Members of health team

Physiatrist

Orthotist

Prosthetist

Physical Therapist

Occupational Therapist

Speech Pathologist

Respiratory Therapist

Rehabilitation Nurse

Radiologic Technologist

Vocational Councellors/Psychologist

Dietitians

Chaplains

Social Worker

Patient

Physiotherapist
Therapy services are scheduled weekly for
each patient

 Helps you strengthen your muscles and

use them to do daily activities
Helps you learn breathing exercises that
help you build your stamina and strength
Sports and fitness, gym, and hydrotherapy
programmes
are
provided
by
the
physiotherapy department
Rehabilitation Nurse
Nursing staff provide care, support and
encouragement throughout your stay and
provide an important communication link
with other members of the team
Helps you practice what you are learning
in therapies and teach you and your family
how to handle your personal care
Clinical Nurse Specialist in Sexuality is
available to provide counselling to you and
relevant others on the impact of your
injury on sexuality.
Medical Social Worker

 Gives emotional support to you and your

family
Gives you and your family information you
may need in the future about community
agencies
Helps you solve personal problems that
may come up and assists you with
discharge planning

Respiratory Physiotherapist
Monitors the health of your lungs
Gives you treatments to keep your lungs
clear
Assesses need for respiratory equipment
Prosthetist & Orthotist
The Prosthetist/Orthotist produces and fits
all artificial limbs, plastic cosmetic
appliances and other prosthetic devices.
Helps you learn to wear and use your
prosthesis/orthosis correctly

 Provides follow-up care post discharge in

the NRH clinics or regional clinics around
the country
Occupational Therapist (OT)
Helps you to regain skills used in daily
living activities such as: dressing, eating,
planning and writing.
Helps you order equipment you will need
such as bathing equipment, mobility aids
or wheelchair
Assesses your home, work, and/or school
setting, and then suggests modifications
that will make it easier for you to carry out
normal daily activities
Speech and Language Therapist
Assesses and treats all
communication impairment

aspects

of

Assesses and treats swallowing difficulties

Helps with difficulties in remembering,
talking, reading, writing, listening, and
thinking

Psychologist
Assists you and your family to come to
terms with the effects of the difficulties
you may experience as a result of your
injury/illness
Helps you identify your own resources and
coping mechanisms for dealing with the
effects of injury/illness
Provides
specialist
neuropsychological
assessment if you have sustained a brain
injury

Dietitian
Helps you manage your dietary needs
Promotes healthy eating habits and
provides education on how to stay healthy.

Physiatrists (rehabilitation doctors)

direct therapies and services provided by
the rehabilitation team and coordinate
care provided by other specialists.

Pastoral Care
Provides
request

support

and

counselling

on

Addresses your spiritual needs

Liaison Service
The Liaison coordinators provide a link
between the hospital, home, and your
health care professionals.
They act as your advocate and liaise with
hospitals to assess and evaluate your
readiness and suitability for admission to a
Rehabilitation Programme at NRH and
continue to link with you post discharge
from NRH.

Health Care Assistant

The Health Care Assistant helps provide
care and general assistance to you during
your stay
Assists you in doing certain daily tasks as
you progress through your rehabilitation
such as dressing, toileting, showering and
feeding.

Primary Care
Most of us are very familiar with primary
care. That is our first - and most
generalized - stop for symptoms that are
new to us or concerns that we've
contracted a cold, flu or other bacterial or
viral disease. We may also seek out
primary care for a broken bone, a sore
muscle, a skin rash or any other acute
medical
problem we
think
we've
developed. In addition,primary care should

be our coordinating care, although that

doesn't always happen the way it should
Primary care providers (PCPs) may be
doctors, nurse practitioners or physician
assistants.
There are some primary care "specialties"
like
OB-GYNs,
geriatricians
and
pediatricians, too. Learn more about
primary care, its focus and who provides
primary care services
Secondary Care

If you have ever seen a specialist after

being referred by a primary care provider,
then you have been referred for secondary
care. Secondary care simply means you
will be taken care of by someone who has
more specific expertise in whatever
problem you are having.

Specialists focus either on a specific body

system or on a specific disease or
condition. For example, cardiologists focus
on the heart and its pumping system.
Endocrinologists focus on our hormone
systems and some specialize in diseases

like
diabetes
or
thyroid
Oncologists work on cancers.

disease.

Secondary care is where most of us end

up when we have a medical condition to
deal with that can't be handled by primary
care. Sometimes, problems with specialty
care
develop
because
we
have
been referred to the wrong kind of
specialist
Tertiary Care
Once a patient is hospitalized and needs a
higher level of specialty care within the
hospital, he or she may be referred to
tertiary care. Tertiary care requires highly
specialized equipment and expertise such
as coronary artery bypass surgery, renal
or hemodialysis, some plastic surgeries or
neurosurgeries, severe burn treatments or
any other very complex treatments or
procedures.
Quaternary Care

 Quaternary care is considered to be an

extension of tertiary care - even more
specialized and highly unusual. Because it
is so specialized, not every hospital or
medical center even offers quaternary
care.
The types of care that might be
considered to be quaternary would be
experimental medicine and procedures,
and
highly
uncommon,
specialized
surgeries.
Level 1 (Primary healthcare)
provided by barangay health stations,
rural health
units (RHUs), clinics, and other small
facilities. These facilities provide the firstlevel
contact to improve health, and are key
areas for disseminating information about
health
on a community level, and also play a key
role in immunization programs and the
like.

Level 2 (Secondary healthcare)

given by physicians in infirmaries and
municipal
and provincial hospitals. These facilities
offer specialized ambulatory medical
services
and common hospital care.
Level 3 (Tertiary healthcare)
provided by specialists in medical centers,
provincial
and regional
hospitals

hospitals,

and

specialty

Philippine Heart Center,

Lung Center of the Philippines
National Kidney Transplant Institute,
Philippine Childrens Medical Center. These
facilities
provide
highly
specialized,
technical inpatient medical services and
complex medical procedures

INTRODUCTION:
HOSPITALS

CLASSIFICATION

OF

A. Classification of Hospitals
Hospitals are classified according to:
Ownership
Scope of Services
General Hospitals are further classified by
functional capability.
1. Classification According to Ownership
a. Government a hospital owned,
established, established and
created by law; facility may be under the
national government like the,
the Department of Health (DOH), Department
of National Defense

(DND), Philippine National Police (PNP),

Department of Justice (DOJ),
State Universities and Colleges (SUCs),
Government Owned or
Controlled Corporations (GOCC) or Local
Government Units (LGUs).
b. Private a hospital owned, established
and operated with funds
through donation, principal investment or
other means by any
individual,
non-government
corporation,
association or organization.
2. Classification According to Scope of
Services
a. General a hospital that provides services
for all kinds of illnesses,
diseases, injuries or deformities. A general
hospital shall provide
medical and surgical care to the sick and
injured, as well as maternity,
newborn and child care. It shall be equipped
with the service

capabilities
needed
to
support
board
certified/eligible medical
specialists and other licensed physicians
rendering services in, but not
limited to, the following:
i. Clinical Services
1) Family Medicine
2) Pediatrics
3) Internal Medicine
4) Obstetrics and Gynecology
3
5) Surgery
ii. Emergency Services
iii. Outpatient Services
iv. Ancillary and Support Services, such as
clinical laboratory,
imaging facility and pharmacy.
b. Specialty a hospital that specializes in a
particular disease or
condition or in one type of patient. A
speciality hospital may be devoted
to treatment of any of the following:
i. Treatment of patients suffering from
diseases of a particular
organ or groups of organs (e.g. Lung Center of
the Philippines,

Philippine Heart Center, National Kidney and

Transplant
Institute); or a hospital dedicated to treatment
of eye disorders
or cancers.
ii. Treatment of patients belonging to a
particular group such as
children, women, elderly and others (e.g.
Philippine Childrens
Medical Center).
B. Categories of General Hospitals
According to Functional Capacity
1. Level 1 Hospital
A Level 1 hospital shall have, as minimum, the
following services and
capacity:
a. A staff of qualified medical, allied medical
and administrative personnel
headed by a physician duly licensed by the
Professional Regulation
Commission (PRC);
b. Bed space for its authorized bed capacity in
accordance with DOH

Guidelines in the Planning and Design of

Hospitals;
c. An operating room with standard
equipment and provision for
sterilization of equipment and supplies in
accordance with the:
i. DOH Reference Plan in the Planning and
Design of an Operating
Room/Theater
4
ii. DOH Guidelines on Cleaning, Disinfection
and Sterilization of
Reusable Medical Devices in Hospital Facilities
in the Philippines
d. A post-operative recovery room;
e. Maternity facilities, consisting of ward(s),
room(s), and a delivery room
exclusively for maternity patients and
newborns;
f. Isolation facilities with proper procedures for
the care and control of

infectious and communicable diseases as well

as for the prevention of
cross infections;
g. A separate dental section/clinic;
h. A blood station;
i.
A
DOH-licensed
secondary
laboratory with the services of
consulting pathologist;

clinical

j. A DOH-licensed Level 1 imaging facility with

the services of a consulting
radiologist; and
k. A DOH-licensed pharmacy
2. Level 2
A Level 2 hospital shall have as minimum, all
of Level 1 capacity, including,
but not limited to, the following:
a. An organized staff of qualified and
competent personnel with Chief of
Hospital/Medical Director and appropriate
board-certified Clinical

Department Heads;
b. Departmentalized and equipped with
service capabilities needed to
support
board-certified/eligible
medical
specialists and other licensed
physicians
rendering
services
in
the
specialties of Medicine, Pediatrics,
Obstetrics and Gynecology, Surgery, their
sub-specialties and ancillary
services;
c. A general Intensive Care Unit (ICU) for
critically ill patients;
d. A Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU);
e. A High Risk Pregnancy Unit (HRPU);
5
f. Provision of respiratory therapy services;
g. A DOH-licensed tertiary clinical laboratory;
and
h. A DOH-licensed Level 2 imaging facility
with mobile x-ray inside the
institution and with capability for contrast
examinations.
3. Level 3
A Level 3 hospital shall have as minimum, all
of Level 2 capacity, including,
but not limited to, the following:

a. Teaching and/or training hospital with

accredited residency training
program for physicians in the four (4) major
specialties, namely:
Medicine,
Pediatrics,
Obstetrics
and
Gynecology, and Surgery;
b. A physical medicine and rehabilitation unit;
c. An ambulatory surgical clinic;
d. A dialysis unit;
e. A blood bank;
f. A DOH-licensed tertiary clinical laboratory
with standard equipment
/reagents/
supplies
necessary
for
the
performance of histopathology
examinations; and
g. A DOH-licensed level 3 imaging facility with
interventional radiology.
6
In summary, the services and facilities
provided by each level of
General Hospital is
shown below:
SERVICES LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2 LEVEL 3

All of Level 1 plus: All of Level 2 plus:

Clinical
Services for
in-patients
Consulting
Specialists in:
Medicine
Pediatrics
OB-Gyne
Surgery
Departmentalized
Clinical Services
Teaching/training
services with
accredited residency
training program in
the 4 major clinical
services
Emergency and Outpatient
Services Respiratory Unit
Isolation Facilities General ICU
Physical Medicine and
Rehabilitation Unit
Surgical/Maternity
Facilities
High Risk

Pregnancy Unit
Ambulatory Surgical
Clinic
Dental Clinic NICU Dialysis Clinic
Ancilliary
Services
Secondary Clinical
Laboratory
Tertiary Clinical
Laboratory
Tertiary laboratory
with histopathology
Blood Station Blood Station Blood Bank
1st Level X-ray 2nd Level X-ray
with mobile unit 3rd Level X-ray
Pharmacy Pharmacy

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
What is Teaching
a process of interacting
Stands for pedagogy, training and nurturing

The process of engaging students in activities

that will enable them to acquire the
knowledge, skills, as well as wothwhile values
and attitudes.
An aggregate of organized strategies and
activities aimed at inducing learning
Overall cluster of activities associated with a
teacher,
and
including
explaining,
questioning, demonstrating and motivating.
A system of activities whereby all teachers'
instructional tasks enable the students to
learn.
Is both science and art; SCIENCE as it is based
on psychological research that identifies
cause and effect relationship between
teaching and learning; ART, as it shows how
those relationships are implemented in
successful and artistic teaching.
Is the greatest of the arts because the
medium is the human mind and spirit.
Involves
values,
experiences,
insights,
imagination and appreciation- - - the staff
that can not be easily observed and measured
(Greene)

Involves the interplay among such factors as

the teacher, the learner, the teaching content
and strategies as this diagram shows:
THE TEACHER
A key factor in any teaching learning
process.
Constructs well designed plan to achieve to
objectives of the lesson.
Prepares learning environment.
Selects appropriate content/ strategies and
learning activities.
Adjusts content/activities strategies/ learning
environment to the learners.
THE LEARNER
He is an embodied spirit.
He is a union of a sentient body and a rational
soul.
Most important element of teaching.
The natural characteristics of learners are:
age, maturity, grade level, health,
abilities, family background, experiences and
motivation and his /her culture including

values, attitudes and traditions which

influence the teaching learning process to a
very large extent.
THE CONTENT/ TEACHING STRATEGIES
The choice of content/ subject matter to be
taught to achieve desired objectives of the
lesson.
The selection of appropriate instructional
materials/technology to facilitate learning.
The use of appropriate/effective methods and
strategies of teaching to arrive at the desired
outcomes.
the ability to learn is
significant activity of man

the

most

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
1. Learning is an experience which occurs
inside the learner and is activated by the
learner.

- the process of learning is primarily

controlled by the learner and not by the
teacher.
*People learn what they want to learn, they
see what they want to see, and hear what
they want to hear.
*Very little learning takes place without
personal involvement and meaning on the
part of the learner.
*It is wise to engage learners in an activity
that is connected to their life experiences.
2. Learning is the discovery of the personal
meaning and relevance of ideas.
- students more readily internalize and
implement concepts and ideas which are
relevant to their needs and problems.
* It is necessary that the teacher relates
lesson to the needs and problems of the
learner.
3. Learning (behavioral
consequence of experience.

change)

is

- People become responsible when

they have readily assumed responsibility, they
become independent when they have

experienced independent behavior, they

become able when they experience success,
they begin to feel important when they are
important to somebody, they feel liked when
somebody likes them.
*If EXPERIENCE is the best teacher, the
teacher should make use of EXPERIENTIAL
LEARNING strategy. Experiential learning
makes use of direct as well as vicarious
experiences.

4. Learning is a cooperative and collaborative.

- cooperation fosters learning.
- two heads are better than one.

- interactive
scratch and kick

process

appears

to

peoples curiosity, potential and

creativity.
- teachers should make use of
cooperative and collaborative approaches
because these will teach students to live and
learn interdependently.
5. Learning is an evolutionary.
- behavioral changes require time and
patience.
- change takes time.
- Rome was not built in one day.
- things in life that are worthwhile take
time.
6. Learning is sometimes a painful process.
- behavioral change often calls for
giving up the old and comfortable ways of
believing, thinking and valuing.
- it is necessary for the teachers to
make students realize that learning is a
difficult task which is accompanied by ample
of sacrifices, inconveniences and discomforts.

7. One of the richest resources for learning is

the learner himself.
- each of the student is a reservoir of
experiences, ideas, feelings and attitudes
which comprise a rich vein of material for
problem solving and learning.
- as a teacher, you must midwife the
birth of ideas among learners.
8. The process of learning is emotional as well
as intellectual.
- learning is maximized when the
feelings and thoughts of the learners are
working harmoniously. This is due to fact that
man is the union of body and soul. Man is a
feeling being and a thinking being.
9. The process of problem solving and
learning are highly unique and individual.
- each of the learner has his own
unique styles of learning and solving
problems.
- some personal styles of learning and
problem solving are highly effective, others
are not as effective and still others are
ineffective.

- give considerations to multiple

intelligences and learning styles of the
learners to properly address their needs for/of
learning
PRINCIPLES
UNDERLYING
INSTRUCTION
By: LEUS, M.J

EFFECTIVE

1. PRINCIPLE OF CONTEXT
- learning depends largely on the setting
particularly including the use of materials in
which the process goes on with this scales of
application:
a. text book only
b.
materials

textbook

with

supplementary

c. non academic and current

materials (newspaper, clippings, articles,
magazines)
d. multisensory aids
e. demonstration and demonstration
by experts
e. field experiences, personal, social
and community understanding

2. PRINCIPLE OF FOCUS
- instruction must be organized about a
focus or direction, following these scales of
application, and where focus is established by:
a. page assignment in textbook
b. announced topic together with page
or chapter references.
c. broad concept or problem to be
solved or a skill to be acquired to carry on
understanding.
3. PRINCIPLE OF SOCIALIZATION
- instruction depends upon the social
setting in which it is done, with this scales of
application and where social patterns are
characterized by:
a. submission
b. contribution
c. cooperation
4. Principle of individualization
- instruction must progress in terms of the
learners own purposes, aptitudes, abilities
and experimental procedures, following these

scales
of
application
and
where
individualization may be done through:
a. differential performance in uniform
task
b. homogeneous grouping
c. control plan
d. individual instruction
e. large units with optional related
activities
f. individual undertakings, stemming
from and contributing to the joint undertaking
of the group of learners.
5. PRINCIPLE OF SEQUENCE
- instruction depends on effective ordering
of a series of learning task who moves from:
a. from meaningless emergence of
meaning
b. from immediate remote
c. from concrete symbolic
d. from crude discriminating
and where sequence comes through:

a. logical succession of blocks of blocks

of contents (lesson/courses)
b. kniting learning/ lessons/ course
together by introduction, previews, pretests,
reviews
c. organized in terms of readiness
d. organized in terms of lines of
emerging meanings
6. PRINCIPLE OF EVALUATION
- learning is heightened by a valid and
discriminating appraisal of all its aspects,
following these scales of application:
a. evaluation or direct results only
b. evaluation related to objectives and
processes
c. evaluation on total learning process
and results
MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUCTION
Instruction may be well-managed using any of
these classifications of students:
a. HOMOGENEOUS learners are
classified/grouped
in
terms
of
similar

elements such as age, abilities, interests,

physical characteristics etc.
b. HETEROGENEOUS no definite bases
for clustering or putting learners together,
could be on random sampling, alphabetized
family names, time of enrollment etc.
c. NON GRADED no fixed grade/level
assignment of children. They come to center
of learning by small groups or individually
depending
on
their
pacing
in
the
accomplishment of tasks.
TEACHING MODEL - a term used by Bruce,
Joyce to describe an over all approach or
plan for instruction
Attributes of a teaching model:
a. a coherent theoretical framework
b. an orientation toward what student
should learn.
c. specific teaching procedures and
classroom structures.
DIFERENCE AMONG THE TERMS TECHNIQUE,
METHOD,
STRATEGY,
APPROACH
AND
PRINCIPLES

TECHNIQUE the personal art and style of the

teacher in carrying out the procedures of
teaching.
- the teachers unique way, style or act
of executing the stages of a method.
METHOD synonymous to procedure
the
procedure
employed
accomplish lesson objectives.

to

- a series of related and progressive

acts performed by a teacher and pupils to
achieve the desired objectives of the lesson.
- the established way or procedure of
guiding the mental processes in mastering the
subject matter.
- refers to a procedure employed to
accomplish the lesson objective.
- a well planned step by step
procedure that is directed towards a desired
learning outcomes.
STRATEGY an over all or general design on
how the lesson will be executed or delivered.
- a set of decisions on what learning
activities to achieve an objective

- can be a substitute to methodology

APPROACH a set of correlative assumptions
or viewpoints dealing with the nature of
teaching and learning.
- ones viewpoint toward teaching.
- procedure that employs a variety of
strategies to assess better understanding and
effective learning.
PRINCIPLE means a general or fundamental
law, doctrine or assumption.
- a primary source or origin.
- rule or code of conduct.
Purposes of methods
1. make learning more efficient
2. enable learner to think logically
3. facilitates smooth transition from one
activity to another
4. serve as guide in preparing all the
needed materials, tasks and equipments.
5. approximate time to be allotted for
each activity to avoid waste of time and
lapses.

6. make planning clear and precise, to

prevent confusion, unnecessary delays and
time wastage.
7. help in planning for assessment and
evaluation of the lesson.
8. add to a feeling of confidence and
security for the teacher and students.
PRINCIPLES FOR SELECTING METHODS
1. Must be based on sound principles, laws
and theories of learning.
2. Must assist the learners to define their
purposes and motive.
3. Must originate from the learners past
experiences.
4. Must suit individual differences, needs,
interests and developmental maturity.
5. Must bring the learners to the world of
diverse learning experiences.
6. Must stimulate the learners to think
critically, analytically and creatively.
7. Must be challenging
8. Must be flexible.

9.
Must
be
consistent
requirements of objectives.

with

the

10. Must be appropriate with the content.

11. Must give to way to varied students
participation.
12. Must consider to be undertaken to
ensure gainful learning.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN CHOOSING A
METHOD
1. Learners ability first and foremost
consideration
based
on
the
nature/characteristics, age, maturity, abilities,
etc.
2. Teachers ability must be personally
and professionally qualified to teach
3. Objective expected outcome of the
lesson in terms of knowledge/skills and
attitudes.
4. Subject Matter content to be taken so
that the desired outcome will be achieved.
5. Pre requisite learning students
experiences
that
can
help
facilitate
acquisition of new knowledge, skills

and attitudes.
6. classroom set up must be inviting to
students and conducive to learning.
7.
School
facilities/equipments/technologies

the
availability of the needed equipments,
technologies, tools for learning found in the
right places.
8. Time allotment specified target
frame
for
chosen
activities
properly
distributed to the entire period.
9. Safety precautions students should
feel that they are safe and out of danger in
the school.
10. School climate learner should feel
the warmth of the teachers and classmate.
SELECTION
CONTENT

AND

ORGANIZATION

OF

THERE ARE DULL TEACHERS. DULL

TEXTBOOKS, DULL FILMS, BUT NO DULL
SUBJECTS
Guiding Principles in
Organization of Content

the

Selection

and

1.
Observe the following qualities in the
selection and organization of content:
a. Validity teaching the content that we
ought to teach according to the national
standards in the Basic Education Curriculum
- teaching the content in order to
realize the goals and objectives of the course
as laid down in the basic education .
b. Significance the content we teach
should respond to the needs and interest of
the learners.
c. Balance content includes not only
facts but also concepts and values (The three
level approach in teaching facts cognitive,
concepts psychomotor, values affective
domain)
d. Self sufficiency Content should
cover the essentials of the lesson and not a
mile wide and an inch deep
e. Interest the teacher considers the
interest of the learners, their developmental
stages, and cultural and ethnic background.
f.
Utility

refers
to
the
usefulness/application of the content to the

life of the learner after it has been learned by

the learner.
g. Feasibility the content can be
covered I the amount of time available for
instruction.
2. At the base of the structure of cognitive
subject matter content is facts.
3. Subject matter content is an integration of
cognitive, skill and affective elements.

SELECTION
STRATEGIES

AND

USE

OF

TEACHING

Different folks, different strokes

GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN THE SELECTION AND
USE OF TEACHING STRATEGIES
1.
Learning is an active process actively
engage learner in learning activities to
achieve optimum learning of the learners.

What I see, I remember,

What I hear, I forget
What I do, I understand
75% retention rate is achieved through
learning by doing
90 % retention rate learning by teaching
others
2. The more senses that are involve in
learning, the more and better the learning
Humans are intensively visual animals. The
eyes contain nearly 70% of the bodys
receptors and send millions of signals along
the optic nerves to the visual processing
centers of the brain.
sight 75%
hearing 13%
touch 6%
taste 3%
smell 3%
3. A non threatening atmosphere enhances
learning.

4. Emotion has the

retention and learning.

power

to

increase

5. Learning is meaningful when it is connected

to students everyday life.
6. Good teaching goes beyond recall of
information teaching should reach the levels
of application, analysis, synthesis and
evaluation to hone our students thinking
skills.
7. An integrated teaching approach is far
more effective than teaching isolated bits of
information.
8. There is no such thing as best teaching
method. The best method is the one that
works, the one that yields results.
Factors to consider in the choice of teaching
method:
a.

Instructional objective

b.

Nature of the subject matter

c.The learners
d.

Teacher

e.

School policies

DIFFERENT

APPROACHES

a
thousand
methods

AND

METHODS

thousand

teachers,

A comparison between
indirect approaches

direct

and

Method
of
teaching
direct/expositive approach

in

the

1.
DEDUCTIVE METHOD starts with
generalization, principle or rule that is
then applied to specific cases.
Features: 1. allows for clear understanding of
generalizations, rules,
formulas etc.
2. allows further development of
generalizations, rules, formulas etc.
When to Use:
1. to test a rule
2. answer questions or problems with
reference to certain rules or principles

3. to further develop generalization

Steps:
1. Statement of the Problem teacher
tells what the problem which must be
stimulating, realistic, relevant and within the
learners ability.
2. Statement of the Generalization
recalling/stating generalizations or rules which
may help solve the problem
3. Inference looking
principle/rule/generalization that
problem.

for
fits

the
the

4. Verification trying out the best

generalization, rule or principle that establish
validity
of
the
probem
using
references/materials.
2. Concept Teaching is based on the
assumption (Bruner 1984) that concept
formation begins at an early stage (9-12
months) where initial activities of object
sorting and preference serve as bases for
concept learning.

Bruners Identified
learning:
a.
Learning
learning

by

distinct

doing

b.
Learning by doing
called ICONIC MODE

modes

called

of

enactive

mental

c.Learning through series of

symbols called SYMBOLIC MODE

images
abstract

MAY EITHER BE:

a.
Concept Attainment focuses on
teaching pupils the concepts that the
teacher has selected for study and follows
these steps:
1. introduce the concept by name
2. present examples
3. introduce non examples
4. present a mixture of examples and non
examples and ask questions which are the
correct examples
5. ask pupils to define the concept
6. ask pupils to find another examples of
the concept

b. Concept Formation Method focuses on the

process of concept development/thinking
skills development which follows the following
steps:
1. teachers provide stimulus in the form of
a question or a problem
2. pupils provide a number of answers and
categorize them
3. pupils label the categorized responses
Steps in Concept Teaching Method
1.
Define the objectives of the lesson to
get students ready to learn.
2.
Giving of examples and non
examples
which
help
strengthen
understanding.
3.
Testing
for
understanding

the

attainment

of

4.
Analysis of students thinking and
integration of learning through further
questioning and focused discussion.
5.
Diagnostic testing reveals errors on
misconception which calls for a re
teaching.

3. Direct Instruction / Showing Method a

teacher centered strategy that uses teacher
explanation and modeling combined with
student practice and feedback to teach
concept and skills. It is designed to teach
skills, concepts, principles and rules, with
emphasis on active teaching and high levels
of student involvement.
Features:
1.
Widely applicable in different content
areas
2.
Establishes pattern of interaction
between teacher and students
3.
Assists students to learn procedural
knowledge.
4.
Promotes
knowledge.

learning

of

declarative

5.
Focuses students attention on specific
content/skill
6.

Ensures mastery skills.

WHEN TO USE
- for teaching of concepts and skills.
Steps:

1.
Introduction reviewing prior learning
with students, sharing learning goals
providing rationale for new content.
2.
Presentation explaining new concept
or modeling the skill.
3.
Guided
practice
with
necessary
feedback providing students necessary
opportunities to practice new skill or
categorize examples of new concept.
4.
Independent
Practice

students
practicing the skill or concept learned for
retention and transfer.
4. LECTURE DISCUSSION METHOD
- designed to help learner link new with
prior learning and relate the different parts of
new learning to each other.
- designed to overcome the most
important weaknesses of the lecture method
by strongly emphasizing learner involvement
in the learning process.
A.
Lecture designed to help students
learn organized bodies of knowledge.

- is a teacher directed method designed

to help learners understand relationship in
organized bodies of knowledge.
- as opposed to content specific models
that focus on individual concepts, this model
attempts to help students understand not
only concepts but how they are related.
- grounded in schema theory and David
Ausubels concept of meaningful verbal
learning
Features:
a.

Applicable in different subject areas

b.
Ensures
information

clear

understanding

of

c.Allows students participation

WHEN TO USE:
a. For conveying/disseminating important
information which may not be available to
students or which may be needed to be
presented in a particular way.
b. For stimulating interest.
c. For guiding student reading
d. For explaining a difficult text

e. For aiding student to summarize and

synthesize discussions
STEPS
1.

Planning

a. identifying goals
b. diagnosing student background
c. structuring content
d. preparing advance organizers
2. Implementing
a. Introduction describing the purpose
of the lesson, sharing of objectives and
overview
to
help
students
see
the
organization of the lesson.
b. Presentation defining and explaining
major ideas.
c.
Comprehension
Monitoring

determining
whether
or
not
students
understand concepts and ideas.
d.
Integration

exploring
interconnections between important ideas.
5. Review and Closure summarizing the
lecture

B. DISCUSSION is an orderly process of face

to
face
group
interaction
in
which
students/pupils exchange
ideas about an
issue for the purpose of answering a question,
enhancing their knowledge or understanding
or making decision.
- It can be viewed as a bridge between
direct instruction and student centered
instruction.
5 Logical Conditions to Ensure that Exchange
is called DISCUSSION
(Bridges, 1960)
1.

People must talk to one another

2.

People must listen to one another

3.

People must respond to one another

4.
People must be collectively share to
put forward more than one point of view.
5.
People
must
the
intention
of
developing
their
knowledge,
understanding or judgment of the issue
under discussion.
For discussion to be successful, participants
need certain:

1.
Moral Disposition being willing to
listen to reason
- being willing to abide by rules that
facilitate exchange of
ideas
2. Intellectual Disposition concern for clarity
in the expression of
ideas.
- concern that an appropriate variety
of perspective is
considered by the group.
When to Use as a Teaching Strategy:
1.
It can be used in any subject at any
level from kinder to post graduate study.
2.
It can involve the whole class or it can
be used with small groups.
3.
When the teacher needs to facilitate
any or all of the 4 types of learning
outcomes:
a.

General subject mastery

b.

Problem solving ability

c.Moral development

d.

Communication skills

4. When students need to be motivated to

talk about the subject inside and outside the
classroom.
5. When teacher wants students to work
together and share their ideas by talking
about them publicly (Cockburn and Ross,
1980).
Using Discussion in Conjunction with other
Teaching Strategies:
a.
Direct Instruction as part of a direct
instruction lesson, a discussion could be
used to explore an issue for a short time
(15 mins).
b.
Group Work interactions between
students are an integral part of small
group learning, and this process can often
be enhanced by asking the students to
follow a set of discussion rules.
c.Cooperative Learning some forms off cooperative learning (such as jigsaw) can be
enhanced by structured discussion within
the learning groups.

d.
Problem Solving when you are using
problem solving as a teaching strategy,
discussions can be used to help students
understand the nature of the problem, to
help them generate possible solutions and
as a forum for comparing the relative
merits of various solutions to the problem.
Demonstration a tell and show method
Steps:
I. Preparation
a. motivation
b.
identify
problems/procedure

objectives/

II.
Explanation
Concepts/Principles/Process/Theory etc.

of

III. Demonstration of Concept Process by the

Teacher
- students observe and take down
notes
IV. Discussion of Student Observation
- answering problems
V. Verification

- justification
- conclusion
II. Indirect/Guided/Exploratory or Experimental
Strategies
- the indirect approach is a student
centered approach or less explicit teaching
method.
It
involves
the
building
of
independent learning and developing selfconcept. It develops students to become self
directed learners, crtical thinkers and problem
solvers.
Features:
a.
Learner centered, learners exercise
initiative in the process.
b.
Process of learning is perceived to be
as important as the outcome.
c. Learning is applied as it is acquired, not
stored for future use.
d.
The
development
of
specific
intellectual skills is better than merely
covering specified elements of subject
matter.
When to Use:

a. When the teacher feels the need for

students to develop self reliance and
intellectual skills related to critical thinking
and problem solving.
1. INQUIRY TEACHING
a. the process of answering questions
and solving problems
based on facts and observation
b. strategy designed to teach students
how to investigate
problems and questions with
facts.
Features:
1. helps students find answers to their
own questions in scientific
manner.
2. helps develop higher order and critical
thinking skills
3. promotes independent learning
When to Use:

1. when there are real life problems or

questions that must be answered through
facts and observation
2. for
thinking

topics

requiring

higher

order

Steps:
1. Presenting/Identifying the question or
problem
Presenting or identifying a problem
either by the teacher or by the students,
explaining or clarifying the problems by the
students to ensure clear understanding.
2. Forming hypothesis
Formulating intelligent guesses
tentative solutions and generalizations.

or

3. Data Gathering
Gathering necessary facts, information
or evidences related to the problem
4. Data Analysis/Assessing Hypothesis
Closely studying/analyzing of the data
gathered to prove or disprove the hypotheses.

5. Generalizing making generalization

based on the careful analysis of the data
gathered.
Strategies for Inquiry Teaching
A.
Interviews
subjects

may

be

used

in

all

interviews are used in gathering

firsthand information from individuals who
have expertise on topic under study.
Steps:
1. Introduction presenting a new or
additional
knowledge
or
information,
identifying interviews, and making plans
including questions to ask, procedure for
recording, etc.
2. Development
interview as planned

conducting

the

3. Conclusion summarizing data and

report findings to solve problems.
4. Evaluation Assessing the success
of the interview conducted.
B. Field Trips an out of the classroom
activity intended to present concepts in the

most realistic manner. It may be used across

levels in any subject area.
Steps:
1. Introduction clarifying objectives of
the activity, panning and assigning tasks to
be carried out and reviewing standards of
behavior.
2. Development field trip proper,
checking
on
students
activities,
accomplishments and behaviors.
3. Conclusion summarizing data and
report findings, stating main idea or other
conclusions, sending letter of thanks.
4. Evaluation assessing the finished
activity
2. INDUCTIVE METHOD
-

a procedure through which one

arrives at a fact, principle, rule or
generalization from some specific cases or
examples.
Features:

1.
Designed to help students develop
higher order and critical thinking while
learning specific content at the same time.
2.

Requires teachers questioning skill

3.
Promotes
involvement
4.

high

level

of

student

Increase student motivation

When to Use
For formulating generalization, concept,
rule, truth, principle, formula or definition.
Steps:
1. Preparation reviewing of old facts,
setting of goals, stating of aims
2. Presentation presentation of cases and
examples.
3. Comparison and Abstraction deducing
common elements among the cases or
samples presented.
4. Stating of Generalization, rule, definition,
principle, or formula based on the common
elements deduced from cases presented.

5. Application applying the generalization or

rule learned to other problems within or
beyond the classroom setting.
3. PROBLEM SOLVING
- a purposeful activity aimed at
removing difficulty or perplexity through a
process of reasoning.
Features:
1.
Allows for students active involvement
resulting in meaningful experiences
2.
Develops independence and higher
level thinking skills.
3.
Promotes open mindedness and wise
judgment.
When to Use:
- for lessons where learners find problems
requiring
- for developing higher level thinking
skills
Steps:
1. Recognition and statement of the problem
with teachers guidance and stimulus, the
students define or recognize a problem

2. Statement of Hypothesis students make

temporary answer/solution to the question or
problem
3. Critical Evaluation of Suggested solution
with the teachers guidance, students test
hypotheses or data used in solving the
problem,
formulate
conclusions
and
summarize their findings.
4. Verification of accepted solutions
checking, verifying and applying results to
other problems.
4. PROJECT METHOD
a purposeful, natural, significant
constructive activity needing both intellectual
and physical solutions.
Project may be:
a. Physical or material such as repairing
a radio
b. Learning project like composing a
poem or short story
c. Intellectual or problem project such as
identifying ornamental plants which can be
medicinal

Features:
1.
Develops
students
manipulative skills.

thinking

and

2.
Develops
creativity
and
resourcefulness, initiative, industry and
responsibility.
3.
Allows students to express in their own
way the concepts they have learned.
4.
Can enhance cooperation and sharing
of ideas.
When to Use
1.

For application of concepts

2.

For discovering concepts

3.
For developing creativity and thinking
skills
4.

For real life problems/situations

Steps
1.
Purposing determining the nature
and goals of the project.
2.
Planning designing of strategies to be
employed in carrying out the project.

3.
Executing carrying out of activities as
planned
4.
Evaluating displaying and judging of
finished products.
LABORATORY
METHOD

METHOD

OR

RESEARCH

- deal with first hand experiences

regarding materials or facts obtained from
investigation or experimentation.
Types:
1.
Experimental aims to train students
in problem solving with incidental
acquisition of information and motor skills,
emphasis is on discovery, original
procedure, and solution of problems.
2.
Observational Type the aim is on the
acquisition of facts. Activities would
include visits to museums, exhibits or
galleries, watching documentaries, going
on filed trips.
Features:
1.
To promote information acquisition
through
observation,
experimental
solutions to problems guided by reflective

thinking and
manipulation.

acquisition

of

skill

in

2.
Provides students opportunities to
conduct or participate in original research.
3. Develops skill in using
equipment and instruments.

laboratory

4. Enhances higher order thinking skills.

Steps:
1.
Orientation/Motivation motivating
and informing students on the work to be
done, why should it be done and giving
precise and explicit directions.
2.
Work Period students are allowed to
work on their own either individually or in
groups with the teacher supervising.
3.
Culminating Activities organizing,
presenting
and
exhibiting
of
the
completed work.
CONCEPT ATTAINMENT
- an inductive teaching strategy designed
to help students reinforce their understanding

of concepts and practice hypothesis testing

hypothesis based on positive and negative
examples presented to them.
Features:
1.

Encourages students to think freely.

2.

Trains students to develop hypothesis.

3.
Trains students to formulate definition
or generalization.
4.

Promotes students participation

When to Use?
1.

For making hypothesis

2.

For formulating hypothesis/definition

3.
For development of critical thinking
through hypothesis testing.
Steps:
1. Presenting of Examples positive and
negative examples are presented and
hypotheses are generated.
2. Analysis of hypotheses hypotheses are
analyzed in light of the examples given.

3. Closure examples are continuously

analyzed to generate critical characteristics
and form a definition.
4. Application additional examples are
provided and analyzed in terms of definition
formed.
EMERGING MODELS OF TEACHING
A.

PROBLEM BASED INSTRUCTION

- the essence of problem based

instruction (PBI) consists of presenting
students with authentic and meaningful
problem situation that can serve as
springboard for investigations and inquiry.
- This model is a highly effective approach
for teaching higher level thinking processes,
helping students process information already
in their possession and assisting students to
construct their own knowledge about the
social and physical world around them.
Contemporary approaches to problem based
instruction rest on cognitive psychology and
constructivist perspectives about learning.
Features:

1. Deriving question on problem PBI

organizes instruction around questions and
problems both socially and personally
meaningful to students.
- they address authentic real life
problems that evades simple answers and for
which competing solutions exist.
2. Interdisciplinary Focus PBI lessons may be
centered on a particular subject but actual
problem under investigation has been chosen
because its solution requires
students to
deliver into many subjects.
3. Authentic Investigation necessitates that
students pursue authentic investigation that
seek real solution to real problems.
4. Production of Artifacts and exhibits - PBI
requires students to construct products in the
form of artifacts and exhibits that explain or
represent their solutions.
- It could be a report, a video, a physical
model or a computer program.
B. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
- develop in 1983 by HOWARD GARDNER

- proposes 9 different intelligences to

accord for a broader range of human potential
in children and adults:
a. linguistic intelligences word smart
b. logical mathematical intelligence
number/reasoning
smart)
c. Spatial Intelligence picture smart
d. Bodily Kinesthetic music smart
e. Interpersonal Intelligence People
smart
f.

Intrapersonal

Intelligence

self

smart
g. Naturalistic intelligence nature
smart
h. Existentialist Intelligence/Spiritualist
Intelligence
Features
1.
Building of different centers in the
classroom
2.
Equal attention should be given to
individuals who show gifts in other

intelligences aside from linguistics and

logical mathematical intelligences.
3.
The MI theory proposed a major
transformation in the way schools are run
and lessons are presented.
4.
Suggests that teachers be trained to
present lessons in a variety of ways using:
- music

- multimedia

- cooperative learning

- field trips

- art activities

- inner reflection

- role playing

- and many more

MITA Multiple intelligence Teaching Approach

(for PBL)
Features:
1.
Both starts with question/problem to
generate curiosity
2. Teacher functions as facilitator.
3. Learning outcomes are holistic, rather than
narrowly based in one discipline.
4. Assessments are authentic, performance
based.

When Planning a Lesson (MI), Ask the Right

Question
1.
Linguistic: How
spoken/written word?

can

use

the

2.
Mathematical How can I bring in
numbers,
calculations,
logic,
classifications, critical thinking?
3.
Spatial How can I use visual aids,
visualization, colon, art, metaphor, or
visual organizers?
4.
Musical How can I bring in music,
environmental sounds or set key points in
a rhythm or melody?
5.
Bodily Kinesthetic How can I involve
the whole body or hands on experiences?
6.
Interpersonal How can I engage in
peer or cross age sharing, cooperative
learning or large group simulation?
7. Intrapersonal How can I evoke personal
feelings or memories or give students
choices?
8. Naturalistic How can I develop love for
nature?

C. CONSTRUCTIVISM (Piaget and Vygotsky)

- A perspective of teaching and learning in
which a learner constructs meaning from
experiences and interaction with others.
- The teachers role is to provide
meaningful relevant experiences for students
from which students construct their own
meaning (facilitation).
- A view of learning suggesting that
learners develop their own understanding of
the topics they study instead of heaving it
delivered to them by others (most commonly
teachers) in an already organized form.
- Places the learner in the center of the
learning process where they play an active
role in the process of constructing their own
understanding.
D. METACOGNITIVE STRATEGY
- strategies used for recognizing ones
cognitive processes and ways of thinking
about how information is being processed.
- Metacognition is the awareness of and
control of ones own mental processes.

- Nickerson (1988) characterized the role

of metacogniton in higher order and critical
thinking in this way. The fact that an
individual has some knowledge that would be
useful in a given situation does not guarantee
that it will be accessed and applied in that
situation.
To increase the likelihood that learners will
apply their thinking appropriately, they need
to be aware of the thinking theyre doing.
(For example, when reading, the students
need to learn to evaluate their own decoding
and comprehension, plan a sequence of
actions and regulate their reading behavior
changing conditions.
4 TYPES OF COGNITIVE STRATEGIES
E. COLLABORATION
- characterized by students working
with one another either
in pairs or groups)
Steps:
1.

Orient students to the problem

2.

Organize students for study.

3.
Assist
independent
investigation.

and

group

4.
Develop and present artifacts and
exhibits.
5.
Analyze and evaluate the problem
solving process.
F. EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
- a final theoretical perspective that
provides intellectual support from cooperative
learning comes from theorists and researchers
who are interested in how individuals learn
from experience.
- Experience accounts for much of
what people learn.
- Is based upon 3 assumptions:
a. that you learn best when you are
personally involved
in the learning
experience.
b. that knowledge
discovered by yourself if it

has

to

be

makes a difference in
your behavior.

c. commitment
highest when you are free

to

learning

is

to set your own learning

goals and actively pursue
them within a given
framework.
G. Cooperative learning
- this model presents
contrast to direct instruction.

the

sharpest

- can be used to teach rather complex

academic materials and can help teachers
accomplish important social learning and
human relation goals.
- stems from both social learning theory
and cognitive constructivist perspective of
learning.
- classroom environment is characterized
by a cooperative task and incentive structures
and by small group activity.
- cooperative goal structures exist when
students can obtain their goal only when
other students with whom they are linked can
obtain their characteristics of cooperative
learning lessons:

a. students work cooperatively

teams to master academic

in

materials.
b. teams are made up of high, average
and low achievers
(coping learners).
c. whenever possible, teams include a
racial, cultural and
sexual mix of students.
d. reward system are group oriented
rather than individually
oriented.
Steps:
1.
Go over objectives, present goals and
establish learning set.
2.
Present information to students with
demo or text.
3.

Organize students into learning teams.

4.
Assist team works and study and group
effort
5.
Test over learning materials or groups
present results of their work.

6.
Provide recognition to both individual
and group efforts and achievements.
Important Distinctive Features:
1.
Students are not just required to do
something as a team, they are required to
learn something as a team.
2.
Because the teams success depends
on each students learning, it is necessary
for students to tutor one another rather
than simply share ideas and information
with one another.
3.
In some versions of cooperative
learning where marks or grades are
allocated to students, there is opportunity
for each member of each team to
succeed, because success is based on
improvement on past performance rather
than on absolute scores.
Variations:
1. Students Teams
(STAD - Slavin)

Achievement

Division

- simplest and most straight forward

among the cooperative
learning approaches.

- referred to as student team learning

Steps:
1.
Teacher
presents
new
academic
information to students each week using
verbal presentation or text.
2.
Students in a class are divided into
four or five member heterogeneous
learning teams.
3.
Members in the team help each other
learn by using a variety of cooperative
study methods, quizzing and scoring
procedures.
2. Jigsaw (Aronson, Slavin)
- students are assigned to 5 or 6 members
heterogeneous study team.
- academic materials are presented to the
students in text form.
- each student has the responsibility to
learn a portion of the material.
- members from different teams with the
same topic (called the expert group) meet to
study and help each other learn their topic.

- then students return to home team and

teach each other members what they have
learned.
3. Group Investigation (Thelan Sharan)
- the most complex of the cooperative
learning approaches and the most difficult to
implement.
- in contrast to STAD and Jigsaw, students
are involved in planning both the topics for
study and how to proceed with their
investigation.
- teachers who use the GI divide their
classes into 5 or 6 members heterogeneous
group.
- students select topics for study, pursue
in depth investigation of chosen sub topic
then prepare and present a report to the
whole class.
Steps of the GI Approach:
a. Topic selection
b. Cooperative planning
c. Implementation
d. Analysis and synthesis

e. Presentation of final product

f. Evaluation
4. Structural Approach (Kagen 1983)
- has much in common with other
approaches,
the
structural
approach
emphasizes the use of a particular structures
designed to influence students interaction
patterns.
- call for students to work independently in
small groups and are characterized by
cooperative rather than individual rewards.
- some structures have the goal of
increasing student acquisition of academic
content (think pair share numbered heads
together).
- others are designed to teach social and
group skills (active listening and time tokens).
5. Teams Games Tournaments (TGT) (De Vries
and Slavin)
- similar to STAD in that the teacher
presents information to students and have
them help one another learn. The difference
lies in the quizzes being replaced with
tournaments and students

compete to gain points for their home

team.TGT is suited to the same subject matter
and objectives as STAD.
6. Dyadic Cooperative Learning
- simplest form of cooperative learning
and in many cases most efficient form of
group work.
- students interrupt in pairs after reading a
section of the material. They come to
agreement to the important points and over
all meaning of each section. Afterwards,
students quiz each other. Lastly, teacher gives
the whole class a test.
OVERVIEW OF SELECTED STRUCTURES IN
COOPERATIVE LEARNING
H. Content based language instruction
- as defined by Brintos, Snow and Wesche,
content based language instruction is the
integration of content learning with language
teaching aims.
- it refers to the concurrent study of
language and subject matter, with the form
and sequence of language presentation
dictated by content material.

Features:
1.
The main instruction goal in this
approach is to prepare the students for the
academic task they will encounter in
school.
2.
Students are provided with study skills
and a familiarity with scholarly discourse
which they can transfer to other academic
endeavors.
3.
It focuses not only on learning, but
using the language as a medium to learn
mathematics, science, social science or
other academic subjects.
4. Subject matter may consist of topics or
themes selected for students interest or need.
5. CBLI uses the content, learning objectives
and activities from the school curriculum as
the vehicle for teaching language skills.
Teaching Methods and Strategies in CBLI
a.

Cooperative Learning

b.

Task Based or Experiential Learning

c.Whole Language Approach

I. INTEGRATIVE MODEL (Tab)

- grounded in cognitive views of learning.

- an inductive strategy designed to help
students
1. develop a deep understanding of
organized bodies of
knowledge topics that combine
facts, concepts,
generalizations and the
relationships among them.
2. develop critical thinking skills at the
same time.
- closely related to the inductive model.
- planning lessons using integrative model
includes identifying clear goals and then
preparing displays of data to help learners
reach the goals
- the data displays are commonly
matrices, but can include graphs, maps and
charts in pictorial forms.
Steps:
1. describe, compare and search for patterns
teacher directs students attention to the
topics for study.

2. Explains similarities and differences the

point where students are immersed in critical
thinking.
3. Hypothesize
conditions.

outcomes

for

different

4. Generalize to form broad relationships

lesson is summarized and comes to course as
students derive one or more generalizations
that summarize the content.
j. Group cooperative learning / experiential
investigation
- a model which enables students to
inquire into a social problem and observe
themselves as inquirers while the teacher
serves as counselor consultant and friendly
critic.
K. INDEPENDENT LEARNING
providing a high level of cognitive and
affective development, independent learning
is a kind of instructional process where
students
proposes
a
study
project,
investigation, research, or production of
something which she or he will carry out
almost independently. The teachers role is to
stimulate student participation, advise and

counsel on possible projects, grant approval if

appropriate, supervise students and evaluate
completed project.
L. synactics
- a teaching model designed to increase
students creativity through formulating
analogies or metaphors. It is built on
assumptions that creativity, even though an
essentially emotional process can be learned
and creativity can be fostered through group
activity.
Instructional activities continuum from
passive to active learning
LESSON PLANNING
LESSON PLAN
- is a day to day, step by step approach to
learning. It sets forth the proposal program or
the instructional activities for the day.
Types:
a.
BRIEF an outline of teachers
activities and is usually done by master
teachers

b.
SEMI DETAILED all activities and
teachers questions are listed and usually
done by neophyte teachers.
c.DETAILED all activities, teachers
questions and students expected answers
are reflected and usually done by pre
service teachers.
Components of the lesson plan
I. OBJECTIVES
- Cognitive
- Psychomotor
- Affective
II. SUBJECT MATTER
- Topics/Concepts
- Values Integrated
- References
- Materials
III. LEARNING ACTIVITIES
A. Preparatory Activities
1. Drill activity that will enable the
students to automatize

response to pre
requisite skill of the new lesson.
2. Review activity that will refresh or
renew previously
taught material.
3. Introduction an activity that will
set the purpose of the
days lesson.
4. Motivation all activities that arouse
the interest of the
learners.
2 types:
a. Intrinsic Motivation sustaining
self interest to
learn.
- maintains self curiosity and
involvement in
the work by using
surprise, doubt, novel as
well as familiar
things.

b. Extrinsic Motivation interest

that is ignited by an
outward force like
awards monetary or
material things,
scholarships, inspiration
from love ones.
B. Developmental Activities
1. Presentation of the Lesson real life
situation or within the
experience of the learners are
incorporated.
- teacher uses different activities as
a vehicle to translate
the knowledge, values and skills
into learning that could
be applied in their lives outside
the school.
2. Discussion / Analysis asking a
series of affective or
cognitive questions about the
lesson presented.

3. Abstraction / Generalization the

summary of the lesson.
- organizing significant information
about the lesson
presented.
- completing graphic organizers
like concept map, Venn
Diagram, fish bone, table,
matrices and etc.

C. Closure / Application relates the

lesson to other situations in the forms of:
- dramatization, simulation and play
- story telling
- oral reading
- construction and drawing
- written composition
- singing or reciting a poem
- test
- creative works

- solving problems
IV. Evaluation determines
objectives are met and

whether

the

achieved
- questioning
- summarizing
- comparing
learning

present

and

previous

- assigning work project, research

- administering short quiz
- portfolios
- rubrics
- journals
V. Assignment
1.
An
activity
classroom/at home to:

done

outside

the

- reinforce or enrich the days lesson

- set the materials that students have
to bring to school to
implement the next lesson.

2. The activity should help attain the days

lesson objective. It should be interesting and
differentiated (with provision for remedial,
reinforcement and enrichment activities.)
DIFFERENCE
OBJECTIVES

AMONG

AIMS,

GOALS

AND

AIMS are the most general objectives of the

Philippine Education System. They are broad
and value laden statements expressing
philosophical and ethical considerations that:
a. answer the needs and demands of
the society especially
children and youth.
b. are formulated by experts as policy
making bodies, panels
and commissions.
c. are societal in nature or in a national
level concern.
Example: Prepare students for a democratic
citizenship.

GOALS descriptions of the general

objectives of schools curricula/courses that
are expected to:
a. accomplish and organize learning
experiences stressed on a
system wide basis.

b. represent the entire school program

prepared by
a professional associations or any
local
educational agencies.
Example: Development of reading skills.
Understanding mathematical
concepts.
Appreciation of art works.
OBJECTIVES are the descriptions of what
eventually take place in
the classroom.
a. They should be SMART (specific,
measurable, attainable,

realistic, time bound)

b. These are used as a standard way of
judging what has been
achieved or not achieved.
c. Their chief functions is to guide the
teachers in making
decisions on what to cover, what to
emphasize, what
content to select, and what
learning experience, activity,
strategy or method best suit a
certain learning plan.
d. Have 2 essential components
namely behavior and content but
for
assessment purposes, the objective should be
written with the following elements:
A audience or the performer
B behavior or the action verb
specifying the learning
outcome
C content of the subject matter

C criterion or the degree of

performance considered
sufficient to
demonstrate mastery
Example: The student (audience) should
distinguish (behavior) all (criterion) objectives
indicating learning outcomes (content) from a
set of objectives having both learning
outcomes and learning activities (condition).
2 types of Objectives:
1. Terminal an important learning outcome
that should be attained at the end of the
instruction.
2. Enroute or enabling the objective leading
to the attainment of the terminal objective.
SPECIFICATIONS OF OBJECTIVES
- it refers to the process of formulating
objectives in a functional form( i.e. complex to
simple). It follows the following steps:
1.
State the general unit objectives in
terms of expected learning outcomes
(terminal objectives).

Dimensions of Learning Outcomes:

a.
Knowledge

remembering of information

recall

and

essential to a discipline or
subject area.
b. Reasoning student ability to use
knowledge to reason and
solve problems.
c.
Skills

student
demonstrate achievement

ability

to

related skills such as

reading aloud, interpersonal
interaction, speaking a
second language and
performing psychomotor
behaviors.
d. Products student ability to create
achievement related
products such as written
report, oral presentations,
projects, artworks.

e. Affective (attitudes, values and

appreciations) moods
and connections or
dispositions to act in a given
manner toward a person,
thing, or event and the
sensitive awareness or
perception of worth of an object
or event.
2. State terminal learning outcome in
measurable learner performance or product
- avoid terms like KNOW, UNDERSTAND,
LEARN, THINK, and APPRECIATE because
they are not observable behaviors.
3. Obtain representative samples of essential
and supportive pre-requisites (enroute or
enabling objectives).
Sequencing of Objectives
- the process of ordering or arranging the
behavior of the objectives in the same
content in hierarchical order from simplest to
most complex.

The designers of objectives in many forms

were finalized based from:
1.
TYLER interprets philosophical and
psychological concerns of instructional
objectives.
2.
Gronlunds distinguishes objectives
between general and specific outcomes.
3.
Mager relies on three major
characteristics as behavioral, conditional
and with proficiency level in the
formulation of objectives.
4.
Gagne just as precise as Mager
defines types of learning objectives as
measurable and observable.
5.
Bloom and his associates (1956)
developed the taxonomy of cognitive
objectives
6. Krathwohl and Associates (1964)
developed
the
taxonomy
of
affective
objectives.
7. Simpson developed the taxonomy of
psychomotor objectives
Domains and
Objectives

Taxonomy

of

Instructional

Taxonomy classification systems of learning

heirarchy.
Levels of Affective Domain
Levels of Psychomotor Domain
Art of Questioning
Questioning key technique in teaching
- used for a variety of purposes.
Purposes of Questions:
1.

Arouse interest and curiosity

2.

Review content already learned

3.

Stimulate learners to ask questions

4.
Promote
thought
understanding of ideas

and

the

5.
Change the mood/tempo, direction of
the discussion
6.
Encourage
evaluation
7.

reflection

and

self

Allow expression of feelings

Types of Questions:
1.

According to thinking process involved:

a. low level questions focus on facts

- do not test level of understanding or
problem solving skills
Ex. Who discovered the cell?
b. High level questions go beyond
memory and factual information, more
advance, stimulating and more challenging,
involves abstraction and point of view.
Ex. How did Robert Hooke discover the
cell?
2. According to the type of answer required:
a. Convergent questions tend to have
one correct and best
answer.
- use to drill learners on vocabulary,
spelling and oral skills
but not appropriate in eliciting
thoughtful responses.
- usually start with what, who, where
and when
- are referred to as low level questions

- are useful when

inductive approach and

applying

the

requires short and specific

information from the learners.
b. Divergent questions - open ended
and usually have many
appropriate answer.
- reasoning
evidence and examples.
- associated
thinking processes and

is

supported

with

high

by
level

encourage creative
thinking and discovery learning.
- usually start with how and why,
what or who
followed by why
3. According to the cognitive taxonomy:

4. According to questions used by teachers

during open discussion

a. eliciting questions these are employed

to:
1. encourage initial response
2. encourage more
participate in the discussion

students

to

3. rekindle a discussion that is lagging

or dying out
b. Probing question seek to extend ideas,
justify ideas, and clarify
ideas.
c. Closure seeking questions used to
help students form conclusions, solutions or
plans for investigating problems.
Guidelines in Asking questions
1. wait time the interval between asking
a question and the
student response. This is a 3-4
seconds think time.
2. prompting uses hints and techniques
to assist students to
come up with a response
successfully.

3. Redirection involves asking of a single

question for which there
are several answers.
4. Probing a qualitative technique use d for
the promotion of
effective thought and critical thinking
- provides the students a chance to
support and defend a stand
or point of view.
5. Commenting and prompting used to
increase achievement and
motivation.
Tips on asking questions:
1.

Ask questions that are:

- stimulating / thought provoking
- within students level of abilities

- relevant
situations

to

students

daily

life

- sequential a stepping stone to the

next
- clear and easily understood

2. Vary the length and difficulty of the

question.
3. Have sufficient time for deliberation
4. Follow up incorrect answer
5. Call on volunteers or non volunteers
6. Call on disruptive students
7. Move around the room for rapport /
socialization
8. Encourage active participation
9. Phrase questions clearly.
10. Ask as many learner as possible to answer
certain question.
APPROPRIATE LEARNING ACTIVITIES IN THE
DIFFERENT PHASES OF THE LESSON
A.
Introductory/Opening/Initiatory
activities:
- starters and unfreezing activities to make
students feel at ease
- used to motivate the students
participate and to set the tone for the day.

to

- liken to preparing the ground before

sowing or planting.

- activities given for students not just to

enjoy or for the sake of enjoyment but should
have motivational function because they are
related to the days lesson.
1.

KWL (Know, Want to know, Learned)

2.

Video clips

3.

Editorial from a current newspaper

4.
Posing a scientific question that
requires students to formulate hypothesis
or predict whats going to happen
5. Cartoon or comic strip
6. Game
7. Simulation
8. Puzzle, brain teaser
9. Mysterious Scenario
10. Song
11. Picture without a caption
12. Quotable quote
13. Anecdote
14. Compelling stories from history, literature
related to the lesson

15. Current Events

16. Diagnostic Test
17. Skit, role playing
18. Voting
19. Ranking, ordering
20. Devils advocate
21. Conflict story
22. Brainstorming
23. Buzz session
24. Question and answer
B. Developmental Activities
1.

For data gathering

a. interview
b. library research
c. internet research
d. reading
e. lecture
f. inviting resource speakers
g. field trip

h. experiment
i. panel discussion
j. hands on learning
k. case study
2. For Organizing and Summarizing:
a. using graphic organizer
b. jingles, raps, song
c. verses
d. acrostic
e. power point presentation
3. For Application/Creative Activities
a. solving real world problems
b. performances and demonstrations
c. authentic projects
d. portfolios of students best work or work
in progress
e. letters to the editor
f. power point presentation
g. brochures

h. writing and performing a song, rap or a

musical
i. news report for local news program
j. television talk shows
k. mock debates and mock trials
l. mock job interviews
m. personal narratives
n. cartoons and comic strips
o. organizing a symposium
C. Concluding Activities:
a. finish and review the KWL
b. passport to leave
c. journal writing at the end of the period
d. Preview coming attractions
e. 3/2/1 countdown 3 facts I learned
today, 2 ways I will use the information/skills
I learned today, 1 question I have
f. using analogies
g. completing unfinished sentences
h. synthesize or summarize the lesson

SELECTION AND USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL

MATERIALS
PRINCIPLES
1.
All instructional materials are aids of
instructions. They do not replace the
teacher.
2.
Choose the instructional materials that
best suits your instructional objectives.
3.

If possible, use a variety of tools.

4.
Check out your instructional material
before class starts to be sure it is working
well.
5.
For results, abide by the general
utilization guide on the use of media which
includes:
a. learn how to use the instructional
material.
b. prepare introductory remarks, questions
or initial comments you may need.
c. provide a conducive environment
d. explain the objectives of the lesson
e. stressed what to be watched or listened
to carefully

f. state what they are expected to do with

the information they will learn
g. prepare measure that can assess
students experiences on the use of the
material based on the objectives.
VARIOUS FORMS OF MEDIA
1.
AUDIO RECORDINGS include tapes,
recordings, and compact discs used by
teachers in connection with speech
rehearsals, drama, musical presentations,
and radio and television broadcasting
2.
OVERHEAD
TRANSPARANCY
OVERHEAD PROJECTOR (OHP)
- transparency can show
diagrams and sketches at a time.

OR

pictures,

3. BULLETIN BOARD usually stationary on a

wall or it can be movable which contains
pictures, newspaper clippings, real objects or
drawings attached on its surface usually
made from cork or soft wall boards.
4. CHALKBOARD a convenient writing area
where illustrations can instantly be drawn
even during discussion.

5. CHARTS - may be in the form of maps,

graphs, photographs and cut outs.
- maybe pre-prepared graphic devices or
posters.
6. Mock ups is a replica of an object that
may be larger or smaller in scale which can be
used to show the essential parts which are
made detachable.
7. REALIA stands for the real things that are
to be studied.
8. VIDEO TAPES OR FILMS motion pictures
clearly show movement and sequence of
events which usually motivates learners
easily.
9. MODELS scaled replicas of real objects
which include globe car models etc.
10. PICTURES include flat, opaque and still
pictures.
- Pictures are worth ten thousand words
11. BOOKS present accurate facts and
details that serve as permanent sources of
information

12. ELECTRONIC MATERIALS CDs, DVDs

and CD - ROMs