either through a personal competency (such as the skill of certain managers in developing the potential of
employees) or through a professional service (such as providing training, assessment or coaching).
Beyond improving oneself and developing others, "personal development" labels a field of practice and research. As a field
of practice it includes personal development methods, learning programs, assessment systems, tools and techniques. As a
field of research, personal development topics increasingly[quantify] appear in scientific journals, higher education reviews,
management journals and business books.[citation needed]

Any sort of developmentwhether economic, political, biological, organizational or personalrequires a framework if one
wishes to know whether change has actually occurred.[citation needed] In the case of personal development, an individual often
functions as the primary judge of improvement or of regression, but validation of objective improvement requires
assessment using standard criteria. Personal-development frameworks may include goals or benchmarks that define the
end-points, strategies or plans for reaching goals, measurement and assessment of progress, levels or stages that define
milestones along a development path, and a feedback system to provide information on changes.

Personal development in psychology[edit]

Psychology became linked to personal development starting[when?] with Alfred Adler (18701937) and Carl Jung (18751961).
Adler refused to limit psychology to analysis, making the important point that aspirations look forward and do not limit
themselves to unconscious drives or to childhood experiences. [12] He also originated the concepts of lifestyle (1929 he
defined "lifestyle" as an individual's characteristic approach to life, in facing problems) and of self image,[citation needed] a concept
that influenced management under the heading of work-life balance.[clarification needed]
Carl Gustav Jung made contributions to personal development with his concept of individuation, which he saw as the drive
of the individual to achieve the wholeness and balance of the Self.[13]
Daniel Levinson (19201994) developed Jung's early concept of "life stages" and included a sociological perspective.
Levinson proposed that personal development come under the influence throughout life of aspirations, which he called
"the Dream":
Whatever the nature of his Dream, a young man has the developmental task of giving it greater definition and finding ways
to live it out. It makes a great difference in his growth whether his initial life structure is consonant with and infused by the
Dream, or opposed to it. If the Dream remains unconnected to his life it may simply die, and with it his sense of aliveness
and purpose.[14]
Levinson's model of seven life-stages has been considerably modified[by whom?] due to sociological changes[which?] in the lifecycle.
[15]

Research on success in reaching goals, as undertaken by Albert Bandura (born 1925), suggested that self-efficacy[16] best
explains why people with the same level of knowledge and skills get very different results. According to Bandura selfconfidence functions as a powerful predictor of success because: [17]
1.

it makes you expect to succeed

2.

it allows you take risks and set challenging goals

3.

it helps you keep trying if at first you don't succeed

4.

it helps you control emotions and fears when the going gets rough

In 1998 Martin Seligman won election to a one-year term as President of the American Psychological Association and
proposed a new focus: on healthy individuals[citation needed]rather than on pathology (he created the "positive psychology" current)
We have discovered that there is a set of human strengths that are the most likely buffers against mental illness: courage,
optimism, interpersonal skill, work ethic, hope, honesty and perseverance. Much of the task of prevention will be to create a
science of human strength whose mission will be to foster these virtues in young people. [18]

Personal development in the workplace[edit]

Abraham Maslow (19081970), proposed a hierarchy of needs with self actualization at the top, defined as:[27]

 the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming.
Since Maslow himself believed that only a small minority of people self-actualize he estimated one percent[28] his
hierarchy of needs had the consequence that organizations came to regard self-actualization or personal development as
occurring at the top of the organizational pyramid, while job security and good working conditions would fulfill the needs of
the mass of employees.[citation needed]
As organizations and labor markets became more global, responsibility for development shifted from the company to the
individual.[clarification needed] In 1999 management thinkerPeter Drucker wrote in the Harvard Business Review:
We live in an age of unprecedented opportunity: if you've got ambition and smarts, you can rise to the top of your chosen
profession, regardless of where you started out. But with opportunity comes responsibility. Companies today aren't
managing their employees' careers; knowledge workers must, effectively, be their own chief executive officers. It's up to you
to carve out your place, to know when to change course, and to keep yourself engaged and productive during a work life
that may span some 50 years.[29]
Management professors Sumantra Ghoshal of the London Business School and Christopher Bartlett of the Harvard
Business School wrote in 1997 that companies must manage people individually and establish a new work contract. [30] On
the one hand the company must allegedly recognize that personal development creates economic value: "market
performance flows not from the omnipotent wisdom of top managers but from the initiative, creativity and skills of all
employees".
On the other hand, employees should recognize that their work includes personal development and "... embrace the
invigorating force of continuous learning and personal development".
The 1997 publication of Ghoshal's and Bartlett's Individualized Corporation corresponded to a change in career
development from a system of predefined paths defined by companies, to a strategy defined by the individual and matched
to the needs of organizations in an open landscape of possibilities. [citation needed] Another contribution to the study of career
development came with the recognition that women's careers show specific personal needs and different development paths
from men. The 2007 study of women's careers by Sylvia Ann Hewlett Off-Ramps and On-Ramps[31] had a major impact on
the way companies view careers.[citation needed] Further work on the career as a personal development process came from study
by Herminia Ibarra in her Working Identity on the relationship with career change and identity change,[32] indicating that
priorities of workand lifestyle continually develop through life.
Personal development programs in companies fall into two categories: the provision of employee benefits and the fostering
of development strategies.
Employee benefits have the purpose of improving satisfaction, motivation and loyalty.[citation needed] Employee surveys may help
organizations find out personal-development needs, preferences and problems, and they use the results to design benefits
programs.[citation needed] Typical programs in this category include:

work-life balance

time management

stress management

health programs

counseling

Many such programs resemble programs that some employees might conceivably pay for themselves outside work: yoga,
sports, martial arts, money-management, positive psychology, NLP, etc.[citation needed]
As an investment, personal development programs have the goal of increasing human capital or improving productivity,
innovation or quality. Proponents actually see such programs not as a cost but as an investment with results linked to an
organization's strategic development goals. Employees gain access to these investment-oriented programs by selection
according to the value and future potential of the employee, usually defined in a talent management architecture including
populations such as new hires, perceived high-potential employees, perceived key employees, sales staff, research staff
and perceived future leaders.[citation needed] Organizations may also offer other (non-investment-oriented) programs to many or
even all employees. Typical programs[which?] focus on career-development, personal effectiveness, teamwork, and
competency-development. Personal development also forms an element in management tools such as personal
development planning, assessing one's level of ability using a competency grid, or getting feedback from a 360
questionnaire filled in by colleagues at different levels in the organization.

Stages of Adolescent Development

Research Facts and Findings, May 2004
A publication of the ACT for Youth Center of Excellence
PDF

by Sedra Spano
Adolescence is a time of great change for young people when physical changes are
happening at an accelerated rate. But adolescence is not just marked by physical
changes -- young people are also experiencing cognitive, social/emotional and
interpersonal changes as well. As they grow and develop, young people are influenced
by outside factors, such as their environment, culture, religion, school, and the media.
A number of different theories or ways of looking at adolescent development have
been proposed (see below). There are biological views (G. Stanley Hall),
psychological views (Freud), psychosocial views (Erikson), cognitive views (Piaget),
ecological views (Bronfenbrenner), social cognitive learning views (Bandura), and
cultural views (Mead). Each theory has a unique focus, but there are many similar
elements. While it is true that each teenager is an individual with a unique personality,
special interests, and likes and dislikes, there are also numerous developmental issues
that everyone faces during the early, middle and late adolescent years (American
Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry).
The normal feelings and behaviors of the middle school and high school adolescent
can be categorized into four broad areas: moving toward independence; future

interests and cognitive development; sexuality; and ethics and self-direction. Specific
characteristics of normal adolescent behavior within each area are described below.
Early Adolescence (Approximately 12-14 years of age)

Movement Toward Independence

Struggle with sense of identity;
Moodiness;
Improved abilities to use speech to express oneself;
More likely to express feelings by action than by words;
Close friendships gain importance;
Less attention shown to parents, with occasional rudeness;
Realization that parents are not perfect; identification of their
faults;
Search for new people to love in addition to parents;
Tendency to return to childish behavior;
Peer group influences interests and clothing styles.
Future interests and Cognitive Development
Increasing career interests;
Mostly interested in present and near future;
Greater ability to work
Sexuality
Girls ahead of boys;
Shyness, blushing, and modesty;

 More showing off; Greater interest in privacy;

Experimentation with body (masturbation);
Worries about being normal
Ethics and Self-Direction
Rule and limit testing;
Occasional experimentation with cigarettes, marijuana, and
alcohol;
Capacity for abstract thought
Physical Changes
Gains in height and weight;
Growth of pubic and underarm hair;
Body sweats more;
Hair and skin become more oily;
Breast development and menstruation in girls;
Growth of testicles and penis,
Nocturnal emissions (wet dreams),
Deepening of voice,
Growth of hair on face in boys
Middle Adolescence (approximately 15-16 years)

Movement Toward Independence

Self-involvement, alternating between unrealistically high
expectations and poor self-concept;

 Complaints that parents interfere with independence;

Extremely concerned with appearance and with one's own
body;
Feelings of strangeness about one's self and body;
Lowered opinion of parents, withdrawal from them;
Effort to make new friends;
Strong emphasis on the new peer group;
Periods of sadness as the psychological loss of the parents
takes place;
Examination of inner experiences, which may include writing a
diary
Future Interests and Cognitive Development
Intellectual interests gain importance;
Some sexual and aggressive energies directed into creative
and career interests
Sexuality
Concerns about sexual attractiveness;
Frequently changing relationships;
Movement towards heterosexuality with fears of
homosexuality;
Tenderness and fears shown toward opposite sex;
Feelings of love and passion

Ethics and Self-Direction

Development of ideals and selection of role models;
More consistent evidence of conscience;
Greater capacity for setting goals;
Interest in moral reasoning
Physical Changes
Continued height and weight gains;
Growth of pubic and underarm hair;
Body sweats more;
Hair and skin become more oily;
Breast development and menstruation in girls;
Growth of testicles and penis,
Nocturnal emissions (wet dreams),
Deepening of voice,
Growth of hair on face in boys
Late Adolescence (approximately 17-19 years)

Movement Toward Independence

Firmer identity;
Ability to delay gratification;
Ability to think ideas through; Ability to express ideas in words;
More developed sense of humor;

 Stable interests;
Greater emotional stability;
Ability to make independent decisions;
Ability to compromise;
Pride in one's work;
Self-reliance;
Greater concern for others
Future Interests and Cognitive Development
More defined work habits;
Higher level of concern for the future;
Thoughts about one's role in life
Sexuality
Concerned with serious relationships;
Clear sexual identity;
Capacities for tender and sensual love
Ethics and Self-Direction
Capable of useful insight;
Stress on personal dignity and self-esteem;
Ability to set goals and follow through;
Acceptance of social institutions and cultural traditions;

 Self-regulation of self esteem

Physical Changes
Most girls fully developed;
Boys continue to gain height, weight, muscle mass, body hair
Teenagers do vary slightly from the above descriptions, but the feelings and behaviors
are, in general, considered normal for each stage of adolescence.
Theories of Adolescence (Muuss, R., et. al., 1996; Rice and Dolgin, 2002)

Developmental Area - Biological

Primary Theorists - G. Stanley Hall, Arnold Gesell, James Tanner
Main Focus - Physical and sexual development determined by
genes and biology
Developmental Area - Psychological
Primary Theorists - Sigmund Freud, Anna Freud
Main Focus - Adolescence as a period of sexual excitement and
anxiety
Developmental Area - Psychosocial
Primary Theorist - Erik Erikson
Main Focus - Identity formation; adolescents struggle between
achieving identity and identity diffusion
Developmental Area - Cognitive
Primary Theorist - Jean Piaget
Main Focus - Formal operational thought; moving beyond
concrete, actual experiences and beginning to think in logical
and abstract terms

Developmental Area - Ecological (interaction between

individual and environment)
Primary Theorist - Urie Bronfenbrenner
Main Focus - The context in which adolescents develop;
adolescents are influenced by family, peers, religion, schools,
the media, community, and world events.
Developmental Area - Social Cognitive Learning
Primary Theorist - Albert Bandura
Main Focus - The relationship between social and
environmental factors and their influence on behavior. Children
learn through modeling.
Developmental Area - Cultural
Primary Theorists - Margaret Mead, Carol Gilligan
Main Focus - The culture in which the child grows up.
What Parents Can Do

When young people feel connected to home, family, and school, they are less likely to
become involved in activities that put their health at risk. Parental warmth and strong,
positive communication helps young people to establish individual values and make
healthy life decisions.
Nurture a positive relationship with your child. When parent-child interactions are
characterized by warmth, kindness, consistency, respect, and love, the relationship
will flourish, as will self-esteem, mental health, and social skills.
Encourage independent thought and expression in your child. Teens who are
competent, responsible, and have high self-esteem have parents who encourage them
to express their opinions and who include them in family decision making and rule
setting.

Show genuine interest in your child's activities. This allows parents

to monitor their child's behavior in a positive way. Parents who,
together with their children, set firm boundaries and high
expectations may find that their children's abilities to live up to
those expectations grow.
References

American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP)

website at http://www.aacap.org/publications/factsfam/develop.htm
Focus Adolescent Services website
at http://www.focusas.com/Parenting.html A Clearinghouse of
Information, Resources and Support
Rice, P. and Dolgin, K. Adolescents in Theoretical Context from
The Adolescent: Development, Relationships and Culture, 10th
edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 2002.
Resnick MD et al. Protecting adolescents from harm: findings
from the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health.
JAMA 1997; 278:823-32.
Steinberg L. We know some things: parent-adolescent
relationships in retrospect and prospect. Journal of Research in
Adolescence 2001; 11:1-19.
http://www.actforyouth.net/resources/rf/rf_stages_0504.cfm