Injection Molding Machine:

Injection molding machines, also known as presses, consist of a material hopper, an injection
ram or screw-type plunger, and a heating unit. Molds are clamped to the platen of the molding
machine, where plastic is injected into the mold through the sprue orifice. Presses are rated by
tonnage, which is the calculation of the amount of clamping force that the machine can exert.
This force keeps the mold closed during the injection molding process. Tonnage can vary from
less than 5 tons to 6,000 tons, although the higher tonnage presses are rarely used. The total
clamp force needed is determined by the projected area of the custom part being molded. This
projected area is multiplied by a clamp force of from 2 to 8 tons for each square inch of the
projected areas. As a rule of thumb, 4 or 5 tons/in can be used for most products. If the plastic
material is very stiff, it will require more injection pressure to fill the mold, thus more clamp
tonnage is needed to hold the mold closed. The required force can also be determined by the
material used and the size of the part with larger plastic parts requiring higher clamping force.
Mold:
The mold or die refers to the tooling used to produce plastic parts in molding. Traditionally
injection molds have been expensive to manufacture and were only used in high-volume
production applications where thousands of parts were produced. Molds are typically constructed
from hardened steel, pre-hardened steel, aluminum, and/or beryllium-copper alloy. The choice of
material to build a mold from is primarily one of economics. Steel molds generally cost more to
construct but offer a longer lifespan that will offset the higher initial cost over a higher number of
parts made before wearing out. Pre-hardened steel molds are less wear resistant and are
primarilly used for lower volume requirements or larger components. The hardness of the prehardened steel measures typically 38-45 on the Rockwell-C scale. Hardened steel molds are heat
treated after machining, making them superior in terms of wear resistance and lifespan. Typical
hardness ranges between 50 and 60 Rockwell-C (HRC).
Aluminum molds cost substantially less than steel molds, and when higher grade aluminum such
as QC-7 and QC-10 aircraft aluminum is used and machined with modern computerized
equipment, they can be economical for molding hundreds of thousands of parts. Aluminum
molds also offer quick turnaround and faster cycles because of better heat dissipation. They can
also be coated for wear resistance to fiberglass reinforced materials. Beryllium copper is used in
areas of the mold which require fast heat removal or areas that see the most shear heat generated.
Injection Molding Process (^ Back to Top)
With injection molding, granular plastic is fed by gravity from a hopper into a heated barrel. As
the granules are slowly pushed forward by a screw-type plunger, the plastic is forced into a
heated chamber called the barrel where it is melted. As the plunger advances, the melted plastic
is forced through a nozzle that seats against the mold sprue bushing, allowing it to enter the mold
cavity through a gate and runner system. The mold remains at a set temperature so the plastic can
solidify almost as soon as the mold is filled.

Injection Molding Cycle (^ Back to Top)

The sequence of events during the injection molding of a plastic part is called the injection
molding cycle. The cycle begins when the mold closes, followed by the injection of the polymer
into the mold cavity. Once the cavity is filled, a holding pressure is maintained to compensate for
material shrinkage. In the next step, the screw turns, feeding the next shot to the front screw. This
causes the screw to retract as the next shot is prepared. Once the part is sufficiently cool, the
mold opens and the part is ejected.
Different Types of Injection Molding Processes (^ Back to Top)
Although most injection molding processes are covered by the conventional process description
above, there are several important molding variations including:

Co-injection(sandwich)molding

Fusible(lost, soluble)core injection molding

Gas-assisted injection molding

In-mold decoration and in mold lamination

Injection-compression molding

Injection molding of liquid silicone rubber

Insert and outsert molding

Lamellar (microlayer) injection molding

Low-pressure injection molding

Microinjection molding

Microcellular molding

Multicomponent injection molding(overmolding)

Multiple live-feed injection molding

Powder injection molding

Push-Pull injection molding

Reaction injection molding

Resin transfer molding

Rheomolding

Structural foam injection molding

Structural reaction injection molding

Thin-wall molding

Vibration gas injection molding

Water assisted injection molding

Rubber injection

Stress (^ Back to Top)

The main enemy of any injection molded plastic part is stress. When a plastic resin (which
contains long strains of molecules) is melted in preparation for molding, the molecular bonds are
temporarily broken due to the heat and shear force of the extruder, allowing the molecules to
flow into the mold. Using pressure, the resin is forced into the mold filling in every feature, crack
and crevice of the mold. As the molecules are pushed through each feature, they are forced to
bend, turn and distort to form the shape of the part. Turning hard or sharp corners exerts more
stress on the molecule than taking gentle turns with generous radii. Abrupt transitions from one
feature to another are also difficult for the molecules to fill and form to.
As the material cools and the molecular bonds re-link the resin into its rigid form, these stresses
are in effect locked into the part. Part stresses can cause warpage, sink marks, cracking,
premature failure and other problems.
While some stresses in an injection molded part are to be expected, you should design your parts
with as much consideration for stress reduction as possible. Some ways to do this are by adding
smooth transitions between features and using rounds and fillets in possible high stress areas.
Gates

(^ Back to Top)

Each injection mold design must have a gate, or an opening

that allows the molten plastic to be injected into the cavity of the mold. Gate type, design and
location can have effects on the part such as part packing, gate removal or vestige, cosmetic
appearance of the part, and part dimensions & warping.
Gate Types
There are two types of gates available for injection molding; manually trimmed and
automatically trimmed gates.
Manually Trimmed Gates:
These type of gates require an operator to separate the aprts from the runners manually after each
cycle. Manually trimmed gates are chosen for several reasons:

The gate is too bulky to be automatically sheared by the machine

Shear-sensitive materials such as PVC cannot be exposed to high shear rates

Flow distribution for certain designs that require simultaneous flow distribution across a
wide front

Automatically Trimmed Gates

These type of gates incorporate features in the tool to break or shear the gates when the tool
opens to eject the part. Automatically trimmed gates are used for several reasons:

Avoiding gate removal as a secondary operation, reducing cost

Maintaining consistent cycle times for all parts

Minimizing gate scars on parts

Common Gate Designs (^ Back to Top)

The largest factor to consider when choosing the proper gate type for your application is the gate
design. There are many different gate designs available based on the size and shape of your part.
Below are four of the most popular gate designs used by Quickparts customers:

The Edge Gate is the most common gate design. As the name indicates, this gate is located on
the edge of the part and is best suited for flat parts. Edge gates are ideal for medium and thick
sections and can be used on multicavity two plate tools. This gate will leave a scar at the parting
line.
The Sub Gate is the only automatically trimmed gate on the list. Ejector pins will be necessary
for automatic trimming of this gate. Sub gates are quite common and have several variations
such as banana gate, tunnel gate and smiley gate to name a few. The sub gate allows you to gate
away from the parting line, giving more flexibility to place the gate at an optimum location on
the part. This gate leaves a pin sized scar on the part.
The Hot Tip Gate is the most common of all hot runner gates. Hot tip gates are typically located
at the top of the part rather than on the parting line and are ideal for round or conical shapes
where uniform flow is necessary. This gate leaves a small raised nub on the surface of the part.
Hot tip gates are only used with hot runner molding systems. This means that, unlike cold runner
systems, the plastic is ejected into the mold through a heated nozzle and then cooled to the
proper thickness and shape in the mold.
The Direct or Sprue Gate is a manually trimmed gate that is used for single cavity molds of
large cylindrical parts that require symmetrical filling. Direct gates are the easiest to design and
have low cost and maintenance requirements. Direct gated parts are typically lower stressed and
provide high strength. This gate leaves a large scar on the part at the point of contact.
Gate Location (^ Back to Top)
To avoid problems from your gate location, below are some guidelines for choosing the proper
gate location(s):

Place gates at the heaviest cross section to allow for part packing and minimize voids &
sink.

Minimize obstructions in the flow path by placing gates away from cores & pins.

Be sure that stress from the gate is in an area that will not affect part function or
aesthetics.
o If you are using a plastic with a high shrink grade, the part may shrink near the
gate causing gate pucker if there is high molded-in stress at the gate

Be sure to allow for easy manual or automatic degating.

Gate should minimize flow path length to avoid cosmetic flow marks.

In some cases, it may be necessary to add a second gate to properly fill the parts.

If filling problems occur with thin walled parts, add flow channels or make wall thickness
adjustments to correct the flow.

Gates vary in size and shape depending upon the type of plastic being molded and the size of the
part. Large parts will require larger gates to provide a bigger flow of resin to shorten the mold
time. Small gates have a better appearance but take longer time to mold or may need to have
higher pressure to fill correctly.
Wall Thickness (^ Back to Top)
Prior to ejection from the mold, injection molded parts are cooled down from manufacturing
temperatures so that they hold their shape when ejected. During the part cooling step of the
molding process, changes in pressure, velocity and plastic viscosity should be minimized to
avoid defects. Few aspects are more crucial during this period than wall thickness. This feature
can have major effects on the cost, production speed and quality of the final parts.
Proper Wall Thickness:
Choosing the proper wall thickness for your part can have drastic effects on the cost and
production speed of manufacturing. While there are no wall thickness restrictions, the goal is
usually to choose the thinnest wall possible. Thinner walls use less material which reduces cost
and take less time to cool, reducing cycle time.
The minimum wall thickness that can be used depends on the size and geometry of the part,
structural requirements, and flow behavior of the resin. The wall thicknesses of an injection
molded part generally range from 2mm 4mm (0.080 0.160). Thin wall injection molding
can produce walls as thin as 0.5mm (0.020). The chart below shows recommended wall
thicknesses for common injection molding resins.

Uniform Wall Thickness:

Thick sections take longer to cool than thin ones. During the cooling process, if walls are an
inconsistent thickness, the thinner walls will cool first while the thick walls are still solidifying.
As the thick section cools, it shrinks around the already solid thinner section. This causes
warping, twisting or cracking to occur where the two sections meet. To avoid this problem, try to
design with completely uniform walls throughout the part. When uniform walls are not possible,
then the change in thickness should be as gradual as possible. Wall thickness variations should
not exceed 10% in high mold shrinkage plastics. Thickness transitions should be made gradually,
on the order of 3 to 1. This gradual transition avoids stress concentrations and abrupt cooling
differences.
Alternatives:
If your part is so complex that you need variations on your wall thickness, look for an
alternative. You may want to use design features such as coring or using ribs. At the very least,
try not to make the transitions between thicker and thinner sections too abrupt. Try using a
gradual transition or chamfered corners to minimize the dramatic change in pressures inside the
mold.
Draft (^ Back to Top)

Most injection molded plastic parts include features such as outside walls and internal ribs that
are formed by opposing surfaces of tool metal inside a closed mold. To properly release the part
when the mold opens, the side walls of the mold are tapered in the direction that the mold opens.
This tapering is referred to as draft in the line of draw. This draft allows the part to break free
of the mold as soon as the mold opens. The amount of draft required can depend on the surface
finish of the mold. A smooth, polished tool surface will allow the part to eject with less draft than
a standard tool surface.
Consider the fabrication of the hollow plastic box seen to the right. Once the plastic has hardened
around the mold, the mold must be removed. As the plastic hardens, it will contract slightly. By
tapering the sides of the mold by an appropriate "draft angle", the mold will be easier to remove.
The amount of draft required (in degrees) will vary with geometry and surface texture
requirements of the part. Below are several rules for using draft properly:

Be sure to add draft to your 3D CAD model before creating radii

Use at least 1 degree of draft on all "vertical" faces

1 degrees of draft is required for light texture

2 degrees of draft works very well in most situations

3 degrees of draft is a minimum for a shutoff (metal sliding on metal)

3 degrees of draft is required for medium texture

Sink Marks (^ Back to Top)

When the hot melt flows into the injection mold, the thick sections dont cool as fast as the rest
of the part because the thicker material becomes insulated by the outside surface of faster cooling
plastic. As the inner core cools, it shrinks at a different rate than the already cooled outer skin.
This difference on cooling rates causes the thick section to draw inward and create a sink mark
on the outside surface of the part, or worse, completely warp the part. In addition to being
unattractive, the mark also represents added stress that is built into the part. Other less
conspicuous areas where sink occurs include ribs, bosses and corners. These are often
overlooked because neither the feature nor the part itself is too thick; however, the intersection of
the two can be a problem.

One way to avoid sink marks is to core out the solid sections of the part to reduce thick areas. If
the strength of a solid part is required, try using cross hatched rib patterns inside the cored out
area to increase strength and avoid sink. As a rule-of-thumb, make sure that all bosses and
locating/support ribs are no more than 60% of the thickness of the nominal wall. Also, textures
can be used to hide minor sink marks.
Textures (^ Back to Top)
Texturing is a process used to apply patterns to a mold surface. This process allows flexibility in
creating the final appearance of your parts. Texturing is an integral piece in overall product
development and should be considered during the design process to achieve the desired results.
Texture can be a functional component of design as well. Imperfect parts can be camouflaged by
the right texture. Is the part designed for frequent handling? Texture can be used to hide finger
prints and improve the grip for the end user. Texture can also be used to reduce part wear from
friction.
A wide variety of textures are available for injection molded parts such as:

Natural/Exotic

Matte Finishes

Multi-Gloss Patterns

Fusions

Graphics

Leather Grains/Hides

Woodgrain, Slate & Cobblestone

Geometric & Linens

Layered Textures to Create New Looks

Images or Logos Incorporated into the Pattern

When applying a texture to a part, the CAD drawing must be adjusted to accommodate for this
surface variance. If the texture is on a surface that is perpendicular or angled away from the mold
opening then no draft changes are necessary. If the texture is on a parallel surface with the mold
opening, however, increased draft is necessary to prevent scraping and drag marks that could
occur during part ejection. Different textures have different impacts on the molded part. The ruleof-thumb when designing for texture is to have 1.5 degrees of draft for each 0.001 of texture
finish depth.
Parting Lines (^ Back to Top)
A parting line is the line of separation on the part where the two halves of the mold meet. The
line actually indicates the parting plane that passes through the part. While on simple parts this
plane can be a simple, flat surface, it is often a complex form that traces the perimeter of the part
around the various features that make up the parts outer silhouette. Part lines can also occur
where any two pieces of a mold meet. This can include side action pins, tool inserts and shutoffs.
Parting lines cannot be avoided; every part has them. Keep in mind when designing your part,
that the melt will always flow towards the parting line because it is the easiest place for the
displaced air to escape or vent.
Common Molding Defects (^ Back to Top)
Injection molding is a complex technology with possible production problems. They can either
be caused by defects in the molds or more often by part processing (molding)
Molding
Defects

Alternative
Name

Descriptions

Causes

Blistering

Raised or layered
zone on surface of
the Plastic part

Tool or material is too hot, often

caused by a lack of cooling around the
tool or a faulty heater

Air Burn/Gas
Burn

Black or brown
burnt areas on the
plastic part located
at furthest points
from gate

Tool lacks venting, injection speed is

too high

Color streaks
(US)

Localized change of
color

Plastic material and colorant isn't

mixing properly, or the material has
run out and it's starting to come
through as natural only

Delamination

Contamination of the material e.g. PP

mixed with ABS, very dangerous if
Thin mica like layers the part is being used for a safety
formed in part wall
critical application as the material has
very little strength when delaminated
as the materials cannot bond

Blister

Burn marks

Burrs

Excess material in
thin layer exceeding
normal part
geometry

Tool damage, too much injection

speed/material injected, clamping
force too low. Can also be caused by
dirt and contaminants around tooling
surfaces.

Embedded
particulates

Foreign particle
(burnt material or
other) embedded in
the part

Particles on the tool surface,

contaminated material or foreign
debris in the barrel, or too much shear
heat burning the material prior to
injection

Directionally "off
tone" wavy lines or
patterns

Injection speeds too slow (the plastic

has cooled down too much during
injection, injection speeds must be set
as fast as you can get away with at all
times)

Jetting

Deformed part by
turbulent flow of
material

Poor tool design, gate position or

runner. Injection speed set too high.

Polymer
degradation

polymer breakdown
from oxidation, etc.

Excess water in the granules,

excessive temperatures in barrel

Sink marks

Localized
depression
(In thicker zones)

Holding time/pressure too low,

cooling time too short, with sprueless
hot runners this can also be caused by
the gate temperature being set too
high

Flash

Embedded
contaminates

Flow marks

Flow lines

Short shot

NonFill/Short
Mold

Partial part

Lack of material, injection speed or

pressure too low

Splay marks

Splash
Mark/Silver
Streaks

Circular pattern
around gate caused
by hot gas

Moisture in the material, usually when

resins are dried improperly

Stringiness

Stringing

String like remain

from previous shot
transfer in new shot

Nozzle temperature too high. Gate

hasn't frozen off

Empty space within

part
(Air pocket)

Lack of holding pressure (holding

pressure is used to pack out the part
during the holding time). Also mold
may be out of registration (when the
two halves don't center properly and
part walls are not the same thickness).

Voids

Weld line

Warping

Knit
Line/Meld
Line

Twisting Part

Discolored line
where two flow
fronts meet

Mold/material temperatures set too

low (the material is cold when they
meet, so they don't bond)

Distorted part

Cooling is too short, material is too

hot, lack of cooling around the tool,
incorrect water temperatures (the parts
bow inwards towards the hot side of
the tool)