Renata Wlodarczyk

Biometric Features Used for Forensic

Identification ofHumans
Renata Wlodarczyk
Police Academy inSzczytno, Poland

Abstract. The contemporary reality poses serious challenges toforensics. Despite the development oftactics and techniques inthat
field, weare often helplessly confronted with the problem ofidentifying aliving person authoritatively with whom there isnocontact
and who has undergone changes tosuch anextent that itisimpossible toidentify the person oranunknown body, the remains
ofthe latter having changed after death orhaving been degenerated otherwise asaresult ofthe incident. Throughout the past centuries
the human biometric features have been used for diverse purposes, and they are now used successfully i.a.inthe forensic identification
ofindividuals. Such anecessity emerged atthe moment ofthe accumulation ofterrorist attacks and disasters (related tohuman acts
and forces ofnature), inthe 1980s and 90s. Then, the numerous international treaties were concluded, e.g.inregard tothe Interpol,
which led tothe systematising ofthe human identification methods including biometric ones. Inthat venture the Interpol was
obliged tocreate identification databases, monitor them continuously, record reported results ofresearch, communicate and share
collected information among lower-ranked organisations, have the responsibility for the quality offunctioning ofdatabases asput
into service, etc. Onthat basis the principles offunctioning ofmodern biometric identification systems were determined and put into
practice. Digital systems for identification and verification ofindividual identity have been upgraded onanongoing basis and are
based onhuman physical characteristics such as: fingerprints, facial geometry, iris orretina ofthe eye, temperature distribution
over the face, hand geometry, vein patterns, scent, shape and size ofthe lips, ears and nails, aswell asonbiometric behavioural
features. The author described each of the physical biometric characteristics, which enable a forensic human identification.
Keywords: biometrics, identification, database

Introduction
Biometrics asascience isthe study ofvariability ofapopulation oforganisms,
yet toobserve this variability measurements o
fliving creatures are first tobemade.
Hence the name isderived from Greek words: bio- life, metrics- tomeasure.
Today, the methods used for testing biometrics are automated, digital systems
for identification and verification ofindividual identity. Ofcourse, they are constantly
being updated and are based onphysical characteristics, such asfingerprints, facial
geometry, iris orretina ofthe eye, the temperature distribution over the face, hand
geometry, vein patterns, shape and size ofmouth, ears and nails (the structure
ofchannels under the nail), smell, DNA, aswell asbehavioural biometric characteristics. Among the relevant behavioural features there are: the nature ofwriting,
the way ofputting the signature, the way oftyping, onesgait, voice, accent and pronunciation. Here the author only vaguely refers tothe tests used inthe biometric
techniques tofocus onthe presentation ofselected features, allowing the direct
forensic identification ofaperson1. Inthis respect the latest use ofbiometrics
Hanausek T, Znaczenie rozwoju techniki kryminalistycznej, [in:] Ksiga Pamitkowa
ku czci Profesora Andrzeja Szwarca, T. Hanausek, Z. Kegel, K. Sawik (Eds). Wroclaw, 2001,
pp6977.
1

125

Internal Security, JanuaryJune 2012

Renata Wlodarczyk

isfocused onthe use ofanelectronic load and data analysis, i.e.onconverting

previously recorded individual characteristics with the use ofascanner into digital
modules (statistical and mathematical) that are stored incomputer memory asaset
offigures, compared inthe subsequent stages ofthe process toimages stored
indatabases. These modules are based ontwo basic modes toanalyse the data
interms of:
1) identification (identity recognition) This system isdesigned toanswer
the question: "Who the person is"; here, full recognition ofanindividual consists
insearching the entire database, using the model of"one picture identified
many patterns" (1: N), which inturn leads tothe identification ofpersonal
information about individuals and is used, for instance, in criminology;
2) verification ofidentity the role ofthis system istoanswer the question
"whether the person isthe one who they claim tobe", the person confirms
their identity, e.g.byaPIN, and then todirectly compare the fingerprints
ofthe declared person and tomatch them with the identity inthe database;
the principle ofthis measure istocompare the "one reference standard
one identified image" (1:1, for example, comparing the photos inpassport),
and iswidely used insecurity, prevention, orinthe course ofactivities bylaw
enforcement agencies.
Itcan beseen that inboth modes, there isatransformation ofthe input information into digital form, which involves the determination ofthe characteristics
ofthe image consisting ofmany points. Next they are processed bythe algorithm
tothe value which allows acomparison ofthe data already stored inthe database.
This form ofregistration, the search ofthe database and verification ofthe results
obtained (bycomparison), isvery useful inidentifying the activities ofaperson
and toverify the version ofreconstructing the course offorensic events.
Scientific data indicate that the currently used techniques for human biometrics
have developed over many centuries and asnoted, they are similar toanalyses used
inthe nineteenth century, yet they are not "home-made measurements" performed
ondifferent parts ofthe human body and analysis ofthe results obtained "nonprofessionally".
Tobring the undertaken subject closer, togive itthe chronological perspective,
weshould goback toancient times, where historians give many examples ofthe use
ofbiometric features ofpeople. Among others, the Babylonians used fingerprints
onclay tablets toconfirm acommercial transaction; the Persians covered their
thumbs inaspecial paint and mapped them, signing inthis way important documents; the Chinese government officials left their fingerprints asseals; the Romans
compared the handwriting provided onadocument and its author, and toprevent
the escape ofslaves, marked their bodies bycutting out skin fragments, making
burn marks and tattoos.
Inthe later period, i.e.inthe fourteenth century, Chinese parents for example,
began tomake prints ofhands and feet oftheir children inorder todistinguish
them. Itwas not until the nineteenth century when abreakthrough inresearch
aimed atusing human biometric identification was made. Inthis regard, special
attention should begiven tostudies ofthe following researchers:
In1835 Ephraim Kettle published abook "The man and the development
ofhis abilities orthe experience ofsocial physics", which was anintroduction

126

Internal Security, JanuaryJune 2012

Renata Wlodarczyk

toanthropological research methods, with elements ofbiometric attributes

ofaperson;
1870 Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quetelet (creator of"Quetelet question":
"Why severity ofcrime isdifferent indifferent social groups?") introduced
the study ofthe human body and proportions, which was used for identification ofindividual offenders; Inthe second half ofthe nineteenth century
scientists such as: Gertin Browais, Francis Galton, Karl Pearson, Ludwig Stieda
and Edward Burnett Tylor, created anew statistical method using the level
ofdependency between random variables and correlation ofanthropological research, including biometric features, such asmodels introduced
tocalculate the degree ofprobability oferror while making measurements2;
As for the second half of the nineteenth century, the study of Cesare
Lombroso is also significant anthropologist and criminologist, the
founder ofthe Italian positivist school and the creator ofcomprehensive
criminological theory. Mainly, however, hedeserves attention asapromoter
ofanthropometry, which consisted inthe fact that heintroduced following
forensic assumption, verified byhimself: "the shape and size ofthe skeleton
after 25years ofhuman life isnot subject toany major changes". With this
discovery itbecame possible toidentify remains ofbodies and people thanks
toanthropometric analyses 3.
However, itisAlphons Bertillon who isconsidered the undisputed founder
offorensic biometric system ofaperson, who in1879 was employed asaclerk
inthe Paris Prefecture ofPolice. Inhis family home, Bertillon got acquainted with
the bases ofanthropology and used them atwork tointroduce anew method
ofidentifying criminals. The system that hedeveloped was based onmeasurements and comparative analysis ofeleven selected parts ofthe body: height, width
ofthe body (arm span, length ofbody from left shoulder toright middle finger
ofaraised hand), the length ofthe torso from the head (measured inasitting
position), the perimeter ofthe head (length and width from temple totemple),
the width ofthe cheek, right ear length, length ofthe left foot and the left middle
finger, the length ofthe left forearm (from elbow tomiddle finger), the length
ofthe left little finger. Bertillon used obtained measurements todevelop forms
ofidentification cards and then attached them with mug shots. This provided
the basis for the creation of an impressive catalogue system. Thus it became
the world'sfirst database ofcontemporary criminals, which allowed for relatively
quick verification ofthe comparative results with arecord inthe database catalogue. Such aninnovation inthe late nineteenth and early twentieth century led
toarevolution inthe field offorensic methods ofidentification ofindividual rights.
Growing ever since, biometrics was, therefore, asystem that was based onphysical
characteristics ofbiological organisms and defined itasthe measurement techniques
ofliving beings4, among them inthis case wewill focus onhuman biometrics.
Lorkiewicz-Muszyska D, Przybylski Z, Znaczenie porwnawczych bada odontologicznych wcaoksztacie postpowania identyfikacyjnego napodstawie czaszki. Archiwum
Medycyny Sdowej iKryminologii, 2002, No1, pp719.
3
Lombroso C, Geniusz iObkanie. Warsaw, 1987.
2

Czajka A, Pacut A, Biometria podpisu odrcznego, [in:] Automatyczna identyfikacja

wsystemach logistycznych, Zajc P, Kwaniowski S(Eds). Wroclaw, 2004, pp244260.
4

127

Internal Security, JanuaryJune 2012

Renata Wlodarczyk

Biometric features inthe face ofnew opportunities

for human identification
Modern forensic reality confronts major challenges, since itrequires human identification methods tobeconstantly enhanced. Despite the development oftactics,
techniques and strategies, itisafrequent problem toexplain all the circumstances
related toaforensic incident, and even more toidentify unidentified corpses
orliving people (who for various reasons are unable toprovide any personal information: amnesia asaresult oftraumatic experiences, coma, unconsciousness, mental
disorder). That refers tothe authoritative identification (damaged, modified, posthumously degenerated) ofindividual victims ormass destruction ofpeople, who were
either perpetrators orvictims ofvarious crimes, terrorist attacks, disasters, orother
accidents. Especially inthe eighties and nineties ofthe previous century anincrease
inmass extinction can beobserved, which forced the Interpol member countries
tointroduce reliable methods for personal identification. Atthat time, in1993,
the Fifth Conference Committee onMass Disaster Victim Identification and Natural
Disasters inLyon was organized, where representatives ofthis international organization choice and classified human identification analysis methods. The contemporary
Interpol classification ofhuman identification methods for acrash orother mass
incident looked asfollows:
Comparing the genetic profiles ofDNA,
Comparison offingerprints (fingerprints mapping),
Examination ofteeth and other dentistry data,
Radiological examination and comparison ofX-rays images (skull bones),
Comparison ofmedical records (previous treatments and surgeries),
Osteological-anthropological methods and computer reconstruction ofthe face,
Biometric methods,
Comparison ofspecial marks (such aswarts, scars, tattoos, growths),
Comparison ofdescription data,
Identification ofitems revealed onaperson (e.g.clothing, jewellery)
Identification ofdocuments disclosed bythe victim,
Presentation of the victim to the family, relatives, friends or witnesses
(recognition). At the same time, the scope of Interpol responsibilities
was considerably expanded, which, among others, consisted increating
adatabase for identification ofdata, continuous monitoring, recording
ofreported research results, transfer and mutual exchange ofinformation
collected between attached units, taking responsibility for the maintenance ofthe databases. Ofcourse, the Committee also adopted aresolution
which stated that access tothese data islimited and governed byMember
States, including their domestic legislation, protection ofpersonal data,
rules defining the principles ofconducting aninvestigation and the proceedings after the end ofthis process5. Then, itwas also decided toinclude
Wodarczyk R, Dziaania kryminalistyczne, medyczne iorganizacyjne wsytuacjach zdarze masowych zeszczeglnym uwzgldnieniem identyfikacji genetycznej zwok ludzkich
zpogorzeliska. Szczytno, 2010, pp184186, 252261.
5

128

Internal Security, JanuaryJune 2012

Renata Wlodarczyk

knowledge not only of DNA genetic profiles comparison (in order to:
identify, eliminate, verify), but in addition to update it with the latest
developments inpersonal identification biometric tests. Itcan beassumed
that since the findings atthe conference inLyon were put into practice,
that issince the mid-nineties, there has been the most intense development ofmethods for genetic identification and identification with the use
ofbiometric features.
Because ofthe breadth ofmaterial and alarge number ofearlier publications
onthe identification ofindividuals byDNA, the author ofthis article shall only
present anoverview ofthe subject, and focus more onthe description ofselected
biometric features. Asitwere, each ofthese techniques can besuccessfully applied
toforensic human identification. They give very good results because ofthe individuality ofpersonal biometric features and their uniqueness, asaresult ofwhich
they cannot be"borrowed" orstolen from another person. Inaddition, because
ofthe airtight security ofbiometric analysis systems, such features cannot be"left"
inthe reader orberemoved from adatabase.

Fingerprints image
Historically, the oldest direct person identification system was based onfingerprint recognition. Sofar, ithas been the most important, effective and cheapest
method toidentify anindividual human being. Thanks tocapabilities ofbiometric recording offingerprints (using ink and digitally), law enforcement agencies
and the judiciary obtain indisputable evidence ofthe presence ofaparticular
person inagiven place, while the disclosed and secured fingerprint traces are
used for various investigations: identification ofpersons and bodies, registration
marks and fingerprints inthe AFIS Automated Fingerprint Identification System,
and application ofreasoning and investigative theories6.
InPoland, aspart ofthe dactyloscopic interview, fingerprints from unknown
persons and bodies are taken byanelectronic device, i.e.through the solutions
developed bythe Fortech Company, and then sent tothe Central Dactyloscopic
Registry (CDR) ofthe Central Forensic Laboratory ofthe Polish Police. Inthis way,
the features are checked and compared tothe collection offingerprint cards stored
inthe AFIS database. These cards, stored inanelectronic file, are the original fingerprint cards created using ICT equipment. The essence ofthe system isthe ability
toautomatically encode asingle image ofafingerprint, secured during the examination ofthe incident scene, person orbody ofunknown identity and comparing
itwith the image offingerprints and hands ofpeople suspected bythe Police.
Onthe basis ofrecorded data collection the so-called "Card Card" search can
beused, which isanattempt toidentify inthe following manner:
a) fingerprint card with fingerprint representations ofpeople (living, corpse)
+ card with representations offingerprint identification from database =
identification ofanunidentified person orcorpse;

129

Hanausek T, op.cit., pp6977.

Internal Security, JanuaryJune 2012

Renata Wlodarczyk

b) fingerprint card with fingerprint representations ofaperson + traces ofunidentified perpetrators from database = identification ofthe offender, who
was the unidentified person orunidentified corpse.
Individual features include: a general fingerprint pattern, irregular shape
oftheir edges, shape and pore distribution, patterns ofridges, wrinkles, minutiae
asthe beginning ofthe line, mesh, bifurcations, dots, etc. The information isthen
processed byaspecial software orsaved asanimage orcoded data for future
comparison with other fingerprints. This involves database search tofind asimilar
set ofbiometric features, the quality ofprocessing, with increasing capabilities
ofmodern computers, leads tothe recognition ofidentity within ashort time
and isbased onasmall number offeatures ofthe arms orhands.
Overall, asystem for biometric fingerprint identification isused todetermine
and confirm the identity of persons detained by the police, border guards
and toidentify unknown persons orcorpses7, while additional security features
ofscanning devices allow for continuous monitoring ofreal finger tissue ofidentified persons. Moreover, the proposals ofgenerated outcomes for the verification
ofbiometric data make itpossible tomatch crimes toperpetrators, and thus prove
the guilt ofidentified perpetrators after many months oreven years.

DNA inbiometrics
Genetic techniques have only recently emerged and entered into the study
ofbiometric features used toidentify people. However, methods for genomic
analysis are considered avery reliable source ofinformation, because human
genes are represented byarelatively unique and complex DNA helix. Itisformed
bytwo chains spirally twisted together, each ofwhich iscomposed ofnucleotides
located inaspecific, individual sequences. Probability ofarepetition ofthe human
DNA helix isestimated atapproximately 1:30billion, which shows that there
isnopossibility ofitoccurring inasecond individual (except the monogamous
twins). While the error inthe face ofthe latest developments inanalysis ispractically impossible, and identification isatthe highest possible degree acertainty
of around 99.9999...%. Currently, about 9597% of non-coding nuclear DNA
is used for genetic testing, but this tendency is slowly moving towards ever
greater penetration into the meanders ofthe human body. Scientists are slowly
entering with their research into the micromolecules ofcoding nuclear DNA,
which raises many concerns associated with far-reaching intervention into the personality ofhomo sapiens. Some are ofthe opinion that the biometric database
ofthe human genome may contain additional (relevant) information through
the use ofoutside non-coding and coding features ofthe nuclear DNA. Currently,
compared tothe existing international rules, this isasignificant problem connected with the need toprotect personal data and the right torespect for human
dignity. Inorder tohedge against possible, yet fraudulent manipulation, the Polish
database ofDNA islocated atthe Central Forensic Laboratory ofPolish Police,
Zubaski S, Rejestracja biometryczna osoby, [in:] Kryminalistyka. Wybrane zagadnienia
techniki, Kdzierska G, Kdzierski W(Eds). Szczytno, 2011, pp145157.
7

130

Internal Security, JanuaryJune 2012

Renata Wlodarczyk

where human DNA profiles are sent from all the laboratories ofpolice and nonpolice (civil) organizations. Recognition ofDNA requires the tangible sample
tobeexamined, and not, asinother biometric analyses, anoptical, ultraviolet,
infrared image, orinnon-invasive methods the recording. Inorder toidentify
orverify anindividual, asample oftheir tissue needs tobecollected. Usually, toget
the most reliable result, experts recommend that tissue should betaken from
several sources such as: blood, bones, hair and mouth swabs from living persons.
Comparative material for the genetic findings will provide samples obtained from
family members ofmissing persons (parents, children, siblings and relatives), that
isswab from the mucous membrane ofthe inside ofthe cheek", aswell as"blood,
hair follicles orsecretions" onaspecial protocol ofthe comparative material.
Moreover, comparative studies can also use near-life material taken from the stuff
left over bythe missing person inthe place ofresidence, i.e.tissues and secretions
ofthe person are secured from the clothing orvarious items ofeveryday use. For
that person, there isalso used blood, taken from agiven person inblood centres,
orasemen sample, deposited inasperm bank, ororgan, from intended recipients,
orthe results ofprevious DNA testing, etc.8.

Using the geometry ofthe face for the personal

identification
The face ofevery human being has biometric features (defined asgeometry
ofthe face), which can beused for personal identification, for instance bylaw
enforcement agencies toprevent crime. The sampling device isstatic acamera
(first, ananalogue one, and from 2002 digital, sothat two orthree-dimensional
images, incolour ormonochromatic can betaken), ormobile camcorder, but
the resulting image isdeveloped bythe mathematical formulae (special algorithms)
describing the geometry ofthe examined face. The aim ofthe identification process
istocreate apattern based only onconstant characteristics (e.g.size ofthe eyes), for
the pattern tobeused inchanging conditions (e.g.different hairstyle). The system
software locates the subject'sface, creates its pattern and separate characteristic
features from the image, that isitdetermines cephalometric points one for
determining the position inrelation toother structures (based onanatomical craniometric points), and the results are stored inadatabase and used for comparison
ofthe identified characteristics. Among the many parameters recorded inhuman
face identification, the following are taken into account:
The width ofthe face,
The distance between the centres ofthe eyes,
The distance between the outermost points ofthe eyes,
The distance between the nearest points ofthe eyes,
The distance between the eyes and nose,
The distance between the line ofsight and line ofthe mouth,
Distance from the foremost point ofthe eye tothe centre ofthe mouth,
8

131

Wodarczyk R, op.cit., pp263325.

Internal Security, JanuaryJune 2012

Renata Wlodarczyk

The width ofthe nose,

The length ofthe nose, etc.
The automatic identification ofthe face isdivided into several basic steps:
1. obtaining animage from the input device,
2. initial processing ofthe image,
3. identification,
4. verification and validation.
ad.1.Byacquiring the facial image ofthe input device wemean the location
and isolation ofindividual human faces from images taken bythis device. Separation ismost often defined around the facial image frame and the preparation
ofaselected area for further processing asaseparate, individual image. Onthe input
image many human faces and objects resembling human face can berecorded,
sothe system must beable toeliminate structures similar tohuman face, without
loss ofreal objects.
ad.2.Initial processing ofavariant ofthe tested face isdesigned toeliminate
the influence ofthe environment factors. The main factors tobeconsidered here
are: changes in external appearance (glasses, different hairstyles, facial hair),
the effects oflight (distribution ofshadows, light intensity, direction oflight rays),
rotation and displacement ofthe image (the face positioned atanangle, the point
ofview ofthe camera), image scaling, and potential elimination ofbackground
noise inthe image and the impact ofthe facial image. ad.3and 4.Face recognition
istocompare the image obtained with the model stored inthe database. With
the use ofsolutions based onclasses ofcreated image, proper separation ofareas
of particular classes and development of methods for testing the differences
between them isvital. Some ofthese methods are based onexisting relationships
inthe images between all the patterns inthe face, called "invariants ofthe picture".
Each ofthem isanordered scheme ofthe brightness distribution between different
parts ofthe face. The system verifies invariants for each image, looking for apositive
response. The degree ofcorrelation between the pattern ofthe face and parts
ofanimage containing aface being identified isthen calculated, i.e.control ofcorrectness isperformed. Ifitexceeds the specified threshold value ofthe functions,
the face isrecognized and approved.
Tosum up, the tasks associated with the biometric identification ofindividual
faces are divided into: face detection, the location ofthe face ofdiverse background
and facial recognition, orimage processing toimprove the identification results.
Toidentify the person the system must recognize their face from apicture, despite
differences between the images ofthe face (each ofwhich may interfere with
the proper recognition) obtained atdifferent times and conditions. The human
face changes under the influence ofmany factors: age, facial expression, disease,
tan, glasses, hairstyle, etc.; the following also have alarge effect: the intensity oflight
(including sunlight), weather conditions, and the angle ofthe recording device.
For this reason, itwould benecessary tocreate databases containing alot ofdifferent images ofone face, and their regular updating. However, the main issue
here isthe choice ofappropriate facial features toberecognized and the selection
ofanappropriate method for comparing images. This isdue tothe need toseparate
parts ofthe human face, carrying the greatest amount ofinformation, useful for
the identification inthe highest possible degree.

132

Internal Security, JanuaryJune 2012

Renata Wlodarczyk

The use ofthe iris and retina patterns for

identification ofindividuals
The uniqueness ofirises and, toalesser extent, retinas (blood vessels atthe back
ofthe eye), incombination with currently used software that use complex mathematical algorithms, allow todevelop technologies with ahigh degree ofcertainty.
Thanks tothat, the abovementioned parts ofthe eye are considered tobeone
ofthe surest methods ofhuman biometrics identification. These technologies
are often used insecurity systems which enable iris recognition ofaperson even
inadark room byusing infrared light. These methods identify the iris orretina
bycomparison with previously memorized pattern. Photos orscans are taken inhigh
definition and onthis basis characteristics ofthe iris orretinal vascular system shall
bedetermined and recognized. The probability offalse identification isvirtually
impossible, because ofthe large number ofpatterns the iris ofone individual has
about 260 individual characteristics. Identification process does not interfere with
the racial differences ineye colour (very light ordark), and the fact that the person
iswearing glasses, contact lenses, and even goggles, also does not influence the correct identification.

Analysis ofthermal spectrum that identifies

aperson'sface
Ithas been proven that every person has their own individual thermal spectrum
ofthe face, soyou can make anappropriate analysis that identifies the person. This
involves obtaining the image ofthermal spectrum ofthe face using special cameras.
Image recorded inthis way isthen subjected toanalysis ofthe thermal spectrum
ofthe face. The disadvantage ofthis method isthat the changes inthe resulting
spectrum may becaused byillness orsevere nervousness, which then significantly
increases the temperature ofthe face, which also precludes the reliable identification ofthe individual.

The geometry ofthe hand asafeature

individualizing aperson
Hand geometry recognition isalso aneasy-to-use biometric technique, and can
beemployed inphysical access control systems. Human hand has many individual
features. Special algorithms measure, record and analyse: the size ofhand, length,
shape and thickness ofthe fingers, the distance between the cubes, shape and network ofveins, etc. When being measured, the hand isplaced inaspecial reader,
where four fingers (excluding thumb) are analysed. Modern biometric systems that
use hand geometry also take into account the changes due tothe passage oftime,
especially the gerontological ones.

133

Internal Security, JanuaryJune 2012

Renata Wlodarczyk

The shape and size ofthe mouth and ears inthe

process ofidentifying aperson
While assessing characteristics of shape and size of the mouth and ears,
the biometric identification process isbased oncomparison ofimage records
processed by scanner into digital modules and stored in computer memory
asaset ofnumerical data. Atthe same time itshould benoted that itisessential
for this system tohave amodule tocompare images taken from living persons
(nocontact with them), ordeceased, obtained from the private photos (provided
byfamily, relatives orfriends), byutilizing abiometrical computerized algorithm.
Tostandardize the obtained images, they need tobeenlarged until they fit into
apredefined pattern. Then the measurements are carried out directly onthe captured images, the distance between each ofthe identified areas isdetermined.
The best photographs for this purpose are mug shots which have been taken
shortly before the incident and inwhich ears are visible. This can also beused with
magnetic tape recordings and CCTV images (security cameras mounted inbanks,
supermarkets, various institutions). What isthe most important inthese examinations istohave images recorded just before avictim went missing. The point isthat
the mouth isfairly rapidly deformed (the lips are more and more pulled, narrowed,
cracked, etc., especially insmokers), and the ears, which grow throughout life,
are getting bigger and bigger and also change inshape, soolder photographs
orother records will not besuitable for comparative examinations. Here itshould
beemphasized that different parts ofthe head may bedamaged during anincident with serious consequences and will not beuseful for personal identification.
While ears, insuch situations, usually remain asawhole, which isrelated totheir
location, elasticity and strength ofcartilage, sothey can beasource offorensic
information.

Recognition ofanindividualsnails using RFID

RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) enables nail identification bythe collected
unique information, i.e.biometric pattern, being sent from the measuring location
to, for instance, asmart card. Reader registers the electrical capacitance ofthe nail
and that part ofthe finger which the nail covers. Itturns out that the linear structure
ofthe nail isaunique characteristic ofeach individual. Atransmitter generates
alternating electromagnetic field around the tag, which inthis way is"stimulated
toanswer". The decoder decrypts the response inthe reader tags. With readers
and custom applications, the sent information (retrieved from the noise) can beread
from long distances. The technology was developed tobeused for computer
security, because computer tampering by unauthorized persons is becoming
more common. Special rules, passwords, software, biometric methods (different
levels ofsecurity) allow access tothe system only toaverified person. When
anunauthorized user isdetected, the workstation shuts down and becomes useless.
Through the use ofRFID technology continuous authentication process iscarried
out bychecking the identity ofthe person. Users ofthis technology donot have

134

Internal Security, JanuaryJune 2012

Renata Wlodarczyk

toremove gloves, masks and eye protection tobeidentified, which greatly increases
the speed ofthe authentication and reduces the risk ofexposing people toharmful
factors.

Identification ofhuman body odour

Every person gives off aunique smell, which, asgiven byreference, isacombination of401 scents ofvarious chemical compounds. The purpose ofbiometric
identification systems ofhuman body odour (called Odour Recognition) isnot only
todefine these hundreds ofcomponents, but also toassess their concentration.
Toidentify people bytheir body odour, biometrics uses special electronic devices,
called artificial noses. The two main components ofthe "nose" isasystem for sensing (detection) and recognition based onpatterns. The technique ofrecognizing
people based ontheir characteristic odours, such asthe one used inthe forensic
procedures, iscalled odorology orosmology. Detection ofinvisible traces ofscents
and identification ofpeople connected tothe crime, involves comparison ofodour
evidence with relevant reference material. Evidence samples can besniffed byaspecially trained dog, recorded bythe so-called artificial nose, orsecured byacontact
and non-contact method inthe form ofasmell can. Therefore, this method consists
inthe tests that operate onthe principle "from the evidence tothe comparative
material9.

Identification ofaperson based onbiometric

behavioural traits
Issues related tohuman behavioural biometric characteristics are associated
with the measurement of measurable features of human behaviour that are
acquired over time and characterize each individual, and are used for their automatic authentication. Based onanalysis ofanexamined personsbehaviour, these
methods differentiate people using the content and "the operation oftheir brain".
They include:
a. handwriting and the way ofmaking asignature these methods rely
onmeasuring and evaluating the shape ofthe letters, speed, force, angle
ofawriting instrument inclination, the writer'ssignature sequence and characters and symbols (inwriting). Inforensic science identification examinations
and verification ofhandwriting and signature are performed byforensic
experts from police laboratories and document examiners. The scope
oftheir work isspecified bythe investigator inthe Decision onexperts
opinion admissibility. Aspart oftheir reports, experts express their opinion
9
achacz M, Odorologia kryminalistyczna, [in:] Technika kryminalistyczna, Kdzierski
W(Ed.). Szczytno, 2002, pp161185; achacz M, Odorologia kryminalistyczna jako wyzwanie
XXI wieku dla techniki kryminalistycznej, [in:] Problemy wspczesnej kryminalistyki, Gruza E,
Tomaszewski T, Goc M(Eds.). Warsaw, 2002, pp139132; Hanausek T, op.cit., pp6977.

135

Internal Security, JanuaryJune 2012

Renata Wlodarczyk

and answer enquires about, for example: handwriting authenticity, the way
ofapproving foreign exchange transactions, other documents production
and approval, aswell asforgeries involving counterfeiting oralterations
ofdocuments, orthe signature ofperson responsible for the produced
document.
b. typing (called Keystroke dynamics) a method that studies human
interaction with the computer keyboard. Here, the experts evaluates
the following: time pressure onthe key, frequency range, speed and power
hitting the keys bythe user ofthe tested equipment. The analyses show that
the greatest identification accuracy isachieved inexaminations ofregular
keyboard users and professional typists, asother people usually donot
develop the characteristic "keyboard" habits. This technology isdependent
onthe regularity ofpressing the keys (the abovementioned parameters:
time, frequency, speed, strength), which contributes touser customization
ofcomputer hardware.
c. way of walking scientists, along with experts on traceology as one
of the areas of forensic science, confirm that the recognition of a walking gait isabiometric method ofidentifying ahuman. Gait recognition
method has anadvantage over other biometric methods, since inthis case
the identified person does not need tobeinformed ofthe examination.
Moreover, the analysis can beperformed atadistance, there isnoneed
touse the reader, asincase ofoptical analytical methods. Recent behavioural
research and traceology focus oncompleting the database-oriented method
ofgait recognition, which inthe analysis ofimage sequences take account
of: silhouette, the upper parts ofthe body, clothing, shoes and worn items
which affect the process ofwalking and body movements.
d. voice recognition technology based onwording, accent and pronunciation the identification involves analysis ofthe information contained
in sound waves, some phrase spoken by an examined person to voice
recording equipment, yet a previously collected sample of the voice
isneeded inthis method. Forensic identification ofsuch recordings isdealt
with byphonoscopy, through which the identity ofthe person isestablished atadistance (such asvoice recognition that uses different versions
of the phone, computer Skype, recorded on electromagnetic media
ordigital carriers). Avery advantageous feature ofthese analyses isthe possibility ofconclusive identification ofanindividual, because each person
has adifferent voice, which depends, for example, on: gender, age, physical structure, the length ofthe vocal cords, the shape ofthe mouth, nasal
structure, illnesses. For these reasons, voice ofanindividual isdetermined
by: frequency, amplitude, rhythm and harmony. Just asinthe case offace
recognition techniques, the voice isanalysed indetail byaspecial software
toyield its digital pattern. Identification ismade bycomparing the living
speech of the resulting pattern, but sometimes experts are struggling
with technical problems, which first ofall are connected with the impact
ofbackground noise, and human factors (voice change due tosickness, age,
stress, mood, etc.). Voice verification involves recording ofaanexamined
personsvoice sample, singling out ofits characteristics and their comparison

136

Internal Security, JanuaryJune 2012

Renata Wlodarczyk

with the previously introduced model. The description ofthe characteristics

ofthe voice being verified comprises, among others, its sound, the speed
ofpronouncing words, the pronunciation and accent placing10.

Conclusions
1) Biometric identification systems, which are largely used inforensics are
technologically advanced, using individual human characteristics, the uniqueness
ofwhich enables both arapid, unequivocal, and most unbiased identification
ofthe examined person, often inanon-contact way, atadistance.
2) Currently, forensic identification uses computer-controlled biometric systems
which combine several modules recognizing human features, such asfingerprints,
facial geometry taking mug shots and pictures ofdistinguishing marks (individual
characteristics such asscars, tattoos, warts, growths, skin discoloration), and even
voice and accent ofspeech. Aspecial version ofthe software records the abovementioned biometric features inpolice databases that are used for legal proceedings
and bythe Border Guards toprotect state borders. Control software can beoperated manually orautomatically based onimage analysis. The degree oflikelihood
ofrepetition ofthe biometric characteristics between individuals isgiven inpercentage, during the database search. Currently, the high quality ofrecorded data allows
tocreate aprecise pattern ofbiometric profile. The outcome ofthe entire system
operation, software included, isanentry inthe database, aswell asaprintout from
the current database inany form, like the so-called album cards.
3) Continuous modernization of equipment designed to record biometric
features, not only bythe latest technology, but also bythe use ofarchival mug
shots, isdone toensure the integrity ofall databases functioning inagiven area.
With the implementation ofnew systems tobiometric analysis, the functionality
ofthe calculation ofthe degree oflikelihood ofrecurrence isextended, and the definition ofbiometric features (search, comparison) from multiple images, i.e.taken
bydifferent cameras orcarriers, such ascassettes, CCTV, becomes more efficient.
4) From the forensic point ofview, aspecial place among methods ofbehavioural biometrics has voice identification and verification, aswell asthe play back
ofconversations from any form ofrecordings, including black boxes. Onaccount
ofincreasing terrorist attacks, organized crime, random events (such asthe collapse
ofanaircraft, ashipwreck, explosions ofdrilling and production platforms and tanks
inroad and water traffic) and disasters, there isaneed not only toestablish the identity ofthe registered speakers, but also togather any information about the event.
This iscrucial especially for the reconstruction ofthe incident, investigation ofits
causes, and identification ofperpetrator(s).
5) Biometrics cannot disregard the consequences and the problems posed
byany new, even the most effective method ofdetermining the identity ofvictims
10
Swarcewicz R, Identyfikacja biometryczna blaski icienie. Logistyka, Magazynowanie,
Transport, Automatyczna Identyfikacja, 2002, No4, pp4447; Niedziejko P, Krysowaty I, Biometria. Charakterystyka danych czowieka cz 3.Zabezpieczenia, 2006, No6. Electronic
source: http://www.zabezpieczenia.com.pl/biometria/biometria-charakterystyka-danych-czlowieka-czesc-3, accessed: 30June 2012; Hanausek T, op.cit., pp6977.

137

Internal Security, JanuaryJune 2012

Renata Wlodarczyk

orperpetrators ofcriminal acts, ortheir elimination from suspects. Practical implementation and ultimate success ofeach method isinfact dependent, toalarge
extent, onawareness ofthe existence ofits weaknesses (like the statistical error
rate) and their estimates with the creation ofamechanism for the proper use
ofthe method inthe realities ofthe legal system.
6) One should beaware ofthe fact that each ofthese biometric features ischaracterized byacertain group ofspecific limitations and certain conditions, and so,
for example, while analysing the geometry ofthe face and other parts ofthe body:
a) identification ofunidentified victim (living person, corpses) from aphoto
ofacredit card, driving license orpassport input images are ofgood
quality, but aperson does not exist inthe database, orpotentially exists,
but due tothe enormity ofthe database checking ofthe personsdata
requires along time and the identification isvery limited. Consequently,
criminal prosecution authorities decide toestablish the residence: family, relatives or friends of the unidentified people and use the images
orrecordings supplied bythem, from the last period before the person
went missing,
b) identification ofthe face asevidence injudicial proceedings (e.g.caught
byaspeed trap) requirement for ahigh percentage ofcertainty ofidentification, but very often the recorded image isofpoor quality, sothere isaneed
for high magnification recordings (photos, camera) and more time isneeded
toanalyse and recognize the face ofthe person,
c) Preventive and for the investigative purposes security offacilities (bank,
shop, train) entered images from cameras located at the entrances
into the site and pivotal areas low quality, often incorrect installation
ofcameras, the need toidentify inreal time, the availability ofvideo images
(recording which can bemodified toasrequired, for instance, rewound,
freeze-framed), the probability ofidentification afairly high,
d) Preventive and for the purposes ofinvestigations surveillance ofthe crowd
(stadiums, sports halls), low quality ofrecorded video, the need toidentify
alarge number offaces and elements from the environment included inone
image, the availability ofavideo image, but usually many people need
tobeidentified inreal time.
7) Itmust beinferred from the above that biometric methods used for forensic
identification and inother fields utilising personal characteristics (physical, behavioural), onone hand are very useful, but onthe other hand, one should always take
into account the possibility oferroneous findings orcertain restrictions.

References
1. Czajka A, Pacut A, Biometria podpisu odrcznego, [in:] Automatyczna identyfikacja wsystemach logistycznych, Zajc P, Kwaniowski S(Eds). Wroclaw, 2004.
2. Hanausek T, Znaczenie rozwoju techniki kryminalistycznej, [in:] Ksiga
Pamitkowa kuczci Profesora Andrzeja Szwarca, T.Hanausek, Z.Kegel, K.Sawik
(Eds). Wroclaw, 2001.
3. Lombroso C, Geniusz iObkanie. Warsaw, 1987.

138

Internal Security, JanuaryJune 2012

Renata Wlodarczyk

4. Lorkiewicz-Muszyska D, Przybylski Z, Znaczenie porwnawczych bada odontologicznych wcaoksztacie postpowania identyfikacyjnego napodstawie
czaszki. Archiwum Medycyny Sdowej iKryminologii, 2002, No1.
5. achacz M, Odorologia kryminalistyczna, [in:] Technika kryminalistyczna,
Kdzierski W(Ed.). Szczytno, 2002.
6. achacz M, Odorologia kryminalistyczna jako wyzwanie XXI wieku dla techniki
kryminalistycznej, [in:] Problemy wspczesnej kryminalistyki, Gruza E, Tomaszewski T, Goc M(Eds.). Warsaw, 2002.
7. Olejowski W, Jackiewicz K, Interfejs do akwizycji danych biometrycznych.
Biometric data acquisition interface, 2005. Electronic source: http://home.elka.
pw.edu.pl/~wolejows/fingerprint/ch_2.html, accessed: 16February 2012.
8. Wodarczyk R, Dziaania kryminalistyczne, medyczne iorganizacyjne wsytuacjach zdarze masowych ze szczeglnym uwzgldnieniem identyfikacji
genetycznej zwok ludzkich zpogorzeliska. Szczytno, 2010.
9. Zubaski S, Rejestracja biometryczna osoby, [in:] Kryminalistyka. Wybrane
zagadnienia techniki, Kdzierska G, Kdzierski W(Eds). Szczytno, 2011.
10. achacz M, Odorologia kryminalistyczna, [in:] Technika kryminalistyczna,
Kdzierski W(Ed.). Szczytno, 2002.
11. Swarcewicz R, Identyfikacja biometryczna blaski icienie. Logistyka, Magazynowanie, Transport, Automatyczna Identyfikacja, 2002, No4.
12. Niedziejko P, Krysowaty I, Biometria. Charakterystyka danych czowieka
cz3.Zabezpieczenia, 2006, No6.
About the author
Renata Wodarczyk, DEng, is an assistant professor at the Internal Security Faculty of the Police
Academy in Szczytno. Her main research interests are criminalistics, forensic medicine and DNA
forensic technology. Correspondence: Renata Wodarczyk, Police Academy in Szczytno, ul.
Pilsudskiego 111, 12-100 Szczytno, Poland. E-mail: r.wlodarczyk@wspol.edu.pl

Streszczenie. Wspczesna rzeczywisto stawia przed kryminalistyk due wyzwania. Mimo rozwoju taktyki itechniki wtej
dziedzinie, czsto stajemy bezradnie wobec problemu autorytatywnego zidentyfikowania ywego czowieka, zktrym brak jest
kontaktu iuleg zmianom uniemoliwiajcym ustalenie jego tosamoci albo N.N.zwok, ktrych szcztki szmienione pomiertnie
iwinny sposb zdegenerowane wwyniku zdarzenia. Wczasie minionych wiekw wykorzystywano cechy biometryczne czowieka
wrnych celach, wtym obecnie itozduym powodzeniem, uywa si ich m.in.dokryminalistycznej identyfikacji osobniczej.
Taka konieczno wystpia wmomencie skumulowania si zamachw terrorystycznych ikatastrof (zwizanych zdziaaniem
ludzi lub zprzyczyn naturalnych), wlatach osiemdziesitych idziewidziesitych ubiegego wieku. Wtedy zawarto liczne umowy
midzynarodowe, np.wramach dziaa Interpolu, ktre doprowadziy dousystematyzowania metod identyfikacyjnych czowieka
zuwzgldnieniem metod biometrycznych. Wtym przedsiwziciu Interpol zosta zobligowany doutworzenia identyfikacyjnych
baz danych, cigego ich nadzorowania, rejestrowania zgaszanych wynikw badawczych, przekazywania iwzajemnej wymiany
zgromadzonych informacji midzy podlegymi jednostkami, ponoszenia odpowiedzialnoci zajako funkcjonowania uruchomionych
baz itp. Natej podstawie okrelono iwprowadzono dopraktyki zasady funkcjonowania nowoczesnych systemw identyfikacji
biometrycznej. Cyfrowe systemy rozpoznawania iweryfikacji tosamoci osobniczej scigle unowoczeniane ibazuj nacechach
fizycznych czowieka, takich jak: linie papilarne, geometria twarzy, tczwka lub siatkwka oka, rozkad temperatury twarzy,
geometria doni, wzorcw y, zapach, ksztat iwielko ust, uszu oraz paznokci, jak rwnie biometrycznych cechach behawio
ralnych. Autorka opisaa kad zfizycznych cech biometrycznych, dziki ktrym moliwa jest kryminalistyczna identyfikacja czowieka.

139

Internal Security, JanuaryJune 2012

Renata Wlodarczyk

. .
,
, , ,
; , ,
. ,
. 8090- -
( ).
, , , .
, ,
, ,
, ..

. : , ,
, , , ,
, , , .
,
.

140

Internal Security, JanuaryJune 2012

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without
permission.