What is composite material?

- Engineering material formed by the combination of two or

more distinct constituent materials to form a new material
with enhanced properties.
Examples: concrete (rocks combine with cement), cermet
(ceramic and metal), fiber reinforced polymers. Natural:
wood, bones (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen)

 The general definition is not sufficient and 3 other

criteria have to be satisfied before a material can be
said to be a composite:
- i) both constituents have to be present in
reasonable proportions (greater than 5%)
- ii) it is only when the constituent phases have
different properties, and hence the composite
properties are noticeably different from the properties
of the constituents, that we have come to recognise
these materials as composites
Plastics, although they generally contain small
quantities of lubricants, ultra-violet absorbers, and
other constituents for commercial reasons, do not
satisfy either of these criteria and consequently are
not classified as composites.
2

- iii) a man-made composite is usually produced by

intimately mixing and combining the constituents by
various means.
Alloy which has a 2-phase microstructure which is
produced during solidification from a homogeneous
melt, or by subsequent heat treatment whilst a solid,
is not normally classified as composites.

 Two categories of constituent

materials: matrix and

reinforcement. At least one portion of each type is
required.

The matrix material surrounds and supports the

reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative
positions. The reinforcements impart their special
mechanical and physical properties to enhance the
matrix properties. A synergism produces material
properties unavailable from the individual constituent
materials.

 Examples of matrix:
- polymer, metal and ceramic matrix composites
Examples of reinforcements:
- fibres, particles/flakes, whiskers (elongated single
crystal)

Classification of composite materials

Classification of composite materials

Composite materials usually classified into 3: fibrous,
particulate and structural composites
Particulate reinforcements have dimensions that are
approximately equal in all directions. The shape of the
reinforcing particles may be spherical, cubic, platelet or any
regular or irregular geometry. The arrangement of the
particulate reinforcement maybe random or with a preferred
orientation
A fibrous reinforcements is characterised by its length being
much greater than its cross-sectional dimension or diameter, D.
However, the ratio of the length to the cross-sectional
dimension, known as aspect ratio, can vary considerably. In
single-layer composites long fibres with high aspect ratio gives
continuous fibre reinforced composites, whereas discontinuous
fibre composites are fabricated using short fibres of low aspect
ratio
7

 The orientation of the discontinuous fibres maybe random or

preferred. The frequently encountered preferred orientation in
the case of a continuous fibre composite is termed
unidirectional and the corresponding random situation is called
bidirectional reinforcement (woven)
Structural composites are another category of fibre reinforced
composites. These are classified as either mutilayered
laminates or hybrids
Laminates are sheet constructions which are made by stacking
layers (or called plies/laminae, usually unidirectional) in a
specified sequence.
Hybrids are usually multilayered composites with mixed fibres.
The fibres maybe mixed in a ply or layer by layer. The hybrid
structure can be classified into: a) different material in various
layers (eg., bimetallics) ; b) different reinforcement in a layer
(eg., intermingled boron and carbon fibres).

 In considering the formulation of a composite material for a

particular type of application, it is important to consider the
properties exhibited by the potential constituents:
- stiffness (Youngs modulus, E = tensile stress/ tensile strain)
- strength (tensile strength, s- the maximum amount of tensile
stress that a material can be subjected to before failure)
- toughness (fracture toughness, Kc - property which describes
the ability of a material containing a crack to resist fracture)
- density, r
- thermal conductivity, k is the intensive property of a material
that indicates its ability to conduct heat (thermal conductivity =
heat flow rate distance / (area * temperature difference)
- thermal expansivity , a is the tendency of matter to increase
in volume or pressure when heated.

 In general, the properties of a composite material depend on:

1. the properties of the component materials (discussed
previously)
2. the proportion by volume of each component
3. the morphologies of the components
4. the effectiveness of the bond between the components
5. The presence of filler materials
Whilst many composites are designed to provide a useful
combination of mechanical properties, other properties may be
required of composites, such as thermal insulation, fire
retardant properties, etc.

10

 Some attractive property combinations can be

obtained with composites:
High stiffness and low density
High strength and toughness
Good sound insulation and high stiffness

11

THE PRINCIPLES OF FIBRE REINFORCEMENT

The effectiveness of reinforcement by means of fibres

depends on the properties of the fibres and the matrix-fibre
interface bond: unless the stress on a component can be
transmitted from one phase to another, the composite material
will not achieve the required performance, and fibre pull-out
may result.
Consider a load on a component parallel in direction to the
fibre orientation: if the fibres are well bonded, the stress is
transmitted to each fibre across the interface. The strain in the
fibre and matrix will be different, as their Elastic modulii are not
equal. A shear stress transmits the applied load to the fibre.
The tensile stress in the fibre is not the same along its length,
and increases from zero at the ends to some value in the
middle of the fibre.

12

 The tensile stress in the fibre reaches a maximum at

the centre of the fibre
The shear stress in the interface, on the other hand, is
highest at the extremities of the fibre

13

Fiber orientation in fiber reinforced composites

14

STRESS TRANSFER IN SHORT-FIBRE COMPOSITES

Focus on aligned composite containing short-fibres

How is a Representative Volume Element defined?

16

Representative volume element (RVE):

The smallest portion of a material that contains all
of the peculiarities of the material; therefore, it is
representative of the material as a whole

17

Representative volume element (RVE):

fibre

matrix

The selection of the RVE may or may not contain the

matrix at the end of the fibre The fibre spacing
and the layer thickness are typical RVE dimensions
Two well-known models: the Cox model and the Kelly
& Tyson (K-T) model.
Both models use this simple RVE

18

Mismatch in stiffness between the fibre and the matrix:

Em E f

Note the large shear

deformation in the
matrix near the fibre
end.

19

Focus on a short fibre

dx

sf

sf+dsf

t
As long as there is no failure or non-linear elastic
behavior, we can derive an equation for the sum of forces
at any point along the x axis of the fibre in the RVE.
20

The resultant force in the x direction should be equal to zero

if the system is in a static state
D 2
D 2
Fx s f ds f 4 s f 4 t D dx 0

(D = fiber diameter)

This becomes:

ds f

4t

dx
D
21

By integration [we assume that all stress is transferred from the matrix to
the fibre by the shear at the interface around the periphery of the fiber
(and neglecting stress transfer at the ends)] we have:
x

4
s f tdx
D0

(Note: the constant of integration, sf0,

is the stress on the fiber end. It was
set equal to zero by assuming that the
fiber end separates from the matrix
due to high stress concentration there.)

To solve this expression, we must find out the profile of t as a

function of x.
There are two basic approaches, depending on the state of the
material:
Kelly-Tyson (1965) The matrix is perfectly plastic, t = constant
Cox (1952) The matrix is linear elastic, t = Gm g
22

ty

t
Gm

g
Kelly-Tyson model

Cox model

(Note: In both cases, the fibre is linear-elastic)

The model of Kelly-Tyson

The simpler K-T model corresponds quite well to the
cases of polymer or metal matrices for which the shear
stress, if high enough, becomes equal to the yield stress
(thus, the plastic region) of the matrix.
23

Integration leads to:

4
s f t yx
D

The stress profile must be symmetric about the center of the

fiber (x = L/2). We expect a maximum there, and a linear increase
from both ends:

s f max

2
t yL
D

24

s f max

2
t yL
D

As seen, this maximum stress is a function of the fibre length L. It

cannot, however, grow without limit as a function of L: A natural
limit for the stress in a short fibre is the stress in an infinite
fibre that would result from the application of an external
longitudinal stress to a composite:

longit
f

Ef
Ec

sc

with obvious notations. Thus, by looking at progressively longer

fibres, as soon as the maximum fibre stress reaches this value, the
corresponding minimum length [called the load-transfer length or
ineffective length] is
25

s longit

L
f

2t y
D i

The following profile is obtained, as a function of the fibre

length:

26

s longit

L
f

2t y
D i

But remember that this lower limit transfer length is a function of

the applied stress sc.
There is another limit length, which is not a function of applied
stress, as follows. The fibre stress in the central portion will
eventually reach its tensile strength (at a defect site) sf*and break.
It is naturally assumed that the tensile strength is larger than

s longit
f

A critical fiber length Lc, independent of the applied stress, may be

defined as the minimum fibre length for which the fibre ultimate
strength can be achieved:

s*

L
f

D Crit 2t y

27

In another word, the critical fibre length is defined as the minimum fibre
length for a given fibre diameter allowing tensile failure of the fibre before
shear failure of the interface - i.e. the minimum length required to allow
the fibre to reach its
fracture stress
Derivation of formula:
Tensile force in fibre = fibre strength x csa = f*D2/4
f* = ultimate tensile strength of fibre, or fracture stress
D = fibre diameter
shear strength of interface = t DLc/2
t = matrix-reinforcement shear strength (strength between the bond of
fiber and matrix)
Lc = fibre length (critical)
Tensile strength of fibre = shear strength of interface at
critical fibre length, so Lc = f*D/2t
28

 If the fibre length is less than the critical fibre length

(L1), then the stress in the fibre will never attain values
high enough for fibre failure. The stress borne by the
fibre is low due to ineffective stress transferance, and
matrix failure or fibre pull-out will take place.
If L Lc , fibre reinforcement becomes effective, and
the stress on the component is fully transmitted to the
fibres. At Lc , the stress is borne only by the fibre
centre point; at longer lengths (L2) , loading is better
distributed. For (L > 15Lc) the fibre type
is defined as continuous.

29

The last equation, Lc = f*D/2t, means that the fibre

length must be equal or greater than Lc for the fibre
to be loaded to its max stress sf*.
The critical length is an important material parameter
that can be used to characterise the interface
strength.

30

STRESS

s f*
sf

LONGIT

L = Li

L > Li

L < Li

(FOR THE SAME APPLIED STRESS)

31

STRESS

s f*
sf

LONGIT

L > Li
(INCREASING APPLIED STRESS)

32

Critical aspect ratio = Lc/D

typical values:
matrix
fibre Lc (mm)
Cu
tungsten 38
epoxy
carbon
0.3
polyester glass
0.5
alumina SiC
0.005

Lc/D
20
35
40
10

For efficient load-bearing, the fibre length should be

greater than the critical fibre length Lc.

33

 The strength of a composite improves when the

aspect ratio is large
Fibers often fracture because of surface imperfections
making the diameter as small as possible gives the
fibre less surface area and consequently fewer flaws
that might propagate during processing or under a
load.

34

 Prefer long fibres; the ends of a fibre carry less of the

load than the remainder of the fibre, consequently,
the fewer the ends, the higher the load-carrying
capability of the fibres.
In many fibre-reinforced systems, discontinuous fibres
with an aspect ratio greater than some critical value
are used to provide an acceptable compromise
between processing ease and properties

35

The model of Cox

Assumptions: (a) perfect bonding at interface; (b) the rate of change of
fiber axial load along x is

dP
H u v
dx
u = axial displacement at a point in the fiber

v = axial displacement at the same point in the absence of the fiber

H = proportionality constant depending on material and geometry
By differentiating we get

d 2P
du dv
H
2
dx
dx dx
P

H
e
A E

f f

36

Where e = applied strain in matrix, and du/dx = strain of fiber.

Rearranging, we get the second-order differential equation:

d 2P
2
2

Af E f e
2
dx
where

(*)

H

Af E f
2

The solution to equation (*) is of the form

P A f E f e R sinh x S cosh x
37

R and S must be determined from the conditions P = 0 @ x = 0 and

@ x = . The solution is found to be:

cosh 2 x
P
sf
E f e 1

Af
cosh

(0 < x < /2)

Maximum possible value of strain in fiber is the imposed strain e, so

maximum stress is eEf.
The average stress in the fiber is

sf

dx

tanh 2
E f e 1

38

But for the RVE we have:

s comp s f f s m m

And therefore, dividing by e and replacing, we find:

E comp

tanh 2
E f 1
f E m m

The parameter (called the shear-lag parameter) can be

determined to be:

H
2Gm

E f Af E f Af ln R rf
2

39

A more accurate expression of the shear-lag parameter was

developed by Nayfeh:

E f V f EmVm
2

2
N 2

rf E f Em Vm
1
1
V
m
ln

2
4G f 2Gm Vm V f
The interfacial shear stress profile t(x) can be calculated:

E f rf e sinh 2 x
t
2 cosh 2
40

Coxs stress profiles in fiber

Are stresses in
real fibers close to
these profiles ?
In the early 80s, microRaman spectroscopy was developed
and used in fibers for the first time: Polydiacetylene
single crystal fibers (Galiotis et al, J. Mater. Sci. 19,
1984, p. 3640)
41

MicroRaman spectroscopy
Principle:

42

43

Triple bond

Double bond

44

Schematic of standard equipment

45

TESTS WITH PDA

46

MicroRaman of Carbon Fibers

47

48

49

MicroRaman of Kevlar Fibers

50

Continuous and Discontinuous Fibre System

Continuous and aligned fibre composites have anisotropic
properties.
Brittle-fibre/ductile matrix

Longitudinal (parallel to continuous fibers in a matrix) loading

of composite is in two stages:
+stage I - elastic loading of fibre and matrix
+stage II - elastic loading of fibre and plastic loading of
matrix (when the stress in the ductile matrix reaches the matrix
yield stress, smy, the matrix continues to bear load, although
the slope of the curve falls somewhat (Figure 1(a)); load
borne mainly by fibre
51

Fig 1(a): Stress/ strain curve of brittle-fibre/ductile matrix

52

 Failure starts when fibres start to fracture [when the stress on

the fibres reaches sfu (fibre tensile strength)] - this is not

instantaneous; stress on the composite at this point defines the
composite strength:
c = fuVf + m (1-Vf )equation (i) (rules of mixture) (m
= stress in the matrix at the fibre failure strain)
+long, brittle fibres have variations in fracture
strengths
+matrix material is still in plastic region and has not
yet
failed - a diminished load can still be supported.

53

 Equation (i) can be represented on a diagram showing

composite strength as a function of fibre-content, Vf (Fig 2)

Fig 2: Schematic illustration of the variation of the strength of unidirectional

composite with fibre content
54

- Few fibres present (near the left-hand axis, for Vf < Vmin), stress on the
composite maybe high enough to break the fibres, but even if the fibres
rupture and cease to carry load, the matrix is still able to support the load
until its tensile strength, mu , is reached. As the number of fibres increases,
the strength of the composite falls, following the equation: c = mu (1-Vf )
equation (ii)

- Up to Vmin, matrix exerts control of failure behaviour. When Vmin is reached,

there are sufficient fibres to bear some of the load when the matrix reaches
its failure stress, equation (i) begins to operate.
Vmin = smu sm (ef) / [sf ( 1-Em/Ef)]
- An increase in strength beyond the matrix tensile strength only occurs
above the critical Vf level, Vcrit:
Vcrit = smu sm / sf sm

55

 Brittle-fibre/brittle matrix
- Fig 1(b), matrix reaches its own failure stress, mu ,at relatively
low composite stress levels, and begin to crack throughout the
body of the material.
- the composite may deform without increase in stress, only
when the matrix is completely permeated by an array of closely
spaced cracks does the composite stress begin to increase
- only the fibres are carrying load, and failure occurs when the
fibres reach their failure stress.

56

Fig 1(b): Stress/ strain curve of brittle-fibre/brittle matrix

57

Longitudinal load Fc = Fm + Ff
cAc = mAm + fAf
c = m(Am/Ac) + f(Af/Ac)
since fibre, composite and matrix lengths are equal,
c = mVm + fVf where V = volume fraction (Am/Ac = Vm, Af/Ac=Vf)
Ecc = (Emm)Vm + (Eff)Vf
c = m = f (isostrain- provided that interfacial bonding is effective/ matrix is
intimately bonded to the reinforcing fibers)
Ec = EmVm + EfVf (rules of mixtures)--------- equation 1 (modulus of fibrous
composite is weighted average of the moduli of its componentproperty
averaging).
Equation 1 is not unique to the modulus of elasticity. General equation: Xc =
XmVm + XfVf , X = D (diffusivity), k (thermal conductivity), or s (electrical
conductivity)

The ratio of the load carried by the fibres to that carried by the matrix:
Ff / Fm = EfVf / EmVm

58

Transverse loading (isostress condition with perpendicular loading of the

reinforced fibers (c = m= f)
Lc = Lm + Lf (L = total elongation of the composite in the direction of
stress applications)
Lc/ Lc = Lm / Lc + Lf / Lc
(Lm = AmLc; Lf = AfLc cuboid geometry)
Lc/ Lc = AmLm / Lm + AfLf / Lf
c = mVm + fVf
c/Ec = (m/Em)Vm + (f/Ef)Vf
1/ Ec = Vm/Em + Vf/Ef

Ec = EmEf/ [VmEf + VfEm]equation 2

Similar to equation 1, it is not unique. General equation: Xc = XmXf/ [VmXf + VfXm]
59

 Example:
Calculate the composite modulus for polyester reinforced with 60 mol% Eglass under (a)isostrain condition, (b) perpendicular to continuous
reinforcing fiber (isostress)
(Epolyester = 6.9 x 103 MPa; EE-glass = 72.4 x 103 MPa)
(a) Ec = EmVm + EfVf
= (0.4)(6.9 x 103 ) + (0.6)(72.4 x 103 )
= 46.2 x 103 MPa
(b) Ec = EmEf/ [VmEf + VfEm]
= (6.9 x 103 )(72.4 x 103 ) / [(0.4)(72.4 x 103 ) + (0.6)(6.9 x 103 )]
= 15.1 x 103 MPa

* Noted: fibers make a greater contribution to composite modulus, Ec, in (a),

thus a more effective use of the high modulus of the reinforcing fibers
compared to (b).

60

Discontinuous and aligned fibre composites

For uniformly dispersed but aligned discontinuous fibres of a
specific dimension.

TSc= TSfVf [1 - (Lc/2L)] + mVm if Lc< L

(TSf = tensile strength of fibre; m = stress on matrix at fibre

failure, Vm = 1 Vf)

TSc =[LtVf/d] + mVm if Lc> L

t = shear strength of bond OR
matrix
(smallest value used)
m = stress on matrix at bond failure
(matrix tensile strength)
Characteristic: the composite is relatively strong and stiff in one
direction (desirable); the mechanical properties are anisotropic
(less desirable)
61

Discontinuous random-orientation fibre composites

Modified rule of mixtures:
Ec = KEfVf + EmVm
(K = fibre efficiency parameter <1; depends on Ef/Em and Vf)
The mechanical properties are isotropic (desirable); there is no
single high-strength direction (less desirable)

62

 The reinforcing fibres maybe introduced into a matrix

in a number of orientations:
Short, randomly oriented fibres having a small aspect ratio
are easily introduced into the matrix and give relatively
isotropic behaviour in the composite
Long, or even continuous, unidirectional arrangements of
fibres produce anisotropic properties, with particularly good
strength and stiffness parallel to the fibres (designated as 0o
plies all fibres are aligned with the direction of the applied
stress; however, poor properties if the load is perpendicular
to the fibres (Fig 3)

63

Fig 3: Effect of fibre orientation on the tensile strength

64

 Fibre-reinforced composites can be tailored to meet different

types of loading conditions
Long continuous fibres can be introduced in several directions
within the matrix as shown in Fig 4, such as in orthogonal
arrangements (0o/90o plies), good strength is obtained in 2
perpendicular directions; more complicated arrangements
(0o/45o/90o plies) provide reinforcement in multiple directions

Fibres can be arranged in 3-dimensional patterns.

65

Fig 4: Different arrangements of fibres

66

 Stacking a number of laminae or plies each made up of

uniaxially-oriented fibres or woven fabric as mentioned above
produced fibre-reinforced laminates. Stacking is usually
arranged to provide plies facing various orientations, according
to the predetermined loading on the component.
Residual stresses may be created by operation at temperatures
different from fabrication temperatures due to differences in
coefficients of thermal expansion, and may result in warping of
laminates or cracking

67

Design of laminates should counter loads which need to be

sustained by a balanced-construction design. Thus, for
example, an 18-ply laminate might be designated as:
(04/+452/-452/90)S

This designation indicates:

whilst S stands for symmetrical

68

Fibre-reinforced laminates:
Longitudinal properties
Tensile strength c = mVm + fVf
Compressive strength c = GB/Vm
Modulus Ec = EmVm + EfVf
Coefft of thermal expansion c = (mEmVm + fEfVf)/Ec

Transverse properties depend on:

constituent properties
volume fractions
packing

69

 Practical composite structures are built with laminates having

several layers with various orientations. The layer orientations
are chosen to provide adequate stiffness and strength in the
direction of the applied loads, taking into account that the
composite material is much stronger and stiffer in the fibre
direction than in any other direction

To illustrate the need for a laminated structure to carry loads,

consider a cylindrical pressure vessel of diameter D subject to
internal pressure p (Fig 5). The stresses in the wall are sl = pD /
4t; sh = pD / 2t. Since the hoop stress sh is twice the
longitudinal stress sl , a metal design would call for a thickness
based on sh, namely,
t = pD / 2 sy , where sy is the yield strength of the metal

70

Fig 5: Cylindrical pressure vessel

71

 Such design operates with sh = sy and sl = sy / 2, which means

the material strength is 100 % underutilised in the longitudinal
direction

On the other hand, a composite pressure vessel can be

optimised to carry both stresses sl and sh at the material
allowable stress, simply by placing twice as many hooporiented fibres as longitudinal fibres

72