Energy Considerations for Wind Turbines with

Hydraulic Transmission Systems

Bjrn Skaare
Statoil ASA
bjoska@statoil.com

Bo Hrnsten
Hgglunds Drives AB
Bo.Hornsten@boschrexroth.se

Abstract:
Comparisons
of
different
hydraulic
transmission concepts for use in wind turbines
and a conventional variable-speed wind turbine
with a mechanical gearbox in the 5 MW range
is considered in this paper. The main focus is
on the overall energy extraction capability of
the various concepts.
A new hydraulic transmission concept for wind
turbines with use of fixed displacement radial
piston machines both as motors and pumps is
proposed. Two different turbine rotor speeds
can be achieved by coupling half of the motors
in and out of operation. It is believed that such
a system offer the simplicity of previous
mechanical
two-speed
generator
wind
turbines, as well as the advantages due to the
flexibility in hydraulic systems including fixed
speed operation of the generator.
The efficiency and robustness of the proposed
concept is believed to be superior to other
known hydraulic transmission concepts for use
in wind turbines.
Keywords: Hydrostatic transmission, top head
mass, efficiency, energy extraction, radial
piston hydraulic machine.

Introduction

The weight of the top head mass of wind

turbines is considered to be a challenge and
possible limitation for cost reduction and
fatigue life of large wind turbines, and in
particular for large offshore wind turbines.
Another challenge for offshore wind turbines is
the large amount of maintenance work that is
required combined with high cost of offshore
maintenance work and limited access to the
turbine due to harsh weather conditions.
A hydraulic transmission system has been
proposed as a possible way forward to
overcome these challenges. The advantages
of such a system is that the top head mass is

Finn Gunnar Nielsen

Statoil ASA
fgn@statoil.com

reduced, the maintenance of the system is

considered to be easier, and the sensitive
mechanical gearbox can be removed. Further,
a hydraulic transmission system can be
operated with a variable gear ratio, which gives
the opportunity for more optimal operation of
the turbine without the need for indirect grid
connection and power electronics. The main
disadvantage of a hydraulic transmission
system is that the energy losses are assumed
to be larger in a hydraulic system than in a
mechanical system.
The idea of using a hydraulic transmission
system in wind turbines is not new and testing
of a 3 MW concept was carried out already in
the late seventies [1]. Here the wind turbine
was equipped with both a mechanical gearbox
and several axial piston hydraulic pumps
situated at the nacelle level. At the ground
level several variable displacement axial piston
hydraulic motor was running a generator. The
generator was running at fixed speed while the
rotor was running at variable speed.
Since then the sizes of hydraulic machines
have been increasing and alternative concepts
with hydraulic transmission have been
proposed. A concept with mechanical gearbox,
hydraulic transmission lines and axial piston
pumps and motors are reported in [2].
Hydraulic
transmission
systems
using
hydraulic radial piston pumps without
mechanical gearboxes are reported in [3], [4]
and [5].
Common for all these hydraulic transmission
concepts are the continuously variable
transmission ratio obtained by using variable
displacement hydraulic axial piston motors
and/or pumps. In this way the aerodynamic
power extraction can be optimized. Significant
power losses are related to the variable
displacement, axial piston motor, particularly
during operation at low pressures at low wind
speeds. These low pressures complicates the
design process of the transmission since it is
desirable to operate with pump and motor
combinations that gives high pressure in the

transmission at the different power regimes in

order to reduce the losses.
As an alternative, a simple, robust and highly
efficient hydraulic transmission system is
proposed for use in wind turbines. It is based
upon fixed displacement, radial piston
hydraulic machines both as hydraulic pump
and hydraulic motors. This concept allows for a
discrete hydraulic gear ratio by coupling
hydraulic motors in and out of operation. This
implies that the aerodynamic efficiency will be
somewhat reduced, but the improved hydraulic
efficiency is believed to more than compensate
for this.
Comparison of the energy extraction with
different
hydraulicand
mechanical
transmission systems are considered in this
paper. Two hydraulic transmission systems
from the nacelle level to the ground level are
compared with a mechanical gearbox for a
generic 5 MW wind turbine.

Variable Speed Wind

Turbines

The advantage of variable speed turbines with

respect to power output has been known for
hundreds of years, while the principles behind
has been understood since the 19th century
[6]. By considering steady state conditions, the
aerodynamic power Pa that is transferred from
the wind to the turbine can be represented as
[7]:

Pa

1
AC p ( , )u 3 ,
2

where

(1)

is the density of air, A is the area

swept by the rotor blades,

C p is the power

coefficient, is the tip speed ratio, i.e. the

ratio between the speed at the tip of the rotor
blade and the incoming wind speed, is the
blade pitch angle, and u is the resulting
incoming wind speed. The power coefficient
surface C p for a wind turbine is plotted in
Figure 1 below, and it is seen that the power
coefficient is kept at its maximum value for a
fixed tip speed ratio at zero blade pitch
angle.

Figure 1: Example of CP ( , ) surface.

For this reason, variable speed will give
increased annual power production since it is
possible to run the turbine at optimal rotational
speed at all wind speeds. This advantage is
considered to be of small importance from an
economic point of view in [8], while [6] states
that the increased annual energy extraction
could be up to 10 % with use of variable-speed
operation instead of fixed-speed operation. An
important fact is that the energy losses in fixed
speed operation compared to variable speed
operation can be almost fully compensated for
by the use of a two speed generator [9]. One
example of such a wind turbine system is the
2.3 MW CombiStall wind turbine that was
previously delivered from Siemens Wind
Power with a generator operating either at
100% or 66% of rated generator speed.
Other important advantages of the variable
speed wind turbines that has led the
development in this direction are
- Gusts of wind speed can be allowed to
make the rotor turn faster, thus storing part
of the excess energy as rotational energy
till the gust is over. This may reduce the
peak torque, and thereby reducing the
wear on the gearbox and generator, and
also reduce the fatigue loads on the tower
and rotor blades.
- The power electronics may control the
reactive power to improve the power
quality in the electrical grid.
- Noise reduction during operation at low
wind speeds.
According to [8], the main disadvantages of
variable-speed wind turbines are related to
costly indirect grid connection and power
electronics. Further, there are energy losses in
the AC-DC-AC conversion process and power

electronics may introduce harmonic distortion

of the alternating current in the electrical grid.

3
Background in Hydraulic
Gear Systems
A hydraulic gear is established by connecting
the outlet chamber of a hydraulic pump to the
inlet chamber of n hydraulic motors. Losses
are neglected for the purpose of describing the
principle of a hydraulic gear ratio.
The power for a hydraulic pump is given as

PP = TP wP = DP pP wP ,

(2)

where PP is the pump power, pP is the working

pressure for the pump (the difference between
the low pressure and high pressure side), DP is
the pump displacement and wP is the pump
rotational speed. Further, TP = DP pP is the
pump torque which is the rotational version of
force equals pressure multiplied with area. This
can be verified by considering the power
balance of a lossless pump driven by a
mechanical shaft:

TPP pPVP DP pPP ,

(3)

where VP is the volume on the high pressure

side of the pump.
Similarly, the power for a hydraulic motor can
be expressed as

PM = TM wM = DM pM wM ,

(4)

where PM is the motor power, pM is the

working pressure for the motor (the difference
between the low pressure and high pressure
side), TM = DM pM is the motor torque, DM is
the motor displacement and wM is the motor
speed.
Connection of the outlet chamber of the
hydraulic pump to the inlet chamber of the
hydraulic motor gives
pP = pM
PP = PM

(5)
(6)

Insertion of equation (8) - (10) into equation

(11) gives the hydraulic gear ratio nh on the
form

nh =

wM
D
= P
wP
DM

(7)

Hydraulic pumps and motors can have variable

displacement that may be adjusted by a control
system. This way, the gear ratio (7) can be
varied continuously, as desired.
In addition the hydraulic gear ratio can still be
varied stepwise by use of several fixed
displacement hydraulic motors connected to
the same shaft. The gear ratio can then be
varied at discrete ratios by coupling the
hydraulic motors in and out of operation as
desired. Wind turbines equipped with a
hydraulic transmission system with variable
displacement motors or several fixed
displacement motors will be able to operate at
different rotor speeds while operating at a fixed
generator speed. The generator can typically
be an asynchronous generator with as little as
0.7% slip or a synchronous generator.

The Two-Speed Hydraulic

Transmission Concept

A simple, robust and high efficiency hydraulic

transmission concept for wind turbines is
proposed by using radial piston machines both
as pump and motors in the hydraulic
transmission system from the nacelle level to
the ground level. An illustration of a radial
piston machine, that can be used both in motor
and pump operation is shown in Figure 2.
The two-speed hydraulic transmission concept
is assumed to have a similar operational
philosophy as the previous two-speed
generator wind turbines with mechanical
gearbox, by coupling half of the motors out of
operation at low wind speeds. This implies that
the rotor can rotate with two main rotational
speeds while the generator rotates at one fixed
speed. Further, and contrary to the previous
two-speed generator wind turbines with
mechanical gearbox, the hydraulic system will
contribute with both flexibility and filtering of
torque spikes. The flexibility in the hydraulic
system will allow for acceleration and
deceleration of the rotor around one of the two
rotor speeds when sudden wind speed
changes appear.

torque, smooth torque variations due to the

hydraulic system, and fixed rotational speed.

Figure 2: Hgglunds CBP motor/pump. The

arrows indicate oil inlet (left), oil outlet (middle)
and oil drain (right).
Hgglunds has designed a possible future
radial piston pump applicable for 6 MW power
output with the dimensions as indicated in the
sketch in Figure 3 and with the performance
characteristics shown in Figure 4. This pump
design will be used as basis both for the twospeed and variable speed hydraulic concept
that are considered in later chapters.

Figure 3: Drawing showing dimensions of a

possible future 6 MW pump with use of
dimensions for hydraulic pistons that are
available today. Shaft power: 6 MW at 12 rpm.
Specific torque: 17920 Nm/bar. Displacement:
1125 l/min. Shaft diameter: 720 mm.

The main advantage of using radial piston

machines both as pump and motors in a
hydraulic transmission for wind turbines is
related to the high efficiency of the machines,
and in particular during operation at low
pressures. This may be of significant
importance when the life time expectancy for
the transmission is considered, since the life
time of hydraulic components are assumed to
decrease exponentially with increasing system
pressure.
Another advantage of using both radial piston
pump and motors is that these machines
typically
have
identical
recommended
operating pressures and viscosities, contrary to
a combination of axial and radial piston
machines.
The main disadvantage of the two-speed
hydraulic transmission concept compared to a
variable speed concept is believed to be
related to the reduced speed of the radial
piston motors which requires a larger and more
expensive generator. This may be solved a
future
high-speed
motor
design.
An
alternatively solution can be to include a single
spur gear at the high speed shaft between the
motors and the generator to achieve higher
rotational speed. Such a gear box will have
comfortable operational conditions with low

Figure 4: Total efficiency as function of speed

and torque. The figure represents the curve for
a possible future Hgglunds CBP 18000
machine. The curves are valid for oil viscosity
40 cSt.

Introduction to
Comparative Studies
The comparative studies consider energy
production with use of different transmission
and power conversion systems and the basis
for the analysis is a wind turbine with rotor
radius of 63 m, corresponding to a generic

5MW turbine that was used for the Hywind

model scale experiments reported in [10].

The basis for the energy analysis is a wind

speed distribution according to the IEC-614001 standard with Vref = 50 m/s and Vave =
0.2*Vref. This wind speed distribution is
considered to be valid for a good wind site, and
is
shown
in
Figure
5.

A constant generator speed wind

turbine with a hydraulic transmission
system with a continuously variable
gear ratio obtained by motor
displacement control of a set of
variable displacement axial piston
machines that are connected to a 2pole asynchronous generator with
0.7% slip. A sketch of this concept is
shown in Figure 7.

0.08
0.07
0.06

probability [-]

0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0

10

15
wind speed [m/s]

20

25

30

Figure 5: Wind speed distribution according to

the standard IEC-61400-1, with Vref = 50 m/s
and Vave = 0.2*Vref.
Aerodynamic power and energy considerations
will be made for the following cases:
- A fixed speed wind turbine.
- A two-speed wind turbine.
- A continuously variable speed wind
turbine.
The focus of the aerodynamic analysis is on
the below the rated wind speed regime since it
is assumed that all concepts will have rated
generator production above the rated wind
speed. This implies that systems with higher
efficiency above the rated wind speed will have
lower loading that is not considered for in this
analysis.
Generator power and energy considerations
will be made for the following cases:
- A variable speed wind turbine with a
conventional mechanical gear box that is
connected
to
a
variable
speed
asynchromous generator with inverter.
- A constant generator speed wind
turbine with a hydraulic transmission
system with two discrete hydraulic
gear ratios obtained by coupling
Hgglunds fixed displacement radial
piston motors in and out of operation.
The motors are connected to a
medium size, multi-pole, asynchronous
generator with 0.7% slip. A sketch of
this concept is given in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Overview of hydraulic transmission

concept with one large, low-speed, high
torque, radial piston pump situated in the
nacelle and a set of high-speed, low-torque,
fixed displacement radial piston motors
situated at the ground level.

98

generator efficiency [%]

97

96

95

94

93

fixed-speed synchronous generator

fixed-speed asynchronous generator
variable-speed asynchronous generator with inverter

92
20

30

40

50
60
70
relative power P/PN [%]

80

90

Figure 9: Generator efficiencies according to

[9].

6
6.1

Comparative Study
Assumptions

The 5 MW wind turbine is operated with a

rated rotor speed of 1.26 rad/s, leading to a
rated wind speed regime that starts at 13 m/s.

Figure 7: Overview of hydraulic transmission

concept with one large, low-speed, high
torque, radial piston pump situated in the
nacelle and a set of high-speed, low-torque,
variable displacement, axial piston motors
situated at the ground level.

In this chapter, the previously described, future

6 MW Hgglunds pump is considered in
operation with hydraulic motors that were
possible to produce in 2011.

The efficiencies that are used for the gear box

and the generators in the calculations are
based on [9] and are shown in Figure 8 and 9,
respectively.

The two-speed hydraulic transmission concept

consists of two groups of three fixed
displacement radial piston machines that can
be coupled in and out of operation such that
the wind turbine can operate at two different
rotor speeds when the generator operates at a
fixed speed of 250 rpm.

96
95

gearbox efficiency [%]

94

The variable speed hydraulic transmission

concept consists of 8 variable displacement
axial piston machines that can be coupled in
an out of operation and where the motor
displacement can be controlled to have an
optimal rotor speed while the generator
operates at a fixed speed of 1500 rpm.

93
92
91
90
89
88
20

30

40

50
60
70
relative power P/PN [%]

80

90

Figure 8: Gear box efficiency according to [9].

100

The estimated hydraulic pump and motor

efficiencies are given in Figure 10 and 11,
respectively. The curves for the radial piston
machines are calculated on basis of turbine
operational philosophy and input data from
Hgglunds. The reason for the jumps in the
pump efficiencies is that the efficiency is given
as function of the speed and the torque of the
hydraulic machine as shown in Figure 4 with
discrete values like 0.96, 0.95 and that the

100

efficiencies is calculated only at integer

numbers of the wind speed like 4 m/s, 5 m/s
etc. The curves that are used for the axial
piston machines are based on available
efficiency curve for the Bosch Rexroth motor
A4VSG 1000 with a maximum efficiency of 88
%. The trend in the efficiency curves are based
on calculated pressures generated at the
various wind speeds, and shows relatively
good agreement with corresponding results in
[2], [3] and [4]. The losses due to the
transmission lines from the nacelle level to the
ground level are assumed to be constant, and
equal to 3%.

6.2

The aerodynamic power and energy extraction

below the rated wind speed depends on the
rotor speed control of the wind turbine. Figure
12 and Figure 13 show curves for the
aerodynamic power production and energy
capture, respectively, for a variable speed
turbine, a two-speed turbine and a fixed speed
turbine. It is clear that the advantages of
variable speed operation with respect to
aerodynamic energy capture are small for this
turbine with a typical rotor speed restriction of
1.26 rad/s. The optimal rotor speeds during
two-speed operation were found to be 0.63
rad/s below 6 m/s and 1.26 rad/s above 6 m/s,
while the optimal rotor speed was found to be
1.26 m/s for fixed speed operation.

0.965
variable speed radial piston pump
2-speed radial piston pump

0.96

Wind Turbine Operation

below the Rated Wind Speed

pump efficiencies [-]

0.955

0.95

0.945

0.94

0.935

0.93
0

10
15
wind speed [m/s]

20

25

Figure 10: Efficiencies for Hgglunds radial

piston pump during operation in variable speed
(blue) and 2-speed (green), as function of the
wind speed.
1
0.95

Compared to variable speed operation which

has the highest energy capture, the
aerodynamic energy capture below the rated
wind speed is 99.6% during two-speed
operation and 97.5% during fixed rotor speed
operation. During operation in turbulent wind,
which is typically the case, the variable speed
turbine rotor can not adapt to fast wind speed
changes such that the variable speed
calculation may have a downside compared to
the other estimates. The ability of conventional
variable speed turbines to adapt to fast wind
speed changes in general, and wave induced
motions in particular, is reported in [11]. This
implies that the effect on power production of
variable speed operation compared to twospeed operation is almost negligible for wind
turbines of this size.

0.9

motor efficiencies [-]

0.85
variable speed axial piston motor
2-speed radial piston motor
transmission line

0.8
0.75
0.7
0.65
0.6
0.55
0.5

10
15
wind speed [m/s]

20

Figure 11: Efficiencies for Bosch Rexroth axial

piston motors during operation in variable
speed (blue) and Hgglunds radial piston
motors during 2-speed operation (green) and
the hydraulic transmission line (red), as
function of the wind speed.

25

The corresponding generator power and

energy production below the rated wind speed
is shown in Figure 14 and Figure 15,
respectively. The different transmission and
power conversion systems that are considered
in the figures are based on the efficiencies that
are given in Figure 4, 8, 9, 10 and 11.
Compared to a variable speed wind turbine
with a conventional mechanical gear box that
is connected to a variable speed asynchronous
generator with inverter, the generator energy
production below the rated wind speed with the
two-speed hydraulic transmission concept is
94.2%, while the generator energy production
below the rated wind speed with the variable
speed hydraulic transmission concept is
84.5%.

wind turbine with variable speed with

mechanical transmission (blue), a wind turbine
with variable rotor speed by use of a hydraulic
transmission system with continuously variable
gear ratio (green), and a wind turbine with 2
rotor speeds by use of a hydraulic transmission
system with discrete variable gear ratio.

6
fixed-speed turbine
variable-speed turbine
continous variable hydraulic gear ratio
2 hydraulic gear ratios

7
8
9
wind speed [m/s]

10

11

12

Figure 12: Aerodynamic power curves for

operation below the rated wind speed for a
fixed speed wind turbine (blue), a variable
speed wind turbine (green and red, equal
curves), and a 2-speed wind turbine (cyan).

1.5

0.5

0
3
Var. speed:12.43 GWh
Two-speed:12.38 GWh
Fix.speed:12.12 GWh

aerodynamic energy [GWh]

2.5

1.5

0.5

7
8
9
wind speed [m/s]

10

11

6.3

12

Figure 13: Aerodynamic energy capture for

operation below the rated wind speed for a
variable speed wind turbine (cyan), a 2-speed
wind turbine (blue), and a fixed speed wind
turbine (purple).
mechanical transmission, optimal tip-speed ratio
hydraulic transmission, optimal tip-speed ratio
hydraulic transmission 2 gear ratios

generator power [MW]

3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5

7
8
9
wind speed [m/s]

7
8
9
wind speed [m/s]

10

11

12

10

11

Figure 14: Generator power curves for

operation below the rated wind speed with a

Wind Turbine Operation for

All Wind Speeds

The aerodynamic power, generator power, and

generator energy production are shown for all
wind speeds in Figures 16, 17 and 18.
Similarly as for the below rated wind speed
regime, the different transmission and power
conversion systems that are considered in the
figures are based on the efficiencies that are
given in Figure 4, 8, 9, 10 and 11

5
4.5

Figure 15: Generator energy production during

operation below the rated wind speed with a
conventional wind turbine with variable speed
and mechanical transmission (cyan), a wind
turbine with 2 rotor speeds by use of a
hydraulic transmission system with discrete
variable gear ratio (blue), and a wind turbine
with variable rotor speed by use of a hydraulic
transmission system with continuously variable
gear ratio (purple).

Mech. var. speed:10.99 GWh

Hydr. two-speed:10.35 GWh
Hydr. var. speed:9.29 GWh

2.5

generator energy [GWh]

aerodynamic power [MW]

12

Compared to a variable speed wind turbine

with a conventional mechanical gear box that
is connected to a variable speed asynchronous
generator with inverter, the total generator
energy production with the two-speed hydraulic
transmission concept is 97.2%, while the total
generator energy production with the variable
speed hydraulic transmission concept is 92.7%
relative to the mechanical, variable speed
system.
Note that the analysis for all wind speeds only
takes efficiency into account and that the

ratio.

generator production is equivalent for all

concepts above the rated wind speed. This is
not 100% fair with respect to the higher
efficiency concepts since these concepts will
have smaller aerodynamic loads above the
rated wind speed since all concepts produce 5
MW generator power above their rated wind
speed. This is indicated in the aerodynamic
power curve in Figure 16.

3
Mech. var. speed:23.56 GWh
Hydr. two-speed:22.91 GWh
Hydr. var. speed:21.84 GWh

generator energy [GWh]

2.5

1.5

aerodynamic power [MW]

0.5

5
0

2
fixed-speed turbine
variable-speed turbine
continous variable hydraulic gear ratio
2 hydraulic gear ratios

0
0

10
15
wind speed [m/s]

20

25

Figure 16: Aerodynamic power curves for all

wind speeds with conventional rotor speed for
a fixed speed wind turbine (blue), a variable
speed wind turbine (green and red, equal
curves), and a 2-speed wind turbine (cyan).

mechanical transmission, optimal tip-speed ratio

hydraulic transmission, optimal tip-speed ratio
hydraulic transmission 2 gear ratios

generator power [MW]

10
15
wind speed [m/s]

20

Figure 17: Generator power curves for all wind

speeds with a wind turbine with variable speed
with mechanical transmission (blue), a wind
turbine with variable rotor speed by use of a
hydraulic
transmission
system
with
continuously variable gear ratio (green), and a
wind turbine with 2 rotor speeds by use of a
hydraulic transmission system with discrete
variable
gear

10

15
wind speed [m/s]

20

25

Figure 18: Generator energy production for all

wind speeds with a conventional wind turbine
with
variable
speed
and
mechanical
transmission (cyan), a wind turbine with 2 rotor
speeds by use of a hydraulic transmission
system with discrete variable gear ratio (blue),
and a wind turbine with variable rotor speed by
use of a hydraulic transmission system with
continuously variable gear ratio (purple).

7
Discussion and
Conclusion
The effect of variable speed operation is small
with respect to energy extraction for the 5 MW
wind turbine that is considered in this paper,
and this seems to be a trend for multimegawatt wind turbines due to the lower
rotational speed of larger wind turbines.
A comparative study has been carried out for a
given wind speed distribution and estimated
component efficiencies for a 5 MW wind
turbine. Compared to a conventional variable
speed wind turbine with a mechanical gearbox,
the energy production with a two-speed
hydraulic transmission concept with use of
fixed displacement radial piston machines
gave an annual energy production of 97.2%,
while a variable speed hydraulic transmission
concept with a fixed displacement radial piston
pump and variable displacement axial piston
motors gave an annual energy production of
92.7 %.
This implies that continuous variable speed
operation has small importance for the
selection of hydraulic transmission concepts,
and in particular when comparing a
continuously variable speed concept with a
two-speed concept the crucial success factor is

30

rather robustness and efficiency

hydraulic components involved.

of

the

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