Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

Formulae List

Energy and power

1. Energy :A Signal is said to be an energy signal if it has finite
energy.
2. Power: A Signal is said to be and power signal if it has finite
power.

= | ()|2 = ()

Energy

2
E=
=|()|

1
( | ()|2 )
0

1
=
( |()|2
2 + 1
=

Note
1. exponential- energy
2. periodic- power
3. x(t)->E=finite,P=0
x(t)->P=finite,E=

Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

II. Symmetric (even) or Asymmetric (odd)

Symmetric: () = ()
e.g () =

Asymmetric: x(-t)=-x(t)
e.g () =

Every s/g can be expressed as

x(t)=xe(t)+xo(t)
where
()+()
xe(t)=
2

xo(t)=

()()
2

Formulae List

Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

NOTE:

() = ()

( + 1) = ( + 1)

( 1) = ( 1)

Formulae List

Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

Precidance Rule:
Ax(

i.

Perform time reversal ( if t is ve)

x(t)x(-t)
Perform time shifting
x(t)x(-t)x(-t+a)
Perform time scaling
x(t)x(-t)x(-t+a) x ( + a)

ii.
iii.
iv.

+ a)

Finally amplitude scaling

x ( + a) A x ( + a)

Formulae List

Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

Formulae List

Sampling Theorem:
x(t)

x(t)

x(t)

Nyquist criteria: > 2 ()

Steps to convert x(t) into x(n)

i.

Consider the given

ii.

Put t =

iii.

Obtain the expression of x(n)

x(t)

in x(t) to get x(n)

Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

Formulae List

CLASSIFICATION & ANALYSIS OF SYSTEM

Linear or Non-linear
A system is said to be a linear system if it satisfies the principle of
superposition theorem
Following steps are to be use
1. Apply the i/p x1(t),let o/p be y1(t)
2. Apply the i/p x2(t),let o/p be y2(t)
3. Find y3(t) using the formula
y3(t)=a1x1(t)+a2x2(t)
4. Apply the composite i/p
[a1x1(t)+a2x2(t)],let the o/p be y3*(t)
5. If y3(t)= y3*(t),then system is linear otherwise non-linear

Time Variant and Time Invariant:

i.
ii.
iii.

Apply the delayed i/p x(t-k),let the o/p be y1(t)

Delay the normal o/p by k.
i.e y(t-k),let the new o/p be y2(t).
If y1(t)= y2(t),then system is time invariant, otherwise time
variant.

Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

Formulae List

Casual or Non-casual:
A system is said to be a casual system if its present o/p depends on
either past i/p or present i/p.
Otherwise it is called as non-casual.
Convolution
Convolution is used to find o/p of the Linear Time Invarient system
when i/p to the system and impulse response of the system are known.
Output=input*imp.response

1. Continious Time System.

y(t)=x(t)*h(t)

() =

(). ( )

2. Discrete time system

y[n]=x[n] * h[n]
y[n]=
= () ( )

Steps for circular convolution:

1. x[n]->outer
2. h[n]->Inner
3. To get y(0),multiply the amplitudes of x[n] and h[n] and add
them.
4. To get y(1),keep outer as it is,rotate inner and clockwise by 1
position and repeat step 3.
5. To get y(2),y(3),.Repeat step 4.
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Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

Formulae List

Z-TRANSFORMS
Definition
If [] is a discrete time signal then its z-Transform is
defined as and given by

() = []
=

()= Two sided (double Z-Transform

One-sided/Unilateral Z-Transform is defined as

() = ().
=

Parallel IZT is defined as

[] =

1
(). 1
2

Geometric Series

1)
=0 =

2)
=1 =

if () < 1

2
3) =
=
1

if () < 1

1 2 +1
1
8

Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

Properties of Z-Transform
1) Linearity:
If 1 [] 1 () and 2 [] 2 []
Then 1 1 [] + 2 2 1 1 () + 2 2 ()
2) Time shifting:
If [] ()
Then [ ] ()
3) Time Reversal:
If [] ()
1

Then [] ( )

4) Scaling in Z-domain:
If [] [] (or multiplication by )

then [] ( )

5) Multiplication by n in T.D OR Differentiation in ZD

If [] ()
Then [] [] (

) ()

6) Convolution in Time Domain:

If [] ()
[] ()
then [] [] (). ()
7) Correlation in T.D:
1
() () ( )

8) Initial value theorem:

(0) = lim ()

9) Final value theorem:

() = lim ()
1

Formulae List

Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

Formulae List

STANDARD ZT PAIRS
x(n)

x(z)

ROC

Entire z-plane

( )2

( )2
2
2 2 + 1

2 2 + 1

|z|>1

( )
u(n)
an u(n)
nan u(n)
-u(-n-1)
-an-u(-n-1)
-nanu(-n-1)
coswn.u(n)
sinwn.u(n)

10

|z|>a
|z|>a
|z|<1
|z|<a
|z|<a
|z|>1
|z|>1

Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

Formulae List

IZT
X(z)=

If ROC:|z|>a
x(n)=anu(n)

If ROC:|z|<a
x(n)=anu(n)

1.
2.
3.
4.

1. Not Casual
2. ROC Inside
3. Sign changes
4.u(-n-1)

Causal
ROC outside the circle
No change in sign
u(n)

Note:
( + 2) = 2
( + 1) =
( ) = 1
( + 2) = 2
( 1) = 1
( 2) = 2

11

Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

Formulae List

Difference equation without Initial condition:

y(n)y(z)
y(n-1)z-1y(z)
y(n-2) z-2y(z)
x(n) z-1x(z)
x(n-1)x(z)
1. Response means o/p
2. Impulse response means IZT of [H(z)]
3. Step response means o/p when i/p is step s/g i.e x(n)=u(n)
4. Transfer function means H(z)=

()
()

Difference Equation with Initial Conditions

y(n)y(z)
y(n-1)z-1y(z)+y(-1)
y(n-2) z-2y(z)+ z-1y(-1)+y(-2)
y(n-3) z-3y(z)+ z-2y(-1)+ z-1y(-2)+y(-3)
x(n)x(z)
Note
1. x(-1)=put n=-1 in i/p x(n)
2. y(-1),y(-2) will be given in the question.

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Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

Interconnected System
1. Series (Cascade) connection.
2. Parallel connection.
1. Series(Cascade):Now its o/p is
y(n)=x(n)*heq(n)
where heq(n)= h1(n)* h2(n)
2. Parallel:Now its o/p is
y(n)=x(n)*heq(n)
where heq(n)= h1(n)+h2(n)

13

Formulae List

Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

Formulae List

Laplace Transforms
If x(t) is a continuos time signal,then its Laplace transform is
defined as and given by

L.T[x(t)]=x(s)= [()]
Range of t in x(t)
And s= +
x(t) (L.T)
x(s)
Time
Frequency
Domain
Domain

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Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

Properties of L.T
1. Linearity: If x1(t) (L.T) x1(s)
And x2(t) (L.T) x2(s)
Then a1x1(t)+ a2x2(t) a1x1(s)+ a2x2(s)
2. Time Shifting: If x(t)x(s)
then x(t-a)e-asx(s)
3. Frequency Shifting:
If x(t)x(s)
Then e-atx(t)x(s+a)
4. Integration in T.D
If x(t)x(s)
Then ()

()

5. Differentiation in T.D
If x(t)x(s)
Then

()

. ()

6. Multiplication by tn
If x(t)x(s)
Then tn x(t)(-1)n dn/dsn[x(s)]
7. Convolution in T.D
If x(t)x(s)
H(t)H(s)
Then x(t)*h(t)x(s).H(s)
8. Initial value theorem
X(0)= lim . ()

9. Final value theorem

X()=lim . ()
0

15

Formulae List

Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

Formulae List

STD L.T Pairs

S(t)

2.

u(t)

Entire s plane
1

3.

() u(t)

4.

() u(t)

5.

u(t)

7.

() u(t)

1
(1)!

u(t)

9.

t.u(t)= r(t)

10.

. () u(t)

11.

cos(). u(t)

12.

sin(). u(t)

Re(s) > -a

Re(s) > a
Re(s) < 0

() u(t)

Re(s) > 0

+a

6.

8.

R.O.S

CASUAL

1.

x(s)

+a

A.C

x(t)

a
1

1
2
1

(+)2

2 + 2

2 + 2

16

Re(s) < -a
Re(s) < a

Multiplication by t

SR.No

Entire s plane
Entire s plane
Re(s) > -a
Re(s) > 0
Re(s) > 0

Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

Formulae List

Inverse Laplace Transforms:

X(z)=

1
+

If Re(s)>a

If Re(s)<a

x(t)=e-atu(t)

x(t)=-e-atu(-t)

ROC of right of -a
x(t) will be casual
Important term is u(t)
No change in sign

17

ROC of left of -a
x(t) will be anticasual
Important term is u(-t)
Change in sign

Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

Formulae List

Solving differential equations without initial conditions

y(t)(L.T)y(s)
y|(t) (L.T)s.y(s)
y||(t) (L.T)s2.y(s)
y|||(t) (L.T)s3.y(s)

Differential equation with initial condition

y(t)(L.T)y(s)
y|(t) (L.T)s.y(s) -y(0)
y||(t) (L.T)s2.y(s) s.y(0)- y|(0)
y|||(t) (L.T)s3.y(s) -s2.y(0) s.y|(0)- y||(0)
Note:
1. If Initial conditions of y(t) are not given then assume it as
zero
2. x(0)=x(t)|t=0

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Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

Formulae List

Laplace transform for periodic signal:

If x(t) is a periodic signal with Time period T,then its laplace transform
is given by x(s)
x(s)=(1-e-st)-1 * x1(s)
where T-Time period
x1(s)=Laplace Transform of one cycle

=0 ()

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Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

CTFT & DTFT

CTFT
If () is a continuous time signal then
Its CTFT is given by

. [()] = [()] = ()

Its IFT is given by

1
() =
()
2
= |=

20

Formulae List

Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

Properties of Fourier series

1. Scaling property:
If x(t) --> (FT) x(w)
Then x(a.t) --> (FT) (1/a).X(w/a)

2. Time shifting property:

If x(t) --> (FT) X(w)
Then x(t-t0) --> (FT) e-jwt0X(w+w0)

3. Frequency shifting:
If x(t) --> (FT) X(w)
Then e-jwt0x(t) --> (F.T)X(w+w0)

4. Time diff:
(/)[x(t)] --> (FT) j.w.X(w)

5. Convolution property:
If x(t) --> (FT) X(w)
h(t) --> (F.T) H(w)
Then x(t).h(t) --> (FT)X(w).H(w)

21

Formulae List

Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

Formulae List

FOURIER SERIES
Trigonometric F.S

() = + [ cos()] + [ sin()]
=1

=1

Where,
1
1 /2
= () = ()
0
/2
2
= ()cos()
0

2 /2
= ()cos()
/2

2
2 /2
= () sin() = () sin()
0
/2
2 = 1
2 = 0

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Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

Special Case:
Even Symmetric:
If x (t) has even symmetric then
= &

()

() . ()

Odd Symmetric:
= , = &

() . ()

23

Formulae List

Semester-IV

Signals and Systems

Exponential (Complex) F.S :

() =
= .
Where,

=
()

OR

()

24

Formulae List