Unit 1.

1 Molecules
Biology Department
Watford Girls Grammar School

Introduction
For

each of the following you should be

able to:
Describe the properties
Know the general formulae & structure
Understand the role in animals & plants
Water

Proteins

Carbohydrates

Nucleic acids

Lipids

Water
Water

H +

O
H

is a polar molecule
It forms weak hydrogen bonds
It remains a liquid over a wide
temperature range
Water molecules stick to one another =
cohesion (surface tension)
Water molecules stick to other
substances = adhesion (capillarity)

Water
It

has a high specific heat capacity so

water can maintain a reasonably
constant temperature (homeostasis)
It has a high latent heat of vaporisation
so animals use water to cool
themselves
It is less dense as a solid (ice)
and ice is a poor conductor
Water is a good solvent

Carbohydrates
Contain the elements Carbon
Hydrogen & Oxygen
There are 3 types:

Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides

Monosacharides
(CH2O)n
If

n=3, triose (glyceraldehyde)

If n=5, pentose (fructose, ribose)
If n=6, hexose (glucose, galactose)
Monosaccharides are used for
Energy
Building

blocks

C
C

Isomerism
They

can exist as isomers:

& glucose

OH

OH

Disaccharides
Formed

from two monosaccharides

Joined by a glycosidic bond
A condensation reaction:
glucose

+ glucose maltose
glucose + galactose lactose
glucose + fructose
sucrose

Condensation reaction
C
C

C
O

C
C

C
C

OH

OH

C
C

Condensation reaction
C
C

C
O

C
C

C
C

OH

OH

C
C

Condensation reaction
C
C

C
O

C
C

C
C

H2O

C
C

Condensation reaction
C
C

C
O

C
C1

C
C

4C
O

C
C

A disaccharide
1,4 glycosidic bond

Polysaccharides
Polymers

formed from many

monosaccharides
Three important examples:
Starch
Glycogen
Cellulose

Starch
Insoluble store of glucose in plants
formed from two glucose polymers:

Amylose

-glucose
1,4 glycosidic bonds
Spiral structure

Amylopectin

-glucose
1,4 and some 1,6
glycosidic bonds
Branched structure

Glycogen
Insoluble

compact
store of glucose in
animals
-glucose units
1,4 and 1,6
glycosidic bonds
Branched structure

Cellulose
Structural

O
O

polysaccharide

in plants
-glucose
1,4 glycosidic bonds
H-bonds link adjacent
chains

Lipids
Made

up of C, H and O
Can exist as fats, oils and waxes
They are insoluble in water
They are a good source of energy
(38kJ/g)
They are poor conductors of heat
Most fats & oils are triglycerides

Triglycerides
Formed

by esterification
a condensation reaction between 3
fatty acids and glycerol:
H

O H

Glycerol
H

Fatty acids
Carboxyl

group (-COOH)
attached to a long non-polar
hydrocarbon chain (hydrophobic):
H

O
C
O

C H

A saturated fatty acid (no double bonds)

O
C

C H

A monounsaturated fatty acid

O
C
O

H
H

C H
H

A polyunsaturated fatty acid

Esterification
H

O H

O
C
O

Glycerol

Fatty acid

Esterification
H

O H

O
C
O

Glycerol

Fatty acid

Esterification
H

O H

O
C

H
H

Glycerol

Fatty acid

Esterification
H

O H

O
C

Ester bond
H

water

Esterification
This

happens three times to form a

triglyceride:

glycerol

fatty acids

Phospholipids
One

fatty acid can be replaced

by a polar phosphate group:

hydrophilic
phosphate
glycerol

Hydrophobic fatty acids

Functions of lipids
Protection

of vital organs
To prevent evaporation in plants &
animals
To insulate the body
They form the myelin sheath around
some neurones
As a water source (respiration of lipids)
As a component of cell membranes

Proteins
Made from C H O N & sometimes S
Long chains of amino acids
Properties determined by the aa
sequence

Amino acids
~20 aa
Glycine R=H
Alanine R=CH3

R
O

H
H

amine

C
H

C
O H
carboxyl

Peptide bonding
R
H
H

C
H

O
O H

R
H
H

C
H

O
O H

Peptide bonding
R
H
H

C
H

O
O H

R
H
H

C
H

O
O H

Peptide bonding
R
H
H

C
H

H
H H
O

C
H

O
O H

Peptide bonding
R
H
H

C
H

O
O H

Peptide bond

H H
O
water

A condensation reaction

Peptide bonding
R
H
H

C
H

O
C

N
H

A dipeptide

C
H

O
O H

Primary structure
The

sequence of aa is know as the

primary structure
The aa chain is a polypeptide

Secondary structure
H-bonding

forms between the COOH

and the -NH2 of adjacent aa

This

results in the chains folding:

Secondary structure

-helix

-pleated sheet

Tertiary structure
Bonding

between R-groups
gives rise to a 3D shape
H-bonds =O HNaffected by temp & pH

Ionic

bonds NH3-COOaffected by pH

Disulphide

bridge
--CH2S-SCH2affected by reducing agents

Quaternary structure
Some

proteins have
more than one
polypeptide chain
Each chain is held
together in a precise
structure
eg Haemoglobin

Types of proteins
Fibrous

proteins

e.g.

collagen
Insoluble
structural
Globular

proteins

e.g.enzymes
Soluble
3D

shape

Functions of proteins
Enzymes
Transport
Movement
Cell recognition
Channels
Structure
Hormones
Protection

Amylase
Haemoglobin
Actin & myosin
Antigens
Membrane proteins
Collagen & keratin
Insulin
Antibodies

Nucleic acids
DNA &

RNA
Made up of nucleotides:

phosphate

base
pentose sugar

Nucleotides
2

types of base:

Pyrimidines

Cytosine

C
T

Thymine

Purines
Adenine
Guanine

A
G

Complimentary base pairing

Adenine

will only bind with Thymine

Cytosine will only bind with Guanine
T

DNA structure

nucleotide

Condensation
polymerisation of the
deoxyribose nucleotides

Replication
During

cell division the DNA must

replicate
The DNA double helix unwinds
The exposed bases bind to free floating
nucleotides in the nucleoplasm
DNA polymerase binds the
complimentary nucleotides
Replication is
semiconservative

The genetic code

The

sequence of nucleotide bases

forms a code
Each code word has three letter a
triplet code
Each codon codes for a specific amino
acid e.g:
GGG

= proline
CGG = glycine
ATG = tyrosine
ACT = stop (no amino acid)

Protein synthesis
The

DNA codes for

proteins
A copy of DNA
(mRNA) is made in
the nucleus
(transcription)
The mRNA is used
to make a protein
(translation) in the
cytoplasm

Transcription
The

DNA polymerase
unwinds the DNA
Free nucleotides join
onto complimentary
bases
RNA polymerase links
adjacent nucleotides
The completed mRNA
moves out of the
nucleus

Transcription

Amino acid activation

transferRNA:

tRNA binds

onto a
specific amino acid

Translation
mRNA binds

to a ribosome
tRNA carries an amino acid to the
ribosome

Translation
A second

tRNA brings another aa

The two aas bind
The process repeats

Translation
A polypeptide

chain forms
Eventually a stop codon is reached

The Human Genome Project

A multinational project aimed at sequencing
the entire human genome
Visit the Human Genome Web site:

www.ornl.gov/hgmis/project/about.html
www.sanger.ac.uk

Acknowledgements

Animated cell models used by kind

permission of The Virtual Cell website:

Feel free to use this presentation for

educational non-profit making purposes.

Quiz

a)
b)
c)
d)

1. Which of the following is not an

important property of water
Its polar nature
Its low specific heat capacity
Its high latent heat of vaporisation
Its low density in solid form

Quiz
2. The general formula for a
monosaccharide is:
a) (CH2O)n

b)

(CHO)n

c)

C(H2O)n

d)

CnH2On

Quiz

a)
b)
c)
d)

3. Sucrose is made up of
glucose + fructose
glucose + galactose
glucose + glucose
galactose + fructose

Quiz
4. Amylopectin is made up of:
a)

b)

-1,4 glycosidic bonds

c)

d)

Quiz

a)
b)
c)
d)

5. Formation of a triglyceride does

NOT involve:
A condensation reaction
Esterification
Polymerisation
A reaction between 3 fatty acids & glyc
erol

Quiz
6. The general formula of a saturated
fatty acid is:
a) CnH2nO2

b)

Cn(H2O)n

c)

(CH2O)n

d)

(CH2)nO

Quiz

a)
b)
c)
d)

7. Which of the following is not

responsible for a proteins tertiary
structure
ionic bonding
covalent bonding
hydrogen bonding
disulphide bonding

Quiz

a)
b)
c)
d)

8. Which of these is not an amino

acid:
alanine
cysteine
glycine
cytosine

Quiz

a)
b)
c)
d)

9. Which process involves tRNA:

transciption
translation
DNA replication
gene mutation

Quiz

a)
b)
c)
d)

10. The formation of RNA does not

involve:
ribose sugar
thymine
removal of water
phosphate